gec 217 engineer in society

Engineer in Society

Course ContentModule 1

• Week 1: Ethical concepts of development. Indicators of development, and the role of science and technology

• Week 2: The contribution of Government to the process of development and the Nigerian experience in the process of economic development (Nigerian Vision 20:2020, development plans, successes and setbacks)

• Week 3: Limits of growth, appropriate technology and a new world of science and technology


• Week 4: The inter-relationship of social ethics and values, and science and technology

• Week 5: Societal needs and resources in the genesis and development of science and technology

• Week 6: Social problems, impact assessment, and control of science and technology. Responsibilities of Engineers. Science, Technology and Environment


• Week 7: Disruption or enhancement of environmental quality through harmful or sound science and technology in relation to air, space, water, land, populations, agriculture, industry, wild life, human settlements, culture, education etc.


• Week 8: Theistic and secular concepts of personal, social and professional ethics

• Week 9: Codes of conduct of Engineers. Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN), the Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE) and other professional Engineering Societies

• Week 10: Motivation, control, responsibility, rewards and accountability of engineers and development of an ethical engineering professionalism

• Week 11: Revisions

Limits of growth, appropriate technology and a new world of science and technology

Limits of Growth

• The agricultural society, family, town and community, religion, and education have been identified as traditional value input sources in a person’s environment

• However the growth of a technologically oriented culture, with its increased mobility and affluence has altered the impact of those five traditional value inputs

• Technology currently has a significant influence on the formation of value systems though other forces play a significant role too

• We can conclude that since engineers and scientists are largely responsible for much of technology, then it is not unreasonable to say that they may have a significant influence on the evolutionary path of human value systems

Which involve engineering?

Providingwater

Health &medicine

Gadgetsgalore Fashion

& beauty

Creatingcars

Solving problem

s

FoodBuilt

environment

Sports

Engineering is

everywhere…Almost everything you eat, wear,

use and like to do involves

engineering.

From everyday things like your

mobile, computer and clothes to

medicine, space, national security

and renewable energy

… to tackling climate change,

providing clean drinking water or

ensuring sustainable food supplies.

Limits of growth

• The practice of engineering has historically been affected (+ve and –ve) by the forces of society

• Simultaneously, engineering, science and technology have influenced the direction taken by society

• These assertions were true in the past and they are still true in the present, and the synergetic effects will likely be greater in the future

• An understanding of historical forces will help engineers place contemporary issues in perspective

Limits of Growth

• Even though advances in technology have helped improve our way of life, technology has been blamed for many social ills

• But are technologists the force responsible for the evil side of technology?

• A solid case can be made that the responsibility must be shared by many elements of society, including scientists and engineers, courts and judges, politicians and governmental institutions, economists and managers and the public

Limits of Growth

• In the past , growth of science and technology has been constrained by numerous forces such as:– Economics– Theology– Politics– Philosophy

• Future growth may be constrained or supported by many of these same forces and also new ones

Limits of Growth• Certainly environmental constraints (as we are presently experiencing)

may be significant• Environmental constraint on growth of science and technology was not

an issue in the 19th century• Politics has been a force and shall continue for example through support

of research by making funds available. Engineering on it’s part had played significant roles on the rise of cities and nations e.g. the Industrial Revolution

• Religion was a dominant force on the growth of science and technology in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. (Copernicus (1473-1543, Galileo)

• Religion is still a force in the acceptance of some new technologies and ideas e.g., stem cell research, cloning, global warming, population control –use of contraceptives). Religion shall continue to be a force

Limits of Growth (Anti-technology Forces - Technophobic)

• Some groups want to tighten the reins on the growth of science and technology. They justify their views by pointing to the failures of past and even present technologies

• They believe that modern technology is threatening their ways of life and livelihoods


• For example – Despite the significant impact that fossils have and

are still making in driving the economies of countries of the world exploration activities are being opposed by environmentalists because of oil spill (Niger Delta)

– the use of nuclear power has been constrained partly because of the bombs and partly because of events such as Chernobyl , Three-Mile Island and recently Fukushima disaster (Read about the Luddites, Amish and Ordnung).


