gender equality & labour market indicators ilo roas presentation simel esim inter-agency &...
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Gender Equality & Labour Market Indicators
ILO ROAS Presentation
Simel Esim
Inter-agency & Expert Group Meeting Inter-agency & Expert Group Meeting On Gender & MDGs in the Arab RegionOn Gender & MDGs in the Arab Region
10-11 September, 200710-11 September, 2007
Cairo, EgyptCairo, Egypt
Women and Employment Trends in Arab States: Brief Overview and Reasons
Additional indicators needed for MDG 3 Case for Old Data, New Definitions: Where are
Women in Informal Economies of Arab States? Moving forward on Data Issues: Few
reflections Compliance to Core International Labour
Standards by Arab States: MDG Indicators for the Labour Market from a Gender Equality and Rights Perspective
Outline
OVERVIEW
Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment Indicators in the Labour
Market for Arab States
Women’s LFPRs in Arab States are lowest of all regions.
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Women’s LFPRs in Arab States
Women’s LFPRs in Arab States
Working women have a higher share of agricultural employment as contributing family workers (unpaid)
There is a rigid gender based occupational segregation in the LM (women working as teachers, nurses, social workers, community, social and personal services) – traditional, low paid
Public sector jobs (safeguards for women in most of the region) are shrinking with public sector cuts & privatization, & private sector absorption of women is much lower than public sector
The unemployment rates for women, young women, young educated women are on the rise
Labour markets are not gender neutral anywhere
Women and men engage, participate and benefit from labour markets differently from each other on account of gender inequalities
Gender equality in the LM is about women and men having the same opportunities in three domains: LM relevant capabilities (skills, knowledge, networks) Access to productive resources and LM opportunities Agency (ability to influence & contribute to LM
outcomes)
Gender Equality & Women’s Empowerment in LM
Women have more limited access to LM relevant capabilities (skills, knowledge, networks) than men in Arab States
Women in Arab States also have less access to productive resources (land, capital, livestock) than men (
Women face mobility constraints in communities (social norms, crisis/conflict, resurgence of religious extremism)
Early marriage & child bearing/rearing continue to inhibit women’s integration into the LM across the life cycle
Women are underrepresented in the formal LM & over represented in the informal economy, unpaid family work, part time/low wage work, unemployed & inactive
Gender Equality & Women’s Empowerment in Arab LMs
The labour market governance rules, regulations and institutions: Were established when women’s LFP was low, and
women were considered as dependants Were based on a traditional male breadwinner
household model with women in unpaid care work as part of a family
Showed direct concern for women in social policy and programs through maternity benefits and/or MCH care
Few took into account the multiple roles of working woman recognizing care needs and constraints (i.e. child care, elderly care, care for the sick and the disabled)
Constraints Posed by Labour Market Governance Rules and Institutions
Current and Expanded Indicators for the Labour Market
Using a Gender Equality and Workers’ Rights Perspective
ARAB STATES
MDG Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality & Empower Women
Target 4: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education
preferably by 2005, and at all levels by 2015
Indicator 9. Ratio of Girls to Boys in Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary
Education (UNESCO)
Indicator 10. Ratio of Literate Women to Men 15-24 years old (UNESCO)
Indicator 11. Share of Women in Wage Employment in the Non-Agricultural
Sector (ILO)
Indicator 12. Proportion of Seats Held by Women in National Parliaments (IPU)
Ratio can be misleading due to decline in GERs for boys (hh poverty sending children to work)
Need to add: Drop out rates for girls & boys in primary and secondary education
Due to duality in skills base for LM (no skill, high theoretical skills), need more TVET
Therefore need to add: Enrollment in TVET centers for boys and girls
Addition to Indicator 9 for Arab States (Girls/Boys in Education)
The ratio of literate women to men (15-24 years old) is important especially in extended crisis/conflict contexts like Palestine and Iraq)
Overall, illiteracy is more a pressing issue for older generations of women (45 and above) especially in rural areas with little access to education in the region.
