future trends - recycling - metals - part iii

FUTURE TRENDS – RECYCLING – METALS – PART III

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An even bigger future problem for the U.S. than oil and gas is the reliance on imports for critical to U.S. manufacturing metals and compounds. The following is a list of all metals in common manufacturing use at present:

Common Metals (See Figure 1, “Periodic Table of Known Elements”)

Red means 100% net import reliance or extremely important to U.S, industry. Orange means greater than 30% net import reliance. Department of Defense (DOD) Stockpiled Element or Page % Net Import Most Important Top Importer Critical Compound No. Reliance Uses (2011-2014 Unless Noted) SEE PART II FOR BEGINNING Nickel 3 37 Steel and Non-steel alloys Canada (40%) Niobium 6 100 Steel and Non-steel alloys Total Imports – Brazil (82%) Palladium 7 58 Catalysts for chemical reactions Russia & South Africa (24% including catalytic converters each) Potassium 10 84 Fertilizers Canada (84%) Platinum 13 90 Catalysts for chemical reactions South Africa (18%) including catalytic converters Osmium 14 ? Tips of fountain pens ? Rhodium 15 ? Catalysts for chemical reactions ? including catalytic converters Rhenium 16 79 Components of jet engines Metal powder – Chile (87%) Ammonium perrhenate – Kazakhstan (43%) Ruthenium 19 ? Electrical contacts ? Selenium 20 0 Glassmaking and pigments Japan (21%) Silicon 23 38 Aluminum and aluminum alloys, Ferrosilicon – Russia (42%) steel refining, and silicon carbide Metal – Brazil (32%) Total – Russia (28%) Silicon Carbide 25 77 Many where hardness and abrasion Crude - China (60%) Resistance is required Grain – China (42%) Silver 27 72 Electrical & Electronics Mexico (54%) Sodium 30 0 Various sodium compounds Salt – Chile (37%) Soda Ash – Canada (87%) Sodium Sulfate – Germany (30%) Steel (Carbon Steel, 35 25 Structural steel, pipe, equipment, New Steel - Canada (14%) Stainless Steel) appliances, and automobiles Steel Scrap – Canada (79%) Steel Slag – Canada (35%) Tantalum 43 100 Electronics Minerals – Brazil (40%) Metal – China (29%) Waste/Scrap – Estonia (21%) Contained in other metals – China (18%) Tellurium 45 >80% Cadmium-zinc-telluride solar cells Canada (59%) Tin 48 75 Cans and Containers & Chemicals Peru (37%) Titanium 51 68 Aerospace Alloys Sponge Metal - Japan (59%) 91 Titanium Dioxide Ti Minerals – South Africa (31%) Tungsten 55 49 Wear resistant materials & China (40%) military penetrating projectiles


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Element or Page % Net Import Most Important Top Importer Critical Compound No. Reliance Uses (2011-2014 Unless Noted) Tungsten Carbide 58 ? Wear resistant parts China Quartz Crystal 59 100 Electronics China Uranium 60 ? Nuclear Reactors Kazakhstan Vanadium 66 100 Alloying agent for iron and steel Ferrovanadium – Czech Republic (43%) Vanadium Pentoxide – South Africa (40%) Zinc 70 82 Galvanized Steel Total – Canada (64%) Zirconium 74 <25 Nuclear Industry Mineral Conc. – South Africa (64%) Unwrought – China (44%) Hafnium – France (47%) Miscellanous High 76 100 Electronics Sheet Mica – India (54%) Imports Hydrofluoric Acid Fluorspar – Mexico (76%) A List of All Rare Earth Elements in Manufacturing Use (Page 81) Atomic No. Element Symbol Use

21 Scandium Sc Aerospace framework, high-intensity street lamps, high performance equipment 39 Yttrium Y TV sets, cancer treatment drugs, enhances strength of alloys 57 Lanthanum La Camera lenses, battery-electrodes, hydrogen storage 58 Cerium Ce Catalytic converters, colored glasses, steel production 59 Praseodymium Pr Super strong magnets, welding goggles, lasers 60 Neodymium Nd Extremely strong permanent magnets, microphones, electric motors of hybrid automobiles, lasers 62 Samarium Sm Cancer treatment, nuclear reactor control rods, X-ray lasers 63 Europium Eu Color TV screens, fluorescent glass, genetic screening tests 64 Gadolinium Gd Shielding in nuclear reactors, nuclear marine propulsion, increases in durability of alloys 65 Terbium Tb TV sets, fuel cells, sonar systems 66 Dysprosium Dy Commercial lighting, hard disk devices, transducers 67 Holmium Ho Lasers, glass coloring, high-strength magnets 68 Erbium Er Glass coloring, signal amplification of fiber optic cables, metallurgical uses 69 Thulium Tm High efficiency lasers, portable X-ray machines, high temperature superconductors 70 Ytterbium Yb Improves stainless steel, lasers, ground monitoring devices 71 Lutetium Lu Refining petroleum, LED light bulbs, integrated circuits DOD Stockpiling Materials as of 2016 Go to “Future Trends – Recycling – Metals – Part I”. Figure No. Page No. Title 1 85 Periodic Table of Known Elements 2 86 Top U.S. Silver Mines 3 87 Silver Production/Consumption and Net Trade 4 88 Steel Production in the United States


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Figure No. Page No. Title 5 89 Overall Steel Recycling Rate Through 2013 6 90 Imports of Stainless Steel into the United States 7 91 Top U.S. Zinc Mines 8 92 Rare Earth Metals Production Nickel Production

From USGS website: Nickel (Ni) is a transition element that exhibits a mixture of ferrous and nonferrous metal properties. It is both siderophile (i.e., associates with iron) and chalcophile (i.e., associates with sulfur). The bulk of the nickel mined comes from two types of ore deposits: laterites where the principal ore minerals are nickeliferous limonite [(Fe, Ni)O(OH)] and garnierite (a hydrous nickel silicate), ormagmatic sulfide deposits where the principal ore mineral is pentlandite [(Ni,Fe)9S8].

The ionic radius of divalent nickel is close to that of divalent iron and magnesium, allowing the three elements to substitute for one another in the crystal lattices of some silicates and oxides. Nickel sulfide deposits are generally associated with iron- and magnesium-rich rocks called ultramafics and can be found in both volcanic and plutonic settings. Many of the sulfide deposits occur at great depth. Laterites are formed by the weathering of ultramafic rocks and are a near-surface phenomenon. Most of the nickel on Earth is believed to be concentrated in the planet's core.

Nickel is primarily sold for first use as refined metal (cathode, powder, briquet, etc.) or ferronickel. About 65% of the nickel consumed in the Western World is used to make austenitic stainless steel. Another 12% goes into super alloys (e.g., Inconel 600) or nonferrous alloys (e.g., cupronickel). Both families of alloys are widely used because of their corrosion resistance. The aerospace industry is a leading consumer of nickel-base super alloys. Turbine blades, discs and other critical parts of jet engines are fabricated from super alloys. Nickel-base super alloys are also used in land-based combustion turbines, such those found at electric power generation stations. The remaining 23% of consumption is divided between alloy steels, rechargeable batteries, catalysts and other chemicals, coinage, foundry products, and plating. The principal commercial chemicals are the carbonate (NiCO3), chloride (NiCl2), divalent oxide (NiO), and sulfate (NiSO4). In aqueous solution, the divalent nickel ion has an emerald-green color.

From USGS report on nickel production:

Domestic Production and Use: The United States had only one active nickel mine—the underground Eagle Mine in Michigan. The new mine has been producing separate concentrates of chalcopyrite and pentlandite for export to Canadian and overseas smelters since April 2014. Three mining projects were in varying stages of development in northeastern Minnesota. The principal nickel-consuming State was Pennsylvania, followed by Kentucky, Illinois, New York, and North


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Carolina. Approximately 45% of the primary nickel consumed went into stainless and alloy steel production, 43% into nonferrous alloys and super alloys, 7% into electroplating, and 5% into other uses. End uses were as follows: transportation and defense, 34%; fabricated metal products, 20%; electrical equipment, 13%; chemical and petroleum industries, 7% each; construction, household appliances, and industrial machinery, 5% each; and other, 4%. The estimated value of apparent primary consumption was $1.57 billion.

Metric Tons (Production and Consumption):

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Production: Mine — — — 4,300 26,500 Refinery, byproduct ? ? ? ? ? Shipments of purchased scrap 132,000 130,000 125,000 114,000 142,000 Imports: Primary 138,000 133,000 126,000 156,000 134,000 Secondary 21,300 22,300 26,300 38,900 28,700 Exports: Primary 12,400 9,100 10,600 10,400 9,770 Secondary 64,800 59,800 61,200 56,400 51,500 Consumption: Reported, primary metal 110,000 114,000 114,000 141,000 148,000 Reported, secondary 88,800 92,400 89,600 93,800 102,000 Apparent, primary metal 125,000 125,000 110,000 146,000 124,000 Total 213,000 218,000 200,000 239,000 226,000 Price, average annual, London Metal Exchange: Cash, dollars per metric ton 22,890 17,533 15,018 16,865 12,635 Cash, dollars per pound 10.383 7.953 6.812 7.650 5.731 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 48 49 46 56 37 Recycling: In 2015,101,900 tons of nickel was recovered from purchased scrap in 2015. This represented about 45% of reported secondary plus apparent primary consumption for the year. Import Sources (2011–14): Canada, 40%; Australia, 10%; Russia, 10%; Norway, 8%; and other

World Resources: Identified land-based resources averaging 1% nickel or greater contain at least 130 million tons of nickel, with about 60% in laterites and 40% in sulfide deposits. Extensive nickel resources also are found in manganese crusts and nodules on the ocean floor. The decline in discovery of new sulfide deposits in traditional mining districts has led to exploration in more challenging locations such as east-central Africa and the Subarctic.


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Nickel Recycling

Nickel is almost important as manganese since it is a critical ingredient in corrosion resistant stainless steel and high alloy production. Luckily Canada and Australia are the two major importers. From Tectronics International website, “IS IT TIME TO RECYCLE MORE NICKEL?”, Written by Dr Tim Johnson, 2016:

Consequently, the demand for nickel across the whole range of applications has been increasing by around 5% per year since 2010 and looks set to continue this trend, significantly faster in fact than during the huge boom in nickel prices in the years leading up to the crash in metal prices in late 2007. When China’s manufacturing sector was booming, demand for nickel soared and nickel prices took off. High prices and high demand gave nickel mines a good reason to produce more. However, when the global economic crisis hit in 2008, supply outstripped demand and prices have collapsed to a level last seen in 2004.

But now, together with the growing demand, we see a shortfall in production. For example, lower output from the Philippines caused the global supply of mined nickel to fall by 5.3% during the first five months of 2016. Added to which, the enforced closure of a number of the country’s mines is forecast to cut its production capacity still further. Indeed, all nickel mining companies face a combination of persistent low metal prices and declining quality of ore. It is extraordinary to think that back in 1880, ores commonly contained over 10% nickel, whereas by 2010 ‘good quality’ ores were down to only 1% to 2% nickel…

Over the years, Tetronics’ DC plasma smelting technology has proved itself to be very adept at extracting nickel and other key metals such as chromium and molybdenum from dusts generated in the melting and production of stainless steel. Plants in Italy and the North of England have been processing these wastes for nearly 25 years, providing a source of these valuable metals back to their adjacent steel plants in place of metals extracted from mining operations. And for the last 10 years or so, Tetronics’ plasma smelting plants have been used for extracting precious metals from industrial catalysts and catalytic converters.

As the use of nickel as a catalyst in chemical processes is expanding, so these two strands of Tetronics’ experience have come together to produce a growing interest in the recovery of nickel from petrochemical catalysts. Whilst other major sources of nickel wastes, such as scrap stainless steel, are ideal for recycling directly back to the steel industry, petrochemical catalysts are both less plentiful and less-suited to this well-established recovery route. Meanwhile, other methods (often based on various types of wet chemistry) also have significant drawbacks, such as poor recovery rates or the generation of large quantities of other wastes. Instead, the highly compact, environmentally friendly and efficient nature of Tetronics’ DC plasma smelting plants makes them an obvious choice for this increasingly important niche secondary source of nickel.

From “Nickel Depletion and Recycling”, L. David Roper, July 2, 2016:

It appears that world-nickel extraction will peak before 2025.


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Industry better start doing something about this soon.

Niobium Production

From USGS website:

Niobium and columbium are synonymous names for the chemical element with atomic number 41; columbium was the name given in 1801, and niobium (Nb) was the name officially designated by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry in 1950. Niobium in the form of ferroniobium is used worldwide, mostly as an alloying element in steels and in super alloys. Appreciable amounts of niobium in the form of high-purity ferroniobium and nickel niobium are used in nickel-, cobalt-, and iron-base super alloys for such applications as jet engine components, rocket subassemblies, and heat-resisting and combustion equipment.

From USGS report on Niobium production:

Domestic Production and Use: Significant U.S. niobium mine production has not been reported since 1959. Domestic niobium resources are of low grade, some are mineralogically complex, and most are not commercially recoverable. Companies in the United States produced niobium-containing materials from imported niobium minerals, oxides, and ferroniobium. Niobium was consumed mostly in the form of ferroniobium by the steel industry and as niobium alloys and metal by the aerospace industry. Major end-use distribution of reported niobium consumption was as follows: steels, about 80%; and super alloys, about 20%. In 2015, the estimated value of niobium consumption was $400 million, as measured by the value of imports.


2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production, mine — — — — — Imports for consumption 19,520 10,100 8,580 11,100 8,900 Exports 1 363 385 435 1,110 1,300 Government stockpile Releases — — — — — Consumption:


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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Reported 9,060 7,460 7,500 8,210 7,700 Apparent 9,160 9,730 8,140 10,000 7,600 Unit value, ferroniobium, dollars per metric ton 41,825 43,658 43,415 42,000 42,000 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 100 100 100 100 100 Recycling: Niobium was recycled when niobium-bearing steels and super alloys were recycled; scrap recovery specifically for niobium content was negligible. The amount of niobium recycled is not available, but it may be as much as 20% of apparent consumption. Import Sources (2011–14):

Niobium ore and concentrate: Brazil, 39%; Rwanda, 16%; Canada, 10%; Australia, 10%; and other, 25%.

Niobium metal and oxide: Brazil, 83%; Canada, 12%; and other, 5%.

Total imports: Brazil, 82%; Canada, 13%; and other, 5%. Of the U.S. niobium material imports, 99% (by gross quantity) was ferroniobium and niobium metal and oxide.

World Resources: World resources of niobium are more than adequate to supply projected needs. Most of the world’s identified resources of niobium occur as pyrochlore in carbonatite (igneous rocks that contain more than 50%- by-volume carbonate minerals) deposits and are outside the United States. The United States has approximately 150,000 tons of niobium-identified resources, all of which were considered uneconomic at 2015 prices for niobium.

Niobium Recycling

Scrap recovery specifically for niobium is negligible. Eagle Metal Group, Exotech, H.C. Stark, Monico Alloys, Telex Metals, and Quest Metals advertise that they recycle niobium scrap. Quest Metals buys scrap jet turbine blades.

Palladium Production

From Wikipedia:

Palladium is a chemical element with symbol Pd and atomic number 46. It is a rare and lustrous silvery-white metal discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston. He named it after the asteroid Pallas, which was itself named after the epithet of the Greek goddess Athena, acquired by her when she slew Pallas. Palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium and osmium form a group of elements referred to as the platinum group metals (PGMs). These have similar chemical properties, but palladium has the lowest melting point and is the least dense of them.


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More than half the supply of palladium and its congener platinum is used in catalytic converters, which convert as much as 90% of the harmful gases in automobile exhaust (hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide) into less noxious substances (nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapor). Palladium is also used in electronics, dentistry, medicine, hydrogen purification, chemical applications, groundwater treatment, and jewelry. Palladium is a key component of fuel cells, which react hydrogen with oxygen to produce electricity, heat, and water.

Ore deposits of palladium and other PGMs are rare. The most extensive deposits have been found in the norite belt of the Bushveld Igneous Complex covering the Transvaal Basin in South Africa, the Stillwater Complex in Montana, United States, the Sudbury Basin and Thunder Bay District of Ontario, Canada, and the Norilsk Complex in Russia. Recycling is also a source, mostly from scrapped catalytic converters. The numerous applications and limited supply sources result in considerable investment interest.

From USGS report on Platinum Group Metals production:

Domestic Production and Use: In 2015, one domestic mining company produced platinum-group metals (PGMs) with an estimated value of nearly $532 million from its two mines in south-central Montana. Small quantities of PGMs were also recovered as byproducts of copper refining. The leading use for PGMs continued to be in catalytic converters to decrease harmful emissions from automobiles. PGMs are also used in catalysts for bulk-chemical production and petroleum refining; in electronic applications, such as in computer hard disks to increase storage capacity, in multilayer ceramic capacitors, and in hybridized integrated circuits; in glass manufacturing; jewelry; and in laboratory equipment. Platinum is used in the medical sector; platinum and palladium, along with gold-silver-copper-zinc alloys, are used as dental restorative materials. Platinum, palladium, and rhodium are used as investments in the form of exchange-traded products, as well as through the individual holding of physical bars and coins.

Kilograms (Production and Consumption):

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Mine production: Platinum 3,700 3,670 3,720 3,660 3,700 Palladium 12,400 12,300 12,600 12,400 12,500 Imports for consumption: Platinum 129,000 172,000 116,000 141,000 139,000 Palladium 98,900 80,100 83,100 92,400 89,000 Rhodium 13,100 12,800 11,100 11,100 11,000 Ruthenium 13,300 10,200 15,300 11,100 9,000 Iridium 2,790 1,230 1,720 1,990 730 Osmium 48 130 77 322 40 Exports: Platinum 11,300 8,630 11,200 14,800 11,000 Palladium 32,000 32,200 25,900 22,500 27,000 Rhodium 1,370 1,040 1,220 428 600


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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Other PGMs 1,150 1,640 1,320 901 800 Price, dollars per troy ounce: Platinum 1,724.51 1,555.39 1,489.57 1,387.89 1,080.00 Palladium 738.51 649.27 729.58 809.98 690.00 Rhodium 2,204.35 1,274.98 1,069.10 1,174.23 970.00 Ruthenium 165.85 112.26 75.63 65.13 48.00 Iridium 1,035.87 1,066.23 826.45 556.19 530.00 Employment, mine, Number 1,570 1,670 1,780 1,620 1,600 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption: Platinum 89 90 84 89 90 Palladium 64 57 60 65 58 Recycling: An estimated 125,000 kilograms of platinum, palladium, and rhodium was recovered globally from new and old scrap in 2015, including about 55,000 kilograms recovered from automobile catalytic converters in the United States. Import Sources (2011–14):

Platinum: South Africa, 18%; Germany, 16%; United Kingdom, 13%; Canada, 11%; and other, 42%.

Palladium: Russia, 24%; South Africa, 24%; United Kingdom, 21%; Switzerland, 6%; and other, 25%.

World Resources: World resources of PGMs are estimated to total more than 100 million kilograms. The largest reserves are in the Bushveld Complex in South Africa.

Palladium Recycling

Since Palladium is rare and expensive, recycling is popular. The usual companies like Umicore collect palladium scrap and recycle other relatively rare elements. Some of the important palladium containing items recycled are:

• Thermocouple wire • Catalytic converters • Industrial chemical catalysts • Electrophysiology (EP) catheters • Electronics • Jewelry

Some companies specialize in the first four. This is going to be a popular business in the future.


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Potassium Production

From Wikipedia:

Potassium is a chemical element with symbol K (derived from Neo-Latin, kalium) and atomic number 19. It was first isolated from potash, the ashes of plants, from which its name derives. In the periodic table, potassium is one of the alkali metals. All of the alkali metals have a single valence electron in the outer electron shell, which is easily removed to create an ion with a positive charge – a cation, which combines with anions to form salts. Potassium in nature occurs only in ionic salts. Elemental potassium is a soft silvery-white alkali metal that oxidizes rapidly in air and reacts vigorously with water, generating sufficient heat to ignite hydrogen emitted in the reaction and burning with a lilac-colored flame. It is found dissolved in sea water (which is 0.04% potassium by weight), and is part of many minerals.

Naturally occurring potassium is composed of three isotopes, of which 40K is radioactive. Traces of 40K are found in all potassium, and it is the most common radioisotope in the human body.

Potassium is chemically very similar to sodium, the previous element in Group 1 of the periodic table. They have a similar ionization energy, which allows for each atom to give up its sole outer electron. That they are different elements that combine with the same anions to make similar salts was suspected in 1702, and was proven in 1807 using electrolysis.

Most industrial applications of potassium exploit the high solubility in water of potassium compounds, such as potassium soaps. Heavy crop production rapidly depletes the soil of potassium, and this can be remedied with agricultural fertilizers containing potassium, accounting for 95% of global potassium chemical production.

From Wikipedia:

Potash /ˈpɒtæʃ/ is any of various mined and manufactured salts that contain potassium in water-soluble form. The name derives from pot ash, which refers to plant ashes soaked in water in a pot, the primary means of manufacturing the product before the industrial era. The word potassium is derived from potash.

Potash is produced worldwide at amounts exceeding 30 million tonnes per year, mostly for use in fertilizers. Various types of fertilizer-potash thus constitute the single largest global industrial use of the element potassium. Potassium was first derived by electrolysis of caustic potash (a.k.a. potassium hydroxide), in 1807.

