Journal of Adolescence 2002, 25, 613–617doi:10.1006/jado.2002.0508, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

Gender differences in rates of depression amongundergraduates: measurement matters

KATHRYN GRANT, PATRICIA MARSH, GINA SYNIAR, MEGAN WILLIAMS,ELISA ADDLESPERGER, MI HYON KINZLER AND SHAUN COWMAN

Two studies tested for gender differences in rates of depression among undergraduatesusing three conceptualizations of depression (mood, syndrome, disorder). The firstsample consisted of 325 non-referred undergraduate students, who completed pencil-and-paper measures of depressed mood, depressive syndrome and a depressive disorderanalogue. The second sample consisted of 894 undergraduate students seekingcounselling services, who participated in clinical intake interviews assessing depressedmood and depressive disorder. Results of analyses provide no evidence of genderdifferences in rates of depressed mood in either samples or of depressive syndrome inthe non-referred sample. However, in both samples, gender differences in rates ofdepressive disorder were found, with male students more likely than female students tobe depressed.

r 2002 The Association for Professionals in Services for Adolescents

Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introudction

One of the most consistent findings in developmental psychopathology is that, beginning inadolescence, females report significantly higher rates of depression than males do (Nolen-Hoeksema and Girgus, 1994). An exception has been found, however, among collegestudents. Most studies report no evidence of gender differences in rates of depression amongundergraduates (e.g. Gladstone and Koenig, 1994). With few exceptions (Stangler & Printz,1980; Hankin et al., 1998), these studies have employed the same general methodology. Theyhave used the Beck Depression Inventory as a measure of depression and have focusedexclusively on undergraduates in non-clinical settings (i.e. Introduction to Psychologycourses).

In the broader literature, depression has been operationalized in different ways withfindings varying as a function of the definition used (Angst and Dobler-Mikola, 1984;Compas et al., 1993). In general, operationalizations of depression may be categorized asmeasures of depressed mood, depressive syndrome, or depressive disorder (Compas et al.,1993). Depressed mood refers to current feelings of dysphoria, depressive syndrome toempirically derived subscales of correlated symptoms and depressive disorder to theDSM criteria for major depressive disorder (Compas et al., 1993). Recent evidencealso suggests that gender differences in depression vary as a function of whether thesample examined is referred or non-referred (Compas et al., 1997). In the present studies, wetested for gender differences in depression in both a non-referred (Study 1) and a referred(Study 2) sample using three conceptualizations of depression (mood, syndromeand disorder).

Reprint requests and correspondence should be addressed to: Dr. Kathryn E. Grant, Department of Psychology,DePaul University, 2219 N. Kenmore Ave., Chicago, IL 60614-3504, U.S.A. (E-mail: kgrant@depaul.edu.)

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614 K. Grant et al.

Study 1

Method

Participants. The sample consisted of 325 undergraduates (217 females) enrolled at aprivate commuter university in a large Midwestern city. Mean age was 20?7 years for femalesand 21?2 years for males. Approximately 66% of the sample were European American, 12%Latino, 10% African American, 8% Asian/Pacific Islander, 1% American Indian, and 1%‘‘others’’.

Procedures. Survey administration was conducted in classrooms in small groups. Studentresponses were anonymous.

Measures. Depressed mood was assessed using a single item on the Young Adult Self-Report (YASR; Achenbach, 1997). The depressed mood item (#103) reads ‘‘I am unhappy,sad, or depressed.’’ Validity and reliability of the YASR are excellent (Achenbach, 1997).

Depressive syndrome was assessed using the anxious–depressed subscale of the YASR. Theanxious–depressed subscale represents an empirically derived syndrome reflective of mixedanxiety and depressive symptoms. An empirically derived measure of ‘‘pure depression’’ doesnot exist due to high covariation of anxious and depressive symptoms among young people(Achenbach, 1997). Participants were considered to have met the criteria for depressivesyndrome if they scored in the clinical range on the anxious–depressed subscale (upper 5% ofstandardization sample).

Depressive disorder was assessed using an analogue constructed from items on the YASR.A similar analogue, based on the Youth Self-Report (Achenbach, 1991), has been found tobe a valid and reliable tool for examining rates of depressive disorder in non-clinical samples(Clarke et al., 1992; Compas, et al., 1997). The YASR analogue items for the DSM-IV (APA,1994) criteria for major depressive disorder are as follows: (1) ‘‘I am unhappy, sad, ordepressed’’, (2) ‘‘There is very little that I enjoy’’, (3) ‘‘I don’t eat as well as I should’’ or ‘‘I eattoo much ‘‘, (4) ‘‘I have trouble sleeping’’ or ‘‘I sleep more than most people during day and/or night’’, (5) ‘‘I don’t have much energy’’ or ‘‘I have trouble sitting still’’, (6) ‘‘I feelovertired’’, (7) ‘‘I feel worthless or inferior’’ or ‘‘I feel too guilty’’, (8) ‘‘I have trouble payingattention’’, (9) ‘‘I deliberately try to hurt or kill myself’’ or ‘‘I think about killing myself.’’Participants were considered to have met the criteria for depressive disorder on the analoguemeasure if they endorsed the highest score (‘‘very true or often true’’) for five or more of theYASR analogue items.