Therefore, we need to add: Ratio of illiterate women to men (45 and above) for rural populations
Addition to Indicator 10 for Arab States (Illiteracy Ratio)
There is a dual bulge in the skills base of the labour force, especially among youth in Arab States: With the low skilled/unskilled on the one hand, and Highly educated, with theoretical information, but no
technical know-how on the other There is a huge gap in technical and vocational skills
which are high in demand from the labour market When in TVET, girls are concentrating in traditional
skills Therefore, we need to add:
TVET enrollment rates for boys and girls TVET enrollment rates for girls in non-traditional skills
Need to make the resource allocations (human, budget, institutional) to ensure achieving targets
Addition to Indicators 9 & 10 for Arab States (Technical Skills)
Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector important, but does not capture gender based occupational segregation in the labour markets of Arab States where women are concentrated in: lower ranks (secretarial, clerical) without opportunities
for promotion and professional growth (vertical segregation)
in occupations associated with women’s traditional care giving roles (teachers, nurses, social workers, etc.) that are seriously underpaid (horizontal segregation)
Therefore we need to add: % of women in senior decision making positions in public
and private sector establishments (vertical) % women in industry and technical fields, i.e.
engineering, sciences, IT (horizontal)
Addition to Indicator 11 for Arab States (Occupational Segregation)
Proportion of Seats Held by Women in National Parliaments is necessary, it is insufficient
Therefore, we need to add: % women in senior decision making positions in
local government % women in labour market governance
institutions (chambers of commerce & industry & trade unions)
Need to make the resource allocations (human, budget, institutional) to ensure achieving these targets
Add to Indicator 12 for Arab States (Women Leaders in COCIs & TUs)
While gender parity in education and literacy rates may seem within reach for indicators 9 and 10
They are far from achievable for indicators 11 (women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector) and 12 (% Seats Held by Women in National Parliaments) by 2015
Unless there is serious ‘political will’ and advocacy to put in place policy measures, training, awareness raising and resource allocations (human, budget, institutional) to achieve them
Challenge of achieving targets for 9 & 10 vs. 11 & 12 in Arab States
Female life expectancy 100
Reducing Fertility Rate
Ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education
GDP Per Capita $
Ratio of Women to Men in Non Agricultural Wage Employment
Developing regions=yellow
MENA=green
%Seats Held by Women in Parliament
Key Gender Equality Indicators, 2000
Globally, more women than ever before are unemployed: rate of women’s unemployment (6.6 %) higher than that of men (6.1 %)
In Arab States, in 2006, women’s unemployment rate (17%) was 6.6% higher than men’s (10.4 %)
Therefore we need an indicator on: Unemployment rates for Arab women (decline of 5% by 2015)
Serious implications for macroeconomic policies (employment intensive growth, investments, etc.) and training of women in technical fields where there is LM demand
Need to Lower Women’s Unemployment Rates in Arab States
Source: Global Employment Trends for Women, ILO KILM, 2007.
Women and Unemployment in Arab States
Women and Unemployment in the Arab States
Bahrain (2001)
Djibouti (1991)
Egypt (2000)
Iraq (1987)
Jordan (2002)
Kuwait (2001)
Lebanon (1997)Morocco (2002)
Oman (2000)
Syria (2002)Palestine (2005)
Qatar (2001)
Saudi Arabia (2001)UAE (2000)
Yemen (1999)
05
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Bahrain(2001)
Djibouti(1991)
Egypt(2000)
Iraq(1987)
Jordan(2002)
Kuwait(2001)
Lebanon(1997)
Morocco(2002)
Oman(2000)
Palestine(2005)
Qatar(2001)
SaudiArabia(2001)
Sudan(1993)
Syria(2002)
UAE(2000)
Yemen(1999)
Women’s Unemployment in Arab States
Even if not all women of working age may want to work, the fact Even if not all women of working age may want to work, the fact that there is high unemployment for women in Arab States shows that there is high unemployment for women in Arab States shows they want to work, but are unable to find workthey want to work, but are unable to find work
Youth unemployment rates (aged 15 to 24 years), for both, four times higher than adult unemployment rates in Arab States
Difficulty of finding work is even higher for young women with their unemployment at 32% compared to 23% for young men
Majority of unemployed young women are likely to be well educated (more so than the young men who are unemployed)
Therefore we need to add indicators on:
Unemployment rates for young women Unemployment rates for educated young women
Need to Lower Young Women’s Unemployment Rates in Arab States
Source: Global Employment Trends for Women, ILO KILM, 2007.
