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8/13/2019 Gen Psy Exam 3 Slides All

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Thinking & Intelligence

(Modules 24, 25, 26)

Cognition - MentalActivities IncludingThose Such as Thinking,Reasoning, and ProblemSolving.

2

Cognitive Psychology or

Science - A Subdiscipline

Within Psychology ThatStudy These Related Issues.

(Rapidly Growing Area

within Psychology)

3

Concepts- Mental

Categories for Objects

or Events that areSimilar to One Another

in Certain Respects.

e.g., Furniture or

Birdness

4

Concepts are Often

Described as Being

Artificial Concepts or

Natural Concepts.

5

Artificial Concepts -

Concepts that Can be

Clearly Defined by a Set of

Rules or Properties.

e.g., Triangles, Robins,

Oxygen.

6

Natural Concepts -

Concepts that Do Not have

Clear-Cut Boundaries

(often defined by

Prototypes).

e.g., Clothing, Furniture,

Art

7

Prototype- The Best or

Clearest Example of Various

Objects or Stimuli in thePhysical World.

e.g., What do You Think of

When I Ask, Name a Type

of Bird? or A Type of

Vehicle?8

Schemas - Cognitive

Frameworks That

Represent Our KnowledgeAbout Aspects of the World.

e.g.., Going to Class or

Going to a Movie

9

Positive vs. Negative

Instances: A Stimulus that

is an Example of a Concept

under Study is a Positive

Instance, if it is Not, then It

is a Negative Instance.

e.g., A Raccoon is a Mam-

mal but a Robin is Not.


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10

Generally, It is Easier to

Detect A Positive Instance

vs. a Negative One.

11

Paragraph Test - What is

So Unusual About The

Following Paragraph?

If you know the Solution,

Do not Give it Away

Immediately.12

How fast can you spot

what is unusual about this

paragraph? It looks soordinary that you might not

think anything was wrong

with it at all and, in fact,

nothing is. But it is atypical.

Why?

13

Study its various parts,

think about its curious

wording, and you may hit

upon a solution. But you

must do it without aid; my

plan is not to allow any

scandalous misconduct in

this psychological study.14

No doubt, if you work hard

on this possibly frustrating

task, its abnormality will

dawn upon you. You cannot

know until you try. But it is

commonly a hard nut to

crack. So, good luck!

15

I trust a solution is

conspicuous now. Was it

dramatic and fair, although

odd? Authors hint: I cannot

add my autograph to this

communication and

maintain its basic harmony.

Authors Name is Steuben.

16

Problem Solving - Efforts to

Develop or Choose Among

Various Responses in Orderto Attain a Desired Goal.

e.g., Matchstick Problem

17

Task: How Would You Arrange 6

Matches to Form 4 Equilateral

Triangles? (Solution -->)18


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Task: How Can you Intersect all 9 Dots with A

Series of 4 Straight Lines (or Less) Without

Lifting up Your Pen? 20

Can It Be

Done with

3 Lines ??

21

Here you Must Imagine that the Lines continue

for Some distance until they Intersect, as all

such non-parallel lines must.

22

Candle Problem: Task Determine Way to

Use Candle(s) as a Stable Light Source

w/ Objects Available.

23

Two-String Problem: Task Connect the

Strings Together w/ Objects Available.

24

Algorithms- Procedures

or Rules That Guarantees a

Solution to a Given

Problem.

e.g., A Computer Program

or Following a Recipe.

25

Heuristics - Mental Rules

of Thumb That Usually

Enable Us to Make aDecision or Solve a Problem.

However, They Can be

Inexact.

26

While Heuristics Often Lead

Us to Make a CorrectDecision, They Dont

Always ...

27

Which of the Following Pairs ofConditions Causes More Deaths

in the U.S. Yearly? (A or B?)

1. All Accidents or Strokes?2. All Cancers or Heart Disease?

3. Botulism or Small Pox Vaccinations?

4. Electrocution or Asthma?

5. Homicide or Diabetes?

6. Motor Veh Accidents or Cancer of Dig. System?

7. Tornado or Excessive Exposure to Cold?

8. Lightning or Appendicitis?

9. Motor Vehicle/Train Collision or Tuberculosis?

10. Drownings or Leukemia?


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Would You Believe B In AllCases? Why May This Be?

1. All Accidents or Strokes?

2. All Cancers or Heart Disease?3. Botulism or Small Pox Vaccinations?

4. Electrocution or Asthma?

5. Homicide or Diabetes?

6. Motor Veh Accidents or Cancer of Dig. System?

7. Tornado or Excessive Exposure to Cold?

8. Lightning or Appendicitis?

9. Motor Vehicle/Train Collision or Tuberculosis?

10. Drowinings or Leukemia?29

Availability Heuristic -

Rule of Thumb Where the

Probability of an Event isJudged on the Basis of How

Readily It Comes to Mind.

