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THEDEOLOGYOFBUREAUCRACY NAMERCANLAW

Ge rdE F rug *

Th e con ce nt rt on of p o t c n d e con omc p ow er n bu re u crt c or

gn z t on h on g th re t en ed t op e rmt unc ont ro b e mn g er d c re

t on n d t of ru t rt e u th e nt c e f e x p re on n w ork n dp o t c Y et

d e fe nd e rof t h e b ure u c rt c f ormh v e rgue d t h t h e rrc h c o c org

n z t o n n ev t b e n d th t t p o w er u b ec t to d eq u te r e t r n t

n t h Art c e P rofe orF rug e xmn e t he t w op rn c p b od e of e g

d o ct rn e d ev o te d t ou t f yn gbu re u crc y c orp ort e n d dmn t rt v e

w H e d e c rb e f ourd f f e re n t t t emp t t od e fe n d corport on n ddmn

t rt v e g e n c e n d e xp n w hyn one of t h e e t he ore c n ov erc ome t he

pr ob e m o f m n g e r d om n t o n n d p er o n e n t on t h t e x t n

h e rrc h c orgn zt on Th e ve ryp ro e c t of bu re u crt c e g t mt on mt

o ur b t y to e nv o n t er n t v e p r t c p t or y fo rm o f o c o rg n z t o n

f orm more c on t en t w t h t he d e of d e moc rt c n t on B y e xp on g

t he d e o ogy of bure u c rc yn Amerc n w t h Art c e d e gn e d t obe

one t ep t ow rd t he re zt on of t h o e d e

TH SArt c e of fe r c rt q u e of th e Ame rc n e g d o ct rn e t h t

1d ef n e n dp erp et u t e b u re u crc y t n y ze c orport e n d

d m n t r t v e w t he t wo m o t m p or t nt r e o f e g d oc tr n e

d ev o te d t o e xp n n gn d u t f yn g rg e c e b u re u crt c p owe r

r gu e th t t he e t w o f e d h v e r e e d on t he m e b c d e n

t h e rt t e mpt t o u g e t h e on g t n dn gf e rt h t b u re u c rc y

*P rof e orof Lw H rvrdLw S c hoo

1Th e p rn c p ou rc e on w h c h re e d f ort h Art c e n c u d e on g e ne r bu re u c rt c

theoryM CROZERTHEBUREAUCRATCPHENOMENON 964 A GOULDNERPATTFRNSOF

NDUSTRALBUREAUCRACY 954 J HURST THELEGTMACYOFTHEBUSNESS CORPORA-

TONN THELAWOFTHEUNTEDSTATES7 8 o - 9 70 9 7 0 P NONETADMNSTRATVE

JUSTCE 169 CPERROWCOMPLEXORGANZATONS2d ed 979 READERN BUREAUCRACY

R M e rt on A G r y B H oc ke y & H S e v n e d 9 52 S W O L N P O L T CS A ND V S O N

g60 Se znck An Approach to a Theory of Bureaucracy 8 AM SOC REV 47 943 Seznck

F oun d t on of t h e Th eory of Orgn z t on 3AMSOC REV 25 948h e re n f t erc t e d

S e zn c k F ou nd t o n R U n ge r P o t c 9 84 u np ub h ed m n u c r pt o n f e n H r v r d

Lw S c hooL b rry on p e c f c mod e of bure u c rt c e g t m c y 2M WEB EREC ONOMY

AND SOC ETY 956005 GRot h &C Wt t c h e d 1978 C B ARNARD TH EFU NC TONSOF

TH EEXECU TV E 2d e d 968J LAND S TH EAD MNSTRATV EPROC ES S 938L JAFF E

JU D C ALC ONTROLOFAD MNSTRATVEAC TON965 F u e r Th e Form n dLmt of

Adud c t on 92HARV LREV 353 978S t e w rt Th e Ref ormt on of Ame rc n Admn t r

tv eLaw8 8HARVL REV 6 6 7 9 7 5R Ca rkCo rp or a teLawa nd Se cur t e s Reg ua t o n

983 unpubshedmanuscrptonf e nHarvardLawSchooL brary onmethodoogyJ

DERRDAOFGRAMMATOLOGY G Spvk trn 1976 R RORTYPHLOSOPHYANDTHE

MRROROFNATURE 979Gord on Ne w D e ve opme nt n L e g Th eory n TH EPOLTC SOF

LAW28D Ka rys ed 9 8 2Kenned y Fo rmand Sub st a ncen Prv at eLawAd ud c a t o n8 9

HARV L REV 685 976 Parker The Past of Consttut ona Theory - And ts Future 42

OHO ST LJ 223 g8 D Kennedy nternatona Lega Structures 984 unpubshed

manuscrptonf e nHarvardLawSchoo Lbrary amasogreaty ndebtedtoMaryJoe

FrugLous KapowDavd KennedyDuncanKennedy MattKramerMarthaMnow Stephen

Pre e r n dRc h rd S t ew rt f ort he rh e p n ddv c e

277

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278HARVARDLAWREVEWVo 97276

formof humn domn t on 2Th f e rd e rv e f romp e c f c c h rc

t er t c h re d by c orp ort on n dg ove rnme nt g e nc e c h rc t er

t c t h t h v e t r d t o n y d en t f ed b ur e u cr c y f or m o f

o c orgn zt on t he h e rrc h c orgn zt on of t w ork f orc e n d

t he e p rt on of t w ork er f romt h e h re h od er orc t ze n w h oe

n t ere t t he ypurp ort t o e rv e 3C orp ort e n ddmn t rt v e w

h v e e mbod e d e re of d f fe ren t t t e mp t t o c on vnc e u t h t t h e e

c h rc t er t c d on o t pe rmt t ho e w h ow e dbu re u crt c p owe rt o

v o t e t he f ree d omof t h o e u b e c t ed t o t rgue n t h Art c e

t h t of t he e d e f en e of bure u c rt c p owe rre n omore t h n

v r t o n o n n g e t o ry b o u t th e c c ep t b t y o f b ur e uc r t c

o rg n z t o n n d th t t h t or y f r f r o m bu d n g c on v nc n g c e

forb u re u c rc y me ch n mof d e ce pt on Th e me ch n mof

d e ce p t on t he more pow erf u b e c u e p e op e re gu ryd e c e v e

t he me v e w e t h e ru d e n ce w h en t h eyg e ne rt e v er on of

t h t oryw e e n gg e n t h k n d of d ec e pt v e p rc t c e w he n w e

c omf ort ou re v e b out b u re u crt c p owe rTh Art c e d ev o te d

t o n n y n d ex po u r e of t h d ec ep t on c on d e r t n ec e r y

p rt of rg erp ro e ct d e gn e d t op romot e f u d e mocrt c p rt c

p t o n n p ec t o f A me r c n f e O ne t ep t ow r d t h t go

t h ou gh on y on e t e p t ore ve t he n d e qu c y of t h e d e o ogy

ththep perpetutecurrentyentrenchednondemocrt cform of

h um n o c t o n

T he A rt c e d v d ed n t o th re e p r t P r t d e c r b e t he w y

n te nd t o n y ze n d c rt c ze e g rgume nt b out b u re uc rc y

t o n trodu c e f ourmod e of bure u c rt c e g t m c y e c h of

w h c h rep re e nt p rn c p w yof un d ert n dn g t h e b ure u c rt c

2 This Article, like organization theory generally, stresses that administrative agencies and

corporatonsas bureaucratcorganzatonssharecommonrfeatures SeeC PERROWsupra

note anayzngorganzatona behavorbydscussngbothpub candpr vatesectorbureau-

craces n ega doctrne however these two forms of bureaucracy are routney separated

nto dfferent categores, one abe ed pubc and the other prvate have crtc zed esewhere

the vab ty of such a pub c/prvate dstncton See Frug The Cty as a Lega Concept 93

HARV L REv 059, 28-49 980 herenafter cted as Frug, The Cty Frug, Ct es and

Homeowners Assocat ons A Repy, 30 U PA L REv 589 982 n order to avod havng

to make yet another critique of the public/private distinction here, I refer the reader to my

previous work if s/he wants to pursue why any attempt to use the public/private distinction to

defend some bureaucratc organzat ons at the expense of others s untenab e

3 The classic definition of bureaucracy, by Max Weber, includes both its organization into

a clearly defined hierarchy of offices and the entire separation of bureaucratic officials from

ownership of the means of administration I M WEBER, supra note i, at 220-2I see also 2

id at 956-58 discussing bureaucratic hierarchy and the separation of public roles from private

life As Weber pointed out, With respect to the separation of the official from ownership of

the means of administration, the situation is exactly the s ame in the field of public administration

and in private bureaucratic organizations, such as the large-scale capitalistic enterprise. i id.