– Parents often fear technology. They worry that their children might be exposed to inappropriate pornographic or violent content online, or be negatively influenced or explicitly hurt by a stranger through social media.

– Phones (with fb) are used constantly in the classroom; students are assigned tasks on computers but they more often than not ignore the assignment and view Youtube or play games. It’s now common amongst students to be committing examination malpractices with their mobile phones.

– Manned flight has made the world very small, but has provided new opportunities for terrorism (Terror Attack on Twin Towers of the World Trade Centre, New York)

Appropriate Technology

• Definition: Appropriate technology is technology tailored to fit the psychosocial (social institutions, politics, culture, economics, ethics and the personal/spiritual needs of individuals) and biophysical (health, climate, biodiversity and ecology) context prevailing in a particular location and period.– cheap enough to be accessible to anyone– small-scale application (1st computer)– room for human creativity

• Inappropriate technology: severe side effects, causes dependence, inappropriately deployed and badly designed for context

Appropriate Technology

– Must be accessible– Must not be offensive– Socially acceptable– Safe– Economical (affordable)– Function (must solve the problem)– Aesthetically appealing (fanciful)– Constructability (achievable)

New World of Science and Technology

• 1.If the present growth trends in world population, industrialization, pollution, food production, and resource depletion continue unchanged, the limits to growth on this planet will be reached sometime within the next 100 years. The most probable result will be a sudden and uncontrollable decline in both population and industrial capacity.


• 2. It is possible to alter these growth trends and to establish a condition of ecological and economic stability that is sustainable far into the future. The state of global equilibrium could be designed so that the basic material needs of each person on earth are satisfied and each person has an equal opportunity to realize his or her individual human potential.


• 3. If the world’s people decide to strive for this second outcome rather than the first, the sooner they begin working to attain it, the greater will be their chances of success. (Meadows et al., 1972)


• The challenges of sustainability, climate change, conflicts over water supply and terrorism (extremism) are continuously defining the careers of 21st century

• Sustainability (reuse, recycle)• Climate Change (ecological change, carbon

foot prints)• Terrorism (extremism)

New World of Science and Technology (Sustainability, health, reducing vulnerability and joy of living)

• Make solar energy more economical• Provide energy from fusion• Develop carbon storing methods• Manage the nitrogen cycle• Provide access to clean water• Prevent nuclear terror• Restore and improve urban infrastructure• Advance personalized learning• Engineer better medicines• Advance health informatics• Secure cyberspace• Reverse-engineer the brain• Ameliorate virtual reality• Engineer the tool of scientific discovery• etc

Sustainability

• Sustainable development: the challenge of meeting human need for natural resources, industrial products, energy, food, transportation, shelter, and effective waste management while conserving and protecting environmental quality and the natural resource base essential for future development

Sustainability

• Four types of sustainability are:– Energy resource sustainability– Ecological sustainability– Soil sustainability– Environmental sustainability

The Inter-relationship of Social Ethics and Values, and Science and technology

The Philosophy of a Body of Knowledge

• A body of knowledge is an educational prescription to ensure that upcoming professionals serve the needs of the society, the profession, the clients, and the firms and organizations that are involved.


• The engineer of the 21st century will require an extensive background of knowledge

• Learning does not end with one’s formal education, but continues throughout one’s career using both organized training and self-study

• Individuals within the profession must be actively engaged beyond technical matters, rather than accepting a passive role in local and global affairs


• Knowledge skills and attitudes are not outcomes that one posses or does not possess; instead, individuals move through stages and must seek to attain a higher level of each. This is accomplished through formal education and training, practical experience, personal growth and self-study

• Engineers must be more than technicians but must be leaders in their society

• The engineering profession must take on a global perspective

Humanities, Social Sciences and Engineering

• The engineer must have both technical and societal knowledge to be a socially responsible citizen and a professional

• Thus an engineer must be liberally educated in the humanities and social sciences as well as in mathematics and the natural sciences

• Engineers of the 21st century must be good communicators in order to meet their responsibilities to clients and the public, and to efficiently interact within design teams

