ROPES AND KNOTS

FVCC Fire Rescue

LIFE SAFETY & UTILITY ROPE APPLICATIONSLife Safety

Used solely to support rescuers/victimsMust be synthetic, block creel, virgin fiberMay not be reused unless meets all reuse

criteriaUtility

Used for any but life safety applicationsMay be synthetic or natural fiberMay be reused

TS 6–1

CRITERIA FOR REUSING LIFE SAFETY ROPEHas no visible damage

Has never been exposed to heat, flame, or abrasion

Has never been subjected to any impact load

Has never been exposed to harmful chemical liquids, solids, gases, mists, or vapors

Passes inspection before and after each use

TS 6–2

Homework Distinguish between life safety and utility rope applications. Mark “A” for life safety applications or “B” for utility rope applications.1. __ Pulling someone from the water2. __ SCBA guide rope3. __ Tag line4. __ Securing backpack assembly to confined space rescuer's harness when rescuer cannot enter space wearing standard SCBA5. __ Securing a victim in a Stokes basket6. __ Cordoning off an area7. __ Hanging a salvage cover to dry8. __ Hoisting a tool or piece of equipment9. __ Safety harness tie-in during confined space entry10. __ Securing a charged hose to a ladder11. __ Drying clothes12. __ Lowering a victim from a building during training exercise13. __ Rappelling14. __ Roping off an area15. __ Stabilizing a vehicle for extrication

ROPE TERMINOLOGYVS 6-1

Strand Yarns Fibers

Sheath or Jacket Core

Mantle Kern

ROPE CONSTRUCTIONVS 6-2

Laid (Twisted) Braided

Braid-on-Braid

Static Kernmantle Dynamic Kernmantle

Homework Match rope materials to their descriptions. Write the correct letters on the

blanks. 16. Strong, hard fiber from the abaca plant; type #1 best for rope and identified

by a colored string twisted into the fibers; short, non-continuous strands provide poor tensile strength

17. Synthetic rope with three to three and one-half times the tensile strength of manila, but may lose up to 15 percent of its strength when wet; stretches under load so is not suitable for vehicle stabilization or similar applications

18. Synthetic fiber sometimes known as Dacron®; particularly suitable to high-strength, low-stretch applications such as vehicle stabilization; very susceptible to damage by alkalis

19. Very lightweight synthetic rope used for water rescue because it absorbs no water and floats; difficult fiber to secure into solid knots and hitchesa. Manila

b. Nylonc. Polyethylened. Polyester

Homework Match rope materials to their descriptions. Write the correct

letters on the blanks. 20. Same synthetic fiber as that used in bulletproof vests; also

known as Kevlar®; easily damaged by abrasion so must be sheathed in polyester or nylon; very difficult to knot

21. Soft, pliable natural fiber; generally white or light colored; most susceptible to physical abrasion and damage of all natural fiber ropes

22. New synthetic fiber with a high molecular weight; strongest of the synthetic rope fibers; also known as H. Spectra®

23. Very lightweight fiber from same synthetic family as polypropylene; surface has slick, oily feel; can be manufactured in bright colors for good visibilitya. Gel spun polyethylene

b. Cottonc. Polypropylened. Aramid

NATURAL FIBER ROPETypes

ManilaSisalCotton

Used for many years

Is no longer accepted for life safety applications

TS 6–3

SYNTHETIC ROPETypes

NylonPolypropylenePolyesterPolyethylene

Preferable to natural fiber rope

Excellent resistance to mildew and rotting

Excellent strength

TS 6–4

Aramid

Gel spun polyethylene (H. Spectra®)

DYNAMIC (HIGH STRETCH) ROPE Used when long falls are a possibility

Designed for high stretch without breaking

Not considered practical for hauling applications

TS 6–5

STATIC (LOW STRETCH) ROPE Preferred for rescues requiring raising and

lowering heavy loads

Designed for low stretch without breaking

Used for hauling, rescue, rappelling, and where no falls are likely to occur or only very short falls are possible

TS 6–6

LAID (TWISTED) ROPE CONSTRUCTION

Constructed by twisting yarns together to form strands; three strands twisted together make final rope

Susceptible to abrasion and other types of physical damage

TS 6–7

BRAIDED ROPE CONSTRUCTION Is constructed of uniformly intertwined

strands

Reduces or eliminates twisting common to laid ropes

Is subject to direct abrasion and damage

TS 6–8

BRAID-ON-BRAID (DOUBLE BRAID) ROPE CONSTRUCTION

Is constructed with both a braided core and a braided sheath

Is very strong

Does not resist abrasion as well as kernmantle; sheath may slide along the inner core of the rope

TS 6–9

KERNMANTLE ROPE CONSTRUCTION Has braided covering or sheath over main

load-bearing strands

Comes in both dynamic and static types

TS 6–10

Homework Select facts about rope construction. Write the correct

letters on the blanks.

