fundamentals of photovoltaic energy conversion and ... · fundamentals of photovoltaic energy...
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Fundamentals of photovoltaic
energy conversion and
conventional solar cells
A.Martí
17-20 September 2018,
MATENER 2018
ICMAB, Campus UAB, Barcelona
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Outline
• Fundamentals of photovoltaic energy conversion
• Conventional (inorganic) solar cells
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Outline
• Fundamentals of photovoltaic energy conversion
• Conventional (inorganic) solar cells
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What is needed for a PV converter?
E1
?
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What is needed for a PV converter? A material sensitive to light
A
B
E1
C
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What is needed for a PV converter?: Transport x lifetime
A
B
E1
C
A A
A A
A
B B
B
B B
C
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What is needed for a PV converter? Selective contacts
A
B
E1
E2<E1
C
A A
A A
A
B B
B
B B
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B B C
C
Efficiency ≡ 𝜂 =𝐸2
𝐸1
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A material sensitive to light: A semiconductor
A
B
E1
C
By Enricoros at English Wikipedia
Conduction band
Valence band
𝑒−
ℎ+
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Transport x lifetime
E1 𝑒−
𝑒−
𝑒−
𝑒−
𝑒−
ℎ+
ℎ+ ℎ+
ℎ+
ℎ+
Diffusion length ∝ mobility × lifetime
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Selective contacts: p-type and n-type semiconductors
E1
E2<E1 C
𝑒−
𝑒−
ℎ+
ℎ+
n-type
p-type
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Selective contacts: p-type and n-type semiconductors
E1
E2<E1 C
𝑒−
𝑒−
ℎ+
ℎ+
n-type
p-type
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The solar cell as pn junction
J.L.Gray, Handbook of photovoltaic Science and Engineering 2 ed. (John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 2004).
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Current-voltage characteristic of a solar cell
J.L.Gray, Handbook of photovoltaic Science and Engineering 2 ed. (John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 2004).
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Current-voltage characteristic of a solar cell
J.L.Gray, Handbook of photovoltaic Science and Engineering 2 ed. (John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 2004).
Power (𝐼 × 𝑉)
𝜂 =𝐼𝑀𝑃 × 𝑉𝑀𝑃
Incicent Pw=
𝐼𝑀𝑃 × 𝑉𝑀𝑃 × 𝐹𝐹
Incicent Pw
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Impact of series resistance on FF
J.L.Gray, Handbook of photovoltaic Science and Engineering 2 ed. (John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 2004).
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Input power (solar spectra)
http://www.pveducation.org
1000 Wm−2
1350 Wm−2 900 Wm−2
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Selective contacts: p-type and n-type semiconductors
E1
E2<E1 C
𝑒−
𝑒−
ℎ+
ℎ+
n-type
p-type
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Pn junction bandgap diagram
P region
N region
Conduction band
Valence band
𝑒−
ℎ+
𝑒−
ℎ+
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The role of the electric field
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The solar cell as pn junction (wrong argument)
𝑒−
ℎ+
• p, n regions absorb light and the electric field is negligible
• Instead, the concept of electrochemical potential as driving force must be used
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Outline
• Fundamentals of photovoltaic Energy conversion
• Conventional (inorganic) solar cells
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Outline
• Fundamentals of photovoltaic Energy conversion
• Conventional (inorganic) solar cells
– silicon
– III-Vs (multi-junction solar cells, GaAs, InGaP, InGaAs…)
– thin films
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Solar Cell Efficiency records (as in 2018)
L.L. Kazmerski, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO, September 2018
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The abundance of materials problem
• Si – not a problem
• Cu(InGa)Se2 -> In
• CdTe -> Te
• Multijunction -> Ge
P.H. Stauffer et al, Rare Earth Elements - Critical Resources for High
Technology, USGS (2002)
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Impact of stability on cost
R. Jones-Albertus, D. Feldman, R. Fu, K. Horowitz, and M. Woodhouse, "Technology Advances Needed for Photovoltaics to Achieve Widespread Grid Price Parity," US DOE and NREL (http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2015/09/f26/NREL%20Paper%2009-16-15.pdf), 2015.