From USGS report on Potash production:

Domestic Production and Use: In 2015, the production value of marketable potash, f.o.b. mine, was about $680 million. Potash was produced in New Mexico and Utah. Most of the production was from southeastern New Mexico, where two companies operated four mines. Sylvinite and langbeinite ores in New Mexico were beneficiated by flotation, dissolution-recrystallization, heavy-media separation, solar evaporation, or combinations of these processes, and provided more than


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75% of total U.S. producer sales. In Utah, two companies operated three mines. One company extracted underground sylvinite ore by deep-well solution mining. Solar evaporation crystallized the sylvinite ore from the brine solution, and a flotation process separated the potassium chloride (muriate of potash or MOP) from byproduct sodium chloride. The firm also processed subsurface brines by solar evaporation and flotation to produce MOP at its other facility. Another company processed brine from the Great Salt Lake by solar evaporation to produce potassium sulfate (sulfate of potash or SOP) and byproducts.

The fertilizer industry used about 85% of U.S. potash sales, and the chemical industry used the remainder. About 60% of the potash produced was MOP. Potassium magnesium sulfate (sulfate of potash-magnesia or SOPM) and SOP, which are required by certain crops and soils, accounted for the remaining 40% of production.

Thousand Metric Tons (Production and Consumption):

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production, marketable 1,000 900 960 850 770 Sales by producers, Marketable 990 980 880 930 760 Imports for consumption 4,980 4,240 4,650 4,970 4,000 Exports 202 234 289 118 30 Consumption, apparent 5,800 5,000 5,200 5,800 4,700 Price, dollars per ton of K2O, average, muriate, f.o.b. mine 730 710 640 580 635 Employment, number: Mine 660 750 760 670 600 Mill 620 740 770 660 620 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 83 82 82 85 84 Recycling: None. Import Sources (2011–14): Canada, 84%; Russia, 9%; Israel, 3%; Chile, 2%; and other, 2%.

World Resources: Estimated domestic potash resources total about 7 billion tons. Most of these lie at depths between 1,800 and 3,100 meters in a 3,110-square-kilometer area of Montana and North Dakota as an extension of the Williston Basin deposits in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, Canada. The Paradox Basin in Utah contains resources of about 2 billion tons, mostly at depths of more than 1,200 meters. The Holbrook Basin of Arizona contains resources of about 0.7 to 2.5 billion tons. A large potash resource lies about 2,100 meters under central Michigan and contains more than 75 million tons. Estimated world resources total about 250 billion tons.


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From Wikipedia:

As of 2016, there were 10 active phosphate mines in the US, operated by 5 companies. In addition, one mine in Idaho was in permitting and development status.

Phosphate mining operations in the US

Company Name Location

Agrium Rasmussen Ridge Caribou County, Idaho

JR Simplot Vernal Vernal, Utah

JR Simplot Smoky Canyon Caribou County, Idaho

Monsanto South Rasmussen Caribou County, Idaho

Monsanto Blackfoot Bridge Caribou County, Idaho

The Mosaic Company

Bonnie mine

Bartow, Florida

The Mosaic Company

South Pasture

Hardee County, Florida

The Mosaic Company

Four Corners

Hillsboro, Manatee, and Polk counties, Florida

PotashCorp Swift Creek Hamilton County, Florida

PotashCorp Aurora mine Aurora, North Carolina

Stonegate Agricom Paris Hills

(permitting)

Paris, Idaho

Phosphate Recycling Recycling is not done chemically at present. From FEECO International website:

Below is a list of the top 7 uses for granulated potash:

• Fertilizer – Potassium Carbonate, Potassium Chloride, Potassium Sulfate… Plants require three primary nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium. Potash contains soluble potassium, making it an excellent addition to agricultural fertilizer. It ensures proper maturation in a plant by improving overall health, root strength, disease resistance, and yield rates. In addition, potash creates a better final product, improving the color, texture, and taste of food.

While some potassium is returned to farmlands through recycled manures and crop residues, most of this key element must be replaced. There is no commercially viable alternative that contributes as much potassium to soil as potash, making this element invaluable to crops. For this reason, the most prevalent use of potash is in the agriculture industry. Without fertilizers assisting crop yields,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrium

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JR_Simplot

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernal%2C_Utah

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsanto

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mosaic_Company

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mosaic_Company

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartow%2C_Florida

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardee_County%2C_Florida

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_County%2C_Florida

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PotashCorp

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurora_mine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurora%2C_North_Carolina

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris%2C_Idaho


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scientists estimate that 33% of the world would experience severe food shortages. The replenishment of potassium to the soil is vital to supporting sustainable food sourcing. Potash compaction granules blend easily into fertilizers, delivering potassium where it is needed most.

• Animal Feed – Potassium Carbonate Another agricultural use for potash (potassium carbonate) is animal feed. Potash is added as a supplement to boost the amount of nutrients in the feed, which in turn promotes healthy growth in animals. As an added benefit, it is also known to increase milk production.

• Food Products – Potassium Carbonate The food industry utilizes potash (potassium carbonate) as a general-purpose additive. In most instances, it is added as a source of food seasoning. Potash is also used in brewing beer. Historical Use: Potash was once used in German baked goods. It has properties similar to baking soda, and was used to enhance recipes such as gingerbread or lebkuchen.

• Soaps – Potassium Hydroxide Caustic potash (potassium hydroxide) is a precursor to many ‘potassium soaps,’ which are softer and less common than sodium hydroxide-derived soaps. Potassium soaps have greater solubility, requiring less water to liquefy versus sodium soaps. Caustic potash is also used to manufacture detergents and dyes.

• Water Softeners – Potassium Chloride Potash (potassium chloride) is used as an environmentally friendly method of treating hard water. It regenerates the ion exchange resins more efficiently than sodium chloride, reducing the total amount of discharged chlorides in sewage or septic systems.

• Deicer (Snow and Ice Melting) – Potassium Chloride Potash (potassium chloride) is a major ingredient in deicer products that clear snow and ice from surfaces such as roads and building entrances. While other chemicals are available for this same purpose, potassium chloride holds an advantage by offering a fertilizing value for grass and other vegetation near treated surfaces.

• Glass Manufacturing – Potassium Carbonate Glass manufactures use granular potash (potassium carbonate) as a flux, lowering the temperature at which a mixture melts. Because potash confers excellent clarity to glass, it is commonly used in eyeglasses, glassware, televisions, and computer monitors.

Platinum Production

From Wikipedia:

Platinum is a chemical element with symbol Pt and atomic number 78. It is dense, malleable, ductile, highly unreactive, precious, gray-white transition metal. Its name is derived from the Spanish term platina, translated into "little silver".

Platinum is a member of the platinum group of elements and group 10 of the periodic table of elements. It has six naturally occurring isotopes. It is one of the rarer elements in Earth's crust with an average abundance of approximately 5 μg/kg. It occurs in some nickel and copper ores along


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with some native deposits, mostly in South Africa, which accounts for 80% of the world production. Because of its scarcity in Earth's crust, only a few hundred tonnes are produced annually, and given its important uses, it is highly valuable and is a major precious metal commodity.

Platinum is one of the least reactive metals. It has remarkable resistance to corrosion, even at high temperatures, and is therefore considered a noble metal. Consequently, platinum is often found chemically uncombined as native platinum. Because it occurs naturally in the alluvial sands of various rivers, it was first used by pre-Columbian South American natives to produce artifacts. It was referenced in European writings as early as 16th century, but it was not until Antonio de Ulloa published a report on a new metal of Colombian origin in 1748 that it began to be investigated by scientists.

Platinum is used in catalytic converters, laboratory equipment, electrical contacts and electrodes, platinum resistance thermometers, dentistry equipment, and jewelry. Being a heavy metal, it leads to health issues upon exposure to its salts; but due to its corrosion resistance, metallic platinum has not been linked to adverse health effects. Compounds containing platinum, such as cisplatin, oxaliplatin and carboplatin, are applied in chemotherapy against certain types of cancer.


See Page 8.

Platinum Recycling

Platinum recycling is profitable but difficult and capital intensive. From Chemistry Views website:

Recycling platinum is a difficult, complicated process. The first step is the dissolution of the used platinum. Because platinum is a very special precious metal, this isn’t so easy. The solvents used for this are usually highly corrosive aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, or a highly oxidizing mixture of sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide known as piranha. There are also electrochemical recycling processes, but these mostly require highly toxic electrolytes or corrosive media, or they release toxic gases. They also suffer from insufficient current densities and passivation of the electrodes. Platinum recycling is done by the same group of companies that recycle palladium.

Osmium Production

From Wikipedia:

Osmium (from Greek ὀσμή osme, "smell") is a chemical element with symbol Os and atomic number 76. It is a hard, brittle, bluish-white transition metal in the platinum group that is found as a trace element in alloys, mostly in platinum ores. Osmium is the densest naturally occurring element, with a density of 22.59 g/cm3. Its alloys with platinum, iridium, and other platinum-group

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_element

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_number

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_number

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_metal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum_group

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth%27s_crust

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram_per_cubic_centimetre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy

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metals are employed in fountain pen nib tipping, electrical contacts, and other applications where extreme durability and hardness are needed.


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Osmium Recycling

This metal is recycled by the same group that recycles platinum and palladium.

Rhodium Production

Rhodium is a chemical element with symbol Rh and atomic number 45. It is a rare, silvery-white, hard, and chemically inert transition metal. It is a member of the platinum group. It has only one naturally occurring isotope, 103Rh. Naturally occurring rhodium is usually found as the free metal, alloyed with similar metals, and rarely as a chemical compound in minerals such as bowieite and rhodplumsite. It is one of the rarest and most valuable precious metals.

Rhodium is a noble metal, resistant to corrosion, found in platinum or nickel ores together with the other members of the platinum group metals. It was discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston in one such ore, and named for the rose color of one of its chlorine compounds, produced after it reacted with the powerful acid mixture aqua regia.

The element's major use (approximately 80% of world rhodium production) is as one of the catalysts in the three-way catalytic converters in automobiles. Because rhodium metal is inert against corrosion and most aggressive chemicals, and because of its rarity, rhodium is usually alloyed with platinum or palladium and applied in high-temperature and corrosion-resistive coatings. White gold is often plated with a thin rhodium layer to improve its appearance while sterling silver is often rhodium-plated for tarnish resistance.


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Rhodium Recycling

This metal is in the same category and has the same importance as palladium and platinum, except it can be even more expensive at times.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fountain_pen

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nib_(pen)#Nib_tipping

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_contacts

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardness


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Rhenium Production

Rhenium is a chemical element with symbol Re and atomic number 75. It is a silvery-white, heavy, third-row transition metal in group 7 of the periodic table. With an estimated average concentration of 1 part per billion (ppb), rhenium is one of the rarest elements in the Earth's crust. The free element has the third-highest melting point and highest boiling point of any element at 5873 K. Rhenium resembles manganese and technetium chemically and is mainly obtained as a by-product of the extraction and refinement of molybdenum and copper ores. Rhenium shows in its compounds a wide variety of oxidation states ranging from −1 to +7.

Discovered in 1925, rhenium was the last stable element to be discovered. It was named after the river Rhine in Europe.

Nickel-based superalloys of rhenium are used in the combustion chambers, turbine blades, and exhaust nozzles of jet engines. These alloys contain up to 6% rhenium, making jet engine construction the largest single use for the element, with the chemical industry's catalytic uses being next-most important. Because of the low availability relative to demand, rhenium is expensive, with an average price of approximately US$2,750 per kilogram (US$85.53 per troy ounce) as of April 2015; it is also of critical strategic military importance, for its use in high performance military jet and rocket engines.

From USGS report on Rhenium production:

Domestic Production and Use: During 2015, ores containing 8,500 kilograms of rhenium were mined at nine operations (six in Arizona, and one each in Montana, New Mexico, and Utah). Rhenium compounds are included in molybdenum concentrates derived from porphyry copper deposits, and rhenium is recovered as a byproduct from roasting such molybdenum concentrates. Rhenium-containing products included ammonium perrhenate (APR), metal powder, and perrhenic acid. The major uses of rhenium were in superalloys used in high-temperature turbine engine components and in petroleum-reforming catalysts, representing an estimated 70% and 20%, respectively, of end uses. Bimetallic platinum-rhenium catalysts were used in petroleum reforming for the production of high-octane hydrocarbons, which are used in the production of lead-free gasoline. Rhenium improves the high-temperature (1,000° C) strength properties of some nickel-based superalloys. Rhenium alloys were used in crucibles, electrical contacts, electromagnets, electron tubes and targets, heating elements, ionization gauges, mass spectrographs, metallic coatings, semiconductors, temperature controls, thermocouples, vacuum tubes, and other applications. The estimated value of rhenium consumed in 2015 was about $80 million.


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Kilograms (Production and Consumption):

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production 8,610 7,910 7,100 8,500 8,500 Imports for consumption 33,500 40,800 27,600 24,800 32,600 Exports NA NA NA NA NA Consumption, apparent 42,100 48,700 34,700 33,300 41,000 Price, average value, dollars per kilogram, gross weight: Metal pellets, 99.99% pure 4,670 4,040 3,160 3,000 2,900 Ammonium perrhenate 4,360 3,990 3,400 3,100 2,800 Employment, number Small Small Small Small Small Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 80 84 80 74 79 Recycling: Nickel-based superalloy scrap and scrapped turbine blades and vanes continued to be recycled hydrometallurgically to produce rhenium metal for use in new superalloy melts. The scrapped parts were also processed to generate engine revert—a high-quality, lower cost superalloy meltstock—by a growing number of companies, mainly in the United States, Canada, Estonia, Germany, and Russia. Rhenium-containing catalysts were also recycled.

Import Sources (2011–14): Rhenium metal powder: Chile, 87%; Poland, 8%; Germany, 2%; and other, 3%.

Ammonium perrhenate: Kazakhstan, 43%; Republic of Korea, 36%; Canada, 8%; Germany, 5%; and other, 8%.

World Resources: Most rhenium occurs with molybdenum in porphyry copper deposits. Identified U.S. resources are estimated to be about 5 million kilograms, and the identified resources of the rest of the world are approximately 6 million kilograms. Rhenium also is associated with copper minerals in sedimentary deposits in Armenia, Kazakhstan, Poland, Russia, and Uzbekistan, where ore is processed for copper recovery and the rhenium-bearing residues are recovered at copper smelters.

Rhenium Recycling

Rhenium is very important to jet engine manufacturing, and why it is not on the DOD stockpile list is a mystery to me. From USGS Report, “Rhenium—A Rare Metal Critical to Modern Transportation”:

Worldwide is used in superalloy production. These nickel-base alloys contain either 3 or 6 percent rhenium, which is critical to the manufacture of turbine blades for jet aircraft engines and industrial


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gas turbine engines. The high-temperature properties of rhenium allow turbine engines to be designed with finer tolerances and operate at temperatures higher than those of engines constructed with other materials. These properties allow prolonged engine life, increased engine performance, and enhanced operating efficiency. The other major use of rhenium, which accounts for about 10 percent of worldwide rhenium consumption, is in platinum-rhenium catalysts. The petroleum industry uses platinum-rhenium catalysts to produce high-octane, lead-free gasoline. These catalysts boost the octane level of refined gasoline and improve refinery efficiency. Secondary applications of rhenium include the manufacture of electrical contact points, flashbulbs, heating elements, vacuum tubes, X-ray tubes and targets, and uses in various medical procedures.

The United States is unlikely to meet its rhenium requirements with domestic resources. Although there are substantial, proven rhenium reserves in porphyry copper deposits in the United States, special facilities are required to extract rhenium from the molybdenite concentrates recovered from these deposits. In the United States, only one molybdenum concentrate roasting facility is equipped to recover rhenium and although a second plant is under construction and could increase U.S. production by about 50 percent, the potential rhenium production from these plants is far less than current U.S. consumption. Therefore, it is likely that imports will continue to supply most of the rhenium consumed in the United States. To determine where future rhenium supplies might be located, USGS scientists study how and where rhenium resources are concentrated in Earth’s crust and use that knowledge to assess the likelihood that undiscovered rhenium resources exist. Techniques used to assess mineral resources were developed by the USGS to support the stewardship of Federal lands and better evaluate mineral resource availability in a global context. The USGS also compiles statistics and information on the worldwide supply of, demand for, and flow of rhenium. These data inform U.S. national policymakers.

Obviously, rhenium is extremely important to the U.S. economy and is very expensive; therefore, recycling rhenium might be important in the future.

From Titan International, Inc., the leading producer of recycled Rhenium metal products ("Re") in North America, website:

Metal Recovery

SCRAP PROCESSING EXPERTISE USING STATE OF THE ART EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUES

Over the past 20 years, Titan International has developed a variety of sophisticated and highly effective metal recovery processes. We use state-of-the-art equipment and proprietary techniques to recover high-value constituent metals from a variety of scrap sources, including aviation industry superalloy scrap, foundry scrap, manufacturing scrap, spent targets and other similar scrap sources, and attain the highest possible economic value for customers' scrap streams.


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RHENIUM METAL ("RE") AND AMMONIUM PERRHENATE ("APR") PRODUCTS

Titan is the leading producer of recycled Rhenium ("Re") metal products in North America. Titan's has developed unique and proprietary manufacturing processes that enable Titan to produce the world's finest and most pure Re Metal ("Re") and Ammonium Perrhenate ("APR") products. Titan's Re pellets, APR and related specialty Re powders and other products have been approved for use in the most demanding industries and by the world's most quality-conscious manufacturers.

SUPERALLOY SCRAP PURCHASE AND RECYCLING

Titan often directly purchase scrap streams generated by our clients. We can provide our clients with the highest value for their superalloy scrap streams. Titan can purchase from you and recycle Re-bearing and other superalloy scrap streams, including solids, grindings, spent superalloy aviation scrap, swarfs, spills and other foundry scrap. Titan's unique and proprietary processes enable Titan to provide our clients with the highest possible value for their scrap streams.

Ruthenium Production

From Wikipedia:

Ruthenium is a chemical element with symbol Ru and atomic number 44. It is a rare transition metal belonging to the platinum group of the periodic table. Like the other metals of the platinum group, ruthenium is inert to most other chemicals. The Baltic German scientist Karl Ernst Claus discovered the element in 1844 and named it after his homeland, the Russian Empire (one of Russia's Latin names is Ruthenia). Ruthenium is usually found as a minor component of platinum ores; the annual production is about 20 tonnes. Most ruthenium produced is used in wear-resistant electrical contacts and thick-film resistors. A minor application for ruthenium is in platinum alloys and as a chemistry catalyst.


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Ruthenium Recycling

Ruthenium is in the Platinum Group metal classification, but is not nearly as expensive as the other metals in the group. The same companies that recycle the other platinum group metals recycle ruthenium. Colonial Metals, Inc. specializes in rhenium and ruthenium recycling. From the website:

The longstanding PGM chemical competency at Colonial Metals enables you to close your production loop and achieve maximum value in all of your rhenium and ruthenium applications through economic and high yield recycling. Our corporate flexibility enables us to offer customized services, meet your specification, and undertake any refining stream.

Rhenium Refining

http://www.titanintl.com/metal-recovery.html#quoterequest

http://www.titanintl.com/metal-recovery.html#quoterequest


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CMI has large-scale rhenium refining capacity, with a demonstrated ability to effectively recover rhenium from spent materials.

Common recovery streams include

• rhenium scrap • rhenium-based alloys • nickel-based superalloys • rhenium containing catalyst • CMI can return rhenium in the form of catalyst and metallurgical grade: • Ammonium Perrhenate • Perrhenic Acid • rhenium Metal Powder

Any of CMI’s 15 rhenium chemical products

Ruthenium Refining

CMI operates the only on-site full-service Ruthenium refinery in the Americas.

Common recovery streams include:

• Spent Catalyst • Catalyst Ash • Spent Targets (Ru and Ru alloy) • Target manufacturing and PVD shield scrap • Ru machining parts and turnings • Ru containing chemicals, solutions, and other chemical scrap • CMI offers Ruthenium returns in the form of: • Ruthenium (III) Chloride Solution • Ruthenium (III) Chloride Crystal • Metallurgical Grade Ruthenium Metal Powder • Any of CMI's other 100+ Ruthenium chemical products

Selenium Production

Selenium is a chemical element with symbol Se and atomic number 34. It is a nonmetal with properties that are intermediate between the elements above and below in the periodic table, sulfur and tellurium. It rarely occurs in its elemental state or as pure ore compounds in the Earth's crust. Selenium (Greek σελήνη selene meaning "Moon") was discovered in 1817 by Jöns


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Jacob Berzelius, who noted the similarity of the new element to the previously discovered tellurium (named for the Earth).

Selenium is found in metal sulfide ores, where it partially replaces the sulfur. Commercially, selenium is produced as a byproduct in the refining of these ores, most often during production. Minerals that are pure selenide or selenate compounds are known but rare. The chief commercial uses for selenium today are glassmaking and pigments. Selenium is a semiconductor and is used in photocells. Applications in electronics, once important, have been mostly supplanted by silicon semiconductor devices. Selenium is still used in a few types of DC power surge protectors and one type of fluorescent quantum dot.

Selenium salts are toxic in large amounts, but trace amounts are necessary for cellular function in many organisms, including all animals. Selenium is an ingredient in many multivitamins and other dietary supplements, including infant formula. It is a component of the antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase (which indirectly reduce certain oxidized molecules in animals and some plants). It is also found in three deiodinase enzymes, which convert one thyroid hormone to another. Selenium requirements in plants differ by species, with some plants requiring relatively large amounts and others apparently requiring none.

