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GE Trees, Cellulosic Ethanol,and the Destruction of Forest Biological Diversity 

 Anne Petermann

 As food riots spread across the globe in response to skyrocketingprices and shortages resulting from mounting competition between foodand crop-based agrofuels, the cellulosic ethanol industry is heavilypromoting fuel produced from trees as the solution to this conict. However,ethanol from trees is not a solution. Rather, it will have dangerousecological impacts as well as harm indigenous and rural communities. Inmany countries of the world, industrial timber plantations already competewith agricultural land. And as oil prices continue to hit record highs, thelure of enormous prots is greatly increasing incentives for ethanol-producing tree plantations, which can only e!acerbate the competition forland between timber plantations and agriculture. "nder this scenario, we

can e!pect to see accelerated deforestation and illegal logging in forests allover the world, with serious conse#uences for forest biological diversity,forest-dependent communities, and the climate.

In the $umaco %istrict of &hile, for e!ample, the e!pansion of pineand eucalyptus plantations is taking over agricultural land used byindigenous 'apuche communities and dramatically escalating the rate ofpoverty. (etween )*++ and , plantations in this region increased from) percent of the land to over / percent. In the $umaco %istrict 0 percentof the people now live in poverty, one-third in e!treme poverty. 1hegovernment of &hile e!acerbates the problem by providing nancial

incentives to encourage people to grow trees instead of food. $ucio &uenca,the 2ational &oordinator for the 3bservatorio $atinamericano de &onictos Ambientales in 4antiago, &hile e!plains5 

1he response by the 4tate has been to provide favorable legal andsocial conditions to enable the forestry companies to fulll theirproduction goals and continue their e!pansion. 3n the one hand,repression and criminali6ation 7of 'apuche opposition8. 3n the other9 rerouting subsidies formerly aimed at the large forestry companiestowards the small farmers and indigenous land owners oblige them toconvert to forestry activities. 1hus the strategy for e!pansion becomesmore comple!, operating through political and economic blackmailthat leaves no alternatives.)

1he rising economic incentive to massively e!pand tree plantations forcellulosic ethanol will only worsen the conicts between communities whoneed land for food and companies who want the land to grow trees.

1 $ucio &uenca, 3bservatorio $atinoamericano de &onictos Ambientales, presentation atthe :itoria 'eeting Against 'onoculture 1imber ;lantations, 2ovember /, :itoria,(ra6il.

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 Another conse#uence of the rising emphasis on cellulosic ethanol asthe ne!t generation of biofuels technology is the accelerated promotion offast-growing, easily digested, genetically engineered <=>? trees, which havebeen widely promoted as a future feedstock for cellulose-based ethanol. Additional genetic research is targeting oil palm and @atropha for greaterand higher #uality oil production for biodiesel, as well as future productionof chemicals and plastics.

In the ".4., => low-lignin poplar plantations for ethanol productionare being proposed for unusedB agricultural land. A statement by ;urdue"niversity in the ".4. touts the possibilities5

Researchers believe that using the hybrid poplar in its present formcould produce about 9 C gallons of ethanol 7per acre annually8.&hanging the lignin composition could increase the annual yield to), gallons of ethanol per acre, according to e!perts. ;lanted on ))million acres of unused farm land, this could replace + percent of thetransportation fossil fuel consumed in the "nited 4tates each year. 

(esides greatly e!aggerating the potential benets of low-lignin trees, thisstatement encourages us to accept the widely peddled myth that anyunusedB farmland is better suited to fueling motor vehicles in the ".4. thanto feeding people or providing habitat for wildlife. It also ignores thetremendous #uantities of water consumed by the manufacture of cellulosicethanol and the impact this will have on communities and ecosystems. Dorevery gallon of ethanol produced, about gallons of water are used in therenery process.E A renery producing ) million gallons of ethanol per year therefore re#uires about million gallons of water. &ellulosicethanol, if it becomes feasible, will likely place even greater demands onwater at a time when global supplies of freshwater are in serious decline.

GE Trees & Contamination of Wild Forests

(eyond the threats to food are the threats to forests. Richard 'eilan,a faculty member at ;urdue "niversity, points out that 1he genus Populus includes about E species that grow across a wide climatic range from thesubtropics in Dlorida to subalpine areas in Alaska, northern &anada and>urope.B Fhile he makes this point to demonstrate the e!ibility of thepoplar as an energy crop, he also raises a serious red ag concerning thepotential genetic contamination that could result from the commercialrelease of a => tree that has such a large and widespread population of wildrelatives. According to The Economist, countries like 4weden are also

2 =' 1ree &ould be "sed for &ellulosic >thanol, Dast-=rowing 1rees &ould 1ake Root asDuture >nergy 4ource,” ;urdue "niversity press release, August , 0, online at5http5GGwww.purdue.eduG"24GhtmleverG0G0+E.&happle.poplar.html .3 R. ;ate, '. Hightower, &. &ameron, and F. >infeld, 3verview of >nergy-FaterInterdependencies and the >merging >nergy %emands on Fater Resources,B Report 4A2%C-)E*&, 4andia 2ational $aboratories, $os Alamos, 2ew 'e!ico, C.4  Ibid.

