FUNDAMENTALS OFWIRELESS SENSORNETWORKSTHEORY AND PRACTICE

Waltenegus DargieTechnical University of Dresden, Germany

Christian PoellabauerUniversity of Notre Dame, USA

A John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Publication

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FUNDAMENTALS OFWIRELESS SENSORNETWORKS

Wiley Series on Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing

Series Editors: Dr Xuemin (Sherman) Shen, University of Waterloo, CanadaDr Yi Pan, Georgia State University, USA

The Wiley Series on Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing is a series of comprehensive,practical and timely books on wireless communication and network systems. The series focuses ontopics ranging from wireless communication and coding theory to wireless applications and pervasivecomputing. The books provide engineers and other technical professionals, researchers, educators, andadvanced students in these fields with invaluable insight into the latest developments and cutting-edgeresearch.

Other titles in the series:

Misic and Misic: Wireless Personal Area Networks: Performance, Interconnection, and Security withIEEE 802.15.4 , January 2008, 978-0-470-51847-2

Takagi and Walke: Spectrum Requirement Planning in Wireless Communications: Model andMethodology for IMT-Advanced , April 2008, 978-0-470-98647-9

Perez-Fontan and Espineira: Modeling the Wireless Propagation Channel: A simulation approach withMATLAB, August 2008, 978-0-470-72785-0

Ippolito: Satellite Communications Systems Engineering: Atmospheric Effects, Satellite Link Designand System Performance, August 2008, 978-0-470-72527-6

Lin and Sou: Charging for Mobile All-IP Telecommunications , September 2008, 978-0-470-77565-3

Myung and Goodman: Single Carrier FDMA: A New Air Interface for Long Term Evolution , October2008, 978-0-470-72449-1

Wang, Kondi, Luthra and Ci: 4G Wireless Video Communications , April 2009, 978-0-470-77307-9

Cai, Shen and Mark: Multimedia Services in Wireless Internet: Modeling and Analysis , June 2009,978-0-470-77065-8

Stojmenovic: Wireless Sensor and Actuator Networks: Algorithms and Protocols for ScalableCoordination and Data Communication, February 2010, 978-0-470-17082-3

Liu and Weiss, Wideband Beamforming: Concepts and Techniques, March 2010, 978-0-470-71392-1

Riccharia and Westbrook, Satellite Systems for Personal Applications: Concepts and Technology , July2010, 978-0-470-71428-7

Hart, Tao and Zhou: Mobile Multi-hop WiMAX: From Protocol to Performance, October 2010,978-0-470-99399-6

Qian, Muller and Chen: Security in Wireless Networks and Systems, January 2011,978-0-470-512128

FUNDAMENTALS OFWIRELESS SENSORNETWORKSTHEORY AND PRACTICE

Waltenegus DargieTechnical University of Dresden, Germany

Christian PoellabauerUniversity of Notre Dame, USA

A John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Publication

This edition first published 2010 2010 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Dargie, Waltenegus.Fundamentals of wireless sensor networks : theory and practice / Waltenegus Dargie, Christian Poellabauer.

p. cm.Includes index.ISBN 978-0-470-99765-9 (cloth)1. Wireless sensor networks. I. Poellabauer, Christian. II. Title.TK7872.D48D37 2010681.2 dc22

2010003984

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978-0-470-99765-9 (H/B)

Typeset in 10/12 Times by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India.Printed and Bound in Singapore by Markono

www.wiley.com

To my wife, Kathy,and my children, Joshua and Pheben

Waltenegus Dargie

To my wife, Rumana,and my children, Adam and Maya

Christian Poellabauer

Contents

About the Series Editors xv

Preface xvii

Part One: INTRODUCTION

1 Motivation for a Network of Wireless Sensor Nodes 31.1 Definitions and Background 4

1.1.1 Sensing and Sensors 41.1.2 Wireless Sensor Networks 7

1.2 Challenges and Constraints 91.2.1 Energy 101.2.2 Self-Management 111.2.3 Wireless Networking 111.2.4 Decentralized Management 121.2.5 Design Constraints 121.2.6 Security 131.2.7 Other Challenges 13

Exercises 14References 15

2 Applications 172.1 Structural Health Monitoring 17

2.1.1 Sensing Seismic Events 182.1.2 Single Damage Detection Using Natural Frequencies 192.1.3 Multiple Damage Detection Using Natural Frequencies 192.1.4 Multiple Damage Detection Using Mode Shapes 202.1.5 Coherence 212.1.6 Piezoelectric Effect 222.1.7 Prototypes 24