From USGS report on Selenium production:

Domestic Production and Use: Primary selenium was refined from anode slimes recovered from the electrolytic refining of copper. Of the three electrolytic copper refineries operating in the United States, one in Texas reported production of primary selenium, one exported semirefined selenium for toll refining in Asia, and one generated selenium-containing slimes that were exported for processing. In glass manufacturing, selenium is used to decolorize the green tint caused by iron impurities in container glass and other soda-lime silica glass and is used in architectural plate glass to reduce solar heat transmission. Cadmium sulfoselenide pigments are used in plastics, ceramics, and glass to produce a ruby-red color. Selenium is used in catalysts to enhance selective oxidation; in plating solutions, where it improves appearance and durability; in blasting caps; in gun bluing to improve cosmetic appearance and provide corrosion resistance; in rubber compounding chemicals to act as a vulcanizing agent; in the electrolytic production of manganese to increase yields; and in copper, lead, and steel alloys to improve machinability. It is used in thin-film photovoltaic copper-indium-gallium-diselenide (CIGS) solar cells. Selenium is used as a human dietary supplement and in antidandruff shampoos. The leading agricultural uses are as a dietary supplement for livestock and as a fertilizer additive to enrich selenium-poor soils. Estimates for world consumption are as follows: metallurgy, 40%; glass manufacturing, 25%; agriculture, 10%; chemicals and pigments, 10%; electronics, 10%; and other uses, 5%.


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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production, refinery ? ? ? ? ? Imports for consumption, metal and dioxide 601 460 439 441 480 Exports, metal, waste and scrap 1,350 952 648 521 735 Consumption, apparent ? ? ? ? ? Price, dealers, average, dollars per pound, 100-pound lots, refined 66.35 54.47 36.17 26.78 22.80 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 0 0 0 0 0 Recycling: Domestic production of secondary selenium was estimated to be very small because most scrap from older plain paper photocopiers and electronic materials was exported for recovery of the contained selenium.

Import Sources (2011–14): Japan, 21%; China, 16%; Belgium, 14%; Germany, 12%; and other, 37%.

World Resources: Reserves for selenium are based on identified copper deposits and average selenium contents. Coal generally contains between 0.5 and 12 parts per million of selenium, or about 80 to 90 times the average for porphyry copper deposits. The recovery of selenium from coal fly ash, although technically feasible, appears unlikely to be economical in the foreseeable future.

Selenium Recycling

Selenium production is directly related to copper mining and refining. There isn’t much info on selenium recycling. Umicore seems to be the most interested in selenium recycling but mainly related to removing selenium from wastewater. From Chromatography Today, “Removal of Selenium and Other Heavy Metals from Recycling Plant’s Wastewater”, May 25, 2012:

Umicore has selected GE’s (USA) Advanced Biological Metals Removal Process (ABMet*) wastewater bioreactor technology to remove selenium and other heavy metals from wastewater discharges at Umicore’s precious metals recycling facility near Antwerp, Belgium. The first full-scale installation of GE’s ABMet technology in Europe, this project will help Umicore to achieve low parts-per-billion (ppb) levels of heavy metals in wastewater discharges. Commercial operation will begin by the end of 2013…

The Hoboken facility recovers a range of precious and specialty metals from recycled consumer and industrial goods, and as a result, produces a highly complex wastewater stream requiring different unit operations to remove and recover metals before discharge.


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Silicon Production

Silicon is a chemical element with symbol Si and atomic number 14. A hard and brittle crystalline solid with a blue-gray metallic luster, it is a tetravalent metalloid. It is a member of group 14 in the periodic table, along with carbon above it and germanium, tin, lead, and flerovium below. It is rather unreactive, though less so than germanium, and has great chemical affinity for oxygen; as such, it was first prepared and characterized in pure form only in 1823 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius.

Silicon is the eighth most common element in the universe by mass, but very rarely occurs as the pure element in the Earth's crust. It is most widely distributed in dusts, sands, planetoids, and planets as various forms of silicon dioxide (silica) or silicates. Over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of silicate minerals, making silicon the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust (about 28% by mass) after oxygen.

Most silicon is used commercially without being separated, and often with little processing of the natural minerals. Such use includes industrial construction with clays, silica sand, and stone. Silicate is used in Portland cement for mortar and stucco, and mixed with silica sand and gravel to make concrete for walkways, foundations, and roads. Silicates are used in whiteware ceramics such as porcelain, and in traditional quartz-based soda-lime glass and many other specialty glasses. Silicon compounds such as silicon carbide are used as abrasives and components of high-strength ceramics.

Elemental silicon also has a large impact on the modern world economy. Most free silicon is used in the steel refining, aluminium-casting, and fine chemical industries (often to make fumed silica). Even more visibly, the relatively small portion of very highly purified silicon used in semiconductor electronics (< 10%) is essential to integrated circuits — most computers, cell phones, and modern technology depend on it. Silicon is the basis of the widely used synthetic polymers called silicones.

From USGS report on Silicon production:

Domestic Production and Use: Estimated value of silicon alloys and metal produced in the United States in 2015 was $1.14 billion. Four companies produced silicon materials in seven plants, all east of the Mississippi River. Ferrosilicon and metallurgical-grade silicon metal were produced in four and five plants, respectively. Two companies produced both products at two plants. Most ferrosilicon was consumed in the ferrous foundry and steel industries, predominantly in the Eastern United States, and was sourced primarily from domestic quartzite (silica). The main consumers of silicon metal were producers of aluminum and aluminum alloys and the chemical industry. The semiconductor and solar energy industries, which manufacture chips for computers and photovoltaic cells from high-purity silicon, respectively, accounted for only a small percentage of silicon demand.


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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production: Silicon alloys and metal 326 383 365 373 410 Imports for consumption: Ferrosilicon, all grades 156 173 159 186 153 Silicon metal 187 136 118 139 150 Exports: Ferrosilicon, all grades 20 12 10 9 10 Silicon metal 79 75 38 45 39 Consumption, apparent: Ferrosilicon, all grades ? ? ? ? ? Silicon metal ? ? ? ? ? Total 564 601 602 642 660 Price, average, cents per pound Si: Ferrosilicon, 50% Si 111 100 103 108 104 Ferrosilicon, 75% Si 102 92 94 98 92 Silicon metal 158 127 122 140 136 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption: Ferrosilicon, all grades <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 Silicon metal <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 Total 42 36 39 42 38 Recycling: Insignificant. Import Sources (2011–14):

Ferrosilicon: Russia, 42%; China, 26%; Canada, 11%; Venezuela, 10%; and other, 11%.

Silicon metal: Brazil, 32%; South Africa, 24%; Canada, 14%; Australia, 11%; and other, 19%.

Total: Russia, 23%

World Resources: World and domestic resources for making silicon metal and alloys are abundant and, in most producing countries, adequate to supply world requirements for many decades. The source of the silicon is silica in various natural forms, such as quartzite.

Silicon Recycling

Wikipedia says silicon recycling is insignificant, but I think that will change in the future. From SRS, LLC website:

SRS, LLC, the world leader in solar and semiconductor feedstock processing, is an independently owned company with sales and service provided around the world and operations in North America


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and Asia. SRS began operations in 1996 as Silicon Recycling Services, Inc. and was part of two international companies from 2005-2010. The role of SRS is to recycle unusable and off-spec silicon and process it into usable feedstock for the solar and semiconductor industries…

SRS could be considered one of the “greenest” companies on the planet, by taking unusable silicon that has historically been land filled, and turning into a high quality, low cost feedstock that ultimately finds its way into solar PV applications which collect free power from the sun…

SRS has an industry leading multi-step process that culminates with an innovative acid etching process enabling SRS to achieve tremendous surface purity.

SRS is one of many companies already in the game, and more will enter.

Silicon Carbide Production

Silicon carbide (SiC), also known as carborundum /kɑːrbəˈrʌndəm/, is a compound of silicon and carbon with chemical formula SiC. It occurs in nature as the extremely rare mineral moissanite. Synthetic silicon carbide powder has been mass-produced since 1893 for use as an abrasive. Grains of silicon carbide can be bonded together by sintering to form very hard ceramics that are widely used in applications requiring high endurance, such as car brakes, car clutches and ceramic plates in bulletproof vests. Electronic applications of silicon carbide such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and detectors in early radios were first demonstrated around 1907. SiC is used in semiconductor electronics devices that operate at high temperatures or high voltages, or both. Large single crystals of silicon carbide can be grown by the Lely method; they can be cut into gems known as synthetic moissanite. Silicon carbide with high surface area can be produced from SiO2 contained in plant material.

From USGS report on Abrasives production:

Domestic Production and Use: Fused aluminum oxide was produced by two companies at three plants in the United States and Canada. Production of crude fused aluminum oxide had an estimated value of $1.65 million. Silicon carbide was produced by two companies at two plants in the United States. Domestic production of crude silicon carbide had an estimated value of about $25.9 million. Domestic production of metallic abrasives had an estimated value of about $88.1 million. Bonded and coated abrasive products accounted for most abrasive uses of fused aluminum oxide and silicon carbide.


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Metric Tons (Production and Consumption): 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production: Fused aluminum oxide, crude 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 Silicon carbide 35,000 35,000 35,000 35,000 35,000 Metallic abrasives (U.S.) 202,000 193,000 191,000 190,000 196,000 Imports for consumption (U.S.): Fused aluminum oxide 223,000 231,000 222,000 198,000 157,000 Silicon carbide 129,000 100,000 129,000 130,000 137,000 Metallic abrasives 49,600 22,000 23,900 23,500 27,000 Exports (U.S.): Fused aluminum oxide 19,900 19,100 24,500 19,600 15,800 Silicon carbide 27,800 20,000 18,400 22,300 21,700 Metallic abrasives 39,500 39,000 35,900 41,000 37,000 Consumption, apparent (U.S.): Fused aluminum oxide 203,000 212,000 197,000 177,000 141,000 Silicon carbide 136,000 115,000 145,000 142,000 151,000 Metallic abrasives 212,000 176,000 179,000 173,000 186,000 Price, value of imports, dollars per ton: Fused aluminum oxide, regular 627 560 663 659 598 Fused aluminum oxide, high-purity 1,360 1,080 847 1,420 1,280 Silicon carbide, crude 260 877 638 660 583 Metallic abrasives 700 988 1,030 1,020 903 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption (U.S.): Fused aluminum oxide NA NA NA NA NA Silicon carbide 74 70 76 75 77 Metallic abrasives 5 0 0 0 0 Recycling: Up to 30% of fused aluminum oxide may be recycled, and about 5% of silicon carbide is recycled.

Import Sources (2011–14):

Fused aluminum oxide, crude: China, 83%; Canada, 11%; Venezuela, 5%; and other, 1%.

Fused aluminum oxide, grain: Germany, 15%; Austria, 14%; Brazil, 13%; China, 9%; and other, 49%.


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Silicon carbide, crude: China, 60%; South Africa, 18%; the Netherlands, 12%; Romania, 6%; and other, 4%.

Silicon carbide, grain: China, 42%; Brazil, 22%; Russia, 11%; Germany, 6%; and other, 19%.

Metallic abrasives: Canada, 36%; Sweden, 24%; Germany, 9%; China, 8%; and other, 23%.

World Resources: Although domestic resources of raw materials for the production of fused aluminum oxide are rather limited, adequate resources are available in the Western Hemisphere. Domestic resources are more than adequate for the production of silicon carbide.

Silicon Carbide Recycling

I cannot find much information about silicon carbide recycling. I found a company website, APF Recycling, in Warren, Ohio that says it recycles silicon carbide abrasives. Washington Mills, a major player in abrasives production, recycles silicon carbide abrasives. NW Processing in Portland Oregon was into recovering silicon carbide from solar and microelectronics wafers, but appears to have shut down due to the slowdown in China, who may have been their major customer.

Silver Production

From SNL Metals & Mining, “U.S. Mines to Market”, September, 2014:

Rather like gold, but not to the same degree, the demand for silver comes from both the financial markets as well as from direct consumption. Silver is used in photovoltaic cells, ethylene oxide catalysts, batteries, bearings, electronics, brazing and soldering, automotive industry and jewelry (the United States was the largest importer of silver jewelry in 2013).

Silver oxide batteries have begun to replace lithium batteries as, although the former are more expensive, they have a higher power to weight ratio. In industry, silver bearings are an essential component of engines and machinery that require higher temperatures and continuous function.

Other usages include power switches for electronics that require high electrical conductivity, printed circuit boards and TV screens. Within cars, electrical functions (such as starting the engine, opening power windows and adjusting power seats) use silver-coated contacts. Some 36 million ounces of silver are used annually in automobiles…

The United States is the seventh largest silver miner in the world, accounting for 4.2 percent of global production in 2013. The domestic mined production of U.S. silver was estimated at 1,090 tons last year, with refinery production.

See Figure 2, “Top U.S. Silver Mines”.


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Silver is produced in the United States at three primary silver mines and from 39 domestic base and precious metal mines as a by-product. Globally, silver is predominantly mined as a by-product metal with around 20 percent from primary silver mines, 75 percent from multi-metallic mines (including copper and zinc) and around 5 percent arising as a by-product of gold mines.

Because it is generally produced as a by-product at mines that derive most of their revenue from other metals (mainly lead, zinc, copper and gold), the mined supply of silver, both globally and domestically, is largely determined by the price of other metals. One consequence of this is that the economics of silver production are affected less by the silver price than they are by the prices of the primary metals mined. Therefore, when prices of by- and coproducts metals are high, unit costs of mining silver can appear low.

Average cash costs of mining silver in the United States are estimated at $11.9/oz in 2013, compared with a global average of $12.0/oz. Globally, costs since 2008 have increased 81 percent compared with a 63 percent increase in costs at U.S. operations.

Over the past couple of years, silver production in the United States was moderately cost competitive, with around 54 percent of the industry producing the precious metal at a lower cost. Longer term, cost competiveness will remain a challenge, and will be largely dependent upon the strength of copper and zinc prices which will influence the profitability of silver mine production.

From USGS report on Silver production:

Domestic Production and Use: In 2015, U.S. mines produced approximately 1,100 tons of silver with an estimated value of $560 million. Silver was produced at 3 silver mines and as a byproduct or coproduct from 37 domestic base and precious-metal mines. Alaska continued as the country’s leading silver-producing State, followed by Nevada. There were 24 U.S. refiners that reported production of commercial-grade silver with an estimated total output of 2,000 tons from domestic and foreign ores and concentrates and from old and new scrap. The physical properties of silver include high ductility, electrical conductivity, malleability, and reflectivity. In 2015, the estimated domestic uses for silver were electrical and electronics, 29%; coins and medals, 25%; photography, 8%; jewelry and silverware, 7%; and other, 31%. Other applications for silver include use in antimicrobial bandages, clothing, pharmaceuticals, and plastics, batteries, bearings, brazing and soldering, catalytic converters in automobiles, electroplating, inks, mirrors, photovoltaic solar cells, water purification, and wood treatment. Mercury and silver, the main components of dental amalgam, are biocides, and their use in amalgam inhibits recurrent decay.

Like copper, silver prices collapsed along with crude oil starting in 2014. However, consumption not only held steady but increased from 2012, probably due to increased demand from the investment market. See Figure 3, “Silver Production/Consumption and Net Trade”.


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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production: Mine 1,120 1,060 1,040 1,180 1,100 Refinery: Primary 790 796 800 800 800 Secondary (new and old scrap) 1,710 1,660 1,700 1,400 1,200 Imports for consumption 6,410 5,070 5,080 4,960 6,700 Exports 904 946 409 383 900 Consumption, apparent 8,310 6,890 7,410 7,150 8,100 Price, average, dollars per troy ounce 35.28 31.22 23.87 19.37 16.00 Employment, mine and mill, number 632 709 819 792 750 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 66 60 63 64 72 Recycling: In 2015, approximately 1,200 tons of silver was recovered from new and old scrap, about 15% of apparent consumption.

Import Sources (2011–14): Mexico, 54%; Canada, 26%; Poland, 4%; Peru, 3%; and other, 13%.

World Resources: Although silver was a principal product at several mines, silver was primarily obtained as a byproduct from lead-zinc mines, copper mines, and gold mines, in descending order of production. The polymetallic ore deposits from which silver was recovered account for more than two-thirds of U.S. and world resources of silver. Most recent silver discoveries have been associated with gold occurrences; however, copper and lead-zinc occurrences that contain byproduct silver will continue to account for a significant share of future reserves and resources.

Silver Recycling

North America represents the largest region for silver recycling, accounting for roughly one-third of the global total this year. This in turn is dominated by the US, which accounts for over 90% of North American silver scrap supply.

As covered in Chapter 3, silverware and jewelry recycling have since fallen back, with scrap from both now not only below the 2011 peak but also below the more ordinary levels seen in 2010.

Turning to industrial scrap, this represents the largest segment of scrap supply in the region. It includes two quite distinct recycling segments, electrical and electronic waste and the recovery of silver from spent ethylene oxide (EO) plants. The latter accounts for the largest share of industrial waste, but represents an anomaly in terms of our analysis of global scrap supply. For all other areas, recycling is captured where the silver-bearing scrap is generated, not where the metal is recovered. For the EO market, with over 400 plants operating globally, it makes sense, barring certain exceptions, to capture the silver where it is treated.


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In contrast, electrical/electronic scrap is measured where it is generated. For North America, the majority of end-of-life material is treated overseas, whereas an important share of process (or production) scrap is reclaimed in North America.

Finally, turning to photography, this has declined to such an extent that it now contributes a smaller share of North American recycling than silverware. The bulk of photographic waste is generated from the supply of old x-rays released over time by hospitals, where the mandatory period to hold archive material has expired. (The US health system is now digital-based and, although the US still manufactures silver-bearing x-rays, this is largely consumed overseas.)

In contrast, paper, film and motion picture together account for only a small share of the recovered silver from photo recycling, given the extent to which traditional silver-based technologies have been replaced by digital solution.

The prospects for recycling more silver are not good. Combine that prospect with the chance that individuals will start hording silver in the future, and the U.S. silver supply may be a problem in the future. The price will certainly rise tremendously when the economic crisis begins. Mexico and Canada are the main sources of imports.

Sodium Production

From Wikipedia:

Sodium is a chemical element with symbol Na (from Latin natrium) and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal. Sodium is an alkali metal, being in group 1 of the periodic table, because it has a single electron in its outer shell that it readily donates, creating a positively charged atom—the Na+ cation. Its only stable isotope is 23Na. The free metal does not occur in nature, but must be prepared from compounds. Sodium is the sixth most abundant element in the Earth's crust, and exists in numerous minerals such as feldspars, sodalite and rock salt (NaCl). Many salts of sodium are highly water-soluble: sodium ions have been leached by the action of water from the Earth's minerals over eons, and thus sodium and chlorine are the most common dissolved elements by weight in the oceans.

Sodium was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1807 by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. Among many other useful sodium compounds, sodium hydroxide (lye) is used in soap manufacture, and sodium chloride (edible salt) is a de-icing agent and a nutrient for animals including humans.

Sodium is an essential element for all animals and some plants. Sodium ions are the major cation in the extracellular fluid (ECF) and as such are the major contributor to the ECF osmotic pressure and ECF compartment volume. Loss of water from the ECF compartment increases the sodium concentration, a condition called hypernatremia. Isotonic loss of water and sodium from the ECF compartment decreases the size of that compartment in a condition called ECF hypovolemia.


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By means of the sodium-potassium pump, living human cells pump three sodium ions out of the cell in exchange for two potassium ions pumped in; comparing ion concentrations across the cell membrane, inside to outside, potassium measures about 40:1, and sodium, about 1:10. In nerve cells, the electrical charge across the cell membrane enables transmission of the nerve impulse—an action potential—when the charge is dissipated; sodium plays a key role in that activity.

From USGS reports on Salt, Soda Ash, and Sodium Sulfate production:

Domestic Production and Use: Domestic production of salt was estimated to have increased by 6% in 2015 to 48 million tons. The total value of salt sold or used was estimated to be about $2.3 billion. Twenty-nine companies operated 64 plants in 16 States. The top producing States, in alphabetical order, were Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Texas, and Utah. These seven States produced about 95% of the salt in the United States in 2015. The estimated percentage of salt sold or used was, by type, rock salt, 44%; salt in brine, 38%; solar salt, 9%; and vacuum pan salt, 9%. Highway deicing accounted for about 46% of total salt consumed. The chemical industry accounted for about 36% of total salt sales, with salt in brine accounting for 88% of the salt used for chemical feedstock. Chlorine and caustic soda manufacturers were the main consumers within the chemical industry. The remaining markets for salt were, in declining order of use, distributors, 7%; food processing, 4%; agricultural, 3%; general industrial, 2%; primary water treatment, 1%; and other uses combined with exports, 1%.


2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production 45,000 37,200 39,900 45,300 48,000 Sold or used by producers 45,500 34,900 43,100 46,000 47,200 Imports for consumption 13,800 9,880 11,900 20,100 23,200 Exports 846 809 525 940 846 Consumption: Reported 48,000 36,900 47,600 56,500 57,000 Apparent 58,500 44,000 54,500 65,200 69,500 Price, average value of bulk, pellets and packaged salt, dollars per ton, f.o.b. mine and plant: Vacuum and open pan salt 174.00 169.93 172.09 180.61 182.00 Solar salt 51.19 71.87 78.04 83.90 89.00 Rock salt 38.29 36.89 47.22 48.11 50.00 Salt in brine 8.14 8.44 8.49 9.08 9.15 Employment, mine and plant, number 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,200 4,200 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 24 22 22 29 32


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Recycling: None.

Import Sources (2011–14): Chile, 37%; Canada, 36%; Mexico, 12%; The Bahamas, 5%; and other, 10%.

World Resources: World continental resources of salt are vast, and the salt content in the oceans is virtually inexhaustible. Domestic resources of rock salt and salt from brine are primarily in Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, New York, Ohio, and Texas. Saline lakes and solar evaporation salt facilities are in Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Utah. Almost every country in the world has salt deposits or solar evaporation operations of various sizes.