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considering the use of => poplars for cellulosic ethanol./ >ven the use ofnon-native tree species, such as => eucalyptus in the southeastern ".4.,raises serious concerns about the impacts that the escape of geneticmaterial from => trees could have on native forests.

3ur understanding of the contamination potential from futureplantings of => trees is largely based on known contamination incidents

from => food crops and e!perimental plantings of engineered grasses.0 Fhile there has not yet been a comprehensive study of crop contaminationfrom => varieties, several well-documented incidents have alerted theworld to the seriousness of this problem. 1wo incidents of transgeniccontamination of wild relatives have been studied in some detail5 thetransmission of an herbicide-tolerance gene from oilseed rape <canola? toweedy wild turnip hybrids in &anada and the detection of herbicide-tolerantgrasses up to ) kilometers from a test site in 3regon.

1here have also been two attempts to systematically address thecontamination potential of => crops. 4ince /, =reenpeace, in

collaboration with =eneFatch in the ".., has maintained an onlinedatabase of ='3 contamination incidents, known as the =' &ontaminationRegister.C 1heir 0 report lists ) publicly documented incidents in Ecountries since the introduction of commercial => crops in )**0. 1heseinclude instances of contamination of food, seed, animal feeds and wildrelatives of crops, as well as illegal releases of unapproved => varieties anddocumented negative agricultural side eects.+ Also in 0, the ".4.-based&enter for Dood 4afety released a report on the contamination potentialfrom eld trials of new, e!perimental => crop varieties, reviewing theprevalence of eld trials of ='3s with known wild relatives across the ".4.*

1he incidents of contamination listed in the side bo! prove that geneescape and => contamination cannot be prevented once => crops arereleased. 1his in turn suggests that the widespread planting of => treeswould over time lead to a persistent contamination of the worldJs nativeforests, with disruptive, but as yet unknown ecological conse#uences.

5 %erek (acon, Foodstock Revisited,” The Economist, 'arch +, C.6 Fhile contaminationB is the preferred terminology for this phenomenon, in most non-technical literature, advocates of genetic engineering have sought to replace it with theless familiar and more ambiguous term adventitious presence.B 1he research literature ismainly concerned with the introgressionB of novel traits, i.e., the successful and

inheritable incorporation of transgenic %2A into the genome of a population of nativeorganisms or non-modied crops.7 4ee http5GGwww.gmcontaminationregister.orgG.8 =reenpeace International, =' &ontamination Register Report5 Annual Review of &asesof &ontamination, Illegal ;lanting and 2egative 4ide >ects of =enetically 'odied3rganisms,B Debruary C, online at5h ttp5GGwww.genewatch.orgGuploadsGfEc0d00a*bE//E/CE++Ec)cEd*eGgmKcontaminationKreportK0.pdf .9 %oug =urian-4herman, &ontaminating the FildL =ene Dlow from >!perimental Dield1rials of =enetically >ngineered &rops to Related Fild ;lants,B &enter for Dood 4afety,Fashington, %.&., 0.

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---bo! about here---

"nlike most crops, => trees grown for agrofuels e!traction are likelyto be grown in the vicinity of genetically similar native and uncultivated treepopulations. In &hina, => insect-resistant poplars planted in ) werealready found to be contaminating native poplars as early as .) Fell-

documented cases of => contamination of wild relatives to crop plants arealso of particular relevance.

In one e!ample, herbicide tolerance genes from => oilseed rape werefound in a weedy wild turnip hybrid species in &anada, as well as in asample of charlock, a weedy relative in the "..)) &harlock, a signicantweed of oilseed rape, was previously believed to be incapable ofspontaneous hybridi6ation with domesticated rape varieties.

Durther complicating the situation, several common weedy plants inagricultural regions in the ".4. have evolved resistance to the herbicide

glyphosate <Roundup? as a result of continued e!posure to 'onsantoJsRoundup ReadyB => crop varieties.) 1hese include important weedspecies such as horseweed <marestail or Conyza canadensis?, commonragweed < Ambrosia artemisiifolia?, and rigid ryegrass < Lolium rigidum?.)E

 Also highly relevant to our understanding of the potential threat from=> trees is a carefully studied instance of native grass contamination from atest plot of creeping bentgrass genetically engineered for glyphosateresistance in 3regon. In , researchers from the ".4. >nvironmental;rotection Agency found numerous grasses within kilometers of thee!perimental plotMas well as two samples ) and ) kilometers awayMthatwere tolerant to glyphosate. =enetic analysis showed they contained one ofthe ma@or components of the inserted %2A that imparts this trait.) In afollow-up study two years later, researchers determined that the transgenehad established itself in resident grass populations, as well as in a non-=>bentgrass that had been planted nearby as a monitor of potential geneow.)/