2.2 Traffic Control 262.2.1 The Sensing Task 262.2.2 Prototypes 30

2.3 Health Care 302.3.1 Available Sensors 322.3.2 Prototypes 32

viii Contents

2.4 Pipeline Monitoring 352.4.1 Prototype 35

2.5 Precision Agriculture 362.5.1 Prototypes 37

2.6 Active Volcano 382.6.1 Prototypes 39

2.7 Underground Mining 402.7.1 Sources of Accidents 412.7.2 The Sensing Task 42

Exercises 42References 44

3 Node Architecture 473.1 The Sensing Subsystem 48

3.1.1 Analog-to-Digital Converter 483.2 The Processor Subsystem 51

3.2.1 Architectural Overview 523.2.2 Microcontroller 543.2.3 Digital Signal Processor 543.2.4 Application-Specific Integrated Circuit 553.2.5 Field Programmable Gate Array 563.2.6 Comparison 57

3.3 Communication Interfaces 583.3.1 Serial Peripheral Interface 583.3.2 Inter-Integrated Circuit 593.3.3 Summary 61

3.4 Prototypes 623.4.1 The IMote Node Architecture 633.4.2 The XYZ Node Architecture 643.4.3 The Hogthrob Node Architecture 65

Exercises 66References 68

4 Operating Systems 694.1 Functional Aspects 70

4.1.1 Data Types 704.1.2 Scheduling 704.1.3 Stacks 714.1.4 System Calls 714.1.5 Handling Interrupts 714.1.6 Multithreading 724.1.7 Thread-Based vs Event-Based Programming 724.1.8 Memory Allocation 73

4.2 Nonfunctional Aspects 734.2.1 Separation of Concern 734.2.2 System Overhead 74

Contents ix

4.2.3 Portability 744.2.4 Dynamic Reprogramming 74

4.3 Prototypes 754.3.1 TinyOS 754.3.2 SOS 784.3.3 Contiki 804.3.4 LiteOS 85

4.4 Evaluation 88Exercises 90References 91

Part Two: BASIC ARCHITECTURAL FRAMEWORK

5 Physical Layer 955.1 Basic Components 955.2 Source Encoding 96

5.2.1 The Efficiency of a Source Encoder 985.2.2 Pulse Code Modulation and Delta Modulation 100

5.3 Channel Encoding 1015.3.1 Types of Channels 1035.3.2 Information Transmission over a Channel 1045.3.3 Error Recognition and Correction 106

5.4 Modulation 1065.4.1 Modulation Types 1065.4.2 Quadratic Amplitude Modulation 1145.4.3 Summary 117

5.5 Signal Propagation 117Exercises 119References 123

6 Medium Access Control 1256.1 Overview 125

6.1.1 Contention-Free Medium Access 1276.1.2 Contention-Based Medium Access 127

6.2 Wireless MAC Protocols 1286.2.1 Carrier Sense Multiple Access 1296.2.2 Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA) and MACAW 1296.2.3 MACA By Invitation 1306.2.4 IEEE 802.11 1306.2.5 IEEE 802.15.4 and ZigBee 132

6.3 Characteristics of MAC Protocols in Sensor Networks 1336.3.1 Energy Efficiency 1336.3.2 Scalability 1346.3.3 Adaptability 134

x Contents

6.3.4 Low Latency and Predictability 1356.3.5 Reliability 135

6.4 Contention-Free MAC Protocols 1356.4.1 Characteristics 1366.4.2 Traffic-Adaptive Medium Access 1366.4.3 Y-MAC 1376.4.4 DESYNC-TDMA 1396.4.5 Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy 1406.4.6 Lightweight Medium Access Control 143

6.5 Contention-Based MAC Protocols 1446.5.1 Power Aware Multi-Access with Signaling 1446.5.2 Sensor MAC 1466.5.3 Timeout MAC 1466.5.4 Pattern MAC 1486.5.5 Routing-Enhanced MAC 1496.5.6 Data-Gathering MAC 1516.5.7 Preamble Sampling and WiseMAC 1526.5.8 Receiver-Initiated MAC 153

6.6 Hybrid MAC Protocols 1546.6.1 Zebra MAC 1546.6.2 Mobility Adaptive Hybrid MAC 156

6.7 Summary 157Exercises 157References 161

7 Network Layer 1637.1 Overview 1637.2 Routing Metrics 165

7.2.1 Commonly Used Metrics 1667.3 Flooding and Gossiping 1687.4 Data-Centric Routing 170

7.4.1 Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation 1707.4.2 Directed Diffusion 1727.4.3 Rumor Routing 1747.4.4 Gradient-Based Routing 175