at 222. Many other aspects of Weber s definition of bureaucracy, as well as definitions propos ed

byother reomttedhere




984BUREAUCRACY1279

f ormP rt d e vo t ed t o d e t e d c rt q u e of c orp ort e n d

d m n t r t v e w o r g n z ed n t e r m o f th e e fo ur m o de F n y

P r t n w er o me p ot en t o b ec t on t o th c r t qu e t he re by

e x p orn gn more g e ne r w y t h e e g d o ct rn e t h t un d er e

bureucrtcpower nAmerc

THEARGUMENT

ATh e S t ore t h t Ju t f yB u re u c rc y

F romt he t me of t h e rn t rod u ct on n t oAmerc n f e rg e c e

b un e c orp ort on n d t he dmn t rt v e t t e t h t re gu t e t h e m

v e r e d p rof oun d que t on b out t h e k n d of n t on w e re c re

t n gn d t h e k n d of p eop e w e re b e c omn gOn e w y t oun d ert n d

t he n t ur e of t he e q u e t on t o ex m n e t he w y d d en t po t c

movementh vecontetedthefoundton growth ndpredomn nce

of bu re u c rt c e n t t e F romt h e rep u b c n of t he Re v out on ry

p e rod4t h rou gh th e Jc k on n p opu t n d b ororgn ze r of

thenneteenthcentury5tomodernwrter oneconomc ndpo tc

d e moc rc y 6d d e nt h v e c h rg ed t h t p u b c n dp rv t e p owe r

h b e come ve t e dn t h e h n d of t he f e w Th c onc e nt rt on of

p ow e rt h eyh v e rgue d t h re t en f un dme nt d e of b e rt yn d

q u t yw h et h ert h e e d e re u nd e rt oodn t e rmof n e c on omy

f oun d ed on w d e p re dn dvdu e nt rep ren e urh p 7 p o t yb e d

on d e moc rt c y c ont ro e d d ec on mk n g8or t he ory of t h e e f

t h t e mph ze t h e b t y of n dvdu t o c on t ro t he n t u re of t he r

w or k n d t he r e e nt f e ch o ce 9 T h e e t r d t o n d e c r t c

h v e c me d re e op rd ze d by t h e e me rge nc e of Ne w Fe u d

m t o u e R o co e Po un d p h r e 0

D d en t h v e o c h r ge d th t t he e me rg en ce o f r ge c e

b u re u c rt c e n t erp re h t rn f orme ddy t od y f e e xp e ren ce

4 See, e g, G WOOD, THE CREATION OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC I776-I787, at 46-48,

5 3 6 5 7 5 9 0 9 69

5 See, e g, A DAWLEY, CLASS AND COMMUNITY THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN LYNN

(I976) (describing Igth century labor protests in terms of their opposition to the bureaucratic

form) L GOODWYN, THE POPULIST MOMENT (I978) (describing the populist aversion to bu-

reaucracy) M MEYERS, THE JACKSONIAN PERSUASION POLITICS AND BELIEF 26I-65 (2d ed

g60 dscuss ng Jacksonan responses to the growth of the corporate form

6 See, eg , M CARNOY & D SHEARER, ECONOMIC DEMOCRACY THE CHALLENGE OF THE

Ig80s, at I9-27 (Ig80) R EDWARDS, CONTESTED TERRAIN THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE

WORKPLACE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY I99-2 I6 (I979) C MILLS, THE POWER ELITE

298324 956

7 See, e g, L HARTZ, ECONOMIC POLICY AND DEMOCRATIC THOUGHT 57-79 (I948)

8 See C LINDBLOM, POLITICS AND MARKETS 356 (I977) ( The large private corporation fits

oddynto democratctheoryandvson ndeed tdoesnotft

9 S ee e g G W OO D u p r n ot e 4 t 9 2 4

1 0 Po und TheN ewFeud a Sy s tem3 5COMLJ 3 9 7 9 3 0





S om et m e t h c r t c m r e fe r t o t he e n t o n th t h n v de d

ordn ryh umn c t v t y t h e c k of f u f me n t p eop e d e rve f rom

t h e rw ork t h e e n e of d e n gw t h orgn zt on e e mngyb e y on d

t he row n e v e n n y one c ont ro A t o th e rt me t h c rt c m

dre ct ed t t h e n c re n g me ne n d c on formt yw t h n ev e rydy

f e 12P e op e c t by ref ere nc e t o t he rro e n f e n d t he e ro e

rereproducedende y McDon d McDon d everywhere

Whethertheyemph zetheprobemof humne trngementorthoe

of c onf ormt y c rt c c h rg e th t t h e b u re u c rt zt on of f e h

dmn h ed t h e p o b t y of n u t he n t c ex p ere n ce of t h e e f

D d en t c o mp n t b ou t th e gr ow th o f r ge c e p ub c n d

p rv t e e n te rpr e h owe v er h v e b e en mpy ub th eme n Ame r

c n p o t c d c oure on e th t h b e en ov erw he me dby th e g row t h

oftheeenterpr e ndthevoce oftherdefender Thedefender

of bure u c rc yh v e e d t e merg en c e w th t h e d e of p rog re

t he d vn ce of t he t e ch noog c g e n d t he re t e of mode rn

c om p ex o c et y B ur e uc r c y w e r e t o d n ec e r y n ev t b e

f e t ure of mode rn f e 13On y f ooh romn t c re c t on ry

w ho d e z e p t t h t n ev er r e y e x t e d n d co u d no t co nc e v

b y e x t c ou d h op e to d m n t e o r r d c y t o t er c ur re nt

p u b c orp rv t e b u re u crt c orgn z t on 14On c e t he y e t b h

t h rgume nt of n e ce t y d e f en d er of bu re u c rc y t he n t yp c y

d e mon t rt e w hy t h e e orgn zt on c on t t ut e d e rb e f ormof

h um n o c t o n 1 5 He re m o r e th n n m m ee t ng o r e v en n

t h e f m y p er o n d om n t o n u b ec t to c he ck n d b n ce

M ore ove rf rf romcre t n g dmn h e d e n e of e f mode rn rg e

c e o r g n z t o n h v e m d e po b e n u np r e e d ex p n o n o f

p eop e op portun t y t o ch oo e t he row n f e t y e Ne ve rh v e p e op e

h dmore opt on n f e ormore t me t op uru e t h em n de e d t h e

mode rn workp c e h b e en p ortry e d t h e p c e w h ere c c

r ep ub c n d e c n c tu y b e pu t n to p r c t ce 1 6

11S e e e g C M LLS WHTEC OLLAR2242832842 956A TRAC HTENBERGTH E

NCORPORATONOFAMERC A3869 982Th p e rv v e e n t on t h e compn t D u rkh e m

d e c rb e n ome S e e E D U RKHEMONTHED V SONOFLABORN SOC ETY 35373

G S m p o n tr n 9 33

12Th e c c mod ern w ork d e c rbn g t he c onf ormt y of w h t e c or w ork e r WWHY TE

TH EORGANZATONMAN 956 e e oJ WRGHT ONAC LEARD AY Y ouC ANSE E

GENERALMOTORS 7 979 recountngJohnDeLoren decrptonof enforcedconformty

n d e t h e G e ne r M otorC orp ort on Th e c c g t h c e nt ury t t c k on t h e mor mpc t

o f me ch n z t o n T ho m C r y e S g n o f t he T m e S ee T C A RL YL E S g n o f t he T m e

