functional tasks for mastering the mechanics of writing and going just beyond

Functional Tasks for Mastering the Mechanics

of Writing and Going Just Beyond

IntroductionIntroduction

1. Communicative with any readers Close or distant readers Known or unknown readers

2. Important nowadays on whether

A. Interaction of writing takes the form of

a. Traditional paper-and-pencil

b. Electronic mail writing

3. Communicative activity in course Be encouraged Be nurtured; supported

4. Interactive process

A. Between reader and writer via the text

B. Placing value on

a. The goal of writing

b. The perceived reader audience

5. Grice’s (1975) cooperative principle

A. Writer

a. Anticipate readers’ reaction

b. Produce a text

> clear, relevant, truthful, informative

interesting, memorable

B. Reader

a. Interpret the text with proper regard

> for writer’s presumed intention

6. The efficacy of the communicative act

A. Linguistic accuracy

B. Clarity of presentation

C. Organization of ideas

Early Writing Tasks:

Coping With The Mechanics

What do we teach?

1.MechanicsLetter recognitionLetter discriminationWord recognitionBasic rules of spellingPunctuationCapitalizationRecognition of whole sentences and

paragraphs

2. Writing

A. Important role in early reading

a. Facilitate the development of

> both the reading and writing skills

Sound-spelling correspondences

1. Enable teacher to combine the teaching

A. Phonetics units with graphemic units

2. Give students practice in pronunciation

A. Along with practice in spelling

The English consonants

1. The sounds of consonant letters

A. Depend on the environment

a. in which consonant letters occur

Ex:

“c” /k/ & /s/ c + (a, o, u, l, r) /k/ : cat, coat, cup, clock,

cry c + e, i /s/ : cell, city c + h /7/ : cheese c + k /k/ : chicken, duck (in the middle or

the end)

2. The consonant letter of “h”

A. Powerful in changing the sound

a. varied environment

e.g., “ch” /ch/ : chopsticks

“sh” /S/ : sheep

“th” /θ/ : theme

Need to recognize these graphic clusters

4. Teach students from different writing systems

A. Special writing exercises (see Appendix A)

The English vowels

1. The vowel letters in English

A. Being more complex sound-spelling

correspondences

B. still have consistency and predictability

2. Basic Types of English Vowels

A. Consonant Vowel Consonant (CVC)

a. known as the environment for short vowels

B. CV or CVCe (the end with silent “e”)

a. known as the environment for long vowels

3. Inappropriate term of short and long vowel

A. Associated with vowel length

B. For the real difference:

a. Phonetic quality

e.g., pit and pin

It seems than both two are short vowel.

However, Pit is shorter than pin.

Pit: Voiceless stop

Pin: Voiced nasal

4. Environment A. Influence the quality of the vowel sound5. The environment CVC in (a, e, i, o ,u) A. Occurs as simple lax (relaxed muscle) B. Nondiphthongized > pan, pen, pin, pot and but. However, 6. The CVCe environment A. Occurs as tense and diphthongized > pane, Pete, pine, rope, and cute.

Diphthong : a vowel sound that starts near the articulatory position for one vowel

7. Monosyllabic words

A. The rule that add the inflection (-ing)

a. to the final syllable stressed verbs

> needs letters doubling

e.g., sit sitting

8. Polysyllabic Words A. The same rule to any polysyllabic verb e.g., begin beginning

B. If the final syllable is not stressed

a. doesn’t need letters doubling e.g., open opening (stressed on the first)

The English vowels

To sum up,

1.Not simple one-to-one letter sound correspondences

2.Its own consistencyEmbedded in the combination of letters

> with their immediate environments

How do we teach mechanics?

1.Aims to teach reading and writing mechanicsEnhance letter recognition

> especially with different writing system

Practice sound-spelling correspondences

> via all four language skills

Help the learner move

> from letters and words

> to meaningful sentences

> to large units of discourse

2. Three types of recognition tasks: Matching task Writing task Meaningful sound-spelling correspondence

practice

2-1. Matching task Enables learners develop

A. Effective recognition habits

> Based on distinctive graphic features.