10 D. ;earce Altered 1rees Hide 3ut with the ;oplars,B Ne !cientist, 4eptember )*, ,p. C.11 4ee http5GGwww.gmcontaminationregister.orgGinde!.phpLcontentNreKdetailOgwKidNE/ ,

and references therein.12 Andrew ;ollack, Fidely "sed &rop Herbicide Is $osing Feed Resistance,” The Ne "or# Times, Panuary ), E.13 1hese specic e!amples are from the 'onsanto-originated site at5http5GGwww.weedresistancemanagement.comG .14 $idia 4. Fatrud, et al$, >vidence for $andscape-level, ;ollen-mediated =ene Dlow from=enetically 'odied &reeping (entgrass with &; >;4;4 as a 'arker,B Proceedings of the

 National Academy of  !ciences, :ol. )), 2o. , pp. )/EE-)/E+.15 Pay R. Reichman, et al., >stablishment of 1ransgenic Herbicide-resistant &reeping(entgrass < Agrostis stolonifera L.? in 2onagronomic Habitats,B %olecular Ecology , :ol. )/,0, pp. EQ//.

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Fith their investigation limited to publicly accessible areas within E)s#uare kilometers of the test plot, the researchers found nine establishedtransgenic plants downwind spread over an appreciable distance beyondthe border of the control area.B)0 1hrough further %2A analysis, theydetermined that the contamination had been caused by a combination ofpollen and => seed dispersal. 1his is very signicant, given the fact thatglyphosate tolerance would not be particularly advantageous for plants

outside the test 6one. 1his study is also relevant to non-native => treespecies in biofuel plantations, since contamination was not only by pollen,but by seed as well.

Fhat these studies reveal is the virtual impossibility of preventingcontamination of native forests with pollen from native tree species thathave been genetically engineered. 1he impacts of this contamination,however, would depend to a large e!tent on the traits involved, though thecomple!ity of forest ecosystems makes it impossible to accurately predictthe impact of any introduced trait. 2evertheless, irrespective of the specictraits, the genetic manipulation itself gives rise to risks. 4everal researchers

have reviewed the ecologically disruptive character of genetic modicationsin terms of gene e!pression, ecological tness, and the production ofpotentially dangerous new metabolites, substances involved in the growth,development, and reproduction of organisms. In one brief review, Allison4now of 3hio 4tate "niversity writes5 Although crops and weeds havee!changed genes for centuries, genetic engineering raises additionalconcerns because it not only enables introduction into ecosystems of genesthat confer novel tness-related traits, but also allows novel genes to beintroduced into many diverse types of crops, each with its own specicpotential to outcross.B)C %avid 4chubert of the 4alk Institute also writes thatunintended conse#uences arising from the random and e!tensivemutagenesis caused by => techni#ues opens far wider possibilities ofproducing novel, to!ic or mutagenic compounds in all sorts of crops.B)+

In a detailed analysis of over published studies, researchers at>co2e!us in the ".. documented signicant increases in genetic instability,higher mutation rates, large-scale deletions and translocations of %2A, andother disturbing eects at the site of articial gene insertion.)* 1here is noreason to believe these disruptions in gene e!pression will not also impactnative tree species that become contaminated via cross-pollination with =>

16

  Ibid$, p. /.17 Allison 4now, 1ransgenic &ropsMFhy =ene Dlow 'atters,B Nature &iotechnology , :ol., Pune , p. /.18 %avid 4chubert, Regulatory Regimes for 1ransgenic &rops,B Nature &iotechnology , :ol.E, Puly /, pp. C+/-C+C.19 Allison Filson, et al., =enome 4cramblingM'yth or RealityL 1ransformation-Induced'utations in 1ransgenic &rop ;lants,B >cone!us, (righton, ".., 3ctober , online at5http5GGwww.econe!us.infoG. 4ee also Ponathan R. $atham, et al., 1he 'utational&onse#uences of ;lant 1ransformation,B 'ournal of &iomedicine and &iotechnology , 0,pp. )-C, online at5 http5GGwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov.

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 varieties.

LowLignin Trees

3ne genetic modication of particular concern for the earthJs livingecosystems is genetic manipulation of trees for decreased lignin production.(iotech companies are pursuing engineering reduced-lignin trees for both

agrofuels and paper production.

$ignin is an important structural polymer that also plays a signicantrole in the high levels of insect- and disease-resistance in trees. 1he veryfact that lignin does not break down easily is essential to the resiliency ofnative tree species in the wild. 1hus the conse#uences of a reduced-lignintrait spreading from agrofuel plantations to native forests could be severeand irreversible.