n SE LECTED WRTNGS6085 A Sh e t on ed 971

13S e e e g RHOF STAD TERTH EAGEOFREFORM22359955 JKASSON C V LZNG

THEMACHNETECHNOLOGYANDREPUBLCANVALUES NAMERCA 776900 t45 5

9 76 M W E BE R u pr n ot e t 2 23 2 4

14S e e e g D B E L LTH EEND OF D EOLOGY 2 45re v e d 962

1 5 Se e e g d t 4 7 74

16S e e JKAS SON uprn o t e 3 t 53 06F or n t te mpt t o e x pn t he g rowt h of




984BUREAUCRACY28

Th e h t ory of th e c on f c t ov erb u re u crt c orgn zt on n Amer

c mport n t b ec u e t f f ec t ou rc u rre nt t n c e t ow rd t h e e

n t t u t on 17S u bordn t e d d e nt c onc e rn b out t h e e xe rc e of

mn g e r p owe rn d b out t h e dn g er of bure u c rc y top e ron

freedomhve nfuencedboththegrowthndthedefeneof rge

c e o rgn zt on 18n d e ed on e c n un de rt n d t h e c h n gngf orm

of u t f c t on of f ere d f orbu re u crt c orgn zt on n t e rm of n

h t o r c p ro gr e o n fu e ed b y d e ct c o f c r t qu e n d r e po n e

B u t on e c n ov e w ou rre t on h p t o t he h t orc c ont rov e ry

o ve r bu re u cr c y n e c u t er m F ro m th p er p e ct v e t he

h t o r c d eb t e m p y r ep c t e o u r ow n m b v e n t fe e n g b ou t

t he d e r b t yn d t h e dn g erof bu re u crt c n t t u t on t he d e b t e

b e tw ee n bure u c rc yd e f en de r n dd d e nt on e we t c rry

on w t h n ou re v e

L k e t he h t orc d e fe nd e rof bu re uc rt c orgn z t on w e

h v e d opt e d on y mt e dn umberof w y t ore u re oure v e

b ou t t he e n t t u t on Th e e mt e d t t e mp t t o u t f ybu re u c

r c y c m r e th e b e o n wh c h co rp or t e n d d m n t r t v e

w re b u t n t h Art c e d e nt f y f ourd f f e re n t t t emp t t o

n d ert n dn dd e f en d c orp ort on n ddmn t rt v e g en c e

Theefour pprocherepreentrepone tothecrtqueofboth

m n g e r d om n t o n n d t he e ro o n o f t he p c e fo r pe r o n e f

x p re on Tk e n t oge th e rt h eyn o t on y e nc pu t e t h e prn c p

t he me of c orp ort e n d dmn t rt v e w bu t od omn t e org

n z t o n t he or y w ho e

B ef ore k et c h th e e f ourmod e of bu re u c rt c e g t m c y 19

h ou d y w ord b out t h e met hod oogy t h t e mpoy n t h Art c e

Th e fou rmod e re d e t y pe 20t h t e x t rc t d f fe ren t w y of un

de rt n dn gbu re u c rc y f rom myrd of p rt c u r e g d o ct rn e

Ame rc n bu re uc rc y n e f fort t opro te ct mn ort y rgh t g n t t h e t hre t of m ort y ru e

e e WNEL SONTH EROOTSOFAMERC ANB U REAUC RAC Y 830900 982F or c rt c

re v ew of Ne on t h e e e S ch w rt zL b e rtyD e mocrc y n d t he Orgn of Ame rc n

B u re u crc y 97HARV L REv 85 984Th e mod ern w ork p c e h ob e e n de fe n de d on

g ro un d t h t t u rp e r e p ub c n d e n d r ep c e t he m w th m or e u e fu n d pr od uc t ve

f or m o f o c o rg n z t o n S e e R H O FS TA DT ER u pr n ot e 3 t 2 5 7 H D E S A NT

SMON SOCALORGANZATON THESCENCEOFMANANDOTHERWRTNGS76 80 F

M r kh m t r n 9 52

17S e e ge n er y 0 PAZ C LAU D ELEV STRAU SSANNTROD UC TON6J B e rt e n &M

B ert e n t rn 970 u gge t n g t h t on e h ou dun d ert n dh t oryn t h e w y t h t g e o og t

un de r t n d t he g e o f t he E r t h n ex u o f r e t o n h p

18S e e e g RHOF STAD TER uprn o t e 3 t 25556

1 9 A f u e r ex po t o n o f e c h o f th e e mo de p re e nt ed n P r t S ee n f r p p 2 96

377

20d e t y pe me th odoogyd erv e f romWe be rS e e MWEB ER uprn o t e t 922

F oro th e rex pn t on of d e t yp e met h od oogy e e f ore xmp e C MACPH ERSONTH E

POLTC ALTH EORY OFPOS SE S SVEND V D U AL SM 4649 962S t e w rt & Sun te n Pu b c

P r o gr m n d Pr v t e R g ht 9 5 HA RV L R EV 9 3 2 39 4 6 9 82




282HARVARDLAWREVEW Vo 971276

n d wo rk o f e g c ho r h p B e c u e t he m od e o ne m g ht c

t he m p r d g m 2 1 r e my o wn c re t o n t h ey p n y c n no t m p y

b e d e cr p t on o f w h t e g d oc tr n e r e y r e o r w h t p r t cu r

e g t he or t c tu y h d n m nd n d o ng t he r e g c ho r h p

n t e d k e h um n n te r c t on w t h t he w or d t h e e m od e

c ont n e e me nt b o th of t h e pe ron p e rc e vn g t he w ord n t h c e

me n d of t h t w h c h he e ek t op erc e ve 22n dd t on t h e e

mode c n n o t po by ov e rc ome t h e p rob e mof ov e rmpf c t on

n he ren t n t h k n d of c t e gorzt on Th e vu e of t h e e mode

muttherefore ee ewhereR therthn pretendngtobeobectve

t h ey re d e gn e d to p p e t oy ou t he re d e r c onvn c n gw y

t ound e rt n d t he ph en ome non of bure u c rt c e g t m t on n dmn

t rt v e n d c orp ort e w R t he rt h n of fe rn g t h c k d e c rp t on

of n yprt c u rt h eory ord oc t rn t ruc t ure omet h n gwe w ort h

d on g23t h e y re d e gn e d t o ow u t og rp t h e th eory of bure u c

rc y w h oe w t hou t be n g ov erw he me dby t he v e ry rc h n e of

d et t h t t h ey omt

T h e f r t o f th e e m od e w h ch c t he f or m t m od e c n b e

oc tedwththeworkof tenneteenthnde ry twentethcentury

b u re u c rt c t h e or t u c h MxWe b er F red e rck Ty or n d

E rn t F re un d 24The e t h e or t p ort ry e dbu re u crc y rt on

ze d d c p n edme ch n mf ormpe men t n g t he w h e of t c re

t o r w h et he rt o c kh od er ore g t orTh e y w bu re u crt c

power unthretenngbecue theyundertoodbureucrtc org

nz ton tobeobectve ntrument underthecontroofthoewho

deegtedpowertothem ndeed conttuentcontronotony pre

v e nt e d bu e of mn g e r p owe rbu t op re e rve d ph ere f ort h e

f u e x pre on of u b e c t v e ex p ere n ce n t h e c t v t y of t ho e ou t d e

t he b u re u crc yw h oe w h e t h e b u re u c rc y c rre d ou t

Th e e c on d f ormof bure u c rt c e g t m t on w h c h c t h e

e x pe rt e mod e d e v e ope dn re p on e t o t h e c rt q ue of t h e form t

m od e P r og re v e n d ce rt n N ew D e e r n c ud n g or g n z

t o n th eo r t k e Ph p S e z n ck c o r po r t e m n g er t k e Ch e

t e rB rn rdE t on Myo P e te rD ruc ke r n dD ou g M cGreg or n d

21Th e wordp r dgm oc t e dw t h t he w ork of Th om Kuhn S e e T KU HN TH E

STRU CTU REOF SC ENTFC REV OLU TONS2d e d 970F or c rt q u e of Kuh n u e of t h e

t e rm e e M c n t yre E p t emoog c C re D rmt c N rrt v e n d t he Ph o ophy of S c e nc e

nPARADGMSANDREVOLUTONS5456 74 GGuttnged g80

22S e e Fru gTh e C t y u p rn o t e 2 t 07980 c t n g ou rc e

23F orn e x p o t on of t h e met hod oogy of t h c k de c rp t on e e C GEERTZTH ENTER