Domestic Production and Use: The total value of domestic natural soda ash (sodium carbonate) produced in 2015 was estimated to be about $1.7 billion.1 U.S. production of 11.7 million tons was about equal to that in 2014 but about 1 million tons higher than production in 2011. The U.S. soda ash industry comprised four companies in Wyoming operating five plants, one company in California with one plant, and one company (which owned one of the Wyoming plants) with one mothballed plant in Colorado,. The five producing companies have a combined annual nameplate capacity of 13.9 million metric tons (15.3 million short tons). Borax, salt, and sodium sulfate were produced as coproducts of sodium carbonate production in California. Chemical caustic soda, sodium bicarbonate, and sodium sulfite were manufactured as coproducts at several of the Wyoming soda ash plants. Sodium bicarbonate was produced at the Colorado operation using soda ash feedstock shipped from the company’s Wyoming facility. Based on 2015 quarterly reports, the estimated 2015 distribution of soda ash by end use was glass, 47%; chemicals, 30%; soap and detergents, 7%; distributors, 6%; flue gas desulfurization and miscellaneous uses, 4% each; pulp and paper; and water treatment, 1% each.

The series on sodium sulfate was discontinued in 2014, but the following covers through 2012.

Domestic Production and Use: The domestic natural sodium sulfate industry consisted of two producers operating two plants, one each in California and Texas. Nine companies operating 11 plants in 9 States recovered byproduct sodium sulfate from various manufacturing processes or products, including battery reclamation, cellulose, resorcinol, silica pigments, and sodium dichromate. About one-half of the total output was a byproduct of these plants in 2012. The total value of natural and synthetic sodium sulfate sold was an estimated $42 million. Estimates of U.S. sodium sulfate consumption by end use were soap and detergents, 35%; glass, 18%; pulp and paper, 15%; carpet fresheners and textiles, 4% each; and miscellaneous, 24%.


2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Production, total (natural and synthetic) 319 260 297 NA NA Imports for consumption 69 77 77 85 85 Exports 107 140 196 199 210 Consumption, apparent


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2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

(natural and synthetic) 281 197 178 NA NA Price, quoted, sodium sulfate (100% Na2SO4), bulk, f.o.b. works, East, dollars per short ton 134 134 134 134 140 Employment, well and plant, number 225 225 225 225 225 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 0 0 0 0 0 Recycling: There was some recycling of sodium sulfate by consumers, particularly in the pulp and paper industry, but no recycling by sodium sulfate producers.

Import Sources (2008–11): Canada, 87%; China, 4%; Japan, 3%; Finland, 2%; and other, 4%.

World Resources: Sodium sulfate resources are sufficient to last hundreds of years at the present rate of world consumption. In addition to the countries with reserves listed above, the following countries also possess identified resources of sodium sulfate: Botswana, Egypt, Italy, Mongolia, Romania, and South Africa. Commercial production from domestic resources is from deposits in California and Texas. The brine in Searles Lake, CA, contains about 450 million tons of sodium sulfate resource, representing about 35% of the lake’s brine. In Utah, about 12% of the dissolved salts in the Great Salt Lake is sodium sulfate, representing about 400 million tons of resource. An irregular, 21-meter-thick mirabilite deposit is associated with clay beds 4.5 to 9.1 meters below the lake bottom near Promontory Point, UT. Several playa lakes in west Texas contain underground sodium-sulfate-bearing brines and crystalline material. Other economic and subeconomic deposits of sodium sulfate are near Rhodes Marsh, NV; Grenora, ND; Okanogan County, WA; and Bull Lake, WY. Sodium sulfate also can be obtained as a byproduct from the production of ascorbic acid, boric acid, cellulose, chromium chemicals, lithium carbonate, rayon, resorcinol, silica pigments, and from battery recycling. The quantity and availability of byproduct sodium sulfate are dependent on the production capabilities of the primary industries and the sulfate recovery rates.


2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production 10,700 11,100 11,500 11,700 11,700 Imports for consumption 27 13 13 39 44 Exports 5,470 6,110 6,470 6,670 6,700 Consumption: Reported 5,150 5,060 5,120 5,170 4,950 Apparent 5,220 4,980 4,990 5,110 5,070 Price: Quoted, yearend, soda ash, dense, bulk: F.o.b. Green River, WY, dollars per short ton 260.00 275.00 275.00 290.00 302.00


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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Average sales value (natural source), f.o.b. mine or plant, dollars per short ton 133.57 141.90 133.18 135.68 142.00 Employment, mine and plant, number 2,400 2,400 2,500 2,500 2,500 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 0 0 0 0 0 Recycling: No soda ash was recycled by producers; however, glass container producers are using cullet glass, thereby reducing soda ash consumption.

Import Sources (2011–14): Germany, 30%; Canada, 21%; Italy, 21%; Mexico, 8%; and other, 20%.

World Resources: Soda ash is obtained from trona and sodium carbonate-rich brines. The world’s largest deposit of trona is in the Green River Basin of Wyoming. About 47 billion tons of identified soda ash resources could be recovered from the 56 billion tons of bedded trona and the 47 billion tons of interbedded or intermixed trona and halite, which are in beds more than 1.2 meters thick. Underground room-and-pillar mining, using conventional and continuous mining, is the primary method of mining Wyoming trona ore. This method has an average 45% mining recovery, whereas average recovery from solution mining is 30%. Improved solution-mining techniques, such as horizontal drilling to establish communication between well pairs, could increase this extraction rate and enable companies to develop some of the deeper trona beds. Wyoming trona resources are being depleted at the rate of about 15 million tons per year (8.3 million tons of soda ash). Searles Lake and Owens Lake in California contain an estimated 815 million tons of soda ash reserves. At least 95 natural sodium carbonate deposits have been identified in the world, only some of which have been quantified. Although soda ash can be manufactured from salt and limestone, both of which are practically inexhaustible, synthetic soda ash is more costly to produce and generates environmental wastes.

Sodium Recycling:

From Ceramatec website:

Industrial Sodium Waste Stream Recycling

Several industrial processes contain or require sodium (Na). As a result, their waste streams also contain high amounts of sodium which can be recycled using our technology. Some potential possibilities that we are exploring are: (1) Separation and recycling of sodium in the form of sodium hydroxide from chemical process streams.


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(2) Recycling of sodium salts based contaminated aqueous stream to produce the acid and base constituents. (3) Recycling of sodium sulfate from Paper and Pulp industries and other chemical processes to make value added chemicals such as Caustic (NaOH) and acid constituents. (4) Separation of sodium from organic streams containing glycerine base, lignin, Tall oil, black liquor and any biomass derived processes.

Sodium hydroxide, which is a liquid, and other sodium liquid waste streams are being recycled. What about soda ash and sodium sulfate? At present, no producers recycle soda ash or sodium sulfate.

Steel (Carbon Steel and Stainless Steel) Production

Look at Figure 4, “Steel Production in the United States”, to understand what has happened to the U.S. steel industry. It is indicative of what has happened to U.S. manufacturing in general. From CNBC,” Donald Trump increases pressure on pipeline makers, his latest industry target”, Tom DiChristopher, 30 January 2017:

President Donald Trump on Monday reiterated his insistence that pipeline makers use U.S. materials when they build projects in the United States, a sign that he will keep pressure on companies in the middle of the energy sector.

In a meeting with small business leaders, Trump clarified that he not only wants pipeline companies to purchase pipes fabricated in the United States, but also expects the pipe suppliers to use raw U.S. steel. This comes at a time when some manufacturers are already struggling under the rising cost of raw steel, due to efforts to prevent foreign countries from dumping cheap supplies in the North American market.

Trump also revealed how he would pressure pipeline companies to comply: by potentially refusing to exercise eminent domain, the government's ability to appropriate private land.

Notice the Globalist spin CNBC puts on these three paragraphs with “This comes at a time when some manufacturers are already struggling under the rising cost of raw steel, due to efforts to prevent foreign countries from dumping cheap supplies in the North American market.” This statement captures the problem the U.S. has faced since the 1980s when international companies started invading the United States simultaneous to the Baby Boomer generation becoming the primary consumer of the world.

What the U.S. has increasingly become is an economy based on selling food and services to each other. Therefore, Goggle, Facebook, and Twitter become the household names, and the deluded


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Millennial generation think they can survive in this situation created by their parents and grandparents.

Trump is going to bring manufacturing back to the United States but not without consequences. The price of everything is going to rise, and tariffs will be the only way to keep the cheap foreign goods from killing the revival of American manufacturing. The alternative is that Uncle Sammy becomes a slave consumer of the Globalists controlled by foreign international companies and their friends in Europe and China. More on this future trend in a later report.

As the price of everything new starts to rise so will the price of recycled materials. This developing situation will cause the recycling industry to begin expanding at a more rapid rate. Steel and non-ferrous metal recycling will be major part of that expansion.

From USGS report on Steel production:

Domestic Production and Use: The iron and steel industry and ferrous foundries produced goods in 2015 with an estimated value of about $103 billion. Pig iron was produced by four companies operating integrated steel mills in 11 locations. About 58 companies produce raw steel at about 110 minimills. Combined production capability was about 110 million tons. Indiana accounted for 27% of total raw steel production, followed by Ohio, 13%; Michigan, 6%; and Pennsylvania, 5%, with no other States having more than 5% of total domestic raw steel production. The distribution of steel shipments was estimated to be warehouses and steel service centers, 26%; construction, 17%; transportation (predominantly automotive), 19%; cans and containers, 2%; and other, 36%.

Million Metric Tons (Production and Consumption):

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Pig iron production 30.2 30.1 30.3 29.4 26 Steel production 86.4 88.7 86.9 88.2 81 Basic oxygen furnaces, percent 39.7 40.9 39.4 37.4 37 Electric arc furnaces, percent 60.3 59.1 60.6 62.6 63 Continuously cast steel, percent 98.0 98.6 98.8 98.5 99 Shipments: Steel mill products 83.3 87.0 86.6 89.1 89 Steel castings 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 Iron castings 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 Imports of steel mill products 25.9 30.4 29.2 40.2 39 Exports of steel mill products 12.2 12.5 11.5 10.9 11 Apparent steel consumption 90 98 100 107 110 Producer price index for


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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 steel mill products (1982=100) 216.2 208.0 195.0 200.2 200 Steel mill product stocks at service centers, yearend 7.6 7.8 7.6 9.0 9.0 Total employment, average, number: Blast furnaces and steel mills 142,021 148,688 147,418 149,000 149,000 Iron and steel foundries 68,456 70,506 67,566 69,000 69,000 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 7 11 12 26 25 Recycling: See Iron and Steel Scrap and Iron and Steel Slag. Import Sources (2011–14): Canada, 14%; the Republic of Korea, 12%; Brazil, 11%; Russia, 11%; and other, 52%.

From Wikipedia:

As of 2015, major steel-makers in the United States included: AK Steel, Carpenter Technology, Commercial Metals Company, and Nucor, Steel Dynamics, and U.S. Steel…

In 2014, there were 11 operating integrated steel mills in the United States, down from 13 in 2000...

Current integrated steel mills in the US (as of 2014)

Name Location Owner Status and Date

Gary Works

Gary, Indiana

US Steel Operating, February

2015

Mon Valley Works - Irvin Plant, Edgar Thomson Steel Works

North Braddock,

Pennsylvania

US Steel

East Chicago Tin

East Chicago, Indiana

US Steel

Midwest Plant

Portage, Indiana

US Steel

Rouge Steel

Dearborn, Michigan

AK Steel Holding

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Works

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary%2C_Indiana

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Steel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mon_Valley_Works_-_Irvin_Plant

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Thomson_Steel_Works

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Braddock%2C_Pennsylvania



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Chicago%2C_Indiana


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portage%2C_Indiana

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portage%2C_Indiana

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouge_Steel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dearborn%2C_Michigan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dearborn%2C_Michigan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AK_Steel_Holding

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AK_Steel_Holding


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Fairfield Works

Fairfield, Alabama

US Steel Plan to convert to electric

arc furnace, February 2015.

Granite City Works

Granite City, Illinois

US Steel

Indiana Harbor Works

East Chicago, Indiana

ArcelorMittal

Burns Harbor Works

Burns Harbor, Indiana

ArcelorMittal

Cleveland Works Cleveland, Ohio ArcelorMittal

Specialty steel mills / minimills (as of 2014)

Name Location Owner Status and Date

Brackenridge Works Brackenridge, Pennsylvania

Allegheny Technologies

Former Colorado Fuel and Iron plant

Pueblo, Colorado

Oregon Steel Mills

Former integrated mill

Evraz Claymont Steel Claymont, Delaware Evraz Group Closed

Mississippi Steel Flowood, Mississippi Nucor

Pennsylvania Steel Company

Steelton, Pennsylvania

ArcelorMittal

Former integrated mill

Raw materials used in US iron and steel production, 2012

Input metric tons Purpose

Iron ore 46,900,000 Iron source

Iron and steel scrap 104,100,000 Iron source

Coke 9,490,000 Reducing agent

Lime 5,730,000 Flux

Fluorspar 47,800 Flux

Manganese 382,000 Alloy

Chromium 251,000 Alloy

Nickel 194,000 Alloy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairfield%2C_Alabama

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairfield%2C_Alabama

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granite_City%2C_Illinois

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granite_City%2C_Illinois



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burns_Harbor%2C_Indiana

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burns_Harbor%2C_Indiana

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland%2C_Ohio

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brackenridge_Works

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brackenridge%2C_Pennsylvania

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brackenridge%2C_Pennsylvania

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegheny_Technologies

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegheny_Technologies

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Fuel_and_Iron



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo%2C_Colorado

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon_Steel_Mills

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evraz_Claymont_Steel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claymont%2C_Delaware

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evraz_Group

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi_Steel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowood%2C_Mississippi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_Steel_Company

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_Steel_Company

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelton%2C_Pennsylvania

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelton%2C_Pennsylvania


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Molybdenum 11,800 Alloy

Vanadium 2,500 Alloy

Tungsten 123 Alloy

Source: US Geological Survey, Minerals Yearbooks, 2012 and 2013.

Stainless Steel Production

From The Lane Report, “Stainless Steel’s Kentucky Home”, Josh Shepard, July 9, 2015:

With little fanfare, the largest stainless steel mill in North America operates on the banks of the Ohio River between Cincinnati and Louisville, where it has access to inexpensive electricity and the U.S. manufacturing heartland…

Today, after 25 years and an estimated $2.6 billion investment, NAS is the largest fully integrated stainless steel manufacturing plant in North America, melting 1.2 million tons of product last year…

In May, North American Stainless celebrated the 25th anniversary of its Carroll County plant. The Kentucky organization welcomed the leadership of its parent, Acerinox Europa, customers from across the country, commonwealth political and economic leaders, and its entire workforce of 1,400 to 1,500.

NAS is a one-stop shop for its customers with the capacity to produce every grade of stainless steel: ferritic, austenitic, martensitic, precipitation hardening grades as well as the long product, Riley said…

But these high-profile applications are not the company’s bread and butter, she continued. The automotive industry is among its largest customers, along with appliance manufacturers and producers of commercial restaurant equipment. Surgical instruments, industrial grade fasteners, plumbing and specialized pipe fittings are manufactured from long-product stainless steel because of its relatively higher level of resistance to corrosion.

As of January, 2012, there were 12 stainless steel mills in the United States located in the states of Alabama, Indiana, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and New York. The U.S. has been a net importer of stainless steel for some time. See Figure 6, “Imports of Stainless Steel into the U.S”. My guess is that the West Coast imports steel and stainless steel mainly from Asia.

From Economics 274 Winter 2017, “Why Chinese Steel Exports Are Stirring Protests”, Posted on March 16, 2015 by Sam Wilson:

In January China’s steel exports have risen a whopping 63% from just last years numbers, a change of 9.2 million tons. “China produces as much steel as the rest of the world combined—more than four times the peak U.S. production in the 1970s.”

http://econ274.academic.wlu.edu/2015/03/why-chinese-steel-exports-are-stirring-protests/


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“The global steel industry suffers from overcapacity in part because many countries make it a point of national pride to support a domestic steel industry.” This makes sense and shows why China’s excess sales create a very real threat. The excess causes prices of steel to decrease, which means that many companies will take it rather than the steel from the local/country’s companies. Since most countries have their own steel industry this could cause a great pain on the world as a whole. It will be interesting to see how this will affect the world economy and to see how the countries will react to help preserve their economies.

You see there is more involved in steel production than just economics.

Steel Recycling

Figure 5, “Overall Steel Recycling Rates Through 2013”, shows that steel recycling is already a substantial effort, but it can be improved and it will be improved along with the steel fabrication industry in the United States.

From USGS report on iron and steel scrap:

Domestic Production and Use: In 2015, the total value of domestic purchases (receipts of ferrous scrap by all domestic consumers from brokers, dealers, and other outside sources) and exports was estimated to be $18.3 billion, approximately 30% less than that of 2014. U.S. apparent steel consumption, an indicator of economic growth, decreased to about 102 million tons in 2015. Manufacturers of pig iron, raw steel, and steel castings accounted for about 91% of scrap consumption by the domestic steel industry, using scrap together with pig iron and direct-reduced iron to produce steel products for the appliance, construction, container, machinery, oil and gas, transportation, and various other consumer industries. The ferrous castings industry consumed most of the remaining 9% to produce cast iron and steel products, such as machinery parts, motor blocks, and pipe. Relatively small quantities of steel scrap were used for producing ferroalloys, for the precipitation of copper, and by the chemical industry; these uses collectively totaled less than 1 million tons.


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During 2015, raw steel production was about 81 million tons, down by 8% from 88 million tons in 2014; annual steel mill capability utilization was about 71% compared with 78% for 2014. Net shipments of steel mill products were about 89 million tons, about the same as those in 2014.

Million Metric Tons (Production and Consumption):

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production: Home scrap 10 10 8.5 7.3 7 Purchased scrap 72 70 77 62 67 Imports for consumption 4.0 3.7 3.9 4.3 3.9 Exports 24 21 18 15 13 Consumption, reported 63 63 59 59 49 Consumption, apparent 61 63 71 59 63 Price, average, dollars per metric ton delivered, No. 1 Heavy Melting composite price, Iron Age Average, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Chicago 392 360 341 352 228 Employment, dealers brokers, processors, number 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 Net import reliance as a percentage of reported consumption 0 0 0 0 0 Recycling: Recycled iron and steel scrap is a vital raw material for the production of new steel and cast iron products. The steel and foundry industries in the United States have been structured to recycle scrap, and, as a result, are highly dependent upon scrap.

In the United States, the primary source of old steel scrap was the automobile. The recycling rate for automobiles in 2013, the latest year for which statistics were available, was about 85%. In 2013, the automotive recycling industry recycled more than 14 million tons of steel from end-of-life vehicles through more than 300 car shredders, the equivalent of nearly 12 million automobiles. More than 7,000 vehicle dismantlers throughout North America resell parts.

The recycling rates for appliances and steel cans in 2013 were 82% and 70%, respectively; this was the latest year for which statistics were available. Recycling rates for construction materials in 2013 were, as in 2012, about 98% for plates and beams and 72% for rebar and other materials. The recycling rates for appliance, can, and construction steel are expected to increase not only in the United States, but also in emerging industrial countries at an even greater rate. Public interest in recycling continues, and recycling is becoming more profitable and convenient as environmental regulations for primary production increase.


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Recycling of scrap plays an important role in the conservation of energy because the remelting of scrap requires much less energy than the production of iron or steel products from iron ore. Also, consumption of iron and steel scrap by remelting reduces the burden on landfill disposal facilities and prevents the accumulation of abandoned steel products in the environment. Recycled scrap consists of approximately 59% post-consumer (old, obsolete) scrap, 23% prompt scrap (produced in steel-product manufacturing plants), and 18% home scrap (recirculating scrap from current operations).

Import Sources (2011–14): Canada, 79%; Mexico, 8%; Sweden, 5%; Netherlands, 3%; and other, 5%. From USGS report on iron and steel slag:

Domestic Production and Use: Ferrous slags are coproducts of the making of iron and steel and, after cooling and processing, are sold primarily to the construction industry. Data are unavailable on actual U.S. slag production, but it is estimated to have been in the range of 16 to 22 million tons in 2015. Domestic slag sales in 2015 amounted to an estimated 17 million tons, valued at about $330 million (ex-plant). Iron (blast furnace) slag accounted for about 47% of the tonnage sold and had a value of about $260 million; nearly 90% of this value was from sales of granulated slag. Steel slag produced from basic oxygen and electric arc furnaces accounted for the remainder. Slag was processed by about 25 companies servicing active iron and steel facilities or reprocessing old slag piles at about 140 processing plants in 32 States; included in this tally are a number of facilities that grind and sell ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) based on imported unground feed.

The prices listed in the table below are weighted, but rounded, averages for iron and steel slags sold for a variety of applications. Actual prices per ton ranged widely in 2015, from a few cents for some steel slags at a few locations to about $110 for some GGBFS. Air-cooled iron slag and steel slag are used primarily as aggregates in concrete (air-cooled iron slag only), asphaltic paving, fill, and road bases; both slag types also can be used as a feed for cement kilns. Almost all GGBFS is used as a partial substitute for portland cement in concrete mixes or in blended cements. Pelletized slag is generally used for lightweight aggregate but can be ground into material similar to GGBFS. Owing to low unit values, most slag types can be shipped only short distances by truck, but rail and waterborne transportation allow for greater distances. Because of much higher unit values, GGBFS can be shipped longer distances, including from overseas.

Million Metric Tons (Production and Consumption)

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production, marketed 15.4 16.0 15.5 16.6 17.0 Imports for consumption 1.6 1.2 1.7 1.8 1.9 Exports >0.05 >0.05 >0.05 0.1 0.1 Consumption, apparent 15.4 16.0 15.5 16.5 16.9 Price average value, dollars per ton, f.o.b.


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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

plant 17.00 17.00 17.50 19.00 19.50 Employment, number 2,000 1,800 1,700 1,700 1,700 Net import reliance8 as a percentage of apparent consumption 9 7 11 10 11 Recycling: Slag, after metal removal, can be returned to the blast and steel furnaces as ferrous and flux feed, but data on these returns are incomplete. Entrained metal, particularly in steel slag, is routinely recovered during slag processing for return to the furnaces, and is an important revenue source for the slag processors, but data on metal returns are unavailable.