Dast-growing, reduced-lignin => trees growing undetected in a nativeforest setting as the result of gene escape, might die o at an early age dueto their inability to cope with environmental stresses. (ut even this scenariowould be problematic. (ecause of their reduced lignin, these treesdecompose more readily, rapidly releasing carbon and altering soil structurewith unknown conse#uences for the soil ecosystem. 1heir faster growth atthe seedling and sapling stage, however, could give them an evolutionaryadvantage over their non-modied cousins, resulting in a domination of =>low-lignin trees in the forest. How this will aect the forest ecosystem as itevolves is impossible to predict.

$ow-lignin trees also have implications for the climate, according tothe "..-based Institute for 4cience in 4ociety5

 Aspen < Populus tremuloides? modied for reduced stem lignin had normalcellulose content accompanied by reduced lignin content. 1he transgenicaspen had reduced root carbon and greatly reduced soil carbon accumulationcompared to unmodied aspen. 1he trees accumulated E percent less plantcarbon and C percent less new soil carbon than unmodied trees. 1hismakes the transgenic tree highly undesirable in terms of reducing carbon inthe atmosphere, hence defeating the whole purpose of switching from fossilfuels to biofuels.)

In addition to reducing the lignin in trees, biotech researchers areinvestigating altering the structure of lignin to enhance its digestibility to

microbes. In one line of research, proteins are being introduced into plantcell walls to create protein-lignin linkages that could be digested using

20 P.>. Hancock, F.'. $oya, &.;. =iardina, $. $i, :.$. &hiang, and .4. ;regit6er, ;lant=rowth, (iomass ;artitioning and 4oil &arbon Dormation in Response to Altered $ignin(iosynthesis in Populus tremuloides,”  Ne Phytologist, :ol. CE, 2o. , 'arch C, pp.CE-C.21 P. &ummins and 'ae-Fan Ho, "nregulated Release of =' ;oplars and Hybrids,” reportsubmitted to ".4. %epartment of Agriculture A;HI4 in response to a permit application <0-/-)r? from 3regon 4tate "niversity for eld tests of transgenic Populus Alba and

 Populus hybrids, August C.

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protease en6ymes. In another scheme, researchers are looking atincorporating a particular plant protein called e!pansin into trees, as wellas cellulase en6ymes that would essentially enable the tree to begin todigest itself prior to harvest.

3nce again, despite the dire threat of these traits escaping into forestecosystems, assessments of the risks posed are not being done.

Disease and !nsect "esistance

(ecause lignin naturally protects trees from insects and disease, treeswith reduced lignin will probably have to be engineered with additionaltraits for disease and insect resistance, which creates additional concerns5connected to both the unintended side eects from stacking multiple genesinto one organism, and to the potential escape of these genes. 1he "..research organi6ation, 1he &orner House, notes that trees geneticallymodied for resistance to disease are likely to cause fresh epidemicsBE byencouraging the survival of other diseases resistant to the geneticmodication. &orner House researchers go on to assert that fungicideproduction engineered into =' trees to help them counter such aictionsas leaf rust and leaf spot diseases may dangerously alter soil ecology, decayprocesses and the ability for the =' trees to eiciently take up nutrients9.B'ycorrhi6al fungus and other soil fungi are a critical part of forest ecology. As is true of the insecticide &acillus thuriengensis < &t? when it is engineeredinto plants, fungicides engineered into trees are likely to be e!uded by theroots into the soil, killing benecial soil fungi and damaging soil ecology.

 Another signicant concern is that the evolution of new, morepathogenic viruses may be accelerated by => tree viral-resistance traits.Ricarda 4teinbrecher elaborates on the potential for genetically engineered viruses to recombine with other viruses to create new and more deadlyones5

1he potential of such newly recombined viruses to overcome the defenses ofrelated wild plants, or even be able to infect new host plants, is a seriousconcern. In laboratory e!periments infecting viruses have also swapped theirprotein coat for that of another virus that had been engineered into a plant,...7and8 the new coat enabled a virus to travel between plants, carried byaphids.

Insect resistance also presents serious concerns. In &hina, theproblem of desertication was tackled through the planting of huge

22 %avid ;acchioli, Researchers at the 2ew (iomass >nergy &enter are Homing in onDuture Duels,B ;enn 4tate "niversity, 4tate &ollege, ;ennsylvania, 4eptember , C,online at5 http5GGwww.rps.psu.eduGindepthGbioenergy).html .23 :iola 4ampson and $arry $ohmann, &orner House (rieng )5 =enetically 'odied1rees,B %ecember, , p. +.24 Ricarda 4teinbrecher, 1he >cological &onse#uences of =enetic >ngineering,B in (rian1okar <ed.?, (edesigning Life) The *orldide Challenge to +enetic Engineering <$ondon5Sed (ooks, )?, pp. +*-*.

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monoculture plantations of poplars. 1hese poplars, however, fell victim topredation by caterpillars, and great numbers of them died. Fith the help ofthe "2 Dood and Agriculture 3rgani6ation, genetically engineered insect-resistant poplars were then introduced. 1hese => poplars were engineeredto produce &t to!in, which targets the caterpillars of Lepidoptera <butteries and moths?. 1he pro@ect was started in , and today morethan ) million => poplars have been planted across ten provinces. However,

no one knows e!actly where they are./ In , the 2an@ing Institute of>nvironmental 4cience reported that the &t poplars were alreadycontaminating native poplars,0 but it is not known how far thiscontamination has spread.