PRETATONOFCULTURES330 973

24SeeEFREUNDADMNSTRATVEPOWERSOVERPERSONSANDPROPERTY928 F

TAY LOR SC ENTFC MANAGEMENT947 2M WEB ER uprn o t e t 956005F re und

T he L w o f t he A dm n t r t o n n A me r c 9 P OL S C Q 4 0 3 8 94 A dd t o n o ur ce f or

t he f or m t m od e r e c te d n S ec t on A o f P r t S ee n f r p p 2 97 3 7




1984 BUREAUCRACY 283

d m n t r t v e w c ho r k e Wo od ro w W o n n d J m e L n d 2 5

greedwththech rgethtbureucrc e werenot nfct con

troedby commnd uedfromoutde Theyrecognzedtheenor

mou rn g e of d c ret on e x erc e d bybu re u crt c m n g e r n d ee d

t he y rgu e d th t t h d c ret on w n ot on y n un v odb e n gre

d e nt o f b ur e u cr t c f e bu t o t v er y r o n d et re n t e d o f

f e rn gbu re u c rt c d c ret on t h e e t h n k er w e c ome d t b e c u e

theypercevedthemn ger ndempoyeewhoexerced ttobe

e xp er t w ho e p r of e o n m m u t n eo u y m t ed t he c o p e of

t h e rp ow er p rev e nt e d pe ron d omn t on n dmde p o b e t h e

c re t v t yn df e x b t yn ec e ry t o t he e f fe c t ve n e of t he b u re u

crtcform

Th e th rd t h eory of bu re u crt c e g t mc yw h c h c t h e u

d c r ev ew m od e w r e ct o n g n t t he e x ce e o f th e

e xp e rt e mode Th o e w ho rt c u t e d t h p on t of v e w n c u dn g

uc h e g c ho r F e x F r n kf ur te r L on F u e r L o u J f fe n d

KennethCupDv 26expreed doubt thte therconttuentcontro

o rm n g e r e x pe rt e c ou d mt t h e e xe rc e of b u re u crt c p owe r

T h t m t h d t o b e o c t ed n t e d n t h e b t y of t he c ou rt t o

re v ew n dw h en n e ce ry t oov e rt u rn t h e c t on of bu re u crt c

orgnz ton Bureucrcycoudberenderednonthretenng nther

v e w on y f d e qu t e y u b e ct t o t h e ru e of w B e c u e t h e

n t ru on of t h e c ou rt w ou db e mt e dh owe v er mn g e r n d

c on t t ue nt w ou d ret n p rmry c on troov e rb ure u c rt c c t v t e

F n y n t he 9 6 0 n d 9 70 b er d em oc r t w h o e de

b out dmn t rt v e w h v e b e en n y zed byRc h rd S t ew rt 27

n d c on e rv t v e re pre e n t t v e of t h e C h c g oS c h oo w hoe w ork

h b ec ome m n t y of c u rre nt w rt n g b out c orport e w 28

c rt c ze d t he e f fe c t ve ne n d c red b t y of t he u d c re v ew mode

25 See C BARNARD, supra note I P DRUCKER, THE PRACTICE OF MANAGEMENT (I954)

J LANDIS, supra note i E MAYO, THE HUMAN PROBLEMS OF AN INDUSTRIAL CIVILIZATION

(I933) [hereinafter cited as E MAYO, HUMAN PROBLEMS] E MAYO, THE SOCIAL PROBLEMS

OF AN INDUSTRIAL CIVILIZATION (I945) D MCGREGOR, THE HUMAN SIDE OF ENTERPRISE

(Ig60) P SELZNICK, LEADERSHIP IN ADMINISTRATION (I95I) Wilson, The Study of Adminis-

tration, 2 POL. SCI. Q. I97, 209-I7 (i887). Additional sources for the expertise model are cited

n S e ct o n B o f P rt S ee n f r p p 3 8 3 4

26 See i K DAVIS, ADMINISTRATIVE LAW TREATISE (2d ed I978) F FRANKFURTER, THE

PUBLIC AND ITS GOVERNMENT 36-80 (I930); L. JAFFE, supra note I; Fuller, supra note i.

Additional sources for the udicial review model are cited in Section C of Part II See infra

p p 3 34 5 5

27 See Stewart, supra note i, at I760-I8I3 Additional sources for the pluralist model are

c t ed n S e ct o n D o f P rt S ee n f r p p 3 55 7 7

28 See, e g, Easterbrook & Fischel, The Proper Role of a Targets Management in Responding

to a Tender Offer, 94 HARV. L. REV. iI6i (198I); Manne, Mergers and the Market for Corporate

Control, 73 J POL ECON IIO (I965) Additional sources for the market model are cited in

S ec t on D o f P r t S ee n f r p p 3 55 7 7




I284 HARVARD LAW REVIEW [Vol 97 I276

These theorists, who espouse what I call the market/pluralist model,

ground the legitimacy of administrative and corporate structures on

the operaton of ether po tca or market mechansms wthn bureau-

cratc structures As they see t, ether nterest-group po tcs or mar-

ket forces intervene to discipline bureaucratic management in addi-

tion, these mechanisms allow people to express themselves about how

b u re u crc e h ou d op e rt e

Given what I have said about the construction of these models of

bureaucratic organization, the reader should not take too literally my

presenting them in terms of an historical progression but should use

the idea of historical development only as a rough guide Moreover,

as this history has unfolded, each model has not simply replaced its

predecessor Instead, each has been added to the others, so that in

the end all of them have become part of legal discourse Indeed,

current legal theorists often merge all four models together A present-

day corporate law theorist, for example, might assert that corporate

managers, as trustees for the shareholders, can exercise their own

business judgment as long as it is checked by the combined discipline

of proxy fights, derivative suits, and the market in corporate control.

Similarly, an administrative lawyer might say that an administrative

agency can, pursuant to its delegated power, exercise its own discre-

tion as long as anyone affected by its action can, when appropriate,

intervene in its decisionmaking and subect the decision, once made,

to judicial review. One can detect elements of each of the models in

t h e e re t v e y c ommon p c e t t e me nt

Each model of bureaucratic legitimacy is a story designed to tell

its listeners Dont worry, bureaucratic organizations are under con-

trol. All of administrative and corporate law can, in my view, be

understood as an expression of one of these stories or of a combination

of them. These bodies of law comprise, in other words, a series of

assurances that the legal system can overcome the perennial concerns

about bureaucratic organizations. The most prominent concern that

these areas of legal doctrine address is the fear that bureaucratic

managers - whether public or private - can control bureaucratic

power in a manner adverse to the interests of the shareholders or

citizens whom they purport to serve. Because this is the problem of

bureaucratic form that corporate and administrative law predomi-

nantly emphasize, it will be the predominant focus of this Article 29

29 Those who teach and write about corporate law have traditionally excluded from its

coverage problems affecting employees within the corporate structure; these matters have been

left to such doctrinal areas as labor law, contract law, and employment discrimination law.

Indeed, the insistence on understanding the corporate entity in terms of the corporation/share-

holder relationship, instead of the corporation/worker relationship that was Marx's principal

concern, see I K. MARX, CAPITAL ch. IO (B. Fowkes trans. I977), is an important part of the

ideological structure of modern corporate law. Administrative lawyers, on the other hand, have




984BUREAUCRACY285

Th e e bo d e o f w o e ek t o u re u t h t b ur e u cr t c o r g n

zt on ow mpe roomf ore f d e te rmn t on n d e f d e v e opme nt

Th p ec t of e g d o ct rn e t h ou gh oft e n e pp re nt t h n t h e

f oc u o n m n g e r p ow er n o e m po rt n t t t o o w b e

p r nc p u b ec t of t h A rt c e

Mn yre d e rm yf n d t odd t o t k of c orport e n d dmn

t r t ve w e r e o f t or e t h t u re u b ou t th e c ce pt b t y

of bu re u c rt c orgn zt on Th eymy t h n k t h t t he d e c on t o

c re t e th e e o rg n z t o n t k e p c e ou t d e t he e g y t em t h t

bu re u c rc y t he p rodu c t of p o t c c ho c e orof mrk e t force Th e

w u n de r th v e w m er e y r ef e ct o c f e t f u nc t on o n y t o

correcttheprobemth tbureucrtc orgnz ton generte Other

re d e r h owe v er myre c ogn ze t he c mt h t t h e e g y t e mt e f

hpe thedeveopmentofbureucrtcorgn zt onthroughthe eg

t mt n gf un ct on of w t ou e A e xn d erB c k e w e k n ow n

ph re 30A c c ordn g t oone d e f n t on L e g t mc yme n t h t t h ere

re g ood rgume nt f or p o t c orde r c mt ob e re cogn ze d

r g ht n d u t L eg t m c y m e n p o t c o rd er w or th n e

t ob e rec ogn ze d 31F ort he e re d e r t h e pro ce of d t n guh n g

e g f ro m e g c t v ty n c o r po r t e n d d m n t r t v e w h

b e en ou rc e of b ure u c rt c p owe rn Ame rc n o c e ty 32

n t h Art c e of te n u e t h e n gu g e of e g t mt on t h eort

b ec u e t o ft en e e t t o th nk o f w e r e o f de t h t

f f e ct h ow t he w ord op ert e S of r f orexmp e h v e p oke n of

w d ef n n g p er pe tu t n g e x p n n g u t f y ng n d re u r ng

re ce nt yb e gun t on c u d e t he e mpoyme nt re t on h p n t h e rd ef n t on of dmn t rt v e w

C om p r e B e y v R c h r d on 8 2 F 2 d 46 D C C r 9 50 c on c ud n g th t c o n t tu t on

gu rn t e e d on o t p py t op u b c e mpoyme n t f f dbyn e q u ydvd e dC ourt 34 U S