Young Women’s Unemployment in Arab States
Young Women (15-24) and Unemployment in Arab States
Algeria (1990)
Bahrain (2001)
Jordan (2002)
Kuwait (1995)
Lebanon (1997)
Morocco (1999)
Oman (2000)
Palestine (2001)
Qatar (2001)
Syria (2001)
UAE (2000)
Egypt (2001)
Yemen (1999)
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Employment to-population ratios show how efficiently Employment to-population ratios show how efficiently economies make use of the productive potential of their economies make use of the productive potential of their working-age population. In most regions, employment to working-age population. In most regions, employment to population ratios are 20-30 points smaller for women than population ratios are 20-30 points smaller for women than menmen
The gender difference is The gender difference is highest highest in South Asia and Arab in South Asia and Arab States, (around 40 points gap both) & increasing in the last States, (around 40 points gap both) & increasing in the last decadedecade Female employment to population ratio 20.4% (1996) and 24.5 (2006) Men’s employment to population ratio 68.3% (1996) and 69.3% (2006)
Therefore we need to add and indicator to track the change in the employment to population ratios for women and men in the region and lower the gender gap by increasing women’s employment-to-population ratio
Gender Difference in Employment- to-Population Ratios in Arab States
Source: Global Employment Trends for Women, ILO KILM, 2007.
Where are Women in the Informal Economies of Arab States?
Joint ILO/CAWTAR regional initiative (focusing on statistics and social protection)
Research (regional, country), training, policy advocacy and organizing in the informal economy
Regional and 5 country research done, 2 more country case studies under way
Training program for statisticians and socials security experts on workers in informal economy
Policy advocacy for updating and improving IE statistics, protection and coverage for IE workers & their families
Initiative with TUs to organize workers in IE
Gender Equality and Workers’ Rights in the Informal Economies of Arab States
Old & New Definitions: Informal
Sector & Informal EmploymentIndividuals/Jobs
Informal Formal
Economic units / Enterprises
Informal Informal sector (1) (2)
Formal (3) Formal sector (4)
The two cells in grey cover the ‘informal sector’ while the two cells in double line cover ‘informal employment’.Cell (2) means that in the informal sector, some individuals may have a formal job (it may happen where the criteria of non-registration of the unit or of the employees is not used in the definition). Such a category is assumed to be small. But the new and un-investigated group of workers are in cell (3), which represents informal jobs outside the informal sector and in the formal sector (mainly in private, but also in public). This category is large around the world and is shown to be growing. We do not have these indicators for Arab States.