23. What type of rope construction is illustrated above?a. Laid b. Braided c. Braid-on-braid d. Kernmantle24. Firefighter A says that static rope stretches very little.

Firefighter B says that dynamic lines stretch more than static lines under weight and shock loads.Who is right?

a. Firefighter A b. Firefighter B c. Both A and B d. Neither A nor B25. Why is static rope preferred for rescue work?a. Its elasticity absorbs the weight of a fallb. It has a low stretch factorc. It has a high stretch factord. It stretches more than dynamic rope under weight and shock loads

Homework26. What statement below is true in regard to laid (twisted) rope

construction?a. The tightness of the lay (twist) determines the rope’s properties.b. Generally six strands are twisted together to make the final rope.c. Twisted rope is resistant to abrasion and other types of physical

damage.d. Twisted rope is difficult to inspect.27. What type of rope construction is illustrated below? a. Laidb. Braidedc. Braid-on-braidd. Kernmantle28. Firefighter A says that braided rope eliminates the twisting

common to laid ropes.Firefighter B says that braided rope is constructed mostly of natural fibers though some are made from synthetic fibers.Who is right?

a. Firefighter A b. Firefighter B c. Both A and B d. Neither A nor B

Homework29. What type of rope construction is illustrated below?

a. Laidb. Braidedc. Braid-on-braidd. Kernmantle30. How many strands are there generally in a laid rope?a. Seven b. Five c. Three d. Two31. Which of the following ropes possesses half its strength

in its sheath and the other half in its core?a. Laid b. Braided c. Braid-on-braid d. Kernmantle

Homework32. Which type of rope construction is also called twisted

construction?a. Kernmantle b. Braided c. Laid d. Woven33. Which of the following ropes possesses three-quarters

of its strength in its core and the remaining quarter in its sheath?

a. Laid b. Braidedc. Braid-on-braid d. Kernmantle34. Which rope construction is most easily inspected, but

also most susceptible to physical damage?a. Braided b. Laidc. Braid-on-braid d. Kernmantle

Homework35. Which of the following is the most commonly used

rescue rope?a. Dynamic braid-on-braid b. Static braid-on-braidc. Dynamic kernmantle d. Static kernmantle36. What type of rope construction is illustrated below?a. Laid c. Braid-on-braidb. Braided d. Kernmantle

ROPE CARE & MAINTENANCE Number or otherwise identify all ropes.

Inspect after each use.

Make periodic inspections.

Use approved inspection methods.

Immediately red-label rope damaged on scene.

Keep a rope logbook.

Remove used life safety rope from service per manufacturer’s criteria.

TS 6–11

REASONS TO REMOVE ROPE FROM SERVICE

Excessive sheath wear

Severely shock loaded

Overloaded

Chemically contaminated

Old

TS 6–12

• Lacks uniform diameter

• Lacks uniform texture

• Does not meet manufacturer’s criteria for reuse as life safety rope

GUIDELINES FORINSPECTING ROPE Inspect visually and tactilely after each use.

Remove damaged rope from service.

Inspect for flaws and damage specific to rope type.

TS 6–13

INSPECTING LAID ROPE Look for . . .

Soft, crusty, stiff or brittle spots

Cuts

Nicks

Abrasions

Internal mildew

TS 6–14

INSPECTING BRAIDED ROPE Look for . . .

Heat sears

Nicks

Cuts

Excess or unusual fuzziness

TS 6–15

INSPECTING BRAID-ON-BRAID ROPE

Look for . . .

Heat sears

Nicks

Cuts

Lumps that indicate core damage

Sliding sheath

TS 6–16

INSPECTING KERNMANTLE ROPELook for . . .

LumpsDepressions Soft spotsIrregularities in shape

or weaveFoul smells

TS 6–17

• Discoloration

• Roughness

• Abrasions

• Fuzziness

MAINTAINING A ROPE LOGBOOKStart record with purchase of each piece of

rescue rope.

Keep track of each use and the inspection/ maintenance records of the rope.

Keep log in waterproof envelope.e

The rope log is usually placed in a pocket sewn on the side of the rope’s storage bag.