1he escape of the &t trait into native forests is problematic fornumerous reasons. Insects have evolved with forest ecosystems for millionsof years, and the ecological implications of eradicating certain species ofinsects has not been assessed. 1hese impacts, however, are likely to bewide-ranging. Dor e!ample, the insects targeted by &t trees are animportant food source for nesting songbirds, as well as other wildlife. At

least one study has found that &t to!in remains active and lethal afteringested and can make its way up the food chain and will actually bind tothe intestines of non-target organisms, causing signicant structuraldisturbances and intestinal growths.BC 

1he fact that the &t trait is e!pressed in every cell of the modiedtree, including the pollen is a ma@or concern in relation to pollinators suchas bees and butteries. As has been widely reported, bee populations inmany regions throughout the world have recently e!perienced serious, andin some cases catastrophic, decline. %eployment of &t trees on a large scalecould further devastate pollinator populations.+ A new study released latein C demonstrated that pollen and other plant tissues containing &t to!ins are washing into streams near cornelds, and that the &t to!in islethal to caddisies, the most diverse order of a#uatic insects and animportant food source for sh and amphibians.*

25 Huoran Fang, 1he 4tate of =enetically 'odied Dorest 1rees in &hina,B ;reliminaryreview of biotechnology in forestry, including genetic modication, "2 DA3, %ecember, online at5 http5GGwww.fao.orgGdocrepG+Gae/CeGA>/C>+.htm .26 D. ;earce Altered 1rees Hide 3ut with the ;oplars,B Ne !cientist, 4eptember )*, ,p. C.27 &. (rown, 4. &onnor, and '. 'c&arthy, 1he >nd for =' &rops5 Dinal (ritish 1rial

&onrms 1hreat to Fildlife,B 'arch , /, online at5 http5GGnews.independent.co.ukGlowKresGstory.@spLstoryN0C*OhostNEOdirN/+ .28 P. $osey, $.4. Rayor, and '.>. &arter, 1ransgenic ;ollen Harms 'onarch $arvae,B

 Nature, :ol. E**, 2o. 0CEE, 'ay , )***T $. Hansen and P. 3brycki, 2on-target >ects of &t-corn ;ollen on the 'onarch (uttery < Lepidoptera anaidae?,B Abstract, 2orth &entral(ranch meeting of the >ntomological 4ociety of America, 'arch )***T and $.A. 'alone, etal., In :ivo Responses of Honey (ee 'idgut ;roteases to 1wo ;rotease Inhibitors from;otato,B 'ournal of Insect Physiology , :ol. , 2o. , )**+, pp. ))-)C.29 >.P. Rosi-'arshall, et al., 1o!ins in 1ransgenic &rop (yproducts 'ay Aect Headwater4tream >cosystems,B Proceedings of the National Academy of !ciences, :ol. ), 2o. ),3ctober *, C, pp. )0 Q)0+.

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1he leaching of &t to!in from the roots of => plants and into the soilcan aect organisms present in the soil or the soil community as a whole.1hus it can impact benecial soil microbe and pathogen interactions,nutrient cycling and uptake, and other poorly understood soil processes.$ittle is known about the way in which &t to!in production alters the rottingprocess of dead &t trees. "se of &t to!in also raises concerns about the

creation of super-pestsBE and the killing of benecial insects,E) as well asthe displacement of insect pests from => trees to more vulnerable species.

(eyond the impacts on forests and wildlife, however, are the impactsof &t pollen on humans. 4ome studies suggest airborne &t pollen may beto!ic when inhaled,E which could have serious ramications forcommunities living close to => tree plantations. 2either this potentialhealth impact nor the long-term ecological conse#uences of the use of &t trees have been ade#uately studied.

=enetically modied poplars used in biofuel plantations may also be

engineered to become sterile. ;roponents of genetic engineering claim thatadding a sterility trait to => trees would help prevent contamination of non-engineered trees. 1his argument is being used to attempt to reverse themoratorium on so-called 1erminator 1echnology.B However, because of thecomple! nature of plant reproduction and gene regulation as well as thegenetic changes trees e!perience as they age, it is highly unlikely that anysterility in trees can be reliably sustained. 1his means that contamination byseed or pollen would continue to be a threat. It also means there is thepotential for stands of native trees themselves to become partially sterilethrough cross-pollination, or to become impaired in their development ofowers or seeds. 4terile trees would also be able to spread their transgenesthrough vegetative propagation.

