game: more than just meat

Department Animal Sciences•

Faculty of AgriSciences

Game: more than just meat

Hector and Andrew Stuart Memorial Lecture 2010

Louw HoffmanDepartment of Animal Sciences

Stellenbosch University

16th March 2010The University of Western Australia


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Definition of terms

• Game meat: meat derived from African wild animal species

History of Game Animals in Africa

• Africa’s mega fauna spared over-exploitation by humans• Pre-colonial – management systems

• Royal game• Habitat manipulation• Harvest regulations, etc

• European colonizers – 350 yrs ago• African peoples’ traditional values vs European ideas of

ownership• Strong market economy• Firearms

• Wildlife competed for space & pasture against cattle• Source of revenue

7Source: DeGeorges & Reilly, 2009


• 1700’s – 500 000 000 springbok in Karoo & Kalahari Desert South African and Namibia

• 1896 – great springbok migrations were past

• 1933 International Conference for the Protection of Flora & Fauna of Africa• Principles National Parks established• Moved people off ancestral grounds• Made them become “poachers”• Modified forest & savannah ecology

• Land ownership• Black African - land belonged to ancestors• White African - owned by title deed.

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• 1990 - World Parks Commission: goal protecting 10% planet’s surface

• International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN): Sub-Saharan Africa - % protected areas• Botswana – 30%• Namibia -14%• South Africa – 6%• Zambia – 41%• Zimbabwe 16%

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South Africa

• 6.06% land in protected areas (2008)• 17 million ha in private game ranches (1999)

• 2.2 X protected areas• 3 X amount of land needed to reach goal of 10%

• Why?• Land tenureship• Ownership of animals (domestic and wild)• Direct benefit (aesthetically, monetary, etc)

If it Pays it Stays• Springbok R20/kg (R5/kg costs)• Impala/kudu R18.50 (R4.50/kg)• Other R12.50/kg

• Remember: game ranch supports one family – handed over to 100 families – will not create a middleclass!

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South Africa - Game farming

• Potential size of Industry• 5 000 game farms• 4 000 mixed livestock-game farms• 20% of surface area

• 2000• R713 million from 5061 game farms

• R68.89 per ha• Products (R843m in 2000)

• Live sales R180m (21.4%)• Biltong R450m (53.4%)• International trophy R153m (18.1%)• Ecotourism R40m (4.7%)• Meat R20m (2.4%)• Additional R130m

• Prof hunting fee R50m• Game capture R40m• State fee R30m• Meat processing R10m

Namibia

• Regulated by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism through the Nature Conservation Ordinance no. 4 of 1975 as amended

• Freehold farmers have had ownership rights over land and livestock since the early 1900’s, • although the commercial rights over wildlife and indigenous

plants only given in 1967

• Farmers in communal areas received the same rights much later (1996 and 2001) when policies were adopted to promote community based natural resource management

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Namibia

• Two million head of game • a figure roughly similar to those for cattle, for sheep and for

goats.

• 90% of the wildlife is located outside formally proclaimed conservation areas.

• More than 80% of the larger game species are found on privately owned farms which comprise about 44% of the surface area of the country.

• 41% of country under some form of wildlife management

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Namibia

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Namibia: Numbers of harvestable species

AreasRed

hartebeestHartmann's

Zebra Kudu Gemsbok SpringbokTotal wildlife 137 098 72 807 381 511 399 464 749 090

Total south of veterinary cordon fence

137 098 70 107 381 171 389 264 726 090

Freehold 137 098 67 407 378 571 383 764 684 353

Communal 0 2 800 2 600 5 500 42 350

0% 4.00% 0.70% 1.40% 5.80%

Total north of veterinary cordon fence

- 2 700 340 10 200 23 000

0% 3.70% 0% 2.50% 3.10%

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Kenya

• Group ownership of land• But not ownership of game

• Lease/sell for wheat production

• Result• 56% decline in wildlife in most species past 20 yrs• White-bearded wildebeest – 81% decline (1977-1997)• Cape Buffalo – 15 400 (1970s) - 3 000 (1994)• Eland – 5 700 (1980s) – 1 025 (1996)• Warthog – 88% (1988 – 1986)• Giraffe – 72% (1988 -1986)