30

Another Heuristic Can Be

Demonstrated from the

Following Example (NoNeed to Copy Example).

31

Linda is 31, Single,

Outspoken, and Very

Bright. She Majored in

Philosophy in College, Was

Concerned with Social

Issues, and Participated in

Antinuclear Demon-

strations.32

Which Statement is More

Likely?

A. Linda is a Bank Teller

or

B. Linda is a Bank Teller

and Active in the Feminist

Movement.33

While Many Choose B,

A is More Likely to Be

Correct.

Why?

34

Because of the Fact that Any

Two Uncertain Events

Occurring Together is

Always Less Likely than the

Odds of Either Happening

Alone.

35

Therefore, If You Chose

B, You Likely Used the

RepresentativenessHeuristic - Where the

Probability of an Event is

Judged on the Basis of How

Well They Seem to Match a

Particular Prototype.36

While Heuristics Often

Lead Us to Make AGood or Correct

Decision, In Certain

Cases They Can Lead us

Astray.


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37

Other Tendencies May Also

Hamper Our Ability to

Solve A Problem.

e.g., Functional Fixedness-

The Tendency to Think of

Using Objects Only as They

Have Been Used in the Past.38

Given: Box of Matches, 12

Tacks, and a Candle.

Task: Attach the Candle to a

Wall to be Used as a Light

Source.

39

Solution: Using A Box of

Matches as a Holder For the

Candle.

Some Companies Now

Stress Creativity - New or

Novel Ways of Viewing or

Solving Problems.

41

Marvels of the Human

Mind -

(1) It Has Been Estimated

that the Circuitry in the

Human Brain Has 60 Times

the Informational Capacity

of the Entire U.S. Telephone

System.42

(2) Each of Us KnowsNearly 50,000 Facts AboutEvery Topic On Which WeAre Reasonably Knowledge-able. e.g., Our PersonalIdiosyncrasies, Our OwnBody, or Words andGrammar of Native

Language.

43

(3) In the Course of A

Lifetime, The Average

Person Can Accumulate 500

Times More Information as

is Contained in the

Encyclopedia Britannica.

44

It is Easy To Take For

Granted The EnormouslyComplex Mental Acts We

Routinely Perform Every

Day.

45

e.g., Whats a 7-letter Word,

that Ends in y that Meansa group of Interacting

Individuals Living

In the same region with the

Same Culture?


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46

A: Society.

Pretty Easy? Or Was It? ButHow Did You Manage to

Find the Word So Quickly

Among the

50,000 - 75,000 Words in

Your Working Vocabulary? 47

Q: What is George

Washingtons Phone

Number?

You Quickly Recognize the

Question as Absurd, But

Why? What Would a

Computer Do? 48

Q: In the Place You Lived

Two Residences Ago, Did

Your Front Door Open atthe Left Side or the Right

Side?

How and Why Do You

Recall This Information So

Easily and Efficiently?

49

Intelligence - No UniversallyAccepted Definition. OneUsed by Wechsler is: TheAggregate or GlobalCapacity of the IndividualTo Act Purposefully, toThink Rationally, and toDeal Effectively

With the Environment.50

The History of the Use of

Intelligence Tests is Long and

Controversial.

Nearly 4000 Years Ago in

China Persons Were Given

Written Exams for Civil

Service Positions.51

The First Modern

Intelligence Tests Were

Designed by Alfred

Binet and Theodore Simon

in France. Their Task Was

to Identify Children Who

Would Not Benefit from

Formal Schooling.

52

David Weschsler Devised A

Series of Tests to Measure

Intelligence.eg., For Adults - Weschler

Adult Intelligence Scale

(WAIS). For Children -

Weschler Intelligence Scale

for Children (WISC-R).53

Controversy With

Intelligence Tests.

One Common Complaint isthe Issue of Whether

Intelligence Tests

Are Culture - Fair or

Unbiased Against Different

Races or Groups.54

The Use of Virtually Any

Language Poses a Problem...

One Attempt to Devise a

Culture-Fair Test is to Not

Use Words. How?


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The Raven Standard

Progressive Matrices Test

(1948) is One Attempt.

Not All Agree Even this Test

is Culture Fair.

56 57

58

I.Q. - Intelligence Quotient

IQ =Mental Age (MA)

Chronological Age (CA)

100 is Average, So those above

are Considered Bright while

Below are Deficient.

X 100

59

Today, Many Believe

Intelligence is Best Viewed as

Being of Different Types.

eg., Daniel Goleman - Wrote

Emotional Intelligence

(1995) Belief that Adapting

Well to Emotions Is Critical.60

For Fun: Savant

Syndrome - A Condition in

Which People with Serious

Mental Handicaps, Either

from Retardation or Mental

Illness, Have Spectacular

Islands of Ability or

Brilliance. [Movie:Rainman]

61

Darold Terfferts

Extr aordinary People:

Understanding Idiot

Savants (1989) is an

Excellent Source of

Examples...