• Knowledge of the humanities helps prepare engineers to ask the right questions, to be open minded and creative and to communicate well to bring about solutions to the broad based problems that confront society and the engineering profession

Humanities• Humanities are branches of knowledge that address human culture

and include:– History: The branch of knowledge that records and analyses past events– Language: The means of communicating thoughts, feelings, meaning, or

intent with a special emphasis on transmitting knowledge of a culture– Philosophy: A system of inquiry into the nature of beliefs and values based on

logical reasoning rather than empirical investigations and evidence, or the use of reasoned argument techniques to examine the nature, scope, and limits of existence, knowledge, and morals.

– Fine Arts: Creative works intended to invoke contemplative delight or thought rather than for utilization

– Literature: Communications, usually written and often imaginative, produced by learned scholars for transmitting ideas

– Architecture: The art and science of design, usually structures, for orderly proportioning

Humanities• Values (creativity, feelings, ideas, emotions, variety, enjoyment and aesthetics) are inherent to the

humanities whereas utility is the central focus of courses in engineering. Imaginative expression is important to engineering design

• Knowledge of the humanities with its emphasis on creative thought complements the emphasis placed on utility in engineering

• A knowledge of philosophy would enable an engineer to appreciate the aesthetic value of a wetland; facilitate research about new materials in engineering design; use rationalism and empiricism in integrating observations and the results of experimental studies

• The public wants bridges and buildings that are aesthetically pleasing not just functional• Without some knowledge of the humanities, design engineers may place too much emphasis on

utility rather than on aesthetics, thus producing a skyline that fails to be aesthetically appealing• A complete design therefore should acknowledge the aesthetic, ethical and historical

considerations that are involved in making an engineering design complete• The design engineer needs to understand and appreciate the benefits of a design that reflects the

culture and goals of that society• Engineers must recognize how engineering impacts society and vice versa.• Therefore knowledge of the humanities is essential for a professional to meet his or her

responsibilities in the society

Humanities• Philosophy and decision making (develops critical thinking techniques that

allow engineers to interpret information – The study of Aristotle and Plato’s philosophies focuses on the importance of logical

reasoning indecision making. The Socratic method is a teaching technique in which philosophical inquiry is used to examine the implications of an idea and to bring about a solution. Centres on questioning the basics of the problem. Helps in examining every implication of a statement made and to think critically when making an argument

– Knowledge of these would help engineers to inquire about risks and uncertainties, safety issues, and the sustainability of any project thus leading to better decisions.

– When engineers are confronted by ethical dilemmas that require well-reasoned decisions, a knowledge of philosophy would help in defining the moral dilemma, developing alternative solutions, obtaining relevant information about each alternative, evaluating the alternatives, and implementing the selected alternative

– Philosophy encourages examination of personal values and morals which ensures that an engineer will make decisions for the common good especially when challenges bothering on competing influences are encountered

Humanities• Art and engineering design- The understanding of the fine arts can be

personally rewarding, it can also improve an engineer’s ability to design effectively. The branches of art include sculpture, painting, drawing, architecture, literature, drama, music, and dance. The core characteristics from arts which are relevant to engineering are:– Balance: A sense of visual symmetry for the sectors of the art piece– Proportion: An artist uses proportions of objects in a picture to control the feelings of

the viewer by placing emphasis on certain objects within the art piece. However an unrealistic proportion may be used for emphasis and seem to be injudicious by the rational viewer, but it may be the artist’s way of invoking the viewer’s thoughts and feelings

– Variety: Variations in colour, shading, and object shapes can add variety to art, which can invoke feelings in the viewer

– Unity: while variety is important to keep the artwork from being mundane, unity is necessary to ensure that the artwork as a whole is seen as a single idea or concept

• The engineer should ensure that all these characteristics are considered to create a design that is aesthetically pleasing and yet functional

• Artistic understanding can encourage the inclusion of socially desirable characteristics in engineering design