Import Sources (2011–14): The dominant imported ferrous slag type is granulated blast furnace slag (mostly unground), but official import data in some years include significant tonnages of nonslag materials (such as cenospheres, fly ash, and silica fume) and slags or other residues of various metallurgical industries (such as copper slag) whose unit values are outside the range expected for granulated slag. The official data appear to have underreported the granulated slag imports in some recent years, but likely not in 2011–12. Based on official data, the principal country sources for 2011–14 were Canada, 35%; Japan, 32%; Spain, 12%; Italy, 5%, and other, 16%; however, much of the tonnage from Spain in 2013–14 may in fact be from Italy.

Tantalum Production

From Wikipedia:

Tantalum is a chemical element with symbol Ta and atomic number 73. Previously known as tantalium, its name comes from Tantalus, a villain from Greek mythology. Tantalum is a rare, hard, blue-gray, lustrous transition metal that is highly corrosion-resistant. It is part of the refractory metals group, which are widely used as minor components in alloys. The chemical inertness of tantalum makes it a valuable substance for laboratory equipment and a substitute for platinum. Its main use today is in tantalum capacitors in electronic equipment such as mobile phones, DVD players, video game systems and computers. Tantalum, always together with the chemically similar niobium, occurs in the minerals tantalite, columbite and coltan (a mix of columbite and tantalite).

From USGS report on Tantalum Production:

Domestic Production and Use: No significant U.S. tantalum mine production has been reported since 1959. Domestic tantalum resources are of low grade, some are mineralogically complex, and most are not commercially recoverable. Companies in the United States produced tantalum alloys, compounds, and metal from imported tantalum-containing materials, and metal and alloys were recovered from foreign and domestic scrap. Tantalum domestic consumption is not reported. Major end uses for tantalum capacitors include automotive electronics, mobile phones, and personal


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computers. Tantalum oxide is used in glass lenses to get lighter weight lenses that produce a brighter image. Tantalum carbide is used in cutting tools. The value of tantalum consumed in 2015 was expected to exceed $290 million as measured by the value of imports.

Metric Tons (Production and Consumption)

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Production: Mine — — — — — Secondary NA NA NA NA NA Imports for consumption 1,850 1,010 1,100 1,230 1,250 Exports 648 577 844 754 600 Government stockpile Releases — — — — — Consumption, apparent 1,210 437 260 479 650 Price, tantalite, dollars per pound of Ta2O5 content 125 108 118 100 88 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 100 100 100 100 100 Recycling: Tantalum was recycled mostly from new scrap that was generated during the manufacture of tantalum-containing electronic components and from tantalum-containing cemented carbide and superalloy scrap. Import Sources (2011–14):

Tantalum minerals: Brazil, 40%; Rwanda, 17%; Canada, 11%; Australia, 10%; and other, 22%.

Tantalum metal: China, 29%; Kazakhstan, 28%; Germany, 15%; Thailand, 11%; and other, 17%.

Tantalum waste and scrap: Estonia, 21%; Indonesia, 17%; China, 14%; and other 48%.

Tantalum contained in niobium (columbium) and tantalum ore and concentrate; tantalum metal; and tantalum waste and scrap: China, 18%; Germany, 12%; Indonesia, 9%; Kazakhstan, 9%; and other, 52%.

Tantalum Recycling

The U.S. has no economically recoverable tantalum resources; therefore, recycling should be important. All the rare metal recyclers previously mentioned are involved in tantalum recycling. A few companies specialize in tantalum recycling. One is Tantalum Recycling, Inc. in Doral, Florida. From the company website:

Tantalum Recycling is one of only a handful of companies in the world that has full capability in recycling tantalum based capacitors. Our facility is fully state of the art built exclusively to fully provide Tantalum capacitor scrap recycling in house.


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Tantalum Capacitors –

Tantalum electrolytic capacitors exploit the tendency of tantalum to form a non-conductive protective oxide surface layer. This type of capacitor consists of tantalum powder pressed into a pellet shape as one “plate” of the capacitor, with the oxide as a dielectric, and an electrolytic solution or conductive solid as the other “plate”. The dielectric layer thus can be very thin (thinner than the similar layer in, for instance, an aluminum electrolytic capacitor).

The capacitor typically consists of a sintered Tantalum metallic sponge acting as the anode, a manganese dioxide cathode, and a dielectric layer of Tantalum pentoxide heated on the sponge surface by anodizing.

From CRM_Innonet:

Tantalum is mostly used (60%) in the production of capacitors used in electronics (smartphones, computers, wireless equipment, etc.). It is also used as an alloying element for super-alloys in turbines, aircraft engines and defence applications. Its resistance to corrosion and high-temperature enable its use in demanding industrial environments, cutting tools and as a refractory material.

Tantalum can be recycled from metallic scrap, however its major use in electronics is of a dissipative nature. Tantalum process scrap coming from the manufacturing of capacitors are claimed to be fully recycled. Aside from this recycling in capacitor manufacturing, tantalum recycling comes from other applications such as cemented carbide and alloys (old scrap), spent sputtering targets and edge trimming and shavings from metallurgical processes (new scrap)…

Tellurium Production

Tellurium is a chemical element with symbol Te and atomic number 52. It is a brittle, mildly toxic, rare, silver-white metalloid. Tellurium is chemically related to selenium and sulfur. It is occasionally found in native form as elemental crystals. Tellurium is far more common in the universe as a whole than on Earth. Its extreme rarity in the Earth's crust, comparable to that of platinum, is due partly to its high atomic number, but also to its formation of a volatile hydride which caused it to be lost to space as a gas during the hot nebular formation of the planet.

Tellurium was discovered in the Habsburg Empire, in 1782 by Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein in a mineral containing tellurium and gold. Martin Heinrich Klaproth named the new element in 1798 after the Latin word for "earth", tellus. Gold telluride minerals are the most notable natural gold compounds. However, they are not a commercially significant source of tellurium itself, which is normally extracted as a by-product of copper and lead production.

Commercially, the primary use of tellurium is copper and steel alloys, where it improves machinability. Applications in CdTe solar panels and semiconductors also consume a considerable portion of tellurium production.


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From USGS report on Tellurium Production:

Domestic Production and Use: In 2015, one firm in Texas produced commercial-grade tellurium as a byproduct from domestic copper anode slimes and lead refinery skimmings. The primary producer and intermediate producers further refined domestic and imported commercial-grade metal to produce tellurium dioxide, high-purity tellurium, and tellurium compounds for specialty applications. To avoid disclosing company proprietary data, U.S. tellurium production in 2015 was withheld. Tellurium was used in the production of cadmium-telluride (CdTe) solar cells, which was the major end use for tellurium in the United States. Other uses were as an alloying additive in steel to improve machining characteristics, as a minor additive in copper alloys to improve machinability without reducing conductivity, in lead alloys to improve resistance to vibration and fatigue, in cast iron to help control the depth of chill, and in malleable iron as a carbide stabilizer. It was used in the chemical industry as a vulcanizing agent and accelerator in the processing of rubber and as a component of catalysts for synthetic fiber production. Other uses included those in photoreceptor devices and as a pigment to produce various colors in glass and ceramics. Global consumption estimates for the end use of tellurium are as follows: solar, 40%; thermoelectric power generation, 30%; metallurgy, 15%; rubber applications, 5%; and other, 10%.

Metric Tons (Production and Consumption)

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production, refinery ? ? ? ? ? Imports for consumption 71 36 64 111 102 Exports 39 47 42 28 55 Consumption, apparent ? ? ? ? ? Price, dollars per kilogram, 99.95% minimum 349 150 112 119 89 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption >60% <50% 60% >80% >80% Recycling: For traditional metallurgical and chemical uses, there was little or no old scrap from which to extract secondary tellurium because these uses of tellurium are highly dispersive or dissipative. A very small amount of tellurium was recovered from scrapped selenium-tellurium photoreceptors employed in older plain paper copiers in Europe. A plant in the United States recycled tellurium from CdTe solar cells; however, the amount recycled was limited, because CdTe solar cells were relatively new and had not reached the end of their useful life.

Import Sources (2011–14): Canada, 59%; China, 21%; Philippines, 9%; Belgium, 9%; and other, 2%.

World Resources: Data on tellurium resources, other than reserves, were not available. More than 90% of tellurium has been produced from anode slimes collected from electrolytic copper refining, and the remainder was derived from skimmings at lead refineries and from flue dusts and gases


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generated during the smelting of bismuth, copper, and lead-zinc ores. Other potential sources of tellurium include bismuth telluride and gold telluride ores.

Tellurium Recycling

From “Tellurium Depletion Including Recycling”, L. David Roper, July 2, 2016:

It appears that world-tellurium extraction is peaking at about or before now (2009).

Tellurium is obviously a very rare metal, and the U.S. is dependent on foreign resources. What about recycling efforts? Again the same rare metal recycling companies are involved in recycling tellurium. From Colorado School of Mines, “Evaluating the Availability of Gallium, Indium, and Tellurium from Recycled Photovoltaic Modules”, Michael Redlinger, Roderick Eggert, and Michael Woodhouse, November 2014:

ABSTRACT The use of thin-film copper indium gallium (di) selenide (CIGS) and cadmium-telluride (CdTe) in solar technologies has grown rapidly in recent years, leading to an increased demand for gallium, indium, and tellurium. In the coming years, recycling these elements from end-of-life photovoltaic (PV) modules may be an important part of their overall supply, but little is known about the economic feasibility and the potential quantities available. This article investigates the future role of PV recycling in supplying gallium, indium, and tellurium. The authors evaluate both the quantities available from recycling over the next century and the associated costs for recycling modules and reusing each mineral in PV manufacturing. The findings indicate that, in terms of technical potential, there may be significant quantities of each mineral potentially available from recycling CIGS and CdTe modules. In terms of costs, recovering each element from end-of-life PV modules and reusing it in PV manufacturing is estimated to cost more than the current raw mineral costs. These findings help improve the understanding of recycling’s role in enabling higher levels of CIGS and CdTe cell production.

In other words, the cost of recycling is uneconomical so let’s just keep refining new supplies. That’s the standard response from most analysts about recycling and the disregard for remaining available supplies of just about any important natural resource. Humans have been disregarding


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future problems for some time now even though there have been many logical warnings. Hope Humans wake up before it’s too late!

Tin Production

From GSA website:

Tin is typically used in alloying with other metals (i.e. alloying tin with copper to form bronze). It is also used to coat harder metals such as iron and steel. Before the 20th century, sheets of iron and steel were hand-dipped in molten tin or a combination of tin and lead to make tin- and terneplate. In the 20th century, electroplating, or the process of coating a base metal with tin using an electric current, became popular.

• Tinplate: Sheet iron or steel which has been coated with pure tin. The tin offers a light weight, corrosion resistant finish highly suitable for a roofing (and walling) material.

• Terneplate: Sheet iron or steel which has been coated with a mixture of lead (75-90%) and tin (10-25%). The addition of the lead provides more durability.

• These materials must be painted. For roofing, both the surface and the underside of the material should be painted. They are typically painted a red or reddish-brown color or green to simulate copper. When properly maintained, tin- and terneplate roofing can last 50-100 years.

Tin still has many uses. Alloys made from tin are used in other applications such as soldering and in magnets and superconductive wire. Tin is also used to help produce glass and weather-resistant coatings for windows and windshields. Tin oxide is used in gas sensors as its electrical conductivity rises when in contact with gas. Tin is also used in products such as paint, plastics and pesticides. Also, tin cans are still around!

From USGS report on Tin production:

Domestic Production and Use: Tin has not been mined or smelted in the United States since 1993 and 1989, respectively. Twenty-five firms accounted for about 90% of the primary tin consumed domestically in 2015. The major uses for tin in the United States were cans and containers, 22%; chemicals, 20%; solder, 18%; alloys, 14%; and other, 26%. Based on the average Platts Metals Week New York Dealer price for tin, the estimated value of imported refined tin was $800 million, and the estimated value of old scrap recovered domestically was $240 million.


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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production, secondary: Old scrape 11,000 11,200 10,600 10,600 10,600 New scrap 2,530 2,440 2,150 2,060 2,000 Imports for consumption, refined tin 34,200 36,900 34,900 35,600 37,300 Exports, refined tin and tin alloys 5,450 5,560 5,870 5,700 5,800 Consumption, reported: Primary 25,200 24,500 25,700 24,200 23,300 Secondary 3,280 3,240 4,730 3,250 2,800 Consumption, apparent 39,900 41,900 40,000 40,000 42,200 Price, average, cents per pound: New York dealer 1,216 990 1,041 1,023 720 Metals Week composite 1,575 1,283 1,352 NA NA London Metal Exchange, cash 1,184 957 1,012 994 700 Kuala Lumpur 1,188 958 1,012 993 NA Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 72 73 74 74 75 Recycling: About 12,600 tons of tin from old and new scrap was recycled in 2015 accounting for about 30% of apparent consumption. Of this, about 10,600 tons was recovered from old scrap at 2 detinning plants and about 75 secondary nonferrous metal-processing plants.

Import Sources (2011–14): Peru, 35%; Indonesia, 18%; Bolivia, 15%; Malaysia, 13%; and other, 19%.

Tin Recycling

The U.S. is importing a lot of tin because the mining and smelting industry has disappeared along with many other industries shrinking. It can be done cheaper outside the U.S., and we don’t have to worry about the environment. That’s a broken record played by the environmentalists in the U.S. who probably have no concern, much less awareness, that they are probably using many tin products. Keep flipping your hamburgers and shopping at Wal-Mart! Next step is back to farming!

Improvements in tin recycling are definitely necessary, but how? From Tin Technology and Refining website:

Tin Technology & Refining, LLC began operations in 2014 in West Chester PA as the recycling division of Nathan Trotter & Co., Inc., a leader in the tin and solder business for 225 years. Tin Tech was formed in


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response to the overwhelming demand from our customers to process and recycle their tin-based byproducts.

We operate sweat furnaces for initial metal recovery, a rotary furnace for smelting and reducing oxides and drosses, and refining kettles that give us the ability to extract any trace levels of contaminants that may remain. Daily melt capacity exceeds 80,000 lbs.

For small scale trials, test smelts, and samples, we use a muffle furnace that allows us to give our customers accurate data on metal recovery percentages and tin content. This is also where we determine the proper flux combinations and ingredients to maximize metal recovery of each type of material.

In the lab, our analytical equipment includes a Bruker Tasman Spectrometer for Optical Emission Spectroscopy. In the plant, we use a Niton XRF analyzer for quick identification and quality control.

During production, we maintain superior air quality throughout the facility as a result of our professionally engineered Donaldson Torit 40,000 CFM air-handling unit. This system, along with the rest of the entire facility, is independently backed up by diesel generator power to maintain the highest environmental and workplace standards even during power outages.

As a recycler, we are focused on purchasing scrap tin in a variety of forms and alloys.

More specifically, solder alloys containing tin are an everyday item for us. This is not an exclusive list of what we purchase and process…

• Tin Dross • Solder Dross • Lead-Free Solder Dross • Solder Paste Scrap • Silver Bearing Solder • Babbitt Turnings and Dross • Off-Grade Tin and Solder Bar • Slag Ingot • Tin Oxides • Powders • Tin Plating Residues and Sludges • Tin Filter Cake • Pewter Scrap • Tin Dust • Tin Skimmings • Solder Pot Dumpings • Solder Wire • Tin/Zinc Scrap • Lead and Lead Alloys • Spent Tin Anodes • Block Tin and Melt Out

How do you increase recycling of anything? With innovation!


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Titanium Production

From Wikipedia:

Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It is a lustrous transition metal with a silver color, low density, and high strength. Titanium is resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, and chlorine.

Titanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by William Gregor in 1791, and it is named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The element occurs within a number of mineral deposits, principally rutile and ilmenite, which are widely distributed in the Earth's crust and lithosphere, and it is found in almost all living things, water bodies, rocks, and soils. The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll and Hunter processes. The most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments. Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), a component of smoke screens and catalysts; and titanium trichloride (TiCl3), which is used as a catalyst in the production of polypropylene.

Titanium can be alloyed with iron, aluminium, vanadium, and molybdenum, among other elements, to produce strong, lightweight alloys for aerospace (jet engines, missiles, and spacecraft), military, industrial process (chemicals and petrochemicals, desalination plants, pulp, and paper), automotive, agri-food, medical prostheses, orthopedic implants, dental and endodontic instruments and files, dental implants, sporting goods, jewelry, mobile phones, and other applications.

The two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element. In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, but less dense. There are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant (73.8%). Although they have the same number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table, titanium and zirconium differ in many chemical and physical properties.

From USGS report on Titanium and Titanium Dioxide production:

Domestic Production and Use: Titanium sponge metal was produced by 3 operations in Nevada and Utah, and titanium ingot was produced by 10 operations in 8 States. Domestic and imported ingot was consumed by numerous firms to produce wrought products and castings. In 2015, an estimated 77% of titanium metal was used in aerospace applications. The remaining 23% was used in armor, chemical processing, marine hardware applications, medical implants, power generation, sporting goods, and other applications. Assuming an average purchase price of $9.86 per kilogram, the value of sponge metal consumed was about $302 million.

In 2015, titanium dioxide (TiO2) pigment, which was produced by four companies at six facilities in five States, was valued at about $3.0 billion. The estimated end-use distribution of TiO2 pigment


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consumption was paint (includes lacquers and varnishes), 60%; plastic, 20%; paper, 12%; and other, 8%. Other uses of TiO2 included catalysts, ceramics, coated fabrics and textiles, floor coverings, printing ink, and roofing granules.


2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Titanium sponge metal: Production ? ? ? ? ? Imports for consumption 33,800 33,600 19,900 17,700 22,600 Exports 256 1,420 1,860 2,220 1,640 Consumption, reported 48,400 35,100 24,600 26,400 30,600 Price, dollars per kilogram, yearend 10.35 11.78 11.57 11.00 9.93 Employment, number 300 300 300 300 300 Net import reliance as a percentage of reported consumption 69 71 44 58 68 Titanium dioxide pigment: Production 1,290,000 1,140,000 1,280,000 1,260,000 1,160,000 Imports for consumption 200,000 203,000 213,000 224,000 242,000 Exports 790,000 625,000 671,000 685,000 655,000 Consumption, apparent 706,000 722,000 826,000 802,000 747,000 Producer price index, yearend 268 268 236 224 190 Employment, number 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,100 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 0 0 0 0 0 Recycling: About 51,000 tons of scrap metal was recycled by the titanium industry in 2015. Estimated use of titanium scrap by the steel industry was about 10,200 tons; by the superalloy industry, 500 tons; and by other industries, 1,200 tons.


Sponge metal: Japan, 59%; Kazakhstan, 17%; China; 13%; and other, 11%.

Titanium dioxide pigment: Canada, 37%; China, 22%; Germany, 10%; and other, 31%.

From USGS report on Titanium Mineral Resources Production:

Domestic Production and Use: Three firms produced ilmenite and rutile concentrates from surface-mining operations in Florida, Georgia, and Virginia. Based on reported data through October 2015, the estimated value of titanium mineral concentrates consumed in the United States in 2015 was $670 million. Zircon was a coproduct of mining from ilmenite and rutile deposits. About


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95% of titanium mineral concentrates were consumed by domestic titanium dioxide (TiO2) pigment producers. The remaining 5% was used in welding-rod coatings and for manufacturing carbides, chemicals, and metal.


2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production (rounded) 300 300 200 100 100 Imports for consumption 1,010 1,110 1,190 1,110 1,000 Exports all forms 16 26 7 1 1 Consumption, estimated 1,300 1,390 1,390 1,190 1,100 Price, dollars per metric ton: Ilmenite, bulk, minimum 54% TiO2, f.o.b. Australia 195 300 265 155 110 Rutile, bulk, minimum 95% TiO2, f.o.b. Australia 1,350 1,200 1,250 950 840 Slag, 80%–95% TiO2 463–489 694–839 538–777 720–762 742–755 Employment, mine and mill, number 195 195 195 144 190 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 77 78 86 92 91 Recycling: None. Import Sources (2011–14): South Africa, 35%; Australia, 31%; Canada, 17%; Mozambique, 11%; and other, 6%.

World Resources: Ilmenite accounts for about 92% of the world’s consumption of titanium minerals. World resources of anatase, ilmenite, and rutile total more than 2 billion tons.

From Tronox website:

Tronox’s mineral sands operations consist of two product streams – titanium feedstock, which includes ilmenite, natural rutile, titanium slag and synthetic rutile; and zircon, which is contained in the mineral sands extracted to capture natural titanium feedstock. Tronox operates three separate mining operations: KZN Sands and Namakwa Sands located in South Africa and Perth in Western Australia, which have a combined production capacity of 753,000 metric tons of titanium feedstock and 265,000 metric tons of zircon.

Titanium feedstock is the most significant raw material used in the manufacture of titanium dioxide. Tronox believes annual production of titanium feedstock from its mineral sands operations will continue to exceed the raw material supply requirement for its TiO2 operations…


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Tronox’s mineral sands operations consist of two product streams – titanium feedstock, which includes ilmenite, natural rutile, titanium slag and synthetic rutile; and zircon, which is contained in the mineral sands extracted to capture natural titanium feedstock. Tronox operates three separate mining operations: KZN Sands and Namakwa Sands located in South Africa and Perth in Western Australia, which have a combined production capacity of 753,000 metric tons of titanium feedstock and 265,000 metric tons of zircon.

Titanium Recycling

The same rare metal recyclers recycle titanium, but add the titanium products fabricators and a few specialize in recycling titanium.