ResultsPercentages of participants endorsing depressed mood, depressive syndrome, and depressivedisorder are summarized by gender in Table 1. Results of chi-square analyses indicate no

Table 1 Gender vs. three conceptualizations of depressionFresults of Study 1 (non-referred)participants

Gender N Depressed mood(%)

Depressivesyndrome (%)

Depressivedisorder (%)

Males 108 13?9 13?9 8?3*Females 217 8?9 9?7 2?8

*po0?05.

Gender differences 615

significant effects for gender on depressed mood or depressive syndrome. However, males w2

(1, N ¼ 325) ¼ 5?22, po0?02 were more likely to meet the criteria for depressive disorder.

Study 2

Methods

Participants. Participants consisted of 894 students (622 females) who received servicesat a university counselling centre at the same institution described in Study 1. Mean age was20?8 years for females and 21?3 years for males. Approximately 70% of the referred samplewere European American, 10% African American, 10% Latino, 5% Asian/Pacific Islander,and 5% ‘‘others’’.

Procedure. Intake interviews were conducted on all students seeking psychologicalservices at the university counselling centre by a licensed clinical psychologist, a licensedclinical social worker, or a psychology doctoral candidate (supervised by a licensed clinicalpsychologist).

Measures. Depressed mood and depressive disorder were assessed during the intakeinterview and documented on a data retrieval form, which contains an extensive coded list ofpotential problem areas, including separate codes for depressed mood and depressive disordersymptoms.

ResultsPercentages of participants reporting depressed mood and depressive disorder are summarizedby gender in Table 2. Chi-square analyses indicate no significant effects for gender ondepressed mood. However, a significant gender difference in rates of depressive disorderemerged, with males reporting higher rates of depression w2 (1, N ¼ 894) ¼ 6?0, po0?01.

Discussion

The finding that males were more likely to be depressed was unexpected. Gladstone andKoenig (1994) and Nolan and Willson (1994) have reported that undergraduate males are atheightened risk, relative to high-school males, for engaging in a ruminative response style.Rumination, in turn, has been linked with depression (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).Gladstone and Koenig (1994) argue that the reason they did not find heightened rates ofdepression in their male student sample was that these males received additional socialsupport relative to peers who did not attend college.

Table 2 Gender vs. two conceptualizations of depressionFresults of Study 2 (referred)participants

Gender N Depressed mood (%) Depressive disorder(%)

Males 272 21?3 4?0*Females 622 20?9 1?3

*po0?01.

616 K. Grant et al.

Perhaps males, like those in the present study, who attend ‘‘commuter’’ universities are atheightened risk for depressive disorder, as commuter universities may not offer the kinds ofopportunities (e.g. dormitory experiences) that foster the development of social support(Sullivan and Sullivan, 1980). Prior research has indicated that commuter students reportpoorer social relationships and poorer mental health than residential students (e.g. Wilson etal., 1987). For example, Pascarella (1985) found that residential students’ greater socialinvolvement on campus was predictive of positive self-image, even after controlling for pre-enrollment characteristics. And Sullivan and Sullivan’s (1980) longitudinal investigationfound that interpersonal relationships actually improved over time for residential malesrelative to commuting males. Taken together, findings from prior research and the presentstudy indicate that college attendance may lead both to rumination (perhaps due to anemphasis on reflection and introspection or an atmosphere that discourages gender-stereotyped behaviour) and social support for undergraduate males; however, for some males(e.g. those who commute) social support may be less available, and these males are atheightened risk of depression. It is unclear why commuting females would be at lower risk,but perhaps the environmental context which promotes rumination in males (e.g. anatmosphere that discourages gender-stereotyped behaviour) widens the coping strategiesavailable to college females (who are generally more prone to rumination (Nolen-Hoeksemaet al., 1999)). Alternatively, prior socialization may better equip college females to developsocial networks independent of institutional supports. Additional research is needed to testthese hypothesized interpretations.

The finding that female undergraduates were not at heightened risk of depression lendssupport to the primacy of social and psychological explanations for gender differences indepression emergent during adolescence. Whereas biological risk factors are likely implicatedin depression for both genders, social and psychological processes may better explain genderdifferences in rates of depression.

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