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General comments

• Commercial utilization of game in South Africa and Namibia↑ growth during the last 20-25 years

• Game farmers now play a key role in the conservation of many game species

• Capture and sale → very lucrative business worth millions of Rands• 2008

• 9 139 animals sold for R111 478 250

• Scarce and exotic species → ↑ prices • Zambia sable fetches R3 million• Rhino farmed for horns

• “common” species • marketed in an alternative way

• Live auctions,• Hunting: trophy – recreational• Meat production

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Background

• Tourism → growing lucrative industry• unspoilt habitat• African experience – eat game meat

• Safari kebab

• Appearance maintained• removal surplus animals

• Predators• Recreational hunting

• Trophy• Biltong

• Live auctions• Cropped

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Predators

• Not always suitable• How many animals would a

pride of five Lion eat per week? Lehman et al 2008, SA J Wild Res 38(1), 66-78

• Do not always capture cheap species

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What is the most economical?

• Trophy hunting• Recreational hunting• Game harvesting• Live auctions

• Berry 1984• Net return

trophy hunting > live animal sales > non-trophy recreational sales > venison prod

• Index ⇒ number animals involvedvenison > live animal sales > non-trophy recreational hunting >

trophy hunting

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Trophy hunting

• A good option• Requires high infrastructue and costs

• Lodgng• Honest professional hunter• Sufficient numbers of trophy quality

animals• Not all animals are trophies

• Meat secondary product – not always suitable for quality meat products

• Trophy haunting industry R262 763 202

• Potential of trophy hunting to create incentives for wildlife conservation in Africa where alternative wildlife-based land uses may not be viable Animal Conservation by Lindsey

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Trophy Hunting

• Reputation• Fair deal• Value for Money• Roland Ward

• Where get Trophy?• Buy in

• Ethics• Black & Blue Wildebeest crosses• Canned Lion

• Hormones• Is the client always right?

• I will kill the animal no matter what• Money buys anything and everything

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Trophy Hunting

• Not all animals are Trophy status!• 2%

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Live Game Auctions

• Capture team• Expensive species – dart individual animals

• Nets• Boma• Hand• Vet present

• Boma Holding facilities• Transport• Insurance

• White muscle capture myopathy

• Auction• Live• Catalogue

Buffalo shoulder showing white muscle capture myopathy - scoline

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Holding facilities

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Holding facilities

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Holding facilities

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Production systems

• Potential meat production from African game species long known• Trophy hunters• Biltong• Export

• Biltong hunting (2004)• 200 000 hunters in RSA

• Average hunter spends R4 130 on hunt & R11 622 on game (5 animals per hunter; 1 000 000 per season)

• Total of R3 150 474 000 per annum

Consumer – attitudes towards Game meat

• Most probably a tourist• High level of education• Successful business man• Willing to try new things• “Africa experience”

• Perception of Game meat• Harvested in an ethically manner• Harvested sustainably & eco-friendly• Perception of a low carbon footprint

• But expects:• Harvested and processed – first world technology• Meat safe• Contains no residues• Wholesome• Nutritious

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South African/ Namibian local consumer –attitudes towards Game meat

• Most probably has eaten game meat before – from hunting• SLOPs & Black Diamonds

• Expect lower quality than traditional red meat species• Will not pay more• Consistent quality

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What are the game meat quality attributes?

• Same as for traditional farmed species• Physical quality

• Colour• Toughness• Sensory attributes• Shelf-life

• Chemical composition• Residues• Microbiology

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What influences the quality of meat?