(See Appendix A)

2-2. Writing tasksStart with basic letter formation Leads to meaningful writing of words

and sentences. (Appendix B)

2-3. Meaningful sound-spelling correspondence

practice

Requires learners to focus on

A. the pronunciation

B. the written shape of the spelling patterns

(Appendix C)

More advanced writing tasks:

Developing basic communication tools

1. More advanced writing activities

A. Shifting the goal from the focus on the mechanics of writing To basic process-oriented tasks

B. Incorporating some language work

a. morphological and discourse level

Enable focus on both accuracy and content of the message

2. A set of specifications of consideration Task description – goal and its importance Content description

> Content area related to the task Audience description

> the intended audience, their background, needs,

and expectation Format cues – plan of overall structure Linguistic cues

> grammatical structure and vocabulary choices Spelling and punctuation cues

> attention on spelling rules, acceptable

punctuation, capitalization conventions

Practical writing tasks1. These writing tasks

A. Being procedural in nature

B. Have a predictable format (e.g. list) Focus on spelling and morphology

2. Many types of lists

A. “Things to do” lists

B. “Things completed” lists

C. “Message for my little sister” lists Provides with an opportunity to combine

> some spelling rules with morphological rules and with the logical creation of a meaning sentence

A. “Things to do” lists

1. useful to practice verb base forms

e.g.,

A list for a group of students who are preparing

a surprise birthday party

Things to doThings to do

1. Buy a present for Donna (Sharon).

2. Call Donna’s friends (Gail).

3. Write invitations (Dan).

etc.

B. “Things completed” lists

1. Useful to practice past forms of verbs

2. Regular and irregular formation:

a. - ed (regular)

b. the deletion of a final e before adding

e.g., -ed : live lived

c. double letter + -ed

when the end of the word is stressed

e.g., -ed : can canned

d. replacement of y with i

when the base ends is “consonant + y”

e.g., -ed : try tried

Things completedThings completed

1. Planned the games for the party

2. Wrote the invitation

3. Bought the present

4. Called the friends

5. Tried to call Donna’s mother

C. “Shopping” lists

1.practice the spelling of

> the plural ending of countable nouns

> the use of quantifiers /s/: when the end of the word is voiceless,

we pronounce /s/ : cups /z/: when the end of the word is voiced, we

read /z/ : models

In spelling pattern, /s/ and /z/ are the same /ez/: when the ends of the word are s, sh,

ch, x, o, we pronounce /ez/ : oranges

D. Notes and messages

1. Practice brief and simple sentences

> with proper punctuation

> with a meaningful message

2. Design their own messages headings

e.g.,

Messages for My Little SisterMessages for My Little Sister

Wash the dishes in the sink.

Feed the dog.

Watch your favorite program on TV and have a good time.

E. Other types

1. Activities

a. the filling in of forms

b. the preparation of invitation

> “greetings” and “thank you”

All of these specification should focus on orthographic, mechanical, and linguistic

accuracy

Emotive Writing Tasks 1. Personal writing activity includes

A. letters to friends

B. narratives describing personal experiences

C. personal journals or diaries Letter Writing Personal Experience Journals and Diaries

2. Suitable for the more advanced stages

3. Journal and personal writing

> reflect the learner’s proficiency level

School-Oriented Tasks 1. Important functions of writing

2. Students are required to

a. write assignments, summaries, answers

to questions, or a variety of essay-type

passages

All these activities

1. Given attention

a. at the linguistic-accuracy level

b. at the message-transmission level

Dialogue journal writing at the early stages

1. Enables students and teachers

A. interaction on a one-to-one basis

B. communicative event at the early stages

a. of learning to write in a new language

2. Enables beginners

A. generate some personal input

B. receive the teacher’s direct feedback

3. Dialogue journal can be done

A. via e-mail and the communication

B. multimedia programs

Conclusion Objective

1. Encouraging teachers

A. Use a variety of writing tasks at all level

a. particularly at the beginning level

Being a skill1. Plan and rethink the communication process

Provides the opportunity to focus on1. Linguistic accuracy2. Content organization

The Major aim

1.The mechanics of writing are important

A. At the initial stage of learning

B. Establish a good basis in sound-spelling

correspondences

Considerations for Teaching an ESL / EFL Writing Course

Steps for Teaching CompositionSteps for Teaching Composition

Called Product ApproachPrinciples of rhetoric and organization

→ rules for writingA text for classroom discussion, analysisWriting assignmentRead, comment on, and criticize papers

Process ApproachProcess Approach

vs. Product ApproachFocus on general academic writing, personal

writing (content course)A cyclical approach

1.) drafting

2.) receiving feedback ( from peer or teacher)