From Timet website:

As the worldwide leader in scrap recycling, TIMET recycles thousands of metric tons of chip, feedstock and bulk weldables each year. In fact, scrap approximates 30-50% of our raw material input. All of our melting facilities worldwide are equipped to recycle scrap in various forms.

Recycling is a major priority at TIMET because we’ve seen the results – impressive cost savings and long-term stable supply of raw material. With scrap readily available, TIMET has the ability to blend recycled scrap with virgin sponge and alloys to dramatically lower product costs. Our long-term scrap supply agreements with major global producers provide our customers with a stable supply of titanium into the future

From MegaMetals website:

Mega Metals has remained at the forefront of efficiency in titanium recycling and processing through its significant investment and extensive research into improving its titanium processing, inspection and testing. This focused effort on process improvement and innovation has enabled greatly enhanced efficiency and excess capacity that allow us to offer tolling of titanium turnings and solids for other companies.

Our attention to quality and service has earned Mega Metals a coveted position as being among a select group of companies that has attained approvals by major titanium mills. Mill-approval allows us to offer premium pricing on titanium turnings, feedstock and bulk weldable used in the manufacturing of titanium ingot. Mega Metals prides itself on our unwavering commitment to quality, integrity and customer service. Contact us today to learn more about how Mega Metals can exceed your expectations.

From Aerospace Manufacturing and Design website, “Closing the loop on recycled titanium Features – Recycling - The titanium scrap market achieves a healthy balance, propelled by the aerospace sector,” April 24, 2015, Michael Gabrielle and Jennifer Simpson: Aerospace continues to be the engine driving the titanium scrap market, while demand for the metal in industrial, medical, and consumer goods has lagged.


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Beginning in early 2014, surging aerospace manufacturing has boosted the titanium market, says Edward J. Newman, senior vice president of United Alloys and Metals Inc., Columbus, Ohio, an international processor of titanium, stainless steel, and superalloy scrap…”

Two factors have altered the dynamics of the titanium scrap market. First is the ongoing focus for developing closed-loop revert programs in the aerospace business. It’s a loop that stretches from vendors to original equipment manufacturers and includes melting, forging, machining, finishing, and assembly facilities.

Boeing Commercial Airplanes has been the primary driver in promoting closed-loop scrap recycling for titanium. During the past three years, Boeing executives have emphasized closed-loop recycling as a critical element in the titanium supply chain. When it comes to sourcing titanium, Boeing is looking to achieve a system balance, which takes into account demand, inventory levels, and revert volume.

It’s a recycling strategy designed to keep aerospace-quality scrap within the aerospace supply chain…

Second, upstream consolidation in the titanium supply chain is affecting the flow of scrap. Major titanium producers, in recent years, have purchased titanium casting, forging, and assembly operations. Newman says the thrust is for titanium producers to capture the manufacturing resources offered by these acquisitions, thereby expanding their reach in the supply chain. The scrap generated by these acquisitions translates as an important side benefit…

Given the growing importance of scrap in the titanium supply chain, especially as dictated by the aerospace sector, several companies are developing technologies to further enhance the material’s value.

These technology developments potentially could be good news for companies processing and consuming titanium scrap.

There is no doubt titanium recycling will become a big deal in the future. Tungsten Production

From Wikipedia:

Tungsten, also known as wolfram, is a chemical element with symbol W and atomic number 74. The word tungsten comes from the Swedish language tung sten, which directly translates to heavy stone. Its name in Swedish is volfram, however, in order to distinguish it from scheelite, which is alternatively named tungsten in Swedish.

A hard, rare metal under standard conditions when uncombined, tungsten is found naturally on Earth almost exclusively in chemical compounds. It was identified as a new element in 1781, and first isolated as a metal in 1783. Its important ores include wolframite and scheelite. The free element is remarkable for its robustness, especially the fact that it has the highest melting point of all the elements. Its high density is 19.3 times that of water, comparable to that


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of uranium and gold, and much higher (about 1.7 times) than that of lead. Polycrystalline tungsten is an intrinsically brittle and hard material, making it difficult to work. However, pure single-crystalline tungsten is more ductile, and can be cut with a hard-steel hacksaw.

Tungsten's many alloys have numerous applications, including incandescent light bulb filaments, X-ray tubes (as both the filament and target), electrodes in TIG welding, superalloys, and radiation shielding. Tungsten's hardness and high density give it military applications in penetrating projectiles. Tungsten compounds are also often used as industrial catalysts.

From USGS report on Tungsten production:

Domestic Production and Use: A tungsten mine northeast of Los Angeles, California, produced concentrates in 2015. Approximately seven companies in the United States processed tungsten concentrates, ammonium paratungstate, tungsten oxide, and (or) scrap to make tungsten metal powder, tungsten carbide powder, and (or) tungsten chemicals. Nearly 60% of the tungsten consumed in the United States was used in cemented carbide parts for cutting and wear-resistant materials, primarily in the construction, metalworking, mining, and oil- and gas-drilling industries. The remaining tungsten was consumed to make tungsten heavy alloys for applications requiring high density; electrodes, filaments, wires, and other components for electrical, electronic, heating, lighting, and welding applications; steels, superalloys, and wear-resistant alloys; and chemicals for various applications. The estimated value of apparent consumption in 2015 was approximately $700 million.


2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production: Mine NA NA NA NA NA Secondary 11,000 9,180 8,610 8,520 7,100 Imports for consumption: Concentrate 3,640 3,650 3,690 4,080 3,900 Other forms 9,600 8,060 8,480 8,730 6,600 Exports: Concentrate 169 203 1,060 1,230 300 Other forms 6,960 6,530 6,670 5,420 3,600 Government stockpile shipments: Concentrate 1,180 1,780 2,100 282 — Other forms 46 >0.5 — >0.5 — Consumption: Reported, concentrate ? ? ? ? ? Apparent, all forms 18,100 15,000 14,700 15,000 14,000 Price, concentrate, dollars per mtu WO3, 4 average, U.S. spot market, Platts Metals Week 248 358 358 348 320 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent


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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

consumption 40 39 41 43 49 Recycling: In 2015, the estimated tungsten contained in scrap consumed by processors and end users represented 59% of apparent consumption of tungsten in all forms.

Import Sources (2011–14): Tungsten contained in ores and concentrates, intermediate and primary products, wrought and unwrought tungsten, and waste and scrap: China, 40%; Bolivia and Canada, 8% each; Germany, 6%; and other, 38%.

World Resources: World tungsten resources are geographically widespread. China ranks first in the world in terms of tungsten resources and reserves and has some of the largest deposits. Canada, Kazakhstan, Russia, and the United States also have significant tungsten resources.

Tungsten Recycling

Tungsten is one of the DOD stockpiled materials. From resource Investor website, “The Trouble With Tungsten”, Jack Lifton, February 1, 2006:

Tungsten is a strategic metal for industrialized nations. It is vital to the production of high-speed cutting tools and alloys capable of maintaining their strength at high temperatures. There are few if any viable substitutes for tungsten in many critical applications. China today produces 80% of the world's tungsten. The trouble with tungsten is that Chinese domestic demand is overtaking supply…

The remaining light in the U.S. is that we still have long experienced companies that process tungsten containing scrap to recover the tungsten values and further process that into new material for industrial use. Osram Sylvania in Towanda, Pennsylvania (today owned by Siemens [NYSE:SI] of Germany) and Buffalo (New York) Tungsten Incorporated, a private venture, are two major companies still capable of processing tungsten ore as well as scrap in the U.S.

These companies and a few smaller ones maintain America's ability to work tungsten (and other refractory metals as well). They have a bright future, because the demand for tungsten products is increasing much faster than the supply can be developed.

Tungsten Recycling

The same rare metal recycling companies recycle tungsten plus Osram Sylvania and Buffalo Tungsten, Inc. mentioned above. A few like Tungo specialize in tungsten carbide scrap recycling. From Tungo website:

Tungco was established in 1969 and specializes in Tungsten Carbide Hard Scraps. The focus is on items such as: Tungsten Carbide Drills, Tungsten Carbide Inserts, Tungsten Carbide Wear Parts, Tungsten Carbide Mining Compacts and the like.


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From American National Carbide website:

ANC has been a manufacturer of carbide products for over 40 years and our experience led us to become one of the few manufacturer/recyclers in the world. We are not brokers or middlemen. We have a comprehensive zinc reclamation process that allows us to convert tungsten carbide scrap into usable raw material.

Types of Scrap Carbide we Recycle

We buy both "hard scrap" and "soft scrap." Hard scrap includes carbide inserts, drilling compacts and buttons, carbide end mills and drills, wear parts, saw tips, coal mining tips, road construction tips, nozzles, grit, blanks, ball mill and attritor mill media, and other solid carbide scrap. Soft scrap includes grinding sludge (wet or dry), turnings, and grindings, presintered and unsintered carbide parts, grade powder, and powder scrap.

We prefer soft scrap to contain at least 60% tungsten. If you don't know how much tungsten your material contains, send us a sample and we'll analyze it free of charge and let you know its value.

Tungsten Carbide Production

From Wikipedia:

Tungsten carbide (chemical formula: WC) is a chemical compound (specifically, a carbide) containing equal parts of tungsten and carbon atoms. In its most basic form, tungsten carbide is a fine gray powder, but it can be pressed and formed into shapes for use in industrial machinery, cutting tools, abrasives, armor-piercing rounds, other tools and instruments, and jewelry.

Tungsten carbide is approximately two times stiffer than steel, with a Young's modulus of approximately 530–700 GPa (77,000 to 102,000 ksi), and is double the density of steel—nearly midway between that of lead and gold. It is comparable with corundum (α-Al2O3) in hardness and can only be polished and finished with abrasives of superior hardness such as cubic boron nitride and diamond powder, wheels, and compounds.

There are a number of companies producing tungsten carbide products usually in conjunction with other rare metal products. From TD Materials Manufacturing, Springfield, Pennsylvania:

T & D Materials has manufactured Tungsten Carbide parts to our client’s specifications for over two decades.

T & D is a vertically integrated manufacturing company of high-density metals. We are proud to say that we are going on 30 years in providing quality products and excellent customer service to our customers. We specialize in manufacturing Tungsten, Molybdenum, and Tantalum parts to our client’s exact specifications. We handle it all, from refining of the raw materials, to delivering you’re completely machined and high- purity, finished parts.


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Tungsten Carbide is a standout amongst the best composite building materials ever prepared. Its exceptional blend of quality, hardness and sturdiness fulfills the most requesting provisions. An important property of Tungsten Carbide is that it offers a more secure and more reliable result than other available known materials. We supply finished and semi-finished tungsten carbide products. In spite of the fact that Carbide parts might be discovered in an extremely assorted go of modern and provincial segments, they all have one thing in as a relatable point: the basic need for imperviousness to effect, erosion and wear.

From Philadelphia Carbide Co. website:

We're not your average machine shop. Where others leave off, we begin. Our specialty is manufacturing precision-ground wear parts, machine parts and dies for the most demanding industrial applications. We work primarily with tungsten carbide, silicon carbide and ceramic materials that have a proven ability to stand up under the stress of wear, corrosion, abrasion and shock.

Many of these companies can be found in the Midwest and northeast, the old industrial America that has been decimated by globalization.

Quartz Production

From Wikipedia:

Quartz is the second most abundant mineral in Earth's continental crust, after feldspar. Its crystal structure is a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon–oxygen tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall chemical formula of SiO2.

There are many different varieties of quartz, several of which are semi-precious gemstones. Since antiquity, varieties of quartz have been the most commonly used minerals in the making of jewelry and hardstone carvings, especially in Eurasia.

From “Quartz Crystal” by Ronald Balazik

Electronic-grade quartz crystal is single-crystal silica which has properties that make it uniquely useful for accurate frequency controls, timers, and filters in electronic circuits. These devices are utilized for a wide variety of electronic applications in communications equipment, computers, aerospace hardware, instruments for military/commercial uses (e.g., altimeters and navigational aids), and consumer goods (e.g., clocks, television receivers, and games/toys). Such uses generate practically all of the demand for electronic-grade quartz crystal. A lesser amount of optical-grade quartz crystal is used as windows and lenses in specialized devices including some lasers.

Natural quartz crystal primarily was used in electronic and optical applications until 1971, when it as surpassed by when it was surpassed by cultured quartz crystal.


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From USGS report on Quartz Crystal (Industrial) production:

Domestic Production and Use: Cultured quartz crystal is produced by two companies in the United States, but production statistics were not available. One of these companies uses cultured quartz crystal that has been rejected owing to crystallographic imperfections as feed material. In the past several years, cultured quartz crystal has been increasingly produced overseas, primarily in Asia. Electronic applications accounted for most industrial uses of quartz crystal; other uses included special optical applications. Lascas mining and processing in Arkansas ended in 1997. Virtually all quartz crystal used for electronics was cultured, rather than natural, crystal. Electronic-grade quartz crystal is essential for making frequency filters, frequency controls, and timers in electronic circuits employed for a wide range of products, such as communications equipment, computers, and many consumer goods, such as electronic games and television receivers.

Salient Statistics—United States: The U.S. Census Bureau, which is the primary Government source of U.S. trade data, does not provide specific import or export statistics on lascas. The U.S. Census Bureau collects import and export statistics on electronic and optical-grade quartz crystal; however, the quartz crystal import and export quantities and values reported were predominantly fused mullite and fused zirconia that was inadvertently reported to be quartz crystal, not including mounted piezoelectric crystals. The price of as-grown cultured quartz was estimated to be $280 per kilogram in 2015. Lumbered quartz, which is as-grown cultured quartz that has been processed by sawing and grinding, was estimated to range from $20 per kilogram to more than $1,000 per kilogram in 2015, depending on the application. Other salient statistics were not available.

Recycling: An unspecified amount of rejected cultured quartz crystal was used as feed material for the production of cultured quartz crystal.

Import Sources (2011–14): Although no definitive data exist listing import sources for cultured quartz crystal, imported material is thought to be mostly from China, Japan, Romania, and the United Kingdom.

World Resources: Limited resources of natural quartz crystal suitable for direct electronic or optical use are available throughout the world. World dependence on these resources will continue to decline because of the increased acceptance of cultured quartz crystal as an alternative material. Additionally, techniques using rejected cultured quartz crystal as growth nutrient could mean a decreased dependence on lascas for growing cultured quartz.

Uranium Production

From Wikipedia: Uranium mining is the process of extraction of uranium ore from the ground. The worldwide production of uranium in 2015 amounted to 60,496 tonnes. Kazakhstan, Canada, and Australia are the top three producers and together account for 70% of world uranium production. Other important uranium producing countries in excess of 1,000 tons per year


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are Niger, Russia, Namibia, Uzbekistan, China, the United States and Ukraine. Uranium from mining is used almost entirely as fuel for nuclear power plants.

Uranium ores are normally processed by grinding the ore materials to a uniform particle size and then treating the ore to extract the uranium by chemical leaching. The milling process commonly yields dry powder-form material consisting of natural uranium, "yellowcake," which is sold on the uranium market as U3O8.

From “Uranium 2016: Resources, Production and Demand”, A Joint Report by the Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy Agency:

Resources

Total identified uranium resources have increased by only 0.1% since 2013. The resource base has changed very little due to lower levels of investment and associated exploration efforts reflecting current, depressed uranium market conditions.

Exploration

Uranium exploration and mine development expenditures increased between 2013 and 2015. Nevertheless, no significant resources were added to the resource base during this reporting period as the expenditure increase can be largely attributed to the development of the Cigar Lake mine in Canada and the Husab mine in Namibia. Exploration expenditures continued to decrease because of low uranium prices.

Production

Global uranium mine production has decreased by 4% since 2013. However, production is still above 2011 levels, and Kazakhstan, currently the world’s leading producer, continues to increase production, but at a slower pace.

Uranium demand

Demand for uranium is expected to continue to rise for the foreseeable future as nuclear power is projected to grow considerably in regulated electricity markets with increasing electricity demand and a growing need for clean air electricity generation.

As of 1 January 2015, a total of 437 commercial nuclear reactors were connected to the grid with a net generating capacity of 377 GWe requiring about 56 600 tU annually.

Supply and demand relationship

The currently defined resource base is more than adequate to meet high case uranium demand through 2035, but doing so will depend upon timely investments to turn resources into refined uranium ready for nuclear fuel production. Challenges remain in the global uranium market with high levels of oversupply and inventories, resulting in continuing pricing


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pressures. Other concerns in mine development include geopolitical factors, technical challenges and increasing expectations of governments hosting uranium mining.

Identified Resources (Recoverable)

Country

Cost ranges

<USD 40/kgU <USD 80/kgU <USD 130/kgU <USD 260/kgU Algeria(c, d) 0 0 0 19 500 Argentina 2 400 9 100 18 500 19 600 Australia N/A N/A 1 664 100 1 780 800 Botswana* 0 0 73 500 73 500 Brazil(d) 138 100 229 400 276 800 276 800 Canada 251 200 321 800 509 000 703 600 Central African Republic*(a) 0 0 32 000 32 000 Chad*(a, d) 0 0 0 2 400 Chile 0 0 0 1 500 China(d) 98 900 206 300 272 500 272 500 Congo, Dem. Rep.*(a, c, d) 0 0 0 2 700 Czech Republic 0 0 1 300 119 300 Egypt(a, c, d) 0 0 0 1 900 Finland(c, d) 0 0 1 200 1 200 Gabon(a, c) 0 0 4 800 5 800 Germany(c) 0 0 0 7 000 Greece(a, c) 0 0 0 7 000 Greenland 0 0 0 228 000 Hungary(c, d) 0 0 0 13 500 India(d, e) N/A N/A N/A 138 700 Indonesia(b, d) 0 1 500 7 200 7 200 Iran(d) 0 0 3 900 3 900 Italy(a, c) 0 6 100 6 100 6 100 Japan(c) 0 0 6 600 6 600 Jordan(b, d) 0 0 47 700 47 700 Kazakhstan(d) 97 500 667 200 745 300 941 600 Malawi* 0 0 6 200 14 300 Mali*(d) 0 0 13 000 13 000 Mauritania* 0 0 16 400 23 800 Mexico(d) 600 1 800 2 700 3 400 Mongolia 0 141 500 141 500 141 500 Namibia* 0 0 267 000 463 000 Niger* 0 17 700 291 500 411 300 Peru(d) 0 33 400 33 400 33 400 Portugal(a, c) 0 5 500 7 000 7 000 Romania*(a, c) 0 0 6 600 6 600 Russia(b) 0 47 700 507 800 695 200 Slovak Republic(b, d) 0 12 700 15 500 15 500 Slovenia(a, c, d) 0 5 500 9 200 9 200 Somalia*(a, c, d) 0 0 0 7 600 South Africa 0 229 500 322 400 449 300 Spain 0 0 0 33 900 Sweden*(a, c, d) 0 0 9 600 9 600 Tanzania*(a, b) 0 46 800 58 100 58 100 Turkey(b, d) 0 6 600 6 600 6 600 Ukraine 0 59 000 115 800 220 700 United States 0 17 400 62 900 138 200 Uzbekistan* 58 200 58 200 130 100 130 100 Viet Nam(d) 0 0 0 3 900 Zambia* 0 0 24 600 24 600 Zimbabwe(a, c, d) 0 0 0 1 400 Total(f) 646 900 2 124 700 5 718 400 7 641 600


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* NEA/IAEA estimate; (a) Not reported in 2015 responses, data from previous Red Book; (b) Assessment partially made within the last five years; (c) Assessment not made within the last five years; (d) Recoverable resources were adjusted by the NEA/IAEA to estimate in situ resources using recovery factors provided by countries or estimated by the NEA/IAEA according to the expected production method (Appendix 3); (e) Cost data not provided; therefore resources are reported in the <USD 260/kgU category; (f) Totals related to cost ranges <USD 40/kgU and <USD 80/kgU are higher than reported in the tables because certain countries do not report low-cost resource estimates, mainly for reasons of confidentiality.

United States

Recent and ongoing uranium exploration and mine development activities

From 2012 to 2014, there was a 58% decrease in uranium surface drilling expenditures. In 2014, expenditures for uranium surface drilling totalled USD 28.2 million, down USD 21.7 million from expenditures in 2013 of USD 49.9 million (see table). This 44% decrease is a continuation of the downward trend in investment following the sharp decline in late 2008…

In 2013 and 2014, the US government made no exploration expenditures for uranium domestically or abroad. Data on industry exploration expenses abroad are not available.

After increasing from 2010-2012, exploration and production expenditures decreased by 15% in 2013 and 27% in 2014. Much of these decreases were a result of a global oversupply of uranium. Additionally, the ten-year contract between Centrus Energy Corporation and Techsnabexport (TENEX) to supply commercial-origin Russian low- enriched uranium will replace some of the material previously provided by the Megatons- to-Megawatts programme, which ended in 2013. Deliveries under this contract began in 2013 and are slated to continue through 2022. The new supply of low-enriched uranium from TENEX will gradually increase until 2015, when it reaches about one-half of the annual amount supplied under the Megatons-to-Megawatts programme. The contract also includes an option to double the amount of material purchased.

Conventional mine development

Energy Fuels Inc. operated the Pinenut mine in Arizona. Its other conventional mines in the Colorado Plateau region are on standby. The company has stated that it plans to move its workforce to the fully permitted Canyon Mine when mining at Pinenut is completed in 2015. Both Pinenut and Canyon Mine are breccia pipe-type deposits. The following conventional mines owned by Energy Fuels are either fully, or close-to-fully, permitted and on standby status:

• Sunday Complex (Topaz, St Jude, Carnation, Sunday, and West Sunday) in Colorado with mines that are partly permitted on care and maintenance.

• Whirlwind mine in Colorado, which is fully permitted and completely rehabilitated. • Energy Queen mine in Utah, which is almost fully permitted and partially rehabilitated. • Henry Mountains Complex in Utah (Tony M mine), which is permitted and on care and

maintenance status.