Humanities• Importance of language to a professional (means of communicating

thoughts and feelings)– To a professional, persuasion, motivation and transmitting knowledge are

extremely important elements of language.– Language helps to persuade a client that your firm is the best one to

complete the job , express reasons why your design solution is best, refute irrational reasons of competitors, motivate subordinates to work toward organization goals, make oral and written communications more effective

– Foreign language studies can enhance understanding of other cultures and business relations with foreign businesses

– The study of language involves both grammar and vocabulary– Language skills are central to persuasion (inability to persuade might hinder

rise to leadership). Persuasion is the process of changing the attitudes , behaviour, or beliefs of another person through the use of language

Humanities• Humanities and cultural perspective

– Culture is the socially transmitted behaviour patterns, beliefs,, and institutions of a community

– An understanding of the culture in which an engineer designs is essential to how the design meets the needs of society

– The study of literature involves the analysis of the thoughts embedded in the literary works and their societal implications

– Religious studies can provide perspective on the values of others through the study of history, moral principles, and interconnectedness of different religion. A study on world religions can provide knowledge of the morals and values of a people in other countries that may impact their decisions in engineering design and their attitudes at workplace.

– Understanding culture through philosophy, literature, and religious studies allows engineers to understand how they should approach design and the scope of the design’s impact on society

– Reading novels can provide insight into the ways that machines change society and the value conflicts that may confront engineering management in the future

– When reading fiction, it is important to view the events and characters in a broader context especially considering the potential application to the engineering culture

Humanities

• Humanities relevant to personal and professional development

• Role of curiosity in advancement (a dominant force in the advancement of science and engineering, for the engineering profession to solve the problems of the future, civil engineers will need to develop new knowledge, this requires curiosity, the attitude of wanting to know and learn about problems and their solutions)

Humanities• The creation and evaluation of new knowledge in the humanities (similar to what

obtains in engineering). A few questions related to new knowledge in the humanities are as follows:– History: What was the public’s perception of risk about traveling on public transportation during

the era of steam boiler explosions? How does it differ from the perception of risk now?– Language: Does text message have an effect on language development?– Philosophy: Has increased environmental concern changed the concept of nature?– Architecture: Has the threat or terrorism influenced architectural design?

• New knowledge, whether it is related to the humanities or engineering, must be evaluated to ascertain the accuracy, importance, merit, or benefit of the new knowledge.

• The new knowledge must be logical and reasonable on the basis of observation and thought, in order to be valid

• Valid statements of new knowledge will resist challenge• The concluding statements that reflect new knowledge should show consistency of

reasoning• Judgements should be unbiased

Social Sciences

• How do people collectively react during a natural disaster?

• Why are some individuals confident while others are fearful of interacting with others?

• Is economic growth and environmental preservation a zero-sum game? Or can economics provide insight into ways of curbing environmental destruction?

• Does engineering benefit from social research or even research in general?

Social Sciences• Should engineers be concerned about human behaviour? Attitude

development? The environment versus economics quandary?• If yes , then social science courses in sociology, psychology, economics,

anthropology, history, geography and political science are of professional and personal benefit

• Knowledge from the social sciences can contribute to:– Team management– Teaching and learning– Preparing and dealing with natural disasters– Land use planning– Mass transportation design– Consumer markets– Risk analysis– Environmental solutions

Social Sciences

• Definitions:• Social science refers to the study of society, including

individual or group relationships• Sociology: The study of human social behaviour• Psychology: The science of behaviour, including the

emotional and behavioural characteristics of individuals and groups

• Economics: The management of materials, personnel, or business activities

• Political science: The study of government processes, principles, and structures of political institutions

Social Sciences

• Importance of the Social Sciences to engineering:– Group dynamics of teams within an engineering company– Human behaviour during accidents– Leaders helping subordinates to overcome – Planning for evacuation of burning buildings– Helping a politician develop a public policy on environmental

sustainability– Human reactions during natural disasters– The role of government in clean-up after a disaster– The reactions of people during disruption to lifelines– The movement of people in land use planning– Consideration of risk factors in project economics

Social Sciences

• Engineering services are delivered to people through social mechanisms, thus it is important to understand that social sciences are foundational to effective service by those in engineering profession

• Engineering applies the scientific methods of the social sciences to real problems

• The study of social sciences allows engineers to understand how to work within a social framework and consider nontechnical ramifications of their actions and decisions

• The process of development, delivery, and evaluation of solutions that improve society are also enhanced through the study of social sciences

Social Sciences• Interpersonal skills and the social sciences

– Knowledge of sociology, anthropology, and psychology can enhance interpersonal skills in the workplace. Engineers work in teams on projects.