Workers in the Expanded Definition of Informal Economy
Informal self-employment includes: employers in informal enterprises own account workers in informal enterprises unpaid family workers in informal and
formal enterprises members of in formal producers’
cooperatives Informal wage employment includes
employees without formal contracts, worker benefits or social protection
employed by formal or informal enterprises or as paid domestic workers by households
Stylized Facts from Other Regions on Women’s Employment in IE
Women are disproportionately represented in informal employment compared to men
In many countries, agricultural employment accounts for larger share of men’s total empl. than women’s
Employment as own-account workers is often a significant source of work for women
Employed women are often far less likely to work as wage employees – particularly in formal, private employment – than are men
Population census
Labour force survey
Living conditions
survey
Surveys on informal sector or
microenterprises
Establishment census or
Economic census
Other enterprise
survey
Statistics on social protection
Morocco 1994, 2004 Annual, 2004Micro and small enterprise survey ERF 2002-2003
2001-02
Algeria 1987, 1998 Annual, 2005
Tunisia 1994, 2004 Annual, 2001National survey on economic activities ENAE, 1997, 2002
1970-2000
Egypt 1986, 1996Annual, 1998,
2006
Micro and small enterprise survey ERF 2003-2004
1986, 1996
Palestine 1997, 2007
Quarterly, 1995-2007
Work conditions survey 2004
Expend. & consumption survey 2004-
2007
Informal sector survey 2003
2004Wage
structure survey 2007
Lebanon 2004Micro and small enterprise survey
ERF 2005
Yemen 2004 2003Small and smaller
establishments survey 2000
Gender Equality and Workers’ Rights in the Informal Economies of Arab States
Countries Informal employment Informal sector
Egypt Occupied population without social protection (self-declaration)
Private enterprises with less than 5 workers
Lebanon Occupied population without social protection (self-declaration)
Enterprises with less than 5 employees
Palestine Own-account workers (without professionals) + contributing family workers + irregular paid employees (wage per day or per week) + workers in Israel (informal) Note: paid employees in the private sector can also be discriminated according to be benefit of paid vacations or the security of job (or paid sick leave) (self-declaration)
Enterprises with less than 5 employees
Tunisia Occupied population not employed in formal sector enterprises (until 2002); occupied population not recorded in social security registers (2004)
Individual micro-enterprises with less than 6 paid employees and without a complete set of accounts
Yemen Own-account workers + contributing family workers + employers with less than 5 workers + unprotected workers in enterprises with less than 5 workers + unprotected workers in enterprises with 5 workers and + (self-declaration)
Own-account workers + contributing family workers + employers with less than 5 workers + workers in enterprises with less than 5 workers
Definitions of Informal Economy from the Recent Research in the Region
Countries Industries Trade Services Total
Egypt (2006) 9.8 23.1 21.2 17.1
Lebanon (2004) 9.3 27.9 32.6 40.0
Palestine (2004)
Tunisia (2004) 27.6 32.2 53.4 39.8
Yemen (2004) 8.5 2.2 5.9 4.2
Middle East North Africa
13.8 21.4 28.3 25.3
Sub-Saharan Africa 35.2 56.7 35.9 51.0
Asia 28.7 47.3 40.2 38.8
Latin America 28.4 51.0 44.6 46.0
Harmonized Data on Informal Economy from Arab Region
Distribution of women & men’s tot. employment (inc. IE in Arab States)
Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women
Own-account 8.8% 5.1% 6.6% 4.9% Own-account 8.2% 7.6% 1.0% 4.5%Informal employers 4.7% 1.9% 0.1% 0.1% Informal employers 7.6% 2.0% 8.4% 1.9%Contributing family workers 0.5% 0.8% 1.6% 5.5% Contributing family workers 1.9% 3.2% 5.7% 26.0%Informal paid employees 11.8% 19.8% 4.4% 3.9% Informal paid employees 25.5% 13.9% 5.5% 1.5%Informal (non-enterprise) n/a n/a n/a n/a Informal (non-enterprise) n/a n/a n/a n/a
Formal employers 1.4% 0.6% 0.0% 0.0% Formal employers n/a n/a n/a n/aFormal paid employees 57.2% 56.5% 2.9% 1.0% Formal paid employees 35.9% 39.2% 0.2% 0.1%
TOTAL 84.5% 84.6% 15.5% 15.4% TOTAL 79.2% 66.0% 20.8% 34.0%
Employees in informal sector 7.5% 0.3% 6.4% 3.8% Employees in informal sector 17.2% 2.0% 2.5% 0.2%
Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women