7.5 Proactive Routing 1767.5.1 Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector 1767.5.2 Optimized Link State Routing 177

7.6 On-Demand Routing 1787.6.1 Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector 1787.6.2 Dynamic Source Routing 179

7.7 Hierarchical Routing 1807.8 Location-Based Routing 183

7.8.1 Unicast Location-Based Routing 1837.8.2 Multicast Location-Based Routing 1887.8.3 Geocasting 189

Contents xi

7.9 QoS-Based Routing Protocols 1927.9.1 Sequential Assignment Routing 1927.9.2 SPEED 1937.9.3 Multipath Multi-SPEED 194

7.10 Summary 196Exercises 197References 203

Part Three: NODE AND NETWORK MANAGEMENT

8 Power Management 2078.1 Local Power Management Aspects 208

8.1.1 Processor Subsystem 2088.1.2 Communication Subsystem 2098.1.3 Bus Frequency and RAM Timing 2108.1.4 Active Memory 2108.1.5 Power Subsystem 212

8.2 Dynamic Power Management 2168.2.1 Dynamic Operation Modes 2168.2.2 Dynamic Scaling 2198.2.3 Task Scheduling 222

8.3 Conceptual Architecture 2228.3.1 Architectural Overview 223

Exercises 225References 227

9 Time Synchronization 2299.1 Clocks and the Synchronization Problem 2299.2 Time Synchronization in Wireless Sensor Networks 231

9.2.1 Reasons for Time Synchronization 2319.2.2 Challenges for Time Synchronization 232

9.3 Basics of Time Synchronization 2349.3.1 Synchronization Messages 2349.3.2 Nondeterminism of Communication Latency 236

9.4 Time Synchronization Protocols 2379.4.1 Reference Broadcasts Using Global Sources of Time 2379.4.2 Lightweight Tree-Based Synchronization 2389.4.3 Timing-sync Protocol for Sensor Networks 2399.4.4 Flooding Time Synchronization Protocol 2409.4.5 Reference-Broadcast Synchronization 2429.4.6 Time-Diffusion Synchronization Protocol 2449.4.7 Mini-Sync and Tiny-Sync 245

Exercises 246References 247

xii Contents

10 Localization 24910.1 Overview 24910.2 Ranging Techniques 250

10.2.1 Time of Arrival 25010.2.2 Time Difference of Arrival 25110.2.3 Angle of Arrival 25110.2.4 Received Signal Strength 252

10.3 Range-Based Localization 25210.3.1 Triangulation 25210.3.2 Trilateration 25310.3.3 Iterative and Collaborative Multilateration 25510.3.4 GPS-Based Localization 256

10.4 Range-Free Localization 25810.4.1 Ad Hoc Positioning System (APS) 25810.4.2 Approximate Point in Triangulation 25910.4.3 Localization Based on Multidimensional Scaling 260

10.5 Event-Driven Localization 26210.5.1 The Lighthouse Approach 26210.5.2 Multi-Sequence Positioning 263

Exercises 264References 266

11 Security 26711.1 Fundamentals of Network Security 26711.2 Challenges of Security in Wireless Sensor Networks 26911.3 Security Attacks in Sensor Networks 270

11.3.1 Denial-of-Service 27011.3.2 Attacks on Routing 27211.3.3 Attacks on Transport Layer 27211.3.4 Attacks on Data Aggregation 27311.3.5 Privacy Attacks 273

11.4 Protocols and Mechanisms for Security 27411.4.1 Symmetric and Public Key Cryptography 27411.4.2 Key Management 27411.4.3 Defenses Against DoS Attacks 27511.4.4 Defenses Against Aggregation Attacks 27611.4.5 Defenses Against Routing Attacks 27711.4.6 Security Protocols for Sensor Networks 27811.4.7 TinySec 27911.4.8 Localized Encryption and Authentication Protocol 280

11.5 IEEE 802.15.4 and ZigBee Security 28011.6 Summary 281Exercises 282References 283

Contents xiii

12 Sensor Network Programming 28512.1 Challenges in Sensor Network Programming 28512.2 Node-Centric Programming 286

12.2.1 nesC Language 28612.2.2 TinyGALS 28912.2.3 Sensor Network Application Construction Kit 29112.2.4 Thread-Based Model 292

12.3 Macroprogramming 29312.3.1 Abstract Regions 29312.3.2 EnviroTrack 29312.3.3 Database Approaches 294

12.4 Dynamic Reprogramming 29512.5 Sensor Network Simulators 297

12.5.1 Network Simulator Tools and Environments 297Exercises 299References 300

Index 303