– Principles of team building, intervention into groups with personnel problems , and problems with motivation are issues addressed in courses on sociology and psychology

– As globalization becomes more embedded within engineering practice, more engineers will need to have an appreciation of worldwide cultures

– Social sciences provide insight into how to critique others effectively and understand the personal motivations of others

– They also provide engineers with strategies to work effectively within alternative organizational structures

– An understanding of varied backgrounds and attitudes allows a engineer at managerial level to be an effective communicator within a team or organization

– Knowledge of the social sciences would also enable engineers to mentor and teach upcoming engineers effectively

Social Sciences

• Physical geography and design for natural disasters– Geography goes beyond learning the names of places and knowing

the processes related to the formation of mountains.– An understanding of principles of physical geography would enable

engineers to properly design structures. It would also enable engineers to effectively deal with the effects of natural disasters and possibly putting measures in place that would curtail the effects of such natural effects should they occur

– A knowledge of physical geography also helps in knowing the classification and characteristics of climate. It could also be of value in handling sustainability issues.

– It’s relevant generally in knowing more on natural resources, hydro-electric, wind, and geothermal power, and soil erosion and conservation

Social Sciences• Engineering and economic impact

– Engineering is a people-serving profession that also involves business transactions. Therefore the practice of engineering requires knowledge of economics

– An engineer should be able to ascertain the economic viability of a project or design. A new design or project can create an entirely new market, and thus impact the economy

– Fro example, the automobile created markets for transportation systems, auto repair services, and insurance services, and spurred the development of the petroleum, iron, steel and rubber industries

– General economic principles studied in economics and business courses are of primary importance to practicing engineers

– Risk and uncertainty are central to economic decision making. Weather conditions, labour problems, machine failures, theft and collapses are some of such.

Social Sciences

• Regional economics, land use, and transportation planning– Ta knowledge of these would enable engineers to

apply economic concepts during projects related to location, labour, and capital migration, and public policies related to urban growth. Many these are related to distribution and use of natural resources which are related to sustainability and environmental management

Social Sciences

• Analysis of engineering problems with social science implications– Natural disasters– Environmental issues

Societal Needs and Resources in the Genesis and Development of Science and Technology


• Engineers harness the great forces of nature for the use and convenience of man with due consideration of environmental and economic sustainability. So engineering is applied science

• So we can conveniently say that the primary engagement of engineers is, solving human problems

• In the process solving such problems, engineers come up with design and such entails a lot of decision making


• Engineering decisions have an enormous impact upon the quality of life in the global community – for example, the social and economic effects of building dams in developing countries or new airports on the outskirts of cities. It is essential, therefore, that engineers play full and significant role in ordering the affairs of society, not merely as technicians carrying out the instructions of others.

Problem Solving and Role of design

• Clearly, at the core of decision-making in any technical project is the design strategy

• It is the essential creative process of engineering – different from science – which calls for imagination, application of technical expertise and experience, and skilful use of materials.


• An awareness of fundamental design principles enables engineers to engage in the highest level of decision-making-to which they can then bring their professional skill and training

• Design principles have in the past focused on the technical and scientific rules underpinning the delivery process

• Good engineering design involves many parameters upon which the success of the project depends each of which has its own subset of laws, standards, practices, codes and regulations


• Underlying all these more specialised constraints and directives are even more fundamental principles – related to the original decision – making process – which provide the total context for good design

• These principles are not purely scientific, axiomatic principles such as the laws of thermodynamics or statics, but derive more from experience, practice or pragmatism. They are the very substance of professional engineering judgement