30 D. =ould, cited in P.$. Do!,  &t &otton Infestations Renew Resistance &oncerns,B Nature

 &iotechnology , ), )**0, p. )C.31 A. Hilbeck, '. (aumgartner, ;.'. Dried, and D. (igler, >ects of 1ransgenic &acillus

thuringiensis &orn-fed ;rey on 'ortality and %evelopment 1ime of Immature Chrysoperlacarnea < Neuroptera- Chrysopidae?,B En.ironmental Entomology , :ol. C, 2o. , )**+, pp.+-+CT A. Hilbeck, F.P. 'oar, '. ;us6tai-&arey, A. Dillipini, and D. (igler, 1o!icity of

 &acillus thuringiensis &ry)Ab 1o!in to the ;redator Chrysoperla carnea < Neuroptera-Chrysopidae?,B En.ironmental Entomology , :ol. C, 2o. /, )**+, pp. )//-)0ET A. Hilbeck,F.P. 'oar, '. ;us6tai-&arey, A. Dillipini, and D. (igler, ;rey-mediated >ects of &ry)Ab1o!in and ;roto!in and &ryA proto!in on the ;redator Chrysoperla carnea,B Entomologia

 E/perimentalis Et Applicata, :ol. *), 2o. , 'ay )***, pp. E/-E)0.32 =.A. leter and A.A.&.'. ;ei@nenburg, 4creening of 1ransgenic ;roteins >!pressed in1ransgenic Dood &rops for the ;resence of 4hort Amino Acid 4e#uences Identical to;otential, Ig>-binding $inear >pitopes of Allergens,B &%C !tructural &iology , :ol. , 2o. +,, online at5 http5GGwww.biomedcentral.comG)C-0+CGG+ T R.I. :U6#ue6-;adrVn, et al.,&ry)Ac proto!in from &acillus thuringiensis sp. #ursta#i H%CE (inds to 4urface ;roteinsin the 'ouse 4mall Intestine,B &iochemical and &iophysical (esearch Communications, :ol.C), 2o. ), April *, , pp. /-/+T R.I. :U6#ue6-;adrVn, $. 'oreno-Dierros, $. 2eri-(a6Un, =.A. %e $a Riva, and R. $Vpe6-Revilla,  &acillus thuringiensis &ry)Ac ;roto!in is a;otent 4ystemic and 'ucosal Ad@uvant,B !candina.ian 'ournal of Immunology , :ol. *, 2o.0, Pune )***, pp. /C+-/+.

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Durthermore, the sterility modication itself has serious ramications,primarily the likely impacts on native wildlife. (ecause sterile trees do notprovide food <seeds, pollen, nectar? for insects, animals or birds, largemonocultures of => trees will displace a wide variety of native species. Inaddition, the trees themselves may be to!ic.EE

!ntroduction of #on#ative !nvasive $lants for Cellulosic Ethanol

 Eucalyptus is the perfect neoliberal tree$ It gros 0uic#ly, turns a 0uic#pro1t in the global mar#et and destroys the earth$

MPaime Aviles, La 'ornadaE

=> tree escape, via seed or vegetative propagation, is possible evenfrom non-native species without wild relatives. 1he case of bentgrasscontamination is instructive here, as it describes contamination resultingfrom seed dispersal. => eucalyptus is one non-native tree being proposed by

tree engineers as a potential feedstock for cellulosic ethanol plants.

>ucalyptus, native only to Australia, is a favorite species for pulpwoodplantations worldwide. It is a notoriously invasive tree species that oftenout-competes native plant species. >ucalyptus was introduced in &aliforniain )+/0, and is now widespread throughout the coastal and southernregions of the state. (ecause eucalyptus is also e!tremely re-prone,&alifornia has spent millions of dollars trying to eradicate these invasiveplants.

1he Introduced 4pecies 4ummary ;ro@ect of &olumbia "niversitydescribed the threat of eucalyptus to ecosystems in this way5

1he loss of biodiversity and habitat is a great threat from the 9 eucalyptus.It creates virtual monocultures and can rapidly take over surroundingcompatible areas, completely changing the ecosystem. 1hat monoculturecreates a loss of habitats for many species that relied on the previous system.%ue to its great capacity for taking over a wide variety of habitats, the 9eucalyptus could possibly spread to a great range of systems where there isenough water content and create huge monocultures.BE/

1he ".4. Dorest 4ervice also reported concerns about the ability ofeucalyptus to suppress the growth of other plants5

1he leaves of 9 eucalyptus release a number of terpenes and phenolic acids.1hese chemicals may be responsible for the paucity of accompanying

 vegetation in plantations. 2atural fog drip from 9 eucalyptus inhibits the

33 P. &ummins and '. Ho, op$ cit$34 Pohn Ross, (ig ;ulp vs. the Sapatistas5 &ellulose %reams in 4outhern 'e!ico,B

 %ultinational %onitor , April )**+, p. *.35 Introduced 4pecies 4ummary ;ro@ect, 1asmanian (lue =um < Eucalyptus globulus $abill.?,online at5 http5GGwww.columbia.eduGitcGcercGdano-burgGinvasionKbioGinvKsppKsummG>ucalyptusKglobulus.html.