Placement considerationsPlacement considerations

To sort students into levels of writing proficiency (homogeneous)

Prerequisite for curriculum planning (materials and methodologies)Placement test 1.) produce one or more writing samples 2.) TOEFL Test for Written English / 100-point ESL English Composition Profile 3.) multiple-choice grammar tests (×)

Establishing Curriculum PrinciplesEstablishing Curriculum Principles

Based on skill levelsFor beginning or intermediate-level 1.) the imitation of models 2.) short texts 3.) self-expressionFor intermediate and advanced 1.) creation of self-generated texts

ESL / EFL Writing ClassESL / EFL Writing Class

As a workshop to learn to produce academic essays through mastering techniques for

getting started → generating ideas → drafting papers → anticipating revising → utilizing feedback

The Writing ClassThe Writing Class

Syllabus DesignTechniques for Getting StartedUsing Readings in the Writing ClassWriting AssignmentsRespondingGoal-SettingShaping FeedbackForms of FeedbackError Correction

Syllabus DesignSyllabus DesignTake into account curricular goals and the

particular students 1.) How much writing 2.) What the timelines 3.) What composing process 4.) What grammar and syntax 5.) What constitute progress 6.) How much readings 7.) How to grade

Techniques for Getting StartedTechniques for Getting Started

Brainstorming→ sharing their collective knowledge for their first drafts Listing→ individual activity / produce as lengthy a list as possibleClustering→ a key word or central ideaFree-writing (speed writing)→ write without taking the pen from the page / provide an opening clause or sentence

Using Readings in the Writing ClassUsing Readings in the Writing Class

Models of what English texts look likeInput that helps students develop awareness of

English prose styleAttention to particular stylistic choices,

grammar featuresDevelop and refine genre awarenessPractice skills as summarizing, paraphrasing,

interpreting, and synthesizing

Writing AssignmentsWriting Assignments

Refer to as a “Life Cycle”

1.) Let students know the context and reasons

2.) Content be accessible and allow for multiple approaches

3.) Be un-ambiguous and comprehensible

4.) Further knowledge of content and skills

5.) Rhetorical cues for format of finished assignments

6.) Let students know how their output will be judged

RespondingRespondingWhat general goalsWhat specific goals on a particular piece

of writingWhat stage What formWho should provideWhat students do

Goal-SettingGoal-Setting

Teacher

1.) implementing a variety of response types

2.) training students to maximize feedback

on future writing occasionsStudent

1.) make the best use of commentary

Shaping FeedbackShaping Feedback

First draft

→ marginal and end comments

Second draft

→ further examined the second draft papers

Students should process and work with a teacher’s comments

Forms of FeedbackForms of Feedback

Embrace the value of Collaborative LearningOral Teacher Feedback 1.) uncover potential misunderstanding 2.) learn more in the one-to-one exchange 3.)submit a cassette tape with each draftPeer Response 1.) gain a sense of audience 2.) put students together in groups 3.) must be modeled, taught, and controlled

Way to Guide Peer ResponseWay to Guide Peer ResponseProvide a short list of directed questionsParticular rhetorical feature discussed in classTrained by reviewing an essay written by a students in a

previous classMore complex and varied questions

ex: What is the main purpose of this paper?

What have you found particularly effect in

the paper

Maximize the Value of the FeedbackMaximize the Value of the Feedback

Provide practice in the valuable skill of text analysis

Written responses as the basis for oral discussion between reader and writer

Focus not only grammar but training and instruction

Different cultures and participants

Error CorrectionError CorrectionGrammar and editing feedback as well as

instructionWriting course is not a grammar courseWork on eliminate grammar and stylistic

infelicitiesDecide WHEN, WHO, WHICH, and

HOW to correct

How to Call Students’ attention to errorsHow to Call Students’ attention to errors

Point out specific errors by using a mark Correct by writing in the corrected formLabel specific errorsIndicate the presence of error but not the

precise locationIgnore specific errors

GRAMMAR IN WRITINGGRAMMAR IN WRITING

9710008M Venus

GRAMMAR IN WRITING

Grammar in WritingGrammar in Writing

INTRODUCTION

Barbara Hawkins Doughty and Williams (1998) Hillocks (1986) Krashen (1982) Silva (1993) Scarcella (1996) Lightbown (1998)


The role of grammar in ESL/EFL writingWiddowson (1988)The importance of Grammar in Writing Instruction