Statements of Principle

• Engineering design encompasses three key stages of realisation– Need- all design begins with a clearly defined need– Vision-all designs arise from a creative response to

a need– Delivery- all designs result in a system, product or

project that meets the need

Need• The first principle requires recognising and understanding the nature of

society, economics and humanity’s needs• Reason, compassion, service and curiosity all contribute to the definition

of need.• Defining the need is a multidisciplinary task-carried out by either a

selected team of experts, or by an experiences and multi-skilled individual• The skills required are not exclusively engineering but include economic

and political skills, and knowledge of marketing and industrial management

• It is important that a clear definition of the need is formulated, with the reasons for the decisions given

• There must be commitment at the highest level and maximum feedback from earlier developments

Vision• The second principle is the conception and management of a creative

vision to meet the need. It requires the ability to think laterally, to anticipate the unexpected-and to appreciate the aesthetics of problem –solving as well as the material aspect

• The ethos within which the problem id being addressed must be understood

• Design development is an iterative process, so a good relationship with the need-defining team is essential. The perceived needs may change during this stage

• Evaluation of the concept requires a full understanding of the need as formulated, as well as the delivery constraints likely to affect the design formulation

• The designer needs too know the market constraints and production processes

Vision contd.

• The controlling team or individual must have access to all necessary specialist advice.

• On larger scale projects, the management of the various inputs must be strong and effective without inhibiting creative thinking

• On smaller projects, good self-discipline is necessary to ensure that the development does not deviate from the perceived need. External advice must be well coordinated, and its role in the design development understood.

• Specialist consultants must appreciate the total context and aims of the project, which should not be confused by individual disciplinary objectives

Delivery• The final principle involves delivering a solution to a recognised need• This requires assembling and managing resources and team members with the

necessary skills and knowledge needed to create an appropriate and efficient design

• As the scale and complexity of projects increase, so does the need to define a clear management structure and the relationship of the design components to the whole project.

• Smaller projects may permit more flexibility, but engineers need to take care to avoid making too many alterations on the basis of manufacturing expediency

• The original and formulated aims and proposals should provide the platform for the production activities

• There should be regular team reviews to ensure continuity of concept, as well as testing and management to ensure a high and consistent quality in the end product

Some Case Studies

• To demonstrate the relationship between the three basic design principles i.e. need, vision and delivery some case studies are considered.

• The examples chosen represent a wide range of engineering designs from single, speciality products to large scale projects:– An intelligent prosthesis developed by Chas A. Blatchford and

Sons– The Tsing Ma Bridge designed by Mott MacDonald– An asthma inhaler developed by IVAX Pharmaceuticals– The Trent aero engine developed by Rolls-Royce

An intelligent prosthesis developed by Chas A. Blatchford and Sons

• Need


• Supplier’s Need


• User’s Need


• Vision


• Delivery

Making the most out of IP

The IP Plus and Programmer

The Tsing Ma Bridge designed by Mott MacDonald

• Need


• Vision


• Delivery


Tsing Ma’s innovative streamlined vented two-level deck designed to withstand typhoon winds

The Trent aero engine developed by Rolls-Royce

• Need


• Vision


• Delivery


Two of the four Trent 500s produced by Rolls Royce which power Airbus A340

An asthma inhaler developed by IVAX Pharmaceuticals

• Need


• Vision


• Delivery

Societal Needs, Resources, Science and Technology

• Scientific research funded by the private sector has become a crucial factor for socio-economic development, but this cannot exclude the need for publicly-funded research. Both sectors should work in close collaboration and in a complementary manner in the financing of scientific research for long-term goals.


• The inherent function of the scientific endeavour is to carry out a comprehensive and thorough inquiry into nature and society, leading to new knowledge. This new knowledge provides educational, cultural and intellectual enrichment and leads to technological advances and economic benefits.

• Promoting fundamental and problem-oriented research is essential for achieving endogenous development and progress.