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growth of annual grass seedlings in bioassays, suggesting that suchinhibition occurs naturally. At least one leaf e!tract has been shown tostrongly inhibit root growth of seedlings of other species.E0

In addition, a recent study has found that in elevated levelsof &3 pollution, the leaves of eucalyptus have increased levelsof to!icity, making them an even greater threat to ecosystems

and wildlife.EC

Fhile eucalyptus has been a favorite species for monoculture treeplantations throughout the tropics and subtropics, their temperaturere#uirements have made other cooler climates, as well as higher altitudes,o limits. 1he company Arbor=en, however, is currently engineeringeucalyptus for cold tolerance so that it could survive at temperatures as lowas -W&, which would greatly e!pand its potential range.E+ 1histransformation of eucalyptus into a species that can survive in colderclimates creates signicant threats to forests in those climates. >!tendingthe range of eucalyptus makes it possible for companies to replace slower-

growing <but carbon rich? native forests with fast-growing <but carbon poor?eucalyptus plantations, which are considered more valuable for theproduction of cellulosic ethanol. In his 0 year-end report tostockholders, Rubicon &>3 $uke 'oriarty alludes to the economic potentialof the cold-tolerant => eucalyptus5 1he e!cellent results of the bestperformers in the eld trials would suggest that the level of cold tolerancecan be e!tended even further, thus oering a broader geographic market forthis new hardwood product than originally anticipated.BE* 

(esides wiping out native forests for eucalyptus plantations, thecommercial use of cold-adapted eucalyptus could result in the escape of

these => trees <via seed or ase!ual vegetative reproduction? intoecosystems and forests where they could out-compete native vegetation anddisplace wildlife. Durthermore, the southern ".4., where establishment ofcommercial => eucalyptus biofuel feedstock plantations is being promotedby Arbor=en, is known to be sub@ect to strong storms, including tornadoesand hurricanes, which have the potential to distribute eucalyptus seeds overareas from tens to hundreds of kilometers.

%evelopment of second generation biofuels in (ra6il is also a concern.>orts are currently focusing on the use of bagasseMthe biomass left overfrom the production of sugar cane-based ethanol. %enmark-based

2ovo6ymes is cooperating with &entro de 1ecnologia to develop facilities to

36 $ora $. >sser, Eucalyptus globulus in Dire >ects Information 4ystem,".4. %epartment of Agriculture, Dorest 4ervice, Rocky 'ountain Research 4tation, Dire4ciences $aboratory, )**E, available at5 http5GGwww.fs.fed.usGdatabaseGfeisG , accessed2ovember /, C.37 Rod 'c=uirk  , The Associated Press, 'ay C, +.38 4tephen asnet and $uke 'oriarty, Rubicon Interim Report,B Rubicon, Debruary +,C. <Rubicon is a @oint owner of Arbor=en.?39  Ibid$

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utili6e all parts of the sugarcane plant for ethanol production. 2ovo6ymes&>3 4teen Riisgaard e!plained, the research agreement is part of oureorts to identify economically protable processes within the developmentof biofuels from plant waste and other biomass.B Fhile these facilities maybe developed under the guise of reducing wasteB in the production ofethanol, they are also a step towards the acceptance of other cellulosicfeedstocks as well. In (ra6il, these future feedstocks include => low-lignin

eucalyptus.

 Arbor=en is already developing => low-lignin eucalyptus in (ra6il, asis pulpwood giant Aracru6 &ellulose, and there are twenty-one outdoor eldtrials already underway in (ra6il. 1he construction of cellulosic ethanolreneries in (ra6il opens up another huge market for => reduced-lignintrees, and Arbor=en foresees millions of dollars in prots from the sale ofits => low-lignin eucalyptus pulp, due to the fact that the company e!pectsit to be more valuable than conventional eucalyptus pulp since it is lesse!pensive to process than eucalyptus with normal levels of lignin.) >ucalyptus is already a serious problem in (ra6il, where plantations have

replaced vast stretches of the %ata Atlantica coastal forest ecosystem.Increasing demand for eucalyptus for cellulosic ethanol and paper pulp, willnecessitate e!pansion of eucalyptus plantations and create pressure tocommerciali6e => low-lignin eucalyptus, further threatening ecosystemslike the %ata Atlantica and the Amazon. In fact, (ra6il has announced ascheme to reforestB the Ama6on with up to / million hectares ofeucalyptus plantations. =iven (ra6ilXs vehement opposition to anyrestrictions on planting of genetically engineered trees at the 'ay +&onvention on (iological %iversity, there is no reason to believe theseeucalyptus would not be genetically engineered.

1he destructive nature of eucalyptus led 'e!icoJs La 'ornada  @ournalist, Paime Aviles, to call eucalyptus 1he perfect neoliberal tree,Bnoting that it grows #uickly, turns a #uick prot in the global market anddestroys the earth.BE

GE %atroha and 'il $alm

(eyond genetically engineering trees for cellulosic ethanolproduction, biotech researchers are also e!ploring ways to engineer Patropha and oil palm trees so that their oil-bearing seeds produce betterbiodiesel, as well as other oil-based products.