98 095 , wth Board of Regents v Roth, 408 US 564, 57 & n 9 1972 appyng the

C on t t ut on t op u b c e mpoyme nt A t h ou gh t t me d e w t h t he e mpoyme nt re t on h p

n t h A rt c e h v e g en er y m t ed m y e f d o co rp or t e n d d m n t r t v e w

t o t he b u re u c rc y/h re hod e rorbure u c rc y/ c t ze n re t on h p w h c h re f e rt o t he

b u re u c rc y/c on t t ue nt re t on h p Wt h ou t u c h mt t on myn y w oudb e to o

c omp e xn d t oo e n g th y t of t w t h n n g e rt c e u gge t h owe v er t h t t h e mod e of

b u re u c rt c e g t mc y n dmyn y of t he mn t e rmof t h e b ure u c rc y/ c on t t u e nt re

t on h p c n b e pp e d t o t h e b ure u c rc y/ e mpoy ee re t on h p w e F orre t e d c rt q ue

o f fe de r y r eg u t ed c o e ct v e b r g n n g w e e f or e x m p e K r e L b o r L w d eo o gy

Tow rd Ne w H t orogrph y of C o e c t ve B rg n n gLw 4 ND USRE L L J450 98

S to ne T h e Po t W r P r d g m n A m e r c n L b or L w 9 0 Y AL E L J 5 0 9 9 8 N ot e

S ub e ct o f B r g n n g Un de r th e NL RA n d t h e L m t o f L b er P o t c m g n t o n 9 7

HARV L REV 475983

30SeeA BCKELTHELEASTDANGEROUSBRANCH2933 962

31J HABERMASCOMMUNCATONANDTHEEVOLUTONOF SOCETY78 T McCrthy

trans 979 Habermas defnt on refers to pot ca egt macy but t shoud be understood to

a p p y to corp or a te eg tma cy a s we Se e eg Chat o v TheRo eo fd e o o gy n theAmer c an

C orp ort on n TH EC ORPORATED L EMMA50D V ot w & S S e th e d 1973

3 2 Fo r a r e cent cr t c a a na y s s o fthe concep to feg tma to nn aws e eHy de TheConcep t

o f L eg t mt on n t h e S o c o ogy of Lw 983WSL REV 379983





u b out b u re u crt c orgn zt on B u t myrgumen t p roc e ed t

w b ec om e n cr e n g y c e r t h t d o no t be e v e n t he d t n ct o n

b e tw ee n t h e re w ord of bure u c rt c orgn zt on n d t h e w

d t n c t on t h t b o t h e g t mt on t h e or t n d t he ropp on en t

s e emto r ey o nA s fa r a s c a nt e the s to r e s o fb ure a ucr at c

u t f c t o n n y ze d n t h A rt c e d e cr b e b ot h th e d e p ro

p oun d ed n e g d o ct rn e n d t h e k n d of orgn zt on p e op e e e k

toput ntopace Thesearesmpy twoversonsofthesameprocess

o f o c c re t o n w r et ur n to t h p o nt t er n t he A rt c e 3 3

W he th er t he w m p y r e f ec t o rg n z t o n f e or m o d t n

ome w y h owe v er t he v on of t h e w ord t h t un d ere e g d o c

t rn e t h e t ore b out h ow bure u c rc y t ob e und e rt ood

d e fe n de d n dmprov e d re e q uy mport n t n e t h erc e t he

ega systemespousessomewayof makngsense ofcorporateand

d m n t r t v e g en c e T h A rt c e o ff er c r t qu e of t he e t

t e mp t t om k e e n e of bu re u crt c orgn z t on

B TheSubectveObectveDchotomy

n m y v e w o f th e t o r e t h t e e k to e xp n n d d e fe nd

bureaucratc organzatonhaveundertakentwotasks Frst they

h v e ou gh t t ore p on d t o t he f e rof mn g er c ont robyd e mon

t rt n g t h t b u re u crt c p owe r c on tr n edby ome k n d of ob

ectvtyObectv ty thoughttoprotectpeopewthn thebureuc

rc y f romdomn t on n d t o e n u re t h t t h e n t ere t of c on t t ue nt

renotthretenedbytheconod tedpowerexerced bythebu

re u c rc y t e f Th e de f n t on of ob e c t v t yd op te dn t h e e t ore

h v e v r e d w de y n eu tr t y n d p u r u t of c om mo n pu rp o e

r e e x m p e b ut o f th em h v e e mp h z ed v u e o f o rg n

zt on f e t h t e v ery on e c on d e re d t oh odn c ommon t t he

f c t th t t h e e v u e r e h r e d th t m k e t h em o b ec t ve A c

c or d ng y n y n tr u o n o f u b ec t ve p e r o n v u e n to t h o b ec

t v ty h b ee n tr e t ed n co n t en t w th t O b ec t v ty o m

portnttotheecurtyoftho ethretenedbytheorgn zt on

t ruc tu re t h t t mu t n o t b e n f e ct ed by t n t t he u b e ct v t y

S ec ond e c h of t h e t ore h t re d t oh ow t h t bu re u c rt c

organzatondoesnot mt theopportuntyforpersonasef-expres-

onTheyh verepondedtotheconcern boutperon freedom

by u t rt n gh ow bure u c rc y c n p rovde u w t h n mprov ed

b t y to c on tr o o u r ow n v e n o ur o wn w y T h d e of t he

g e nd t he n t t emp t t omk e bu re u crc y c on t e nt w t h u b e c

t v t y w t h th e v u e o f n d v d u t y o c t e d w th t he u n qu e

d e re t h t d t n guh e c h p e ron f romot he r n t h e wordL k e

t h e pu ru t of ob e c t v t y t h e e rc h f oru b e c t v t yh t k e n mn y

33S e e n f rpp 13883




984BUREAUCRACY287

f or m S om e t o r e f o r e x mp e e m ph z e co n t tu en t b t y to

e n u re th t t h e b u re u c rc yd oe w h t t h eyw n t t t od o n d o th er

e mph ze t he f ree d omof bu re u c rt c of f c t op py t h e row n

e xp e rt e n d t rn n g n t h e rw ork Tob e p e ru v e h ow ev e rt h

p p e t o u b e ct v t ymu t p rovd e ome u rn c e th t n dvdu

cn ec pefromtheenforcedcommonne ofobectvty ndbethem

e v e Abov e e e t h e n t h e p re e n ce of u b e ct v t yn orgn

zt on f e mu t b e p rot ec t ed f romth e d emn d of ob e ct v t y

A t he t or e o f bu re u cr t c e g t m t o n n h or t h r e c om

mon t ruc t ure t h e y t t emp t tod e f n e d t n guh n dre nd e rmu

t u y c om p t b e t he u b e ct v e n d o b ec t ve p ec t o f f e A t he

d e fe n e of bu re u c rc yh v e ou ght t o v odme rgn gob e ct v t y n d

u b e ct v t y un t n g t he d e mn dof c ommon ne n d c ommun t y

w t h th o e o f n d v du t y n d p er o n e p r t en e b ec u e t o

d oo w ou db e e f c on t rd c tory 34M oreov er t h n ev e rb ee n

e nou gh u t t o e p rt e u b e ct v t y n d ob e ct v t y e c h mu t o

b e gu rn t ee d p c e w t h n t he bu re uc rt c t ruc t ure A re u t

th e n e b e t we en t h e t wore m h b e come t he c rt c f o cu of

e ff or t t o e g t m t e b ur e u cr c y t t h n e th t o w b u re u

c r t c t he or t m u t n eo u y t o e p r t e n d co mb n e th e v u e o f

u b e ct v t y n d ob e ct v t y t op re en t b ure u c rc y b o th n

enhncementnd protectonof berty ndthtthereforepermt

t h e mt opre e n t bu re u crc y e g t mt e

rgue n t h Art c e t h t t h p ro ec t of b ure u c rt c e g t m t on

f u re Th eort h v e n o t b ee n b e t od t n guh n dren d er

c omp t b e t h e u b e ct v e n d ob e c t v e p e ct of orgn zt on f e

b e c u e n o n e b et w ee n u b e c t v t yn d ob e c t v t y c n e v erb e

d r wn n t e d e c h mo de o f b ur e u cr t c e g t m t o n h d e

v e op ed t h n c u de d u b e c t v t y on t he ob e c t ve d e of t he

b oun d ryn d ob e c t v t y on th e u b e c t v e d e Th e f c et of org

n zt on f e t h t n ee d t ob e u b e c t ve h v e b e c ome o c on tr n ed

byobectvtytht theyc nnotconvncngy repreenttheexpre on

of h umn n dvdu t y Sm ry t he f c e t t h t n e ed t ob e ob e ct v e

h v e be c ome o rdd e dw t h u b e c t v t y t ound e rmn e t h e rc m

torepreentcommonnteret ndeed opponentofe chndv du

t ory of bu re u c rt c e g t mt on h v e u u y odge dp rec e y t h

f ormof c rt c m g n t t 35Y e t th e e c rt c t he me v e h v e g en

e r y ou gh t on y t o e g t mt e bu re u crc ymore con vnc n gyby

ub t t u t ng t h e row n combn t on of ob ec t v t yn d u b e ct v t y

3 4 L eg t he or t h v e re gu r y u e d t he t er m o b ec t ve n d u b ec t ve n w y t h t

u gg e t t h t on e t he n t th e o f th e ot he r S ee e g K D A V S u pr n ot e 26 t x x