Social Problems, Impact Assessment and Control of Science and Technology. Responsibilities of Engineers Science, Technology and

Environment


• The essence of scientific thinking is the ability to examine problems from different perspectives and seek explanations of natural and social phenomena, constantly submitted to critical analysis. Science thus relies on critical and free thinking, which is essential in a democratic world. The scientific community, sharing a long-standing tradition that transcends nations, religions and ethnicity, should promote, as stated in the Constitution of UNESCO, the "intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind", which is the basis of a culture of peace. Worldwide cooperation among scientists makes a valuable and constructive contribution to global security and to the development of peaceful interactions between different nations, societies and cultures, and could give encouragement to further steps in disarmament, including nuclear disarmament.

• Governments and society at large should be aware of the need to use natural and social sciences and technology as tools to address the root causes and impacts of conflict. Investment in scientific research which addresses them should be increased.


• The sciences should be at the service of humanity as a whole, and should contribute to providing everyone with a deeper understanding of nature and society, a better quality of life and a sustainable and healthy environment for present and future generations.

• Scientific knowledge has led to remarkable innovations that have been of great benefit to humankind. Life expectancy has increased strikingly, and cures have been discovered for many diseases. Agricultural output has risen significantly in many parts of the world to meet growing population needs. Technological developments and the use of new energy sources have created the opportunity to free humankind from arduous labour. They have also enabled the generation of an expanding and complex range of industrial products and processes. Technologies based on new methods of communication, information handling and computation have brought unprecedented opportunities and challenges for the scientific endeavour as well as for society at large. Steadily improving scientific knowledge on the origin, functions and evolution of the universe and of life provides humankind with conceptual and practical approaches that profoundly influence its conduct and prospects.

• In addition to their demonstrable benefits the applications of scientific advances and the development and expansion of human activity have also led to environmental degradation and technological disasters, and have contributed to social imbalance or exclusion. As one example, scientific progress has made it possible to manufacture sophisticated weapons, including conventional weapons and weapons of mass destruction. There is now an opportunity to call for a reduction in the resources allocated to the development and manufacture of new weapons and to encourage the conversion, at least partially, of military production and research facilities to civilian use. The United Nations General Assembly has proclaimed the year 2000 as International Year for the Culture of Peace and the year 2001 as United Nations Year of Dialogue among Civilizations as steps towards a lasting peace; the scientific community, together with other sectors of society, can and should play an essential role in this process.

• Most of the benefits of science are unevenly distributed, as a result of structural asymmetries among countries, regions and social groups, and between the sexes. As scientific knowledge has become a crucial factor in the production of wealth, so its distribution has become more inequitable. What distinguishes the poor (be it people or countries) from the rich is not only that they have fewer assets, but also that they are largely excluded from the creation and the benefits of scientific knowledge

• Today, more than ever, science and its applications are indispensable for development. All levels of government and the private sector should provide enhanced support for building up an adequate and evenly distributed scientific and technological capacity through appropriate education and research programmes as an indispensable foundation for economic, social, cultural and environmentally sound development. This is particularly urgent for developing countries. Technological development requires a solid scientific basis and needs to be resolutely directed towards safe and clean production processes, greater efficiency in resource use and more environmentally friendly products. Science and technology should also be resolutely directed towards prospects for better employment, improving competitiveness and social justice. Investment in science and technology aimed both at these objectives and at a better understanding and safeguarding of the planet’s natural resource base, biodiversity and life-support systems must be increased. The objective should be a move towards sustainable development strategies through the integration of economic, social, cultural and environmental dimensions.

• The engineer is a mediator between the philosopher and the working mechanic and, like an interpreter between two foreigners, must understand the language of both, hence the absolute necessity of possessing both practical and theoretical knowledge

• Traditionally, engineers are trained to deliver products, projects or services to fit some specified requirement

• They work to a required performance and quality, within a given time and budget. But the creative and analytical skills of engineers are frequently used only to develop or make practical decisions of others.

• The importance of engaging engineers in the early-decision-making processes of a project is frequently not appreciated, and major decisions are left in the hands of the non-engineering professions – the politicians, lawyers, accountants or marketing experts.

• This is despite the fact that these decisions may require not only understanding the engineering possibilities, but also knowledge and experience of potential environmental and social consequences