62

George and His Identical

Twin Brother Charles can

Give you the Day of the

Week for any Date over a

span of 80,000 Years. Also,

They can Describe the

Weather on Any Day of

Their Adult Life... 63

However, They Cannot Add

or Count to 30, and they

Cannot Determine Change

from a $10 bill for a $6

Purchase.

[Some Psychologists have

Suggested it is GoodTo

Forget Many Things]


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Upon hearing Tchaikovskys

Piano Concerto No 1 for the

First Time in his Teen Years,Leslie Played it Back

Flawlessly and without

Hesitation. He Can Do the

Same with any other Piece of

Music, No Matter How Long 65

Or Complex. Unfortunately,

Leslie is Severley Mentally

Handicapped, Blind, and hehas Cerebral Palsy.

66

Motivation & Emotion

(Modules 28, 29, 30)

Motivation - An InferredInternal Process thatActivates, Guides, andMaintains Behavior OverTime. Many Theories HaveBeen Proposed to Explain It.

67

InstinctTheory - Theory ofMotivation that SuggestsBehavior Stems from InnateUrges or Tendencies.

Instinct - Patterns ofBehavior Assumed to beUniversal in a Species.

e.g., Bill Pecking By Gulls.68 69

Drive Theory - Theory of

Motivation that Suggests

Behavior is Pushed by

Biological Needs.

e.g.., Thirst or Hunger.

70

Homeostasis- A State ofPhysiological Balance within

the Body.

Evidence Suggests that Weare More Motivated WhenHomeostasis is Shifted (e.g.,Water or Food Depletion -->Seek These Items). 71

Arousal Theory - Theory of

Motivation that Suggests We

Seek an Optimal Level ofArousal or Activation.

Many Studies Show Our

Performance is Best Under

ModerateLevels of Arousal.72

LevelofPerfor-mance

High

Low

Arousal Level --->

HighLow

(Inverted U-Function)


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Expectancy Theory -Theory of Motivation thatSuggests Behavior isElicited by Expectations ofDesirable Outcomes(Cognitive Theory).e.g., Why are You TakingThis Class?

74

Self-Actualization

Physiological Needs

Safety Needs

Needs to Belong

Esteem Needs

MaslowsHierarchy of Needs (1970)

75

Specific Behaviors: Eating

and Drinking.

Much Research Has BeenDone to Study The Process

of Food and Water Intake.

Evidence Suggests They

Are Complex Processes.

76

(1998) - SurveyAmericansdon't drink enough Water -While 2 out of 3 Americansresponding to a surveyknow they should drinkeight 8 oz. servings of waterdaily, 1 in 2 admits notgetting enough ...

77

The survey also showedpeople may be "drinkingthemselves to dehydration"by consuming too manyalternative water-robbingbeverages.

78

As We Age, Our ThirstMechanims Dont SignalUs to Drink as Readily asYoung Therefore, OlderPersons Need to GuardAgainst Dehydration.

79

Brain Regions Shown to Be

Significant in Eating and

Drinking.

Two Areas of the

Hypothalamus Have Been

Found Critical for Food

Intake in Rats.80

(1) Lateral Hypothalamus

(LH)- May be Called a

Start-Eating Center,

Since Stimulation Leads to

Eating and Destruction of

Area Leads Animals Not to

Eat.81

Ventromedial Hypothalamus(VMH) - May be Called a

Stop-Eating Center, SinceStimulation Leads to theStopping of Ongoing Eatingand Destruction Leads toOvereating and ObeseAnimals.


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Rat with VMH Lesion Note scale is surpassing

1000 grams (many large adult rats may be in 350

to 450 Range

83 84

Eating Disorders:

Anorexia Nervosa - An

Eating Disorder in WhichIndividuals Starve

Themselves and Often Lose a

Dangerous Amount of

Weight. e.g., Karen

CarpenterSinger from 70s

85 86

Anorexia - Persons often

have an Intense Fear of

Becoming Obese.

No Single Cause of Anorexia

is Agreed Upon, Some

Include:

87

1. Problem with

Hypothalamus.

2. Fears of Sexuality.

3. Struggle for Control w/

Parents.

88

4. Cultural Preoccupation

with Being Thin; Many

Believe They Are Too Fat.

What is Our Societys

Message?

89 90

Research F indings:

Leora Pinhas from the U. ofToronto Presented 118Female University Studentswith Two Series of Images(1 containing FemaleFashion Models, the OtherNo Human Figures)...