• Same as for traditional farmed species• Age effect• Gender effect• Pre-rigor treatment

• Method of harvesting• Post-rigor treatment

• Microbiological• Cooling• Further processing

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Healthiness

• Dietary fat• 15-30% total calorie-intake• Saturated fat <10%; >5%

• Red meat erroneously associated with obesity• However game meat perceived to have health benefits

• Tourists• 300 local game meat consumers

• Healthiness (25%)• Leanness (23%)• Taste (14%)• Health benefits – low fat (83%)

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Fatty acid Kudu Blesbok Springbok Impala Red hartebeest

Black wildebeest

Mountain reedbuck

Warthog Buffalo Zebra

Total Fat 1.58 0.76 1.07 - 4.69 0.97 2.94 - - -

SFA 35.93 42.33 40.35 38.11 56.18 40.97 38.55 35.8 38.78 34.12

MUFA 20.48 18.51 16.67 20.15 28.1 15.33 17.23 16.7 31.61 22.91

PUFA 43.59 40.96 31.59 41.74 32.41 44.27 42.99 47.6 29.32 42.96

PUFA:SFA 1.23 0.97 0.79 1.10 0.58 1.01 1.15 1.33 0.76 1.26

(n-6)/(n-3) 2.29 3.62 3.28 - 2.75 2.82 2.07 - - -

Cholesterol (mg.100 g-1

meat sample) - 51.38 56.9 - 50.9 46.05 51.08 - - -

Mean total fat (%), fatty acid composition (%) and total cholesterol content (mg.100 g-1) of the M. longissimus dorsi of the common duiker, kudu, blesbok, springbok, impala, red hartebeest, black wildebeest, blue wildebeest, warthog, buttalo and zebra.

PUFA:SFA > 0.4n-6:n-3 < 4.0

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Cropping of Game

• Humanity• Economy• Efficiency• Low wounding

percentages• Low disturbance &

scattering• Form large herds• Terrain

• Selectivity of correct ages & sexes

• Minimal damage to meat• Ability to bleed carcasses• No association with

humans

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Game species suitable for harvesting

• Requirements• Sustainability:

• Numbers – population dynamics• Reproductive efficiency

• Habitat• Suitability

• Suitability to night cropping• Kudu / springbok / impala

• Yield

• Consistent• Quality

Commercial harvesting

• 3 major game meat exporters in South Africa• Also export ostrich

• 3 major game meat exporters in Namibia

• Very well established export procedures• Farms registered• Culling teams registered• HACCP

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Guidelines for theHarvesting of Game

for Meat Export2010

D L van Schalkwyk & LC HoffmanWith special input from M Y Hemberger and K Magwedere

South African Game Meat Export 2009

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Total Abattoir Slaughter Numbers

Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec TotalSpringbok 2397 8967 14920 10649 7590 8250 3378 2671 1193 3063 63078Blesbok 64 209 3638 1315 1045 239 241 573 121 35 7480Deer 8 20 27 11 66Gemsbok 1 60 78 239 44 16 12 15 465Ribbok 6 5 11Kudu 1 79 28 11 312 91 217 266 166 199 1370Red Hartebeest 1 23 109 34 69 15 251Zebra 19 28 47 25 51 33 9 212Impala 17 80 130 319 54 8 114 50 234 1006Eland 15 63 45 31 31 185Black Wildebeest 13 20 281 178 77 131 631 74 57 20 1482Blue wildebeest 1 79 65 279 38 4 1 62 529

MonthlyTotal 2475 9295 19149 12634 9987 8833 4608 3842 1675 3637 76135

Weight of carcasses = 1 648 tWeight exported = 417 t

100 yrs ago there were only 550 animals left –farmers saved and started farming

Only antelope species that has shown an increase in numbers the past few years

Namibia Game Meat Export 2009

• FMM Mariental Abattoir - 68 tons (5 containers) to Belgium de-boned meat cuts

• Brukarros Meat Processors - 16.8 tons to EU (1 container) de-boned meat cuts 1.5 tons to RSA - trimmings