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• Sheep Mountain in Wyoming, a past producer that has been idle since 1988 and for which a pre-feasibility study is complete.

• Gas Hills District in Wyoming, which is planned to be developed using multiple shallow open pits with the ore processed by heap leaching. This mine is in the early stages of permitting with a mine permit application submitted to the state of Wyoming.

• The Roca Honda mine with an updated uranium resource in 2015 and a mine permit application filed with the state of New Mexico.

Significant proposed conventional mines owned by other companies include the following:

• Slick Rock in New Mexico (Uranium Energy Corporation) completed a NI-43-101 compliant resource assessment in 2013 and pre-feasibility study in 2014.

• Rio Grande Resource’s Mt. Taylor mine in New Mexico is on continued standby. An intent to file a new mill licence was filed with the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). Environmental groups, citing over 25 years of standby status, have requested the state require the owners to close and remediate the property.

• At the Juan Tafoya and Cebolleta projects in New Mexico, Uranium Resources Inc. has updated resource estimates and a letter of intent to construct a conventional mill to process ore from these deposits has been filed with the NRC.

• Virginia Uranium Inc.’s Coles Hill deposit in Virginia is the largest undeveloped uranium deposit in the United States. Development of Coles Hill cannot proceed until a state moratorium on uranium mining is lifted.

Advanced exploration stage projects entering the pre-feasibility stage include the following:

• Oregon Energy’s volcanogenic Aurora deposit in southern Oregon; • Black Range Mineral’s Hansen/Taylor Ranch Project located in the Rocky Mountains of

Colorado, proposed to be mined using underground borehole mining with ablation; • Energy Fuel’s Sage Plain Project, Utah; • Energy Fuel’s Marquez/Bokum project, New Mexico; • Uranium Energy Corporation’s Anderson Project, Arizona; • The Velvet/Wood Project, Lisbon Valley Colorado, Anfield Resources Inc.; • Wate Breccia Pipe, (Energy Fuels Inc.), Arizona.

ISR mine development

Producers Cameco, Uranium Energy Corporation and Ur-Energy are developing satellite properties for their existing processing plants. Cameco is exploring and permitting satellite properties for their Smith Ranch and Crow Butte mines. At Smith Ranch, evaluation and permitting continue for the Gas Hills/Peach, Ruby Ranch, and Ruth and Shirley Basin projects. A plan of operations has been completed and filed with the NRC. Near the Crow Butte Mine in Nebraska, Cameco is in some stage of licensing for three satellites: the North Trend, Marsland and Three Crow expansions. Exploration and development continued on trend and in other areas of the private ranch where the Alta Mesa mine is operated by Mestena Uranium in Texas. Uranium Energy Corporation is exploring and developing several other properties in Texas as satellites to the Hobson plant, currently supplied with resins by the La Palangana mine. Potential satellite mines include the fully permitted and developing Goliad mine as well


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as the Burke Hollow, Channen and Salvo exploration projects. Ur-Energy is evaluating and permitting the Shirley Basin project in Wyoming to add to production from their Lost Creek mine. Energy Fuels Inc. is permitting the Hank and Jane Dough deposits as satellite well fields for the Nichols Ranch mine. Uranium One/Atomredmetzoloto is planning to develop the Ludeman project in the Great Divide Basin as a satellite property to the Willow Creek mine.

In addition to the development of satellite properties adjacent to existing processing plants, other significant developing ISR properties include:

• Dewey-Burdock, South Dakota (Powertech Resources), which is in the advanced stage of permitting;

• Lance/Ross in Wyoming (Strata Energy), which is in the advanced stage of permitting; • Uranium Resources Inc.’s Church Rock/Mancos deposit in New Mexico with a

completed feasibility study, but for which the company has deferred development because of the low price of uranium;

• Uranium Energy Corporation’s Burke Hollow project in the permitting stage in Texas; • AUC LLC’s Reno Creek Project in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming.

Exploration continues for ISR mines in the Wyoming Basins, along the Texas Gulf Coast and in the Grants district of New Mexico.

Total uranium stocks (tonnes natural U-equivalent)

Holder Natural uranium stocks in concentrates

Enriched uranium stocks

Depleted uranium stocks

LWR reprocessed uranium stocks Total

Government1 12 939 5 471 30 000 N/A 48 410

Producer2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 7 141

Utility2 23 6453 20 9924 N/A N/A 44 637

Total N/A N/A N/A N/A 100 188 1. US Department of Energy, Excess Uranium Inventory Management Plan, July 2013. 2. US Energy Information Administration, Uranium Marketing Annual Report, 2014, Tables 22 and 23. 3. The value for natural uranium stocks in this table does not include natural uranium hexafluoride (UF6). Values for total utility natural

uranium stocks in the text include natural UF6. 4. The value for enriched uranium stocks in this table does not include fabricated fuel elements held in storage prior to loading in the

reactor. Values for total utility enriched uranium in the text include fabricated fuel elements in storage. N/A = Not available.

From the Energy Collective website, U.S. Uranium Supplies, Part 1: Growing Energy Security Risks, December 1, 2014 by John Miller:

The U.S. generates almost 20% of its electricity from Nuclear Power. Since World War II the U.S. has led the World in developing and building this ‘zero carbon’ power generation technology and currently produces about 1/3rd of total World Nuclear Power electricity. Nuclear Power Plants are currently fueled by uranium that is produced in many different Countries. Since the U.S. only produces about 3% of total World uranium supplies, most of its uranium fuels must be imported from various Countries and Suppliers around the World.


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Current and Future World Nuclear Power Generation Capacities

Vanadium Production

From Wikipedia:

Vanadium is a chemical element with symbol V and atomic number 23. It is a hard, silvery grey, ductile, and malleable transition metal. The elemental metal is rarely found in nature, but once isolated artificially, the formation of an oxide layer (passivation) stabilizes the free metal somewhat against further oxidation.

Andrés Manuel del Río discovered compounds of vanadium in 1801 in Mexico by analyzing a new lead-bearing mineral he called "brown lead", and presumed its qualities were due to the presence of a new element, which he named erythronium (derived from Greek for "red") since, upon heating, most of the salts turned red. Four years later, however, he was (erroneously) convinced by other scientists that erythronium was identical to chromium. Chlorides of vanadium were generated in 1830 by Nils Gabriel Sefström who thereby proved that a new element was involved, which he named "vanadium" after the Scandinavian goddess of beauty and fertility, Vanadís (Freyja). Both names were attributed to the wide range of colors found in vanadium compounds. Del Rio's lead mineral was later renamed vanadinite for its vanadium content. In 1867 Henry Enfield Roscoe obtained the pure element.

Vanadium occurs naturally in about 65 different minerals and in fossil fuel deposits. It is produced in China and Russia from steel smelter slag; other countries produce it either from the flue dust of heavy oil, or as a byproduct of uranium mining. It is mainly used to produce specialty steel alloys such as high-speed tool steels. The most important industrial vanadium compound, vanadium pentoxide, is used as a catalyst for the production of sulfuric acid.


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From USGS report on Vanadium production:

Domestic Production and Use: In 2015, six U.S. firms that compose most of the domestic vanadium industry produced ferrovanadium, vanadium pentoxide, vanadium metal, and vanadium-bearing chemicals or specialty alloys by processing materials such as petroleum residues, spent catalysts, utility ash, and vanadium-bearing pig iron slag. In 2009–13, small quantities of vanadium were produced as a coproduct from the mining of uraniferous sandstones on the Colorado Plateau. All coproduct vanadium production was suspended in 2014 and 2015. Metallurgical use, primarily as an alloying agent for iron and steel, accounted for about 93% of the domestic vanadium consumption in 2015. Of the other uses for vanadium, the major nonmetallurgical use was in catalysts for the production of maleic anhydride and sulfuric acid.


2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production, mine, mill 590 106 591 — — Imports for consumption: Ferrovanadium 2,220 4,190 3,710 3,230 3,300 Vanadium pentoxide, anhydride 2,800 1,640 2,040 3,410 3,500 Oxides and hydroxides, other 886 905 205 104 35 Aluminum-vanadium master alloys (gross weight) 86 115 169 431 260 Ash and residues 1,510 2,210 4,190 6,160 2,200 Sulfates 42 29 30 19 18 Vanadates 303 280 276 197 64 Vanadium metal, including waste & scrap (gross weight) 44 154 35 161 113 Exports: Ferrovanadium 316 337 299 253 120 Vanadium pentoxide, anhydride 89 62 90 201 105 Oxides and hydroxides, other 264 305 427 350 200 Aluminum-vanadium master alloys (gross weight) 318 432 347 443 45 Vanadium metal, including waste & scrap (gross weight) 102 26 58 32 14 Consumption: Reported 4,140 3,960 3,980 4,070 3,600 Apparent 7,570 8,530 10,100 12,300 9,100 Price, average, dollars


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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 per pound V2O5 6.76 6.49 6.04 5.61 4.40 Stocks, consumer, yearend 193 219 220 225 180 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 92 99 94 100 100 Recycling: The quantity of vanadium recycled from spent chemical process catalysts was significant and may compose as much as 40% of total vanadium catalysts. Some tool steel scrap was recycled primarily for its vanadium content but this only accounted for a small percentage of total vanadium used. Import Sources (2011–14):

Ferrovanadium: Czech Republic, 43%; Canada, 22%; Republic of Korea, 18%; Austria, 14%; and other, 3%.

Vanadium pentoxide: South Africa, 40%; Russia, 35%; China, 18%; and other, 7%.

World Resources: World resources of vanadium exceed 63 million tons. Vanadium occurs in deposits of phosphate rock, titaniferous magnetite, and uraniferous sandstone and siltstone, in which it constitutes less than 2% of the host rock. Significant quantities are also present in bauxite and carboniferous materials, such as coal, crude oil, oil shale, and tar sands. Because vanadium is typically recovered as a byproduct or coproduct, demonstrated world resources of the element are not fully indicative of available supplies. Although domestic resources and secondary recovery are adequate to supply a large portion of domestic needs, all of U.S. demand is currently met by foreign sources.

Vanadium Recycling

From Vanadium Depletion Including Recycling, L. David Roper, July 2, 2016:

It appears that the recent rapid rise in extraction rate is unsustainable for more that a few decades or so from now.

Taking an average extraction curve of the two fits, the crossover point at ~2009 when the amount extracted is equal to the amount left to be extracted is shown here:


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Vanadium recycling could become a valuable recycling operation as the price continues to rise in the future. One source will be from chemical process catalyst recycling. From Gulf Chemical & Metallurgical Corporation, Freeport, Texas, website:

Reclaimed Products That Meet The Most Demanding Specifications The strategic metals that we recover from spent catalysts are made into a variety of high-purity specialty products, matching our reclaimed products to the customer’s specifications. We maintain an on-site, state-of-the-art laboratory that not only verifies incoming catalyst compatibility, but also ensures the tightest quality control on finished products. We can supply products for use in specialty chemical and catalyst applications as well as products for critical steel, foundry and superalloy processes. To enhance our capabilities in meeting a diverse range of product requirements, we recently acquired Bear Metallurgical Company of Butler, Pennsylvania, the largest toll converter of ferrovanadium and ferromolybdenum in North America.

Another eventual source will be from solar storage batteries. From Gigacom website, “The everlasting battery is made from recycled vanadium and ready to plug in”, Katie Fahrenbacher, October 23, 2014:

After a decade of development, a $100 million in funding, and some twists and turns (including a name change), Silicon Valley startup Imergy Power Systems will soon start shipping the next generation of its batteries made from recycled vanadium. The 50-kilowatt battery will be available next month and can store up to 200 kilowatt hours of electricity, using vanadium recycled from mining and power combustion industries as well as environmental waste.

The idea is that customers — like commercial building owners or solar farm developers — can buy these batteries to help lower their monthly energy bills in various ways or help them disconnect from the grid. For example, in Hawaii where electricity is ultra expensive, building owners could charge up the batteries at night, when electricity rates are cheap, and run off of batteries during the day when electricity rates are expensive. Solar farm owners could use the batteries to store electricity from the sun during the day, to be used at night when the sun goes down.


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Unfortunately, like many alternate energy ventures, Imergy was too early because the fantasy that the past can be maintained indefinitely is still alive and well. From Greentech Media website:

Flow Battery Aspirant Imergy Has Let Go Its Staff and Is Selling Its Assets

VC-funded storage startups repeating VC-funded solar startup history? Herman, the GTM skull, has returned, by Eric Wesoff, July 29, 2016

Flow battery developer Imergy, the former Deeya, raised more than $100 million from Technology Partners, NEA, DFJ, BlueRun Ventures and SunEdison to commercialize a long-duration energy storage solution. (GTM Squared took a deep look at this technology here.) The company pivoted from its original iron-chromium chemistry to a vanadium electrolyte in 2013. Imergy also moved from the sulfuric acid usually used with vanadium to another acid, which aimed to reduce the problem of hydrogen forming in the charged electrolyte

Imergy was working with contract manufacturer Flextronics to build a 5-kilowatt/30-kilowatt-hour battery for cellular towers and remote applications in India -- the application earnestly cited by all desperate flow-battery, battery and fuel cell manufacturers.

The now-bankrupt SunEdison had agreed to buy up to 1,000 of Imergy's 30-kilowatt units over the next three years for deployment in, wait for it, India, of course. It was by far the biggest single mirage of an order that Imergy -- or perhaps any other flow battery manufacturer -- had ever received. And it disappeared just like SunEdison.

The offering letter makes some brave claims on the firm's cost-competitiveness, asserting that Imergy can "reduce the manufacturing costs of the flow batteries from $500 per kilowatt-hour, already an industry benchmark, to under $300 per kilowatt-hour."

The energy storage market is dynamic and growing -- the U.S. deployed 226 megawatts of storage in 2015, up 251 percent over 2014, according to GTM Research.

But sadly, most VC-funded companies fail, and Imergy, with its many good people, won't be our last energy storage startup obituary.

Zinc Production From SNL Metals & Mining, “U.S. Mines to Market”, September, 2014:

Nearly 80 percent of zinc is used in galvanizing to protect steel from corrosion. Zinc is also used in the production of alloys for the die casting industry, and to produce brass and bronze. Other applications include the use of rolled zinc in roofing, gutters and drainage pipes. Zinc oxide and sulfate are used to produce zinc-based chemicals. These applications are found in a wide variety of products in the construction, transport, consumer goods, electrical appliances and general engineering sectors.

The most important role for zinc in the galvanizing industry is to produce superior corrosion protection for steel elements. In the United States some $121 billion is spent annually on corrosion protection


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systems. Most original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) utilize hot-dip galvanized steel because of its durability and maintenance-free qualities. Fire engines, tow trucks and salt spreaders are increasingly turning to galvanized steel.

In the chemical industry, zinc is used in the manufacturing of bleaches for the textile and paper industries. Zinc dust is used as a precipitant for copper, cadmium, gold and silver processing, and as a catalyst in the production of benzene and gasoline. Zinc dust also improves high-temperature performance and is used in brake linings in the automotive sector. Other diverse applications include explosives, fireworks, match heads, smoke compounds and soot removal agents...

The United States is the fifth largest producer of mined zinc, accounting for almost 6 percent of global production in 2013. Some 760,000 tons of zinc (contained) was mined in the U.S. during 2013, with refinery production at 250,000 tons. The country consumed 950,000 tons of refined metal with a negative trade balance of 685,000 tons of refined zinc metal. While the United States is a net exporter of zinc ore and concentrates, it is a net importer of refined zinc metal…

See Figure 7, “Top U.S. Zinc Mines”.

The largest zinc operation by far is the Red Dog mine in Alaska, one of the world’s largest zinc mines, that produces over 550,000 tons of zinc annually, accounting for over 70 percent of the country’s mined zinc output and more than 4 percent of global production. By virtue of its size, high grade ore (17-20 percent zinc) and open-pit mining method, Red Dog is able to operate at relatively low cash costs.

The other zinc mines in the United States produce significant amounts of by-product metals, such as lead (Doe Run) or gold (Green’s Creek), which help lower costs when netted-off against zinc costs. However, costs at the underground mines in Tennessee are high.

From USGS report on zinc production:

Domestic Production and Use: The value of zinc mined in 2015, based on zinc contained in concentrate, was about $1.78 billion. Zinc was mined in 5 States at 15 mines operated by 4 companies. Four facilities, one primary and three secondary, operated by three companies, produced commercial-grade zinc metal. Of the total reported zinc consumed, about 80% was used in galvanizing, 6% in brass and bronze, 5% in zinc-base alloys, and 9% in other uses.


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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production: Mine, zinc in concentrate 769 738 784 832 850 Metal production: At primary smelters 110 114 106 110 125 At secondary smelters 138 147 127 70 50 Imports for consumption: Zinc in ore and concentrate 27 6 3 >0.5 >0.5 Refined zinc 716 655 713 805 800 Exports: Zinc in ore and concentrate 653 591 669 644 740 Refined zinc 18 14 12 20 15 Consumption, apparent, refined zinc 946 902 935 965 960 Price, average, cents per pound: North American 106.2 95.8 95.6 107.1 95.0 London Metal Exchange (LME), cash 99.5 88.3 86.6 98.1 87.0 Employment: Mine and mill, number 2,240 2,310 2,560 2,620 2,680 Smelter, primary, number 244 252 257 259 259 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption (refined zinc) 74 71 75 81 82 Recycling: In 2015, about 37% (65,000 tons) of the refined zinc produced in the United States was recovered from secondary materials at both primary and secondary smelters. Secondary materials included galvanizing residues and crude zinc oxide recovered from electric arc furnace dust. Import Sources (2011–14):

Ore and concentrate: Peru, 50%; Canada, 30%; Mexico, 16%; and Turkey, 4%.

Refined metal: Canada, 64%; Mexico, 13%; Peru, 8%; Australia, 7%; and other, 8%.

Waste and scrap: Canada, 72%; Mexico, 24%; and other, 4%.

Combined total: Canada, 64%; Mexico, 14%; Peru, 9%; Australia, 7%; and other, 6%.

World Resources: Identified zinc resources of the world are about 1.9 billion metric tons.


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Why does the U.S. mine zinc ore and concentrate and then export it to Canada and Mexico where the refined zinc is produced? The U.S. has one smelter operating in Clarksville, Tennessee owned by Nyrstar, an international corporation based in Belgium. From Wikipedia:

Through 1940, the production of primary zinc by US smelters approximated the mined production of zinc ore. When zinc demand increased during World War II, US smelters turned to foreign zinc ore. US-smelted zinc reached a high of 926,000 metric tons in 1970, then dropped as smelters closed. There were 12 primary zinc smelters in 1970, but only 7 in 1980, 3 in 1990, and two in 2000. Today, there is only one operating primary zinc smelter, in Clarksville, Tennessee, which produces zinc from mines in the East Tennessee and Middle Tennessee districts. All other zinc ore is exported, and smelted abroad.

The answer is environmental regulations made it too expensive for the old U.S. zinc smelters to operate in the United States. That is partly the reason we only have one U.S. zinc smelter. Another reason is Teck, Canada’s largest diversified resource company, operates two of the five largest zinc mines in the world. The Red Dog mine in northwest Alaska is the world's second largest zinc mine, accounting for 530kt of zinc in 2013.

The company, however, does not refine all the ore and concentrate produced at its mines. The only zinc refining Teck does is at the company's metallurgical facility in Trail, BC. So they mine the zinc ore in Alaska, refine it across the border in Canada, and then sell it at a higher price to Uncle Sam. Good deal, huh? We get most of the rest of the refined zinc from Mexico, Peru, and Australia, who use their own zinc ore.

A number of elements are recovered in flue gas and flue dust in zinc smelters. These include the metal cadmium and the semi-metals gallium and germanium. In 1970, for every ton of zinc produced at a US smelter, there were also recovered 4.2 kilograms of cadmium, 53 grams of germanium, 18 grams of indium, and 2.9 grams of thallium. These elements are concentrated as impurities in the zinc mineral sphalerite. The elements are more abundant in sphalerite from ore deposits with lower formation temperatures, such as Mississippi Valley-type deposits. The middle- and east-Tennessee zinc mines are Mississippi Valley-type.

Note that the Nyrstar Clarksville, Tennessee smelter produces cadmium metal and germanium concentrate, which is sorely needed.

Cadmium recovered in zinc smelting is the only commercial source of cadmium. Gallium and germanium are also recovered some from other sulfide ores. Some germanium is also recovered from aluminum smelting. In previous years, indium and thallium were recovered from zinc smelting, but as of 2015, they were not being recovered from American zinc smelters.

So we have nothing but foreign owned corporations furnishing Uncle Sammy all the refined zinc he wants, and he wants a lot for mostly all his galvanized steel.


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Zinc Recycling

From Wikipedia:

Secondary zinc smelters produce zinc from recycled materials. A secondary zinc smelter in Pennsylvania closed in 2014, the operations being shifted to a new smelter in North Carolina using solvent extraction/electrowinning (SX/EW). In addition, some non-smelting zinc recycling operations produced small amounts of zinc. The total amount of zinc produced from secondary operations was 70 tons. For primary and secondary smelters taken together, recycled products accounted for 52 percent of the refined zinc produced in US in 2014.

The zinc recycling operation is owned by Horsehead Corp. based in Pittsburg, Pa. Finally, an American owned company is still in the game, barely after emerging from Chapter 11, producing refined zinc. They also recycle nickel, chromium, iron, molybdenum, and cadmium in other facilities.