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Both Before and After StudyWomen Were Given

Questionnaires to DetermineTheir Mood State,Satisfaction with TheirBodies, and Risk ofDeveloping an EatingDisorder. (Any Predictions?)

92

Results: They Were MoreDepressed and Angry

Following Exposure to theFashion Models. Also, Thosewith the Highest Propensitytoward Eating DisordersResponded with GreaterAnger to the Female Slides.

93

Findings Suggest thatThese Images have a

Detrimental Effect onWomen and May Play aRole in Episodes of BingeEating in Response toNegative Mood States.

94

Less Idealized Media

Portrayals of Women May

Become an Important

Public Health and

Preventive Health Issue.

Do You Think It Will?

95

Research Suggests That

Relatives of People with

Eating Disorders Have

Higher Risks for

Developing Similar

Disorders (1998).

96

Treatment for Anorexia is

Often Difficult; in Part

Due to Belief Nothing is

Wrong.

97

Bulimia- An Eating

Disorder in which Periods

of Binge Eating Alternate

with Periods of Self-

Induced Purging (via

Vomiting or use of

Laxatives).98

Characteristics of Bulimics

1. Most Females in Late

Teens or 20s.

2. Often of Higher

Socioeconomic Class.

99

Characteristics of

Bulimics

3. Body Weight Often

Fluctuates Within or

Above Normal Weight

(often Hides Condition).


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100

Problems of Bulimics -

1. Erosion of ToothEnamel.

101


1. Erosion of Tooth

Enamel.

2. Dehydration or

Electrolyte Imbalance.

102


1. Erosion of Tooth

Enamel.2. Dehydration or


3. Depression and/or

Mood Swings.

103


1. Erosion of Tooth Enamel.

2. Dehydration or


3. Depression and/or Mood

Swings.

4. Time is Limited for Other

Activities.104

Cognitive Approaches to

Motivation:

Intrinsic Motivation - The

Desire to Perform

Activities Because They

are Self-Rewarding.

e.g., Hobbies (No

Payment).105

Extrinsic Motivation -

Pursuit of Activities Because

of External Rewards or

Punishment.

e.g., Payment, Praise,

Threats.

106

Q: Are Intrinsic and

Extrinsic Motivation

Related? How?

107

Some Research Suggests

that Behaviors Once

Engaged in For Intrinsic

Reward Can Be Reduced or

Undermined by the Addition

of ExtrinsicRewards.

108

e.g., Harry Harlow - Story

of Rhesus Monkeys and

Wooden Puzzles.


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109

Other Studies Suggest theSame Outcome Occurs withHumans.

e.g., Deci - Found College-Students Reduced TheirLevel of Puzzle-SolvingFollowing Rewards. But...

110

However, a Reduction in

Behavior is Not Always the

Case. Recent EvidenceSuggests that if the External

Rewards are Viewed as

Recognition, not Bribes,

Intrinsic Motivation May be

Enhanced.111

Achievement Motivation -

The Desire to Accomplish

Difficult Tasks and MeetStandards of Excellence.

Clearly, People Differ In

This Behavior. How Can it

Be Measured?

112

Projective Tests - VariousTests that Aim to HavePersons Project or RevealTheir Beliefs or Desires(Motives).

113

e.g., the ThematicApperception Test (TAT) -Test Consisting of a Series ofAmbiguous Pictures WhichPersons are Asked About.

114

115

Rorschach Inkblot Test -Another Projective Test,

That Consists of a Series ofAmbiguous PatternsFormed from Blotted InkDeposits.First Formulated by a SwissPsychiatrist (Rorschach).

116

Example Rorschach Pattern

What Do You See ?117

Through Scoring Such

Answers, Those with a High

Need to Achieve Frequently

Create Stories with Themes

Including Success, Getting

Ahead, and Competition.


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118

Today, the Validity (or

Accuracy) of the

Rorschach test is inQuestion, Yet some

Clinicians Believe in its

Use.

119

Emotions - Reactions That

Typically are Composed of 3

Major Components:(1) Physiological Changes

(2) Subjective Cognitive

States

(3) Expressive

Behaviors.120

e.g., the Polygraph (LieDetector) MachineSimultaneously Records A

Number of PhysiologicalSystems Such as Heart Rate,Blood Pressure,Respiration Rate,and Skin Conduc-tance Levels (GSR).

121

Polygraphs are Used in

Certain Cases for Trials and

For Some Job Screening,

But Interpretation of Tests

Must Be Done

Cautiously.

Why?

122

All of These Measures areCommon Body Processes;There is No Measure of OurActual Thought Processes.Changes SuggestDisturbancesin Thought, But They Could BeDue to Other ThanGuilt or Lies. WhatAbout Fear?

123

Have a Good, But Safe,

Weekend !!!

Stay Warm !!

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