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Legislation …

• Extensive regulations • export of meat, including meat safety• packaging regulations• hygiene inspection regulations• harvesting methods, etc

• Summed up: South African Standard for the Export of Game Meat (National Department of Agriculture, 2001)

Consumer expects ethically acceptable harvesting procedures

Terrain determines harvesting procedure• Open veldt

• Night

• Mountain• Day• Helicopter

• Bush• Night• Boma

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Karoo / grassveld

• Day shooting from a vehicle?• Distance• Firing rate?• Meat quality

• Helicopter (day)?• Expensive• Meat quality• Eastern Cape

• Night shooting?• Efficient• Meat quality maintained• Veld depot required

• Lights• Warm water

• Some work being published on day and night cropping

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How does it work?

• Game harvesting team• An approved vehicle, methods, etc.

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SA Standard …

• Game depot• Approved specifications

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SA Standard …

• Game depot• Health inspection

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SA Standard …

• Game depots• Carcasses sealed in cool truck

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SA Standard …

• Game depots• Transported to the deboning facility• Normal legislation applicable

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Game processing

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Marketing

• Exported• Up market• Healthy

Mountainous terrain

• Difficult to access• Helicopter

• Expensive• Meat quality

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Damage to carcasses

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Bushveld

• Drive at night with spotlight• Game animal blinded

• Shot

• Bush too dense• Only animals along path / road• Slow rate of off-take

• Boma

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Bushveld

• Larger species

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Bushveld: Boma (information supplied by Dr T Bergh)

• How does it work?• <07h00: Helicopter chases game into the Boma: 10-

30 min• Game kept

• Overnight• 30 min• Boma full: start culling immediately

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Boma

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Buffalo in boma

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Bushveld

• How does it work?• Groups of ± 10 animals

into death acre(10x5 m)• .22 with silencer shot from

above• Firing: 60-90 secs• Animals removed – hooked

onto truck• Truck moves 30 m and

then animals exsanguinated• Process completed within

10 min

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Bushveld

• Carcasses transported to veld depot

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Bushveld

• Carcasses are degutted and inspected

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Bushveld

• Carcasses loaded into cool trucks

Chemical and Physical Quality

• Quantified for the longissimus dorsi muscle of the following species:• Springbok• Blesbok• Kudu• Black and blue wildebeest• Gemsbok• Hartebees• Warthog• Eland• Mountain reedbuck• Duiker

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And?

• Very slight gender differences • Data skew?

• Species differ• Muscle fibre types

• Diet has an effect on fatty acid composition• Impala: Mussina vs Mara Research station

• Initial results indicate differences between muscles• Need more info

• Seasonal effects?

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Ante and post mortem procedures

• Most game meat removed as individual muscle• Vacuum packed, frozen• Exported into Europe• Defrosted• Sliced into steaks and packed for retail

• Modified atmospheric package

• Problems with freezing and defrosting

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• Game meat hygiene• Quantification of harvesting techniques on meat quality

• Species specific

• Chilling and transporting procedures• Electrical stimulation?

• Processing• Modified atmospheric packaging• Freezing and defrosting rates• Salami• Traditional

• Biltong• Boere wors (dried sausage)• Re-constructured steaks

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Threats: Bushmeat

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Source: DeGeorges & Reilly, 2009

Other areas that we require knowledge for

• Consumer trends• National• International

• Residues in meat• Namibia bush encroachment?

• What can RSA harvest on an annual sustainable basis?

• Namibia: PhD student “Investigating game meat potential of Namibia”

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Conclusion

• Game farming is here to stay• Game meat production (thus numbers) will continue to increase

• Maintain the image of free-range

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GalenGalen GreekGreek physicianphysician

EAT RED FOOD AND RED LIQUIDS

Urged all young men to

MORE SANGUINE, CHEERFUL and CONFIDENT

To become

Second Century

game: more than just meat

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