Own-account 17.9% 10.8% 17.7% 14.6% Own-account 29.6% 9.0% 4.9% 1.3%Informal employers 3.9% 1.2% 2.0% 1.2% Informal employers 5.1% 0.9% 0.6% 0.0%Contributing family workers 3.1% 5.5% 7.5% 40.4% Contributing family workers 2.5% 2.7% 0.5% 1.4%Informal paid employees 11.8% 12.0% 0.1% 0.4% Informal paid employees 23.8% 28.4% 2.5% 0.6%Informal (non-enterprise) 24.5% 4.0% 11.4% 9.9% Informal (non-enterprise) n/a n/a n/a n/a
Formal employers n/a n/a n/a n/a Formal employers 0.6% 0.1% 0.1% 0.0%Formal paid employees n/a n/a n/a n/a Formal paid employees 29.5% 55.5% 0.2% 0.1%
TOTAL 61.2% 33.5% 38.8% 66.5% TOTAL 91.1% 96.6% 8.9% 3.4%
Employees in informal sector 7.6% 0.2% 0.1% 0.0% Employees in informal sector n/a n/a n/a n/a
TUNISIA
YEMEN
EGYPT
LEBANON
INFORMAL EMPLOYMENT INFORMAL EMPLOYMENT
FORMAL EMPLOYMENTFORMAL EMPLOYMENT
Non-Agricultural Emp. Agricultural Employment
FORMAL EMPLOYMENT
Non-Agricultural Emp. Agricultural Employment
INFORMAL EMPLOYMENT
FORMAL EMPLOYMENT
Agricultural Employment
Non-Agricultural Emp. Agricultural Employment
INFORMAL EMPLOYMENT
INFORMAL SECTOR
INFORMAL SECTOR
INFORMAL SECTOR
TOTAL EMPLOYMENT TOTAL EMPLOYMENT
TOTAL EMPLOYMENTTOTAL EMPLOYMENT
INFORMAL SECTOR
Non-Agricultural Emp.
Women’s & men’s employment by category of employment in Palestine
Women MenAgricultural Workers 33.3% 11.1%Employers 0.8% 5.1%Informal Own account 5.2% 21.9% Paid employees 4.9% 15.8% Contributing family workers 3.3% 3.8%Formal Own account 0.7% 1.6% Paid employees 51.8% 40.7%
TOTAL 100.0% 100.0%
Source: Hilal, Kafri, and Kuttab, 2007.Note: Own-account workers in professional occupations are classified as formal. Other own-account workers are classified as informal.
Data Conclusions
Fill in data gaps, gather and analyze (i.e. wage data) Mine and use existing data to shed light on issues where
facts from other regions were used as a given, i.e. IE Standardize definitions of informal employment and
change the existing LFSs so they better capture all dimensions of employment
Review existing data for underestimation. For instance: home based subcontracting work home based economic activities for market purposes
(especially rural households)
Compliance to Core International Labour
Standards by Arab States
MDG Indicators for the Labour Market from a Gender Equality and Workers’
Rights Perspective
Addresses the similarities and differences in the LM experiences of women and men
Identifies specific groups of workers being marginalized, discriminated against and abused, and develops responses
Uses international labour standards as a tool for regulation and monitoring
Gender Equality & Worker’ Rights Framework of the ILO
International Labour Standards
International conventions & recommendations that represent an international consensus on minimum standards for basic labour rights to regulate conditions of work
Constitute binding legal obligations in international & national laws when ratified by Members States
Member states have to provide regular, periodic reporting on measures taken to comply with the provisions of a given convention
An expression of commitment by governments, employers' and workers' organizations to uphold basic human values
Whether they have ratified them or not, ILO Member States have an obligation to respect these principles
The Declaration covers four areas with eight core conventions (two per area)
Core International Labour Standards, ILO (1998)
19481948 (C. 87) (C. 87) Freedom of Association & Freedom of Association & Protection of Right to Protection of Right to OrganizeOrganize
19491949 (C. 98) (C. 98) Right to Organize & Collective Right to Organize & Collective BargainingBargaining
1951 (C. 100) 1951 (C. 100) Equal RemunerationEqual Remuneration1958 (C. 111) 1958 (C. 111) Discrimination (Employment Discrimination (Employment
& Occupation)& Occupation)1930 (C. 29) 1930 (C. 29) Forced Labour Forced Labour
1957 (C. 105) 1957 (C. 105) Abolition of Forced Labour Abolition of Forced Labour 1973 (C. 138) 1973 (C. 138) Minimum Age Minimum Age 1999 (C. 182) 1999 (C. 182) Worst Forms of Child LabourWorst Forms of Child Labour
KU/SY/YE (141)
IR/JO/LEB/SY/YE(152) IR/JO/LEB/SA/SY/UAE/YE (159) BA/IR/JOR/KU/LE/QA/SA/SY/UAE/YE (156)BA/IR/JOR/KU/LE/QA/SA/SY/UAE/YE/OM(161) No Arab States (158)IR/JO/KU/SY/UAE/YE (117) BA/IR/JOR/KU/LE/QA/SA/SY/UAE/YE/OM(129)
Year Year (# Convention) FieldField Arab States Arab States (# Countries)
Core International Labour Standards & Arab States
ILO Key Gender Equality Conventions in Arab Region
Convention on Gender Equality Ratification Status
Equal Remuneration, 1951, No. 100
163 countries ratified it. Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, and Oman have not.