TS 6–18

CLEANING NATURAL FIBER ROPES

Do not use water; ropes cannot be cleaned effectively.

Wipe or gently brush to remove as much dirt and grit as possible.

TS 6–19

CLEANING SYNTHETIC ROPEBY HAND

Use cool water and mild soap (no detergents, bleaches, or solvent-based cleaners).

Wipe with damp cloth that has been dipped in cool soapy water and then wrung out, or scrub gently with brush.

Rinse thoroughly.

Dry out of direct sunlight.

TS 6–20

CLEANING SYNTHETIC ROPEIN ROPE WASHER

Use cool water.

Feed through washer to remove larger particles of dirt.

Remove stubborn dirt by hand with cloth or scrub brush.

Dry thoroughly out of direct sunlight.

TS 6–21

CLEANING SYNTHETIC ROPEIN CLOTHES WASHING MACHINE

Use a front-loading, tumbling-type machine without a plastic window.

Place rope in cloth bag in bird's-nest coil.

Wash and rinse in cool water for recommended period of time.

TS 6–22

• Use mild soaps (no detergents, bleaches, or solvent-based cleaners), and follow mfgr.’s directions.

• Dry thoroughly out of direct sunlight.

• Contact the rope mfg. for special cleaning problems.

ROPE DRYING METHODSSpread out on a hose rack out of sunlight

Suspended in a hose tower

Loosely coiled in a hose dryer

TS 6–23

LIFE SAFETY ROPE STORAGEIn clean, dry spaces that have adequate

ventilation

Coiled

In bagBest for kernmantle rope and other life safety

rope

Allows easy carrying; keeps dirt and grime from rope

TS 6–24

COILING ROPEVS 6-3

1 2

3 4

BAGGING ROPEVS 6-4

Homework Select facts about rope cleaning and storage. Write the

correct letters on the blanks.37. How should natural fiber ropes be cleaned?a. In cool water with a brushb. By wiping or gently brushingc. By coiling in a cloth bag and washing in a clothes washing machined. By feeding through a rope washer38. Which of the following is not an approved method of drying rope?a. Air dryingb. Drying in a hose tower or on hose racksc. Drying in a clothes dryerd. Looping over clothesline and drying in the sun39. What water temperature should be selected when using a clothes

washer to clean rope?a. Warm b. Hot c. Cold d. Any of the above

Homework40. What type of machine should be used for

washing ropes in a clothes washing machine?a. Front-loading b. Commercial c. Top-loading d.

Heavy-duty41. What type of cleaning agent should be

used for cleaning rope?a. Bleachb. Solvent-based cleanerc. Soap d. Detergent42. What should the water temperature be for

cleaning a rope with a rope washer?a. Warm b. Coldc Hot d. Any of the above

GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT KNOTS

The ability to tie knots is a vital part of fire and rescue operations.

Synthetic rope material has changed methods of selecting and tying knots:Manila and other natural fiber ropes are no

longer considered safe for life safety use.Synthetic rope is slick and may slide under

load, so it requires an overhand or half hitch safety knot on the working end.

The bends in knots weaken rope: outside fibers are stretched; inside fibers are bent or crushed.

TS 6–25

DESIRABLE KNOT ELEMENTSEasy to tieEasy to identifyEasy to untieSecure under load (not subject to slippage)Tied with few abrupt bendsStrong enough for required job

TS 6–26

ELEMENTS OF A KNOT IVS 6-5

Bight

Underhand Loop

Loop

Round Turn Overhand

Loop

ELEMENTS OF A KNOT IIVS 6-6

Working End

Standing Part

Running End

KNOT TERMS Working end — Used for forming knot

Standing part — Between working and running ends

Running end — Used to hoist, pull, belay, etc.

Bight — Loop that does not cross over itself

Loop — Side of bight crossed over or under standing part

Round turn — End of rope continued around top of loop until standing lengths are parallel

TS 6–27

PRIMARY KNOT APPLICATIONSOverhand knot

A foundation knot for beginning other knotsA safety knot or backup to secure other knots

(particularly those of synthetic rope) to prevent the working end from slipping back through the knot and causing it to fail

Half hitchHoisting toolsStabilizing tall objects

TS 6–28a

PRIMARY KNOT APPLICATIONS (cont.)Bowline — Various utility and life safety

(rope rescue harness) applicationsClove hitch

Attaching ropes to objectsHoisting (with overhand knot)