Zirconium Production

Domestic Production and Use: In 2015, three firms recovered zircon (zirconium silicate) from surface-mining operations in Florida, Georgia, and Virginia as a coproduct from the mining and processing of heavy minerals. Zirconium metal and hafnium metal were produced from zirconium chemical intermediates by one domestic producer in Oregon and one in Utah. Typically, zirconium and hafnium are contained in zircon at a ratio of about 50 to 1. Zirconium chemicals were produced by the metal producer in Oregon and by at least 10 other companies. Ceramics, foundry sand applications, opacifiers, and refractories are the leading end uses for zircon. Other end uses of zircon include abrasives, chemicals (predominantly, zirconium oxychloride octohydrate and zirconium basic sulfate as intermediate chemicals), metal alloys, and welding rod coatings. The leading consumers of zirconium metal and hafnium metal are the nuclear energy and chemical process industries.

From Carex Canada website (Vanadium Uses):

The primary industrial use of vanadium pentoxide is in ferrovanadium, which is then used to produce high strength, low alloy steels. Smaller amounts of vanadium pentoxide are used in titanium-aluminum alloys, which have applications in the aerospace industry. Vanadium compounds are also used in pigments and inks, as colouring agents, and as UV filters in some glasses, as well as in producing plastics, rubbers, ceramics, and other metals.

Vanadium pentoxide is used as an oxidation catalyst in industrial synthesis processes such as manufacturing sulphuric acid, and in catalytic converters for automobiles. One specialty application for vanadium pentoxide is in Vanadium Redox Batteries (VRB), which are large-scale electrochemical energy storage systems.


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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production, zircon (ZrO2 content) ? ? ? ? 60,000 Imports: Zirconium, ores and concentrates (ZrO2 content) 17,200 16,700 8,050 32,800 20,700 Zirconium, unwrought, powder, and waste and scrap 487 279 395 843 1,400 Zirconium, wrought 390 288 321 257 195 Hafnium, unwrought, powder, and waste and scrap 10 24 10 21 55 Exports: Zirconium ores and concentrates (ZrO2 content) 15,800 13,000 19,000 4,850 2,830 Zirconium, unwrought, powder, and waste and scrap 677 554 600 534 470 Zirconium, wrought 1,330 1,250 1,140 913 1,030 Consumption, apparent, zirconium ores and concentrates, (ZrO2 content) ? ? ? ? 80,000 Prices: Zircon, dollars per metric ton (gross weight): Domestic 2,650 2,650 1,050 1,050 1,050 Imported 2,122 2,533 996 1,106 1,052 Zirconium, unwrought, import, France, dollars per kilogram 64 91 75 59 86 Hafnium, unwrought, import, France, dollars per kilogram 544 503 578 561 608 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption: Zirconium <10 <10 0 <50 <25 Recycling: Companies in Oregon and Utah recycled zirconium from new scrap generated during metal production and fabrication and/or from post-commercial old scrap. Zircon foundry mold cores


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and spent or rejected zirconia refractories are often recycled. Hafnium metal recycling was insignificant.


Zirconium mineral concentrates: South Africa, 67%; Australia, 28%; and other, 5%.

Zirconium, unwrought, including powder: China, 44%; Japan, 30%; Germany, 20%; France, 4%; and other, 2%.

Hafnium, unwrought: France, 47%; Germany, 28%; Australia, 17%; United Kingdom, 5%; and other, 3%.

World Resources: Resources of zircon in the United States included about 14 million tons associated with titanium resources in heavy-mineral sand deposits. Phosphate rock and sand and gravel deposits could potentially yield substantial amounts of zircon as a byproduct. World resources of hafnium are associated with those of zircon and baddeleyite. Quantitative estimates of hafnium resources are not available.

Zirconium Recycling:

From Greystone Alloys, Houston, Texas, website:

Zirconium is resistant to corrosion in most organic acids. Its corrosion resistance comes from a chemically inert oxide that forms to protect the metal. This makes zirconium especially important to the chemical processing industry.

Greystone Alloys accumulates smaller quantities of Zirconium and other nickel alloys combining them into larger orders for processors and mills.

From North Georgia Textile Supply, Summerville, Georgia, website:

Zircon comes in many forms and has many uses. We at NGTS recycling can process and handle all forms of zircon and have great solutions to provide your facility. If you produce zircon scrap or high zirconium waste give us a call for the best solutions in waste management. Recycling zircon is important due to the amount of effort that is needed to produce a product from this element. From mining, refining, product production and to end of life. Zirconium is too important to let it be sent to landfill due to lack of options.

From Quest Metals website:

Only a few U.S. companies offer zirconium scrap recycling, and Quest Alloys is one of them. We specialize in recycling all zirconium alloys and will travel to any place in the world to inspect, sample and verify zirconium materials. Our team also specializes in processing zirconium heat exchangers for industrial and refinery vendors. But what truly sets us apart is our ability to handle all logistics regarding the import and export of your zirconium material.


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Miscellaneous High Imports

A few miscellaneous important compounds are predominantly imported. Two important compounds that the U.S. needs and must be 100% imported are sheet mica and fluorspar. From USGS report on Mica production:

Domestic Production and Use: Scrap and flake mica production, excluding low-quality sericite, was estimated to be 41,500 tons valued at $4.5 million. Mica was mined in Georgia, North Carolina, South Dakota, and Virginia. Scrap mica was recovered principally from mica and sericite schist and as a byproduct from feldspar, industrial sand beneficiation, and kaolin. Seven companies produced 67,800 tons of ground mica valued at about $21 million from domestic and imported scrap and flake mica. The majority of domestic production was processed into small particle-size mica by either wet or dry grinding. Primary uses were joint compound, oil-well-drilling additives, paint, roofing, and rubber products.

A minor amount of sheet mica was produced as incidental production from feldspar mining in the Spruce Pine area of North Carolina. The domestic consuming industry was dependent upon imports to meet demand for sheet mica. Most sheet mica was fabricated into parts for electrical and electronic equipment.


2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Scrap and flake: Production: Mine 52,000 47,500 48,100 46,000 41,500 Ground 80,400 78,500 79,200 73,800 67,800 Imports, mica powder and mica waste 27,500 27,200 30,900 32,800 35,200 Exports, mica powder and mica waste 5,870 5,900 6,380 8,080 8,340 Consumption, apparent 73,600 68,800 72,600 70,700 68,400 Price, average, dollars per metric ton, reported: Scrap and flake 133 128 124 120 109 Ground: Dry 281 281 279 285 280 Wet 360 360 360 369 370 Employment, mine, number NA NA NA NA NA Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 29 31 34 35 39 Sheet: Production, mine >0.5 >0.5 >0.5 >0.5 >0.5 Imports, plates, sheets, strips; worked mica;


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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 split block; splittings; other >$1.00/kg 2,190 2,380 1,910 2,470 2,510 Exports, plates, sheets, strips; worked mica; crude and rifted into sheet or splittings >$1.00/kg 1,040 1,660 1,150 1,030 1,070 Consumption, apparent 1,160 716 757 1,400 1,440 Price, average value, dollars per kilogram, muscovite and phlogopite mica, reported: Block 152 145 129 148 150 Splittings 1.63 1.72 1.72 1.70 1.70 Stocks, fabricator and trader, yearend NA NA NA NA NA Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 100 100 100 100 100 Recycling: None. Import Sources (2011–14):

Scrap and flake: Canada, 49%; China, 34%; Finland, 7%; India, 4%; and other, 6%.

Sheet: India, 54%; Brazil, 17%; China, 15%; Belgium, 5%; and other, 9%

World Resources: Resources of scrap and flake mica are available in clay deposits, granite, pegmatite, and schist, and are considered more than adequate to meet anticipated world demand in the foreseeable future. World resources of sheet mica have not been formally evaluated because of the sporadic occurrence of this material. Large deposits of mica-bearing rock are known to exist in countries such as Brazil, India, and Madagascar. Limited resources of sheet mica are available in the United States. Domestic resources are uneconomic because of the high cost of hand labor required to mine and process sheet mica from pegmatites.

From USGS report on Fluorspar production:

Domestic Production and Use: In 2015, minimal fluorspar (calcium fluoride, CaF2) was produced in the United States. One company sold fluorspar from stockpiles produced as a byproduct of its limestone quarrying operation in Cave-in-Rock, IL. The same company also continued development work and stockpiling of ore for future processing at the Klondike II fluorspar mine in Kentucky. Synthetic fluorspar may have been recovered as a byproduct of petroleum alkylation, stainless steel pickling, and uranium processing, but no data were collected from any of these operations.


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U.S. fluorspar consumption was supplied by imports and small amounts of byproduct synthetic fluorspar. Domestically, production of hydrofluoric acid (HF) in Louisiana and Texas was by far the leading use for acid-grade fluorspar. HF is the primary feedstock for the manufacture of virtually all fluorine-bearing chemicals and is also a key ingredient in the processing of aluminum and uranium. Fluorspar was also used in cement production, in enamels, as a flux in steelmaking, in glass manufacture, in iron and steel casting, and in welding rod coatings.

An estimated 70,000 tons of fluorosilicic acid (equivalent to about 114,000 tons of fluorspar grading 100%) was recovered from five phosphoric acid plants processing phosphate rock. Fluorosilicic acid was used primarily in water fluoridation.


2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Production: Finished, all grades NA NA NA NA NA Fluorspar equivalent from phosphate rock 114 120 121 114 114 Imports for consumption: Acid grade 560 464 512 291 330 Metallurgical grade 167 156 130 123 60 Total fluorspar imports 727 620 643 414 390 Hydrofluoric acid 132 133 119 125 131 Aluminum fluoride 41 50 43 38 38 Cryolite 10 8 19 16 20 Exports 24 24 16 13 15 Consumption: Reported 456 416 441 ? ? Apparent 672 525 548 518 440 Price, acid grade, yearend, dollars per ton: Filtercake 400–450 400–450 350 290–330 290–330 Arsenic <5 parts per million 540–550 540–550 540–550 370–420 370–420 Stocks, yearend, consumer and dealer 162 234 313 196 130 Employment, mine, number 11 5 6 6 5 Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption 100 100 100 100 100 Recycling: A few thousand tons per year of synthetic fluorspar are recovered—primarily from uranium enrichment, but also from petroleum alkylation and stainless steel pickling. Primary aluminum producers recycle HF and fluorides from smelting operations. HF is recycled in the petroleum alkylation process.


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Import Sources (2011–14): Mexico, 76%; China, 11%; South Africa, 8%; Mongolia, 3%; and other, 2%.

World Resources: Identified world fluorspar resources were approximately 500 million tons of contained fluorspar. Additionally, enormous quantities of fluorine are present in phosphate rock. Current U.S. reserves of phosphate rock are estimated to be 1.1 billion tons, containing about 79 million tons of 100% fluorspar equivalent. World reserves of phosphate rock are estimated to be 69 billion tons, equivalent to about 4.8 billion tons of 100% fluorspar equivalent.

Note that not only is hydrofluoric acid a catalyst for the refining process called “alkylation” but also the feedstock for the production of refrigerants and other fluorocarbons like Teflon. From Wikipedia:

Hydrofluoric acid has a variety of uses in industry and research. It is used as a starting material or intermediate in industrial chemistry, mining, refining, glass finishing, silicon chip manufacturing, and in cleaning.

Oil refining

In a standard oil refinery process known as alkylation, isobutane is alkylated with low-molecular-weight alkenes (primarily a mixture of propylene and butylene) in the presence of the strong acid catalyst derived from hydrofluoric acid. The catalyst protonates the alkenes (propylene, butylene) to produce reactive carbocations, which alkylate isobutane. The reaction is carried out at mild temperatures (0 and 30 °C) in a two-phase reaction.

Production of organofluorine compounds

The principal use of hydrofluoric acid is in organofluorine chemistry. Many organofluorine compounds are prepared using HF as the fluorine source, including Teflon, fluoropolymers, fluorocarbons, and refrigerants such as Freon.

Production of fluorides

Most high-volume inorganic fluoride compounds are prepared from hydrofluoric acid. Foremost are Na3AlF6, cryolite, and AlF3, aluminium trifluoride. A molten mixture of these solids serves as a high-temperature solvent for the production of metallic aluminium. Given concerns about fluorides in the environment, alternative technologies are being sought. Other inorganic fluorides prepared from hydrofluoric acid include sodium fluoride and uranium hexafluoride.

Etchant and cleaning agent

In metalworking, hydrofluoric acid is used as a pickling agent to remove oxides and other impurities from stainless and carbon steels because of its limited ability to dissolve steel. It is used in the semiconductor industry as a major component of Wright Etch and buffered oxide etch, which are used to clean silicon wafers. In a similar manner it is also used to etch glass by reacting


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with silicon dioxide to form gaseous or water-soluble silicon fluorides. It can also be used to polish and frost glass.

SiO2 + 4 HF → SiF4 (g) + 2 H2O

SiO2 + 6 HF → H2SiF6 + 2 H2O

A 5% to 9% hydrofluoric acid gel is also commonly used to etch all ceramic dental restorations to improve bonding. For similar reasons, dilute hydrofluoric acid is a component of household rust stain remover, in car washes in "wheel cleaner" compounds, in ceramic and fabric rust inhibitors, and in water spot removers. Because of its ability to dissolve iron oxides as well as silica-based contaminants, hydrofluoric acid is used in pre-commissioning boilers that produce high-pressure steam.

Niche applications

Because of its ability to dissolve (most) oxides and silicates, hydrofluoric acid is useful for dissolving rock samples (usually powdered) prior to analysis. In similar manner, this acid is used in acid macerations to extract organic fossils from silicate rocks. Fossiliferous rock may be immersed directly into the acid, or a cellulose nitrate film may be applied (dissolved in amyl acetate), which adheres to the organic component and allows the rock to be dissolved around it.

Diluted hydrofluoric acid (1 to 3 %wt.) is used in the petroleum industry in a mixture with other acids (HCl or organic acids) in order to stimulate the production of water, oil, and gas wells specifically where sandstone is involved.

Hydrofluoric acid is also used by some collectors of antique glass bottles to remove so-called 'sickness' from the glass, caused by acids (usually in the soil the bottle was buried in) attacking the soda content of the glass Offset printing companies use hydrofluoric acid to remove unwanted images from printing plates.

Felt-tip markers called "deletion pens" are available to make the process safer for the worker.

So, you think a U.S. fluorspar supply is important!?

Rare Earth Metals Production

From Wikipedia:

A rare earth element (REE) or rare earth metal (REM), as defined by IUPAC, is one of a set of seventeen chemical elements in the periodic table, specifically the fifteen lanthanides, as well as scandium and yttrium. Scandium and yttrium are considered rare earth elements because they tend to occur in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides and exhibit similar chemical properties.


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Rare earth elements are cerium (Ce), dysprosium (Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho),

lanthanum (La), lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb) and yttrium (Y).

Despite their name, rare earth elements are – with the exception of the radioactive promethium – relatively plentiful in Earth's crust, with cerium being the 25th most abundant element at 68 parts per million, or as abundant as copper. They are not especially rare, but they tend to occur together in nature and are difficult to separate from one another. However, because of their geochemical properties, rare earth elements are typically dispersed and not often found concentrated as rare earth minerals in economically exploitable ore deposits.

The first such mineral discovered was gadolinite, a mineral composed of cerium, yttrium, iron, silicon and other elements. This mineral was extracted from a mine in the village of Ytterby in Sweden; four of the rare earth elements bear names derived from this single location.

From the Council on Foreign Relations Energy Report, “Rare Earth Elements and National Security”, October 2014:

Many Americans received their first introduction to rare earth elements (REEs) in 2010, when the previously obscure commodities became the subjects of front-page headlines. Amid news of an alleged Chinese embargo on REE exports and ensuing concerns over potential supply disruptions, the news-reading public suddenly realized that these raw materials underpin products they care about. Policymakers and industry executives voiced concern over the many high-tech products reliant on REEs—ranging from U.S. defense systems to green technologies such as wind turbines and electric cars. Meanwhile, average citizens not motivated by policy battles or supply-chain vulnerabilities wanted rare earth products to make their cell phones vibrate, their headphones sound perfect, and their gasoline a little cheaper. As the occasional story had noted for years, REEs are wonder materials. The central problem brought into sharp relief in 2010 was that China had cornered the supply. If ever China were looking for natural resources that its political leaders could use to extract high profits and geopolitical leverage, rare earths appeared a near-perfect candidate. At the time of the alleged 2010 embargo, Chinese firms accounted for 97 percent of rare-earth oxide production and a large fraction of the processing business that turns these into rare earth metals, alloys, and products like magnets. This near-monopoly was in a market with surging demand and intense political resonance in consuming countries. And the most dependent countries—primarily Japan and the United States, but also several European states—happened to be those over which China most wanted influence. Panicked policymakers in the United States and elsewhere began to consider extraordinary measures to protect their countries from potential Chinese leverage. But even with such apparently favorable circumstances, market power and political leverage proved fleeting and difficult to exploit. China’s advantages in the rare earths market were already slipping away as early as 2010 due to normal market behavior—particularly increases in non- Chinese production and processing capacity, as well as innovations that have helped to reduce demand for some of the most crucial REEs.


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The U.S. recently attempted to correct this Chinese monopoly with support for U. Rare Earth’s, Inc. From “Critical Materials Institute rare-earth recycling invention licensed”, August 10, 2015: A new technology developed by the U.S. Department of Energy's Critical Materials Institute that aids in the recycling, recovery and extraction of rare earth minerals has been licensed to U.S. Rare Earths, Inc.

The membrane solvent extraction system, invented by CMI partners Oak Ridge and Idaho national laboratories, is the first commercially licensed technology developed through the CMI.

The recycling of critical materials from electronic waste has been limited by processing technologies that are inefficient, costly and environmentally hazardous. ORNL's Ramesh Bhave, who led the membrane solvent extraction research and development, says the team's new simplified process eliminates many of these barriers.

"Our single-step process to recover rare-earth elements from scrap magnets is more environmentally friendly and has the potential to be a more cost-effective approach compared to conventional routes such as precipitation," Bhave said.

The technology uses a combination of hollow fiber membranes, organic solvents and neutral extractants to selectively recover rare-earth elements such as neodymium, dysprosium and praseodymium. These elements have a key function in permanent magnets used in cars, cell phones, hard disk drives, computers and electric motors.

In laboratory testing, the membrane extraction system demonstrated the potential to recover more than 90 percent of neodymium, dysprosium and praseodymium in a highly pure form from scrap neodymium-based magnets. Through its licensing agreements with ORNL, U.S. Rare Earths intends to apply the technology to recover rare earth elements from old electronics and from its mining claims in the United States.

That is one step forward, but one step back has been taken recently. From Rare Earth Investing News, November 1, 2016:

That meant a challenging year for rare earth juniors, and for companies targeting rare earth production outside of China in general. Molycorp (OTCMKTS:MCPIQ), once North America’s only producing rare earths miner, filed for bankruptcy protection las summer and shuttered its Mountain Pass operations later in the year. Meanwhile, China remains the world’s top rare earth producing country, responsible for the vast majority of production worldwide…

These are the top six rare earth-producing countries based on rare earth production data from 2015, according to the US Geological Survey (USGS):

1. China, Mine Production: 105,000 tons 2. Australia, Mine Production: 10,000 tons 3. United States, Mine Production: 4,100 tons 4. Russia, Mine Production: 2,500 tons


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5. Thailand, Mine Production: 1,100 tons 6. Malaysia, Mine Production: 200 tons

See Figure 8, “Rare Earth Metals Production”. So, the U.S. remains dependent on China for rare earth metals.


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FIGURE 1

PERIODIC TABLE OF KNOWN ELEMENTS


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TABLE 10 TOP U.S. MINES – SILVER (2013)

State

Share of U.S. Production Production

(t) (%)

Controlling company

World Production 25,800

U.S. Production 1,106 4.3 (% of world) Greens Creek Alaska 232 20.9 Hecla Mining Co. (Polymetallic Mine) Red Dog Alaska 200 18.1 Teck Resources Ltd. (Zinc/Lead Mine) Newmont Nevada Nevada 90 8.1 Newmont Mining Corp. (Gold Mines) Bingham Canyon Utah 89 8.1 Rio Tinto Group (Copper Mine) Rochester Nevada 87 7.9 Coeur Mining Inc. (Primary Silver Mine)

FIGURE 2

TOP U.S. SILVER MINES


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FIGURE 3

SILVER PRODUCTION/CONSUMPTION AND NET TRADE

U.S. PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND

-6,000

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 -2000 -4000

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013


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FIGURE 4

STEEL PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES

LAST TWO MAJOR RECESSIONS


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FIGURE 5

OVERALL STEEL RECYCLING RATE THROUGH 2013


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FIGURE 6

IMPORTS OF STAINLESS STEEL INTO THE U.S.


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TABLE 11 TOP U.S. MINES – ZINC (2013)

State

Production

(kt)

Share of U.S. Production

(%)

Controlling company

World Production 13,600

U.S. Production (% of world)

765 5.6

Red Dog Alaska 551 72.1 Teck Resources Ltd.

East Tennessee Tennessee 71 9.3 Nyrstar NV

Greens Creek Alaska 58 7.5 Hecla Mining Co. (Polymetallic Mine)

Mid Tennessee Tennessee 50 6.5 Nyrstar NV Complex Doe Run (Viburnum) Missouri 30 3.9 the Doe Run Co.

FIGURE 7

TOP U.S. ZINC MINES

FUTURE TRENDS – RECYCLING – METALS

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FIGURE 8

RARE EARTH METALS PRODUCTION

Rare Earth Element Production: This chart shows a history of rare earth element production, in metric tons of rare earth oxide equivalent, between 1950 and 2015. It clearly shows the United States' entry into the market in the mid-1960s when color television exploded demand. When China began selling rare earths at very low prices in the late-1980s and early-1990s, mines in the United States were forced to close because they could no longer make a profit. When China cut exports in 2010, rare earth prices skyrocketed. That motivated new production in the United States, Australia, Russia, Thailand, Malaysia, and other countries.

future trends - recycling - metals - part iii

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