Discrimination (Employment & Occupation), 1958, No. 111
165 countries have ratified it. Of Arab Countries only Oman has not signed it.
Workers with Family Responsibilities, 1981 (No. 156)
It has only been signed by Yemen among Arab Countries.
Maternity Protection, 2000 (No. 183)
It has not been ratified by any of the countries in the region.
ILO’s Indicators on Gender Equality Conventions
Ratification of the four key conventions for gender equality (111, 100, 156 and 183)
Positive changes in policies, legislation, programmes and institutions
Measurable progress in the representation of women in decision-making
Domestic work becomes forced labour when:
Worker is forced to stay in the job against her will Worker is physically confined (locking in the house) Worker’s identity papers are withheld, taken away Debt bondage (i.e. employment agencies charge labour
migration costs to worker who has to work without pay) Non-payment of wages to worker Worker is threatened with denunciation or deportation Worker faces physical or sexual abuse
ILO Women Migrant Domestic Workers’ Surveys
Bahrain, Lebanon, Kuwait, U.A.E. & Costa Rica
Lebanon Costa Rica Kuwait Bahrain U.A.E.
(2001) (2001) (2002) (2001) (2002)
Average working hours/week 102 72 101 108 105
Overtime paid none n.a. none none none
Average days off/month 1 4 to 6 1.1 2 0
Health fees, social security n.a. 29.5% 57% n.a. n.a.
Above 5 hh residents/worker n.a. 50% 41% n.a. n.a.
Physical, verbal, sexual abuse, % of total 37% 14% 51% 47%
50%
Wages/month (US$) 100-300 150-200
Non-payment of wages 19% 0% n.a. 20.5% n.a.
Domestic workers interviewed 78 54 301 34 51
% women of total interviewed 100% 100% 69% 100% 100%
Freedom of movement control no control control control control
Coverage by Labour Law no yes, but* no no no
Withholding of passport common inexistent common common all times
In 1965, the ILC adopted a resolution concerning the conditions of employment of domestic workers, which drew attention to:
“the urgent need to provide domestic workers with the basic elements of protection which would assure them a minimum standard of living, compatible with the self-respect and dignity essential to social justice”
Resolution on Conditions of Work for Domestic Workers
No International Convention on Domestic Workers
There has not been enough international support for an international convention specially conceived to protect domestic workers’ rights.
In many countries domestic workers are excluded from the labour code protection and their working conditions remain unregulated.
Many States do not provide them with optional protection under any other national law
Key Messages
Unless otherwise specified, all ILO Conventions apply to both nationals & non-nationals (refugees, migrant workers)
Ratification of instruments alone is not enough: legislation and enforcement are equally critical
ILO core conventions and universal human rights instruments do address most violations of workers’ rights
Even if countries do not ratify, they can draw upon the good practices embodied in Conventions and Recommendations drafting national laws.