Figure-eight — Foundation knot for other knots in family

Figure-eight follow through — Joining ropes of equal diameters

TS 6–28b

PRIMARY KNOT APPLICATIONS (cont.)Figure-eight on a bight — Securing a loop in

middle or end of a rope for a safety line, safety harness, litter and rescue equipment, anchor lines

Double-loop figure-eight — Constructing a rope rescue harness

Becket bend (sheet bend)Joining ropes of unequal diameterJoining rope to chain

TS 6–28c

HALF HITCH & OVERHAND SAFETY

VS 6-7

1

2

3

Overhand SafetyTwo Half Hitches

BOWLINE VS 6-8

1 2

3 4

BOWLINE KNOTIs used to form a loop that will not constrict

the object it is placed around

Is untied easily

Shares degree of acceptability in both life safety and utility applications

TS 6–29

CLOVE HITCH IN OPENVS 6-9

1 2

3 4

CLOVE HITCH AROUND OBJECTVS 6-10

21 3

CLOVE HITCHIs easily formed of two half hitches

May be used with overhand safety knot for hoisting tools and equipment

May be formed anywhere on the rope

Withstands pull in either direction without slipping, when properly tied

TS 6–30

FIGURE-EIGHT VS 6-11

1 2 3 4

FIGURE-EIGHT FOLLOW THROUGH

VS 6-12

1 2 3

FIGURE-EIGHT FOLLOW THROUGH AROUND OBJECT

VS 6-13

1 2

3 4

FIRGURE-EIGHT ON A BIGHTVS 6-14

1 2 3

DOUBLE-LOOP FIGURE-EIGHTVS 6-15

1 2 3 4

FIGURE-EIGHT KNOTHas replaced the bowline since the

introduction of synthetic rope

Is not as likely as the bowline to damage the rope

Is stronger than the bowline

Is an easy knot to tie, untie, inspect, and keep neat

TS 6–31

BECKET BEND OR SHEET BEND

VS 6-16

1 2

3 4

BECKET BEND (SHEET BEND)Is not likely to slip when the rope is wet

Is dependable and useful for fire service utility applications

TS 6–32

HomeworkVS 6-5

a. Bight b. Loop c. Overhand Loop d. Round Turn e. Underhand Loop

43.

47.

46.

44.

45.

Homework

a. Running End

b. Standing Part

c. Working End 50.

49.

48.

Homework Match knots to their primary

applications. Write the correct letters on the blanks.

51. __ Joining ropes of unequal diameters, joining rope to chain

52. __ Joining ropes of equal diameters53. __ Securing a loop in a rope for a

safety line, safety harness, litter and rescue equipment, anchor lines

54. __ Foundation knot for other knots in family

55. __ Safety backup

a. Overhand knotb. Figure-eightc. Becket bend or sheet bendd. Figure-eight on a bighte. Figure-eight follow through

Homework

56. Attaching ropes to objects; hoisting (with overhand knot)

57. Forming a loop that will not constrict the object it is placed around

58. Constructing rope rescue harnesses when webbing harness is unavailable

59. Hoisting tools; stabilizing tall objects

a. Bowlineb. Clove hitchc. Half hitchd. Double-loop figure-eight

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS BEFORE HOISTING

Plan carefully, and complete all preparations.

Ensure solid footing.

Choose an area clear of electrical hazards if possible.

Know that pressurized cylinders such as SCBA bottles and fire extinguishers should NOT be hoisted.

TS 6–33

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS DURING HOISTING

Use hand-over-hand method to control rope.

Use edge rollers to protect rope pulled over sharp edges.

Work in teams when working from heights.

Look to ensure all personnel are clear of hoisting area.

Use extreme caution if you must work near electrical hazards.

TS 6–34a

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS DURING HOISTING (cont.)

Secure nozzle handle on charged lines to prevent accidental discharge.

Use a tag line as necessary to prevent equipment from contacting building or other objects.

Secure knots with overhand safety knots as appropriate.

TS 6–34b

HOISTING A LADDERVS 6-17

1 3

2

HOISTING A LADDERUse bowline or figure-eight on a bight.

Place knot through two rungs of ladder about one-third down from top.

Place loop over top of ladder.

TS 6–35

HOISTING HOSELINESVS 6-18

Charged LineDry Line

HOISTING TOOLS & EQUIPMENT

VS 6-19

Pike Pole

Axe

Portable Fan

Half Hitch

Half Hitch

Half Hitch

CloveHitch

CloveHitch

WorkingEnd

Tag Line

Bowline

TagLine