General Guidelines For Integrating Grammar In Writing Instruction

Learner (learner-centered)Language to be taught



Learner Variables - Celce-Murcia (1985) - Ferris and Hedgcock (1998) - Reid (1998) - Native Speakers versus EFL Students - Error Avoidance



Learner Variables - Native Speakers versus EFL Students

Ex: 1) unable to explain Gr. rules able to explain Gr. rules 2) acquire English “by ear” learn English in classroom 3) unfamiliar with Gr. terminologies familiar with Gr.

terminologies



Learner Variables

- Celce-Murcia (1985)

- Ferris and Hedgcock (1998)

- Reid (1998)

- Native Speakers versus EFL Students

- Error Avoidance



Situational Variables - Celce-Murcia (1985) - Little (1994) - Gr. in different objectives of classes - Gr. in different kinds of writing


Activities For Incorporating Grammar Into Writing Instruction

Text Analysis - learn how to use different kinds of grammatical features and grammatical systems Advantages: 1) help learners get familiar with prescriptive grammar rules

2) help learners realize implicit knowledge of grammar



Text Analysis - Considerations for Selecting Grammar Points and Materials for Text Analysis 1) depends on course objective to select materials

2) learn to write from reading - Holten (1997) 3) supplementary texts



Text Analysis - Considerations for Selecting Grammar Points and Materials for Text Analysis Six considerations for selecting texts and grammatical points for analysis 1) be appropriate for students’ developmental stages 2) reflect students’ writing needs for the course 3) be sources of text analysis on assigned course readings 4) be generally kept brief on the lessons 5) enhance the texts by underlining or bolding certain elements 6) follow text analysis on productive tasks


Activities For Incorporating Grammar

Into Writing Instruction

Sample Text Analysis Lessons

- That and zero-that clauses

- Tense and Time Frame Shifts

- Demonstrative Reference



Sample Text Analysis Lessons - That and zero-that clauses to help learners identify clauses in which “that” can be deleted optionally before a complement clause

Ex: 1) Margaret thinks she’s smarter than we are just because she’s smarter than we are. 2) I know I’m no longer young and pretty… 3) But I guarantee it won’t happen again. 4) It makes me feel good to know I might help save someone.



Sample Text Analysis Lessons - Tense and Time Frame Shifts EFL writers are often confused about the verb tense shifts; therefore, the writing teachers should review the reasons why we need to shift verb tenses and time frames.

Ex: Tense : from present to present perfect Time Frames : from present to past




Sample Text Analysis Lessons

- Demonstrative Reference

The teachers give a text that has examples of both “this”

used in pronoun reference and “this” used in noun reference.




Guided Writing Activities

- Guided writings focus students’ attention on language

features that are difficult to them.

- They encourage learners to expand their linguistic resources

through eliciting exercises of grammatical structures.



Text Conversion - Learners have to rewrite passage or short texts.Ex: 1) present time frame past time frame 2) direct speech indirect speech

- Celce-Murcia and Hilles (1998)



Text Conversion - Revision and Editing Focused Exercises - Sentence Combining - Guided Paraphrase - Text Elicitation - Dictation - Text Completion




Text Conversion

- Revision and Editing Focused Exercises

The purpose of the exercise is to address learners’ grammar

problems with the focus of the particular grammatical

structure.



Text Conversion - Revision and Editing Focused Exercises Ex: We tested velocity by placing a green trace dye on the surface of the lot, at a measured point. After each run we estimated the vegetation cover using a five-point pin frame. We placed the pin frame in 20 places on the plot, moving downward.

Rewritten into Passive Voice: Velocity was tested by placing a green trace dye on the surface of the plot, at a measured point. After each run, the vegetation cover was estimated using a five-point pin frame. The pin frame was placed on the plot, moving downward.




Text Conversion

- Sentence Combining

1) Mellon (1969)

2) This technique was to develop syntactic fluency which involved

the kernel sentence combining.



Text Conversion - Sentence Combining

Ex: The man was old. The man had gray hair. The man walked down the street. The man walked slowly.

Combined Sentence: The old, gray-haired man walked slowly down the street.



Text Conversion - Sentence Combining 1) Mellon (1969)

2) This technique was to develop syntactic fluency which involved the

kernel sentence combining.

3) De Beaugrande (1985)

4) Draft revision is one of the most useful applications of sentence

combining for advanced ESL learners which can achieve a better flow

of information through clearer connections between ideas.