Th u f c ombn e d u b e ct v t y n d ob e ct v t yw ou d c on f c t w t h n dn u f y e c h o t he r

theywoudcontrdcte chother

35Seegener yJ FREEDMANCRSS ANDLEGTMACY 978 decrbng therecurrent

e n e o f cr t h t h m p r e d th e e g t m c y of A me r c n d m n t r t ve w





t er t h e m e cr t q ue h b ee n o dg ed g n t t he m T h A rt c e

e x m ne t h c yc e o f e g t m t o n d e eg t m t o n n d re e g t m t o n

whoen ordertohow t common tructurendthecommon

re on f or t n coh ere nc e

A t t h p on t t my e e mdf f cu t t oun d ert n dw h ybu re u c rt c

t he ort h v e n e ve rb ee n b e t of n d w y t o e n u re t h t t h e

b ure u c rt c orgn zt on c n c ombn e y e t e p rt e t h e re m of ob

e ct v t y n d u b e ct v t y 36 T h e ex p n t o n t h t h o ff er r e e

on t he t e rm dn g e rou u pp eme nt f oun dn t h e w ork of Jc q u e

De rrd 37 n e c h of t h e f ou rt ore of bu re u c rt c e g t mt on

n y zedn t h Art c e t h e re t on h p b e tw ee n u b e c t v t yn d

ob e ct v t y c n b e t b e und e rt ood by c onc e vn g e c h of t he m t he

dngerou uppement oftheother

W h t t he n d n ge ro u u pp e me nt ? 38 T he d e c n m o t

e y b e gr p ed t hr ou gh n e x m p e n d m y e x mp e h b e th e

re t on h p of w t o o c e ty t n o t un c ommon t o t h n k of th e w

u pp eme nt t o t h e norm op ert on of o c f e A upp eme nt

th e d ct o n r y te u o me th n g d d ed e p ec y t o m k e up f or

c k ord ef c e n cy 39L w e e mt ob e ome t h ng dd ed t o o c e ty

n e o ft en h e r o f o c f e ex t n g b e fo re t he re w e g y t em

T he d d t on o f w f r f ro m be n g op t on e em n ec e r y to c ur e

d ef e ct n t h e o c orde rWt h out w oc e ty c n n o t ope rt e

p rop e ryw t h ou t t c c ordn g t oone c c ount t he re wou db e w r

o f e ch g n t 4 0 Ye t w o t hr e te nn g u pp e me nt t

g v e ce rt n n dv d u t he w g ve r t he b t y to m p o e on

36Tounderstandths faure andts mportanceadequatey oneneedstoexamnethe specfc

p r ob ems that eg awr t er s hav ef a ced n ther a c tua d o c trna a nd theo r et c a wo rk Pa rt s

d e vo t ed t o t h t k Th e d c u on p re en t edh e re n trodu c e on y n ov er t h eoret c

expn tonoftheprobem

37 S ee J D E R R DA u pr n ot e t 4 6 4

38D e rrd t h n k w oudh v e w rt te n t he e nt e nc e Wh t t he n dn g e rou u pp eme nt ?

P c n g t he w or d u nd er e r u r e h e wo u d h v e c e d t e m ph z e t h t t ho ug h th e

wordmustbeused nordertocommuncate t sa mstaketothnkthatthedangerous

u pp e me nt n yt h ng t m t k e n o t he r wo rd t o th n k of t he d n g er ou u pp e me nt

assome thng or concept thattsef needstobe subecttoscrutnySee nfranote43

nsteadtheterm suppement ssmp ya wordusedbyRousseau ntextsthatDerrdaanayzes

D er r d n h o wn n y t r e t o d e cr b e ho w Ro u e u h m e f u e d t he t er m t

thereforeunconventona formeto takeRousseaustermanduse theremoregeneray asa

way of anayz ng the structure of ega argument concern ng bureaucracy But because sup-

pement sasoa termthatDerrdaempoystodescrbeh smoregeneraanayss suppement

another name for dfferance J DERRDA supra note at So and because t s the one that

at east for me s the most eas y communcated and dscussed have decded to use the term

ntheway exp a ned nthe t ext makeno c amtha tmy ana y s s cor r es p ond s exa c ty wth

what Derrda hmsef means by the term n hs own work For a genera dscusson of

D e rrd me th odoogy e e JC U LLEROND EC ONSTRU CTON85225 982G Spvk Trn

t or P re f ce t o J D E RR D A u pr n ot e t x x xx v

3 9WEBSTERSNEWTWENTETHCENTURYDCTONARY8 3 2 d ed una b r 9 6 4

40THOB B ES L EV ATHANc h 7 t e d L on don 65




984BUREAUCRACY289

o c e ty n ew f ormof opp re on t t h en dn g erou u pp eme nt

And p r d ox c y t he on y pp re nt w y t o c u rb t h n e w dn ge r

t hrough t he w t e f t he t h re t p o e d by t h e w h t ob e

re t r n e dby w At e rrf yn gme n ce t he u pp eme nt h ere t h e

w o t he f r t n d u r e t pr ot ec t on g n t t h t v er y me n ce 4 1

Th f m r w y o f u nd er t n d n g th e re t o n h p o f w n d

o c e ty p re e nt p c t ure of u pp eme nt t h t mu t n e ou yn e c

e ry t o t he p re e rv t on of o c e ty n d t hre t e n ng t o t u rvv

Th e dn ge rou u pp eme nt vdy ou gh t b ec u e t e em t h e on y

w y t omk e o c e tyw h t t ou gh t t ob e Th e v eryd e of o c e t y

w t h ou t w p e rmn e nt y d e fe rre d t ou e D e rrd t ermw e c n

t t n o c et y wt ho ut w f w ec n t t n t t o n y by

e t b h n go c e t y un de r w L w n doc e t y b ec ome n e x t rc by

nt er n ke d w d n ge rou y e t un v odb e b e come p rt of w h t

w e me n by oc e ty

Th t ory of t h e u pp e me nt re t on h p b e tw e en w n do

cetyneednowtobe retodo tht ocetybecome thedngerou

u pp e me nt o f w A f te r o ne c n e t b h w o n y th ro ug h th e

c t on o f o c e ty y e t o c e ty t he c t v t y o f hu m n b e ng p o e

t hre t t o t h e d e of e g t yTh proc e of e e n gb o th o c e ty

n d w dn g erou u pp eme nt of e c h o t he rt rp t h e con ce p t

f w n d o c et y o f t he r p p r en t y e p r t e d e nt t e N e th er

o c e tyw t h out w n or w ou t d e of o c e ty e e m me n n gfu p o

b t y n t he w or d t h e u e o f on e of t he e t er m w y e em t o

mpytheex tenceoftheotherMoreover thenotonthte ther w

or ocetyexted nh torywthouttheotherbecome ubectto

m r p r oc e o f do ub t t e em t h t t h r e t o n h p b et we en w

n d o ce ty h w y r e dy e x t ed 4 2 f o o ne c n e e wh y

t he t k o f d r w n g n e b e tw ee n w n d o c et y be co me n

n co he re nt m e n n g e t k S o c et y c on t t ut ed n p r t b y w

n d w c on t t ut ed n p r t b y o c et y

n P rt rgue t h t e v e ry t te mpt t o e p r t e ob e ct v t y n d

u b e ct v t yn bu re u c rt c t h ough t h n t e d re u t e dn re e nt e

nt ermxn gof t he mTh n te rmxn g t h n e rt on of u b e c t v ty

n d ob e ct v t yn t o t h e rn t t h e e dn g e rou u pp emen t h

ctu ybeenbroughtboutbytheverypeopewho oughttoprevent

t T h u pp e me nt t ru ct ur e h b ee n n ec e r y n d u n vo d b e

4 1 J D E RR D A u pr n ot e t 5 4

42 Id. at 157-64. Although this critique of the kind of history that relies on a search for

origins is important to Derrida's work, I do not pursue it here. Through an analysis of the

supplement or differance, Derrida undermines the meaningfulness of the traditional search for

the moment when some human endeavor began or for the cause of its beginning. No matter

how far back one looks for the origin of the ability to make distinctions, for example, it already

exists: it has always already existed. In Derrida's words, We must begin wherever we are.