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Outline
• Fundamentals of photovoltaic Energy conversion
• Conventional (inorganic) solar cells
– silicon
– III-Vs (multi-junction solar cells, GaAs, InGaP, InGaAs…)
– thin films
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Silicon: some properties
• Weak absorption • Recombination limited by Auger
Conduction band
Valence band
𝑒−
ℎ+
𝑒−
𝑒−
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Silicon dominates de market
PHOTOVOLTAICS REPORT (2017). Fraunhofer ISE.
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Monocrystalline and Multicrystalline modules
Mono Multi
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Monocrystalline and Multicrystalline modules
Mono Multi
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1946 - 1%
Russel Ohl (Technology Review)
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1954 (6%)
Person, Chapin, Fuller (Perlin, The silicon solar cell turns 50)
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First advertisement
1956 advisement of “Look magazine” (Perlin, The silicon solar cell turns 50)
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1958-1972 – 14 % “Space”
(Source: M.A.Green, Chap 4 in Clean Energy from Photovoltaics)
Vanguard I (1958)
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1972 – 15 % (Violet cell)
Selective contact!
(Source: M.A.Green, Chap 4 in Clean Energy from Photovoltaics)
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1974 – 18% (Black cell)
(Source: M.A.Green, Chap 4 in Clean Energy from Photovoltaics)
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Texturing
Source: PVEducation
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1983 – 18% (Metal to insulator np junction - MINP cell)
Green, M. A., Blakers, A. W., Shi, J., Keller, E. M., & Wenham, S. R. (1984). 19.1% efficient silicon solar cell. Applied Physics Letters, 44(12), 1163-1164.
UNSW
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1984 – 19% (Passivated emitter solar cell – PESC)
Green, M. A., Blakers, A. W., Shi, J., Keller, E. M., & Wenham, S. R. (1984). 19.1% efficient silicon solar cell. Applied Physics Letters, 44(12), 1163-1164.
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1986 – 20 % (μg-PESC)
Blakers, A. W., & Green, M. A. (1986). 20% efficiency silicon solar cells. Applied physics letters, 48(3), 215-217.
UNSW
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2009 – 25 % (Passivated emitter locally diffused PERL cell)
Green, M. A. (2009). The path to 25% silicon solar cell efficiency: History of silicon cell evolution. Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, 17(3), 183-189.
UNSW
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1990 – 22 % (back contact, rear junction solar cell)
R. Swanson & Sinton
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Back contact, rear junction cell (commercial)
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Solar Cell Efficiency records (as in 2018)
L.L. Kazmerski, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO, September 2018
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2014- 26 % HIT cell
http://news.panasonic.com/global/press/data/2014/04/en140410-4/en140410-4.html
Panasonic
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Thin-films: a:Si
Hydrogenated amorphous silicon: a-Si:H
Greater absorption (thinner cells)
Fabricated by CVD technology (RF PECVD)
Degradation problems
Tunable bandgap (1,7 eV):
with Ge, decreases (1.45 eV)
with C,N increases (2 eV)
Possibility of tandem solar cells
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Band diagram of a HIT cell
Shen et al. Solar Energy 97:168-175
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Thin-films: a:Si
Hydrogenated amorphous silicon: a-Si:H
Greater absorption (thinner cells)
Fabricated by CVD technology (RF PECVD)
Degradation problems
Tunable bandgap (1,7 eV):
with Ge, decreases (1.45 eV)
with C,N increases (2 eV)
Possibility of tandem solar cells
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Staebler–Wronski Effect
E. A. Schiff, S.Hegedus and X. Deng, Chap. 12 in Handbook of photovoltaic Science and Engineering 2 ed
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Bifacial solar cells and modules
Source: Silfab (Oregon park) Source: Sanyo Energy Corporation
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Outline
• Fundamentals of photovoltaic Energy conversion
• Conventional (inorganic) solar cells
– silicon
– III-Vs (multi-junction solar cells, GaAs, InGaP, InGaAs…)
– thin films
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What means III-Vs?