Into Writing Instruction Text Conversion - Sentence Combining

Ex:

Written by Developing Writer

Oliver Sack is a neurologist. He wrote the article “Brilliant Light: A Chemical Boyhood.” In this article, he describes how his “Uncle Tungsten” influenced his love of science.

Written by Experienced Writer

In “Brilliant Light: A Chemical Boyhood,” neurologist Oliver Sacks describes how his “Uncle Tungsten” influenced his love of science.



Text Conversion - Guided Paraphrase The developing of paraphrasing is one of the most important

skills in academic writing which can support student’s claims and develop their ideas.



Text Conversion - Guided ParaphraseEx: 1) Original: People trying to interpret a situation often look at those around them to

see how to react. (base reactions on )

Rewrite: People trying to interpret a situation often base their reactions on those

around them.

2) Original: Even if a person defines an event as an emergency.....(decides)

Rewrite: Even if a person decides that an event is an emergency......




Text Conversion

- Text Elicitation

The writing teacher can give a topic or writing objective

and a grammatical structure or structure for students’

practice.



Text Conversion - Text ElicitationEx: Text In many U.S. towns, the opening of large retail chain stores known as superstores has made it difficult for the local small business to keep customers. However, some of these local businesses are now successfully using the Web to increase sales and improve customer service.

Conditional Sentences If customers shop at chain superstores instead of their local businesses, the local stores may have to close. Unless small businesses find new ways to attract

customers, such as advertising on the Web, they may no be able to compete with superstores.




Text Conversion

- Text Elicitation

1) In this exercise, surveys, graphs and research articles related to the

writing topic are good sources for eliciting summaries.

2) It can help students diagnose their structural problems, develop

syntactic complexity and provide strategies for organizing and

displaying information.



Text Conversion - Dictation 1) Dictation is a good way to help students understand the collocations between grammar and vocabulary.

2) three procedures in dictation



Text Conversion - Text Completion three types of text completion 1) Cloze passage 2) Gapped text 3) the third type




Text Conversion - Text CompletionEx: Cloze

__1__ pollution may be defined as __2__ deterioration of __3__ everyday life’s natural resources. __4__ pollution is __5__ global problem that has affected __6__ quality of __7__ water we drink, __8__ air we breathe and __9__ land we use. __10__ scientific solutions to overcome __11__ problem have increased __12__ destruction.




Text Conversion - Text Completion

Ex: Gapped Text

passive, progressive aspect, present perfect, comparatives, superlatives, phrasal verbs



Text Conversion - Text CompletionEx: Third Type Climatologists have predicted that the continual warming of the earth’s surface,

commonly known as “the greenhouse effect,” could have dramatic consequences.

1. (a) The melting of the polar ice caps could be one result. (b) One result could be the melting of the polar ice caps.2. (a) This melting would, in turn, cause a rise of the sea level. (b) A rise of the sea level would, in turn, be caused by this melting.


ERROR DIAGNOSIS AND CORRECTION

Error Detection and Correction Exercises - The First Type The students are told how many errors there are with different types of errors.

Ex: The text below has the following errors: 1 preposition, 1 verb tense, 1 subject-verb agreement,

1 missing article.

This paper report on survey about values. Our English class take the survey last week in UCLA.


Error Diagnosis And Correction

Error Detection and Correction Exercises - The Second Type Students are given a text with numbered lines and they are told all of the line numbers have a certain type of error.

Ex: Identify and correct all of the verb form errors in the following text. Use the guide below to find the errors.

1. The Olympics were hold in Sydney, Australia 2. in 2000. Athletes from all over the world partici- 3. pated. The Olympics have inspire many young 4. people to excel in athletics.



Error Detection and Correction Exercises

- The Third Type

It is using sentences that students wrote as the

material to focus on one error type.



Editing Strategies and Techniques

- four kinds of techniques

1) Read-Aloud Technique

2) Pointing to Words

3) “Slow-Down” Techniques

4) Word Processing Grammar Checkers



Teacher Feedback on Errors

- four guidelines and suggestions for providing feedbacks

1) underlining or highlighting errors

2) major errors

3) frequent errors

4) mini-conference


CONCLUSTION

An Overview of This Chapter

Ponsot and Deen (1982)

functional tasks for mastering the mechanics of writing and going just beyond

Documents