Id. at I62. But see sup ra note I7 (emphasizing the importance of historical understanding).




290HARV ARD LAWREV EWV o 97276

n d t hr e te n ng t he n t er we v n g o f w n d o c e ty 4 3 n

n ttempttoovercomethecombntonof ubectvty ndobectv

t y e g t he ort h v e ou gh t n ew n e b e t we en u b e ct v t y n d

ob e ct v t yw t h n b o th t h e ob ec t v e n d t h e u b e c t ve re m of

bu re u c rt c f ormB u t th n e d rw n g e n te rpr e h re produ ce d

t h e me re e nt e n t ermx tu re of u b e c t v ty n d ob e ct v t y e c h

becomngthed ngerou uppementoftheotherR therthn drw

n g n e b et w ee n u b e c t v t yn d ob e c t v t ybu re u c rt c t h e or t

hveconceed therf uretoovercometheconfctbetweenub ec

t v t y n d ob e ct v t y t h rou gh n e n d e e re of un u cc e f u t

t emp t t o c ombn e y e t e p rt e t h e t wo ph ere of f e

Th e n b t y of bure u c rt c t h eort t od rw ub e ct v e /ob e c

t v e b oun d ry c n re d yb e un de rt o od n t e rm of t he dn g e rou

u pp eme nt Af t er t h e d e of u b e ct v t y u u y re fe rt o t h e

ph ere of t he e f b u t we c n d e f n e ou re v e on y t h rou gh re t on

h p w t h t he w ordn w h c h we v e Tof n d ou re v e w e e e k

de throughthecommonycretedwordof ngugeknowedge

t hrough n t e rc t on w t h o t he r n dn f f ec t v e f e t h rou gh ovn g

n d be n g o ve d by t ho e c o e t o u O th er f m y f r en d b u

r e u cr t c u tu r f g ur e t he t t e r e n e ce r y f w e r e t o b ec om e

p eron t t he yp rovd e u t he t uf f of our e v e n dp ro t ec t

u n c ru c w y g n t d e t ru ct o n 4 4 B ut t he e o t he r o

t hre t e n to e mn t e ou re p r t e e n e of d en t t yTh e n f u en ce of

other cnbe opowerfu thtour denttybecome productnotof

w h t w e w n t t ob e b ut of w h t o t he rh v e md e u n d ee d t h e re

now y t o e c p e f romt he w ordn ord e rt od t n gu h w h t w e

w n t f romw h t t h ey w n t 45Th e wordw e h re n c ommon

t he ob e c t ve w ord b o th n e ce ry t on d n comp t b e w t h ou r

ubectvedentty

Th e me t ory c n b e t od by t rt n gw t h t h e no t on of ob ec

t v t y O b ec t v ty u u y o c t e d w th t he d e o f m pe r o n t y

orc ommonn e rt h ert h n w t h t h o e of t h e e f w t h t he p e r

pe c t ve of un v e r t y rt h ert h n t h t of p rt c u rt y B u t n y

re fe ren c e tow h t w e h re c o e c t v e ymu t t k e n t o c c oun t e c h

43 Although I use the term supplement in this Article to explain that no subjective/objective

boundaries exist, I do not mean to suggest that the supplemental relationship is the cause of

the problem of boundaries for bureaucratic theorists. Instead, I am simply using this particular

description of the failure of bureaucratic theory because it seems a good way of communicating

my critique; other ways of doing so might well be as good or even better. Thus, rather than

thinking of the dangerous supplement as if it were some thing whose identity needed further

analysis, or some cause whose effects could be traced, or some disease that could be isolated

and cured, one should consider it a theme that is most characteristic of our 'epoch, ' J.

DERRIDA, SPEECH AND PHENOMENA I35-36 (D. Allison trans. I973), and, in particular, a theme

that characterizes the discourse and activity of bureaucratic organization.