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III-Vs: some properties
• Strong absorption • Difficult to stack • Work in the radiative limit • Today driving market are
space applications
Substrate: also a semiconductor!
P-n juntion
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Tandem cells
E. D. Jackson, "Areas for improvement of the solar energy converter," Trans. Conf. on the Use of Solar Energy, Tucson, 1955, University of Arizona Press, Tucson,
vol. 5, pp. 122-126, 1958.
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Tandem cells: Limiting efficiency
G.L.Araújo et al, 11th European PSEC
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Número de células
Efi
cie
nc
ia (
%)
86.8 %
40.7 %
55.5 %
63.4 %
68.3 %
Number of cells
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Tandem cells: conexión en serie
The current has to be the same for all the cells
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Multi-junction solar cells: lattice matched and methamorphic
C. Baur, A. W. Bett, F. Dimroth, G. Siefer, M. Meusel, W. Bentsch, W. Köstler, and G. Strobl, "Triple junction III-V based concentrator solar cells: perspectives and
challenges," ASME Journal of Solar Energy and Engineering, 2006.
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Solar Cell Efficiency records (as in 2018)
L.L. Kazmerski, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO, September 2018
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Inverted methamorphic
D. J. Friedman, J. M. Olson and Sarah Kurtz, Handbook of photovoltaic Science and Engineering 2 ed. (John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 2004).
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Solar Cell Efficiency records (as in 2018)
L.L. Kazmerski, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO, September 2018
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Wafer bonding
F. Dimroth et al., “Four-Junction Wafer-Bonded Concentrator Solar Cells,” IEEE J. Photovolt. 6, pp.343, 2016
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Solar Cell Efficiency records (as in 2018)
L.L. Kazmerski, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO, September 2018
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Used in concentration systems
Célula
Concentrador
area A
area B
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Concentration
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Tandem cells: independent conexion
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Series vs independent
1 2 3 4 5 6
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
Number of gaps
An
nu
al E
ner
gy E
ffic
ien
cy (
%)
Lat 40º
Series
Independent
J. Villa and A.Martí, “Impact on the spectrum, location and interconnection between solar cells in the annual production of photovoltaic energies in photovoltaic concentration systems,” IEEE 43rd PVSC, 2016
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Tandem cells: spectrum splitting
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Outline
• Fundamentals of photovoltaic Energy conversion
• Conventional (inorganic) solar cells
– silicon
– III-Vs (multi-junction solar cells, GaAs, InGaP, InGaAs…)
– thin films
• CdTe
• CIGS
• (a-Si)
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Solar Cell Efficiency records (as in 2018)
L.L. Kazmerski, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO, September 2018
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Thin film properties
Brian E. McCandless and James R. Sites, Handbook of photovoltaic Science and Engineering 2 ed. (John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 2004).
• Strong absorption coefficient • Deposited as polycrystalline materials
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Thin film properties
T. Gessert, B. McCandless and
C. Ferekides in A. J. Nozik, G. Conibeer, and M. C. Beard, Advanced Concepts in Photovoltaics: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2014.
• Strong absorption coefficient • Deposited as polycrystalline
materials on cheap substrates • Second in the market after silicon
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Why it works?
http://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijp/2013/576952/fig2/
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TCO: Transparent conductive oxide
From Wikipedia
ITO: Indium Tin Oxide, 4 eV
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Cu(InGa)Se2
W.N. Shafarman, S. Siebentritt, L.Stolt, Handbook of photovoltaic Science and Engineering 2 ed. (John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 2004).
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Cu(InGa)Se2
W.N. Shafarman, S. Siebentritt, L.Stolt, Handbook of photovoltaic Science and Engineering 2 ed. (John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 2004).
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Cu(InGa)Se2
W.N. Shafarman, S. Siebentritt, L.Stolt, Handbook of photovoltaic Science and Engineering 2 ed. (John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 2004).
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Cu(InGa)Se2
Ternary and Multinary Compounds: Proceedings of the 11th International … editado por R.D Tomlinson,A.E Hill,R.D Pilkington
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CTZS: Cupper Zinc Tin Sulphide (kesterites)
From Wikipedia
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Thank you!