40 'ichael 4hirek, 2ovo6ymes &oncludes Agreement in (ra6il Regarding 4econd-generation (iofuels,B Ethanol Producer %agazine, 4eptember C.41 Ibid$42 'aria 3savo, 4teel and >ucalyptus Heat "p >astern Ama6on,Y 4pecial to 1ierramZricahttp5GGwww.tierramerica.infoGnota.phpLlangNengOidnewsN// .43 Pohn Ross, (ig ;ulp vs. the Sapatistas5 &ellulose %reams in 4outhern 'e!ico,B

 %ultinational %onitor , April, )**+, p. *.

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 African oil palm is native to tropical Africa, where it grows from the&ongo to 4ierra $eone, while American oil palm is native to &entral and4outh America. However, both of these species are now widely cultivated intropical areas around the world. Patropha is native to &entral America andthe &aribbean, and it too is being cultivated or planned for cultivation inhuge monocultures in India, &hina, Africa, $atin America and elsewhere.

1he giant multinational oil corporation (; is investing "4[C0 millionin Patropha cultivation. India has identied )) million hectares of land forfuture @atropha plantations. &hina is moving forward with plans for morethan )E million hectares of @atropha and other biofuel feedstocks onsensitive, biologically rich native forestlands in southwestern &hina. InFestern Australia, however, Patropha has been banned due to the fact that itis e!tremely invasive and highly to!ic to animals and people <ingesting threeuntreated seeds can be fatal to humans?./

4cientists are engineering these two trees for a variety of traits. 3ilpalm is being modied in Indonesia and 'alaysia to change the composition

of its oil. Dood industry researchers are seeking to modify it for reducedsaturated fatty acid content. 3thers are working to make the oil adaptableto new uses, for e!ample, as a source of biodegradable plastics and otherproducts currently manufactured with petrochemicals. 1hey also want toincrease the oil content of the seeds. (ecause of its susceptibility to someinsects, oil palm is also being engineered for insect resistance <with all ofthe potential conse#uences previously mentioned?. It is also beingengineered for resistance to the herbicide glufosinate.0 &ompanies are alsomoving toward genetically engineering Patropha to increase production andimprove the oil content of the seeds.C

Conclusion

1he pursuit of a global energy strategy that features wood as a ma@oragrofuel feedstock clearly poses a variety of potential problems. "se ofgenetically engineered trees for agrofuel production would signicantlyincrease this risk, with serious implications for the worldJs forests andforest-dependent peoples.

In the ".4. for e!ample, eorts are underway to transform themonoculture loblolly pine plantations of the 4outheast ".4. from the worldJsmain source of paper pulp to the primary feedstock for cellulosic ethanolproduction in the region. A company called Range Duels is developing anethanol production facility specically for this purpose with funds from the

44 \ingling $iu, &hinese (iofuels >!pansion 1hreatens >cological %isaster,B ForldwatchInstitute, 'arch )E, C, online at5 http5GGwww.worldwatch.orgGnodeG*/*.45 (en 'acintyre, Feed 'oves from (owels to (iofuel,B The Australian, Puly E, C.46 "2 DA3 ='3 registry.47 ]ing $iu, 4urinder 4ingh O Allan =reen, =enetic 'odication of :egetable 3ils for;otential "se as (iodiesel,B &4IR3 ;lant Industry presentation, 'ay C, online at5http5GGwww.thai@atropha.comG*.pdf .

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".4. %epartment of >nergy. =eorgia has been #uoted as seeking to becomethe 4audi Arabia of biofuels,B using its pine plantations as the feedstock.+ 

1aking these pine plantations out of paper production andtransitioning them into ethanol production will have global implications. Asthe raw materials to feed the worldJs increasing appetite for paper are nolonger available from e!isting plantations, pressure on the worldJs

remaining forests to supply this need will increase. In addition, the rapidlyrising demand for wood, triggered by cellulosic ethanol production, willaccelerate the conversion of native forests into fast-growing monoculturetree plantations and escalate rates of illegal logging. 1his skyrocketingdemand for wood will also further the pressure to commercially developgenetically engineered tree plantations, which will in turn threaten theecological integrity of remaining native forests.

Fith current rates of deforestation contributing percent of globalcarbon emissions annually, the massive increase in deforestation that willaccompany the rise of wood-based ethanol production will have signicant

impacts on climate, belying the argument that cellulosic ethanol will be partof the solution to global warming. &onse#uently, the massive increase inlogging and the planned use of genetically engineered trees that willaccompany the production of wood-based second generationB agrofuelsmake this so-called alternative energyB one of the foremost threats toforests and forest-dependent peoples across the globe.

48 %avid Adams, (iofuel ;ush 'ay 1ake Root in =eorgia,B !t$ Petersburg

Times, Debruary +, C.

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