44 Kennedy, The Structure of Bl ackstone's Commentaries, 28 BUFFALO L. REV. 205, 2II-I2

979

45 See, e.g., P. BERGER & T. LUCKMANN, THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF REALITY (I966).




984BUREAUCRACY29

of t he n dvdu c ompone n t t h t mk e u p t h e c o e c t v t yTh ere

c n n o m or e be u n ve r c o e ct v e o r h r e d g o e p r t e fr om

t he p rt c u rg o dvn c ed by p e c f c p eop e t h n t he re c n b e n

ob e ct v e w ord of n t ure e p r t e f romt he n dvdu f e t ure of t h e

w ord ou ght t ob e d e c rb edY e t e p rt e n e n dn dvdu t y

t h re t e n t ob re k p rt t h e n ot on of ob e ct v t yTh e n dvdu

p e ct t h t re ou ght t ob e c ombn e d c n b e un de rt o odn o t on yn

t e rm of w h t t he yh v e n c ommon bu t on t e rm of h ow th e y

d f f e rf rome c h o t he rF ore xmp e y ou n d h re mu c h n c om

m on w e r e h um n w e c n r e d E ng h e v en t he k n d of E ng h

prn te dn t h e H rv rdL w Re v e w bu t ou rd f f ere nc e r t he rt h n

ou rc ommon n e c n w y b e e mph ze d f t he y re t he n o t on

t h t w e t oge t he rc re t e w ord of ob e c t v t y c n b e d e t roy e d mpy

by e mph zn g t h e d f fe ren ce e mbod ed n ou rp rt c u r t yTh e

w or d o f n d v d u u b ec t v ty n ec e r y p r t of t he o b ec t ve

w ordbut on e t h t dn g erou t o n y e n e t h t ob e ct v t y

po b e

On ce t h e re d erg r p t h e n b t y t o e p r t e u b e c t v t yn d

ob ec t v t y t h e re on d on o t e b ort e y d e f ne t h e e t erm n t h

Art c e h ou db ec ome c e r Wh t d e f ne ou rp rt c u rze d e v e

ou r u b e ct v t y n dw h t d e f ne t h e ou t d e w ord of ob e ct v e

tr ut h p ro b em t c w h o w e r e u p fo r g r b n de ed w e h

e e b ur e uc r t c t he or t h v e t k en v t r r y o f fe t ur e o f f e

n dd e crb e d t he m e e men t of e t h e r u b e ct v t y orob e c t v

t y Y e t t he e f e t ur e c o u d u t e y h v e b ee n de c r b ed n

t h e opp o t e t e rmb e c u e t h e c t e gore t he me v e c k p e c f c

contentMoreoveronceoneundertnd theret onhp between

u b e ct v t y n d ob e ct v t y t h ou d ob e c e r t h t w e c n n e v er

drw nebetweenthem Therefore mycrtqueof bureucrtc

t he ort re n c e on t h e u b e c t ve / ob e c t ve d c h o tomy n ot de

gn ed t op ropo e b et t erw y of c ombn n g ub e ct v t y n d ob e c

t v t y ore v en t ou gg e t t h t w e u b t t u te re cogn t on th t e v e ry

t h n g u b e ct v e f ort he t h eort re e nt e e rc h f orob e c t v t y

n t e d u gge t t h t w e h ou db n don t he t te mpt t oun de rt n d

thewordn termofthe ubectve/obectvedchotomy wehoud

d e w t h th e pr ob e m o f h um n o c t o n n o t he r w y t

mportnttore zetht weneednotundertndtheword nterm

o f u b e ct v t y n d o b ec t v ty t h t t h d c h ot om y k e o m n y

ot he rc t e gore t hrough w h c h we e x pe re nc e t he w ord h umn

c re t o n n d n ot r ef e ct o n of w h t t he w or d r e y k e 4 6 A

rgue n P rt h owe v er bu re u c rt c t h eort h v e n o t b ee n

b e t o r t c u t e r t o n e f o r o rg n z t o n f e w th ou t re y n g on

omeformofobectvtytht protect u frombureucrtcdomn ton

n d on ome f ormof u b e ct v t y t h t ow u t ob e oure v e

46S e e Fru gTh e C t y u p rn o te 2 t 07475





B ur e u cr t c t h eo r t c t f t he y ne ed w e do n ot t o b e e v e n

t h e po b t y of u b e ct v e /ob e ct v e d t n c t on

CTheN tureofLeg Argument

t m y t b e un c e r w hy t he n b t y of b ur e u cr t c t h eo r t

t o c ombn e y et e p rt e u b e ct v t y n d ob e ct v t y od e t ru ct v e

to e g rgume nt b out b u re u crc yTh e re on b re f y t t e d

t h t t h re e nt e t t emp t tod vd e n d red vd e u b e ct v t y n d

ob e ct v t yh produ ce d f ormof e g d o ct rn e t h t re t t e t h e v e ry

p rob e mof bu re u c rt c d omn t on n dp e ron e f e x p re on t h t

t w c re t ed t o ov e n t e d of p rovdn g w y t od e c d e w he th e r

concretebureucrtc ctvty houdbe pprovedorcondemned

e g d o ct rn e mpypre e nt t ruc tu re t h t w y er c n u e t o

f ormu t e rgumen t f or n dg n t t h e c t v t y un d erre v e w B e

c u e e v ery p e ct of b u re u c rt c f e t h t mu t b e ob e ct v e o

mu t b e u b e ct v e w y er c n rgue e n d e y ov erw h c h of t he e

con f c t n gy et e e nt n gre d e nt h ou db e fo c u e d on The w

e t h ero c t e b e t we en e e n g th e u b e c t v e orth e ob e ct v e d e

t he more mport n t oroff er t e rn t v e b u t n c on t e nt c h eme f or

c ombn ngy e t e p r t n gb o th d e L e gd o c t rne t h u p rovd e

u t f c t o n f or b o th p r t c u r c o ur e o f c t o n n d t o pp o t e

M ore ove r w e h e e n y t t e mp t t od et e rmn e t he re u t by

pp e n g t o t h e f c t of t h e c e p rovd e n o e c p e f romth

prob e mTh e n t e rp ret t on of t h e f c t u f fe rf romt he me n t e r

mx t ure of u b e c t v t yn d ob e c t v ty t h t p gu e b u re u crt c t he

oryTh e f c t t o o c n b e c on t rue d e t h ert ou t f y ort o c ond e mn

n ybu re u crt c c t v t y

Re u t p rodu ce d by t h k n d of e g rgume nt c n b e c on vn c ng

o n y f t h ey p re e nt n r t f c y p r t v e w of t he w or d f t

werecompete ftheentre tructureofrgumentwere pprentwe

c ou d e e th t t h e m g n ed r e o u t on o f e g p ro b em m d e

p o b e on yby c on ce n g t he e e me nt of u b e c t v t yn d ob e c t v t y

t h t w ou dp rodu ce t h e opp o t e re u t M ore mport n t y y t e m

t h t c n b e u e d t o e g t mt e omu ch c n h rdyb e c onvn c n gn

t e f fort t o e g t mt e n yt h n gf on e c n d e du ce f rom doct rn e

o rn du ce f rom f c t t u t on c on trd c t ory con c u on t h e re u t

of e g d c oure o e t h e rp ow ert op e ru d e Th e rgume nt t h t

g e n ert e t h e e re u t re re ve e d t ob e t y ze d f ormof rh et orc

on e th t c n b e n v oke d t op p rov e ord pp rov e n y c t on t k en

by t he b u re u crc yTh rh et orc c n u re t d v oc t e n d t he r

u d e nc e of t he e g t m c y of bure u c rt c p owe ron y on g t

m n p u b t y c on ce e d

n myv e w t h e rt f c t y of e g rgume nt c n b e re c ogn ze d

o n y th ro ug h re pe t ed e xp o u re T h u n P r t h g t he r

t og et h ert h e e g rgume nt t h t e e k t ore u re u b out b u re u c




984BUREAUCRACY293

rc y h u e t h c ont rd c t oryb ody of rgume nt t on t ore v e

h ow w ye r e g c ho r n d or g n z t o n t he or t e mp o y t he

u b e ct v e /ob e ct v e d c h ot omyt od e rv e p rt c u rre u t f rom gen

e r d e ort o c re te t h e p re t en e t h t gv e n re u t c n ov e rcome

t he c onf c t n gn t u re of opp o e d d e On ce t h mn pu b t y

b ec ome e vd en t t h e rgume n t w oe t h e b t y t o c on vn ce n d

t o c omf ort t h t t h e yh v e w he n c on d e re d e p rt e y Th eyw t he n

b egn t o pp e r w h t t h ey re rh e torc d e v ce e mpoy e d to u re

u t h t b u re u c rt c orgn zt on c n b e c on t en t w t h h umn f re e

dom

D Th e Ph en ome n of Ab t rc t on n dRe f c t on

T h o b e rv t o n b r ng m e to t he t m o r p ec t of m y cr t q ue

ofbureucrtc theory fthecretonof neffectve ubectve/

ob e ct v e d c h ot omy both t h e b of bure u c rt c e g t m t on n d

f u re h ow h e g rgumen t c on c ern n gbure u c rc yb ee n b e

t o c on vn ce n yon e? Th e n w e r u gge t t h t b u re u c rt c

t h eort h v e re e d on p e cu ryd e c ep t v e k n d of rhe t orc n t h e r

t t emp t t o c ombn e y e t e p rt e u b e ct v t y n d ob e ct v t y

Th k n d of rh et orc h t woc ompon en t S ome t me t n vov e

p pe t o b t r c t o n n d u gg e t t h t o ne c n d e du ce f ro m n

b t rc t on p e c f c f ormof bure u c rt c orgn zt on F orexmp e

t h e con ce p t of e x pe rt e c ou db e n v ok e d to u gge t t h e p o b t y

of n orgn zt on t h t c on t r n t h e ex e rc e of u b e c t v e d c re t on

w t h n t h e bound of p rof e on ob e ct v t yTh k n d of re on n g

o c te d p rt cu r y w t h e g f o rm m t he m o t f m r n d

w d e y c rt c ze d of t he t w of ormof rh e torc n d h n ot u b e c t

t t o g en er d c u o n he re S u ff c e t t o y t h t o ne o f th e

t rumph of e g re mw t od emon t rt e th t t h e re n omet h od

t od ed u ce f romn b t rc t on e x pe rt e n yprt c u r f ormof

o c f e 47 n t e d c o nt r d ct or y fo rm o f f e c n b e c on t en t

w th t he m e b t r ct g o A w e h e e th e cr t c m o f th

q u d e du ct v e me th od of e g re on n g on e of th e t p e of t he

crtqueofthe eg theoryofbureucrcy

t t he o t he rc ompone nt of e g rh et orc t h t w n t t on t rod u ce

t t h p o nt T h c om po ne nt t re t b t r c t on u ch u b ec t v

t y n d ob e c t v t y f t h ey t h eme v e w ere ome t h ng c onc ret e

n dp e c f c k e ome t h n g c onc ret e n d p e c f c F ore xmp e

b u re u c rt c t h eort d c u u b e ct v t yn t e rm of p eop e n c en

t v e n te re t o r v u e f t he e w or d r e fe rr ed t o c t u

t h ng t h t c ou dh v e d e te rmn t e c on te n t m ry t h eyd e c rb e

47F ort he c rt q u e of f orm m e e f ore xmp e D e w eyL og c M e th odn dLw o

CORNELLLQ 7 9 2 4Kenned y Leg a Fo rma ty 2J LEGALSTUD 3 5 9 7 3Ung er The

C rt c L e g S t u d e M ov e me nt 96HARV L REv 56 57083 983





o b e ct v t y n t er m o f t he n e ed o r g o o f n o r g n z t o n o r

p e k o f wh t o c et y r eq u re f t he e t oo w er e c t u t h ng

t ob e c ru t n zedOn c e t h v o c b u ry d opt ed t h eort mgh t

t he n h o w ho w pe op e n ce nt v e t he o rg n z t o n g o n d

oc e ty n ee d c n b e mu tu y c on t en t S /h e m gh t y f o r

e x mp e t h t b o th p eo p e n ce nt v e n d th e or g n z t o n g o r e

mot v t ed by e rc h f orp rof t n d t h t t h k n d of p rof t e e k ng

me et on e of o c e ty mport n t n ee d

T h w y o f t k n g h t wo c h r c te r t c F r t b y r ed uc n g

b t rc t on t o more c onc ret e f orm t h e p mk e t h emmore un

d ert n db e Th e c onc ret e t erm c qu re t h e p ow e r d o e

me t ph or t h e gr ow th o f r ge b u n e m er e y u rv v o f th e

f tt e t 48 t o c p t ure t he m gn t on o c omp et e y t h t t h ey e e m

t ob ec ome t h e b t r c t on t e f Th gv e t h e rh et orc t p owe rt o

perude Secondbec uetheconcreteterm cnnevercpture

p ec t o f t he b t r c t on t h ey r em n v g ue n d m n p u b e W h t

d o yo u me n b y u r v v ? F t t e t? T h m n p u b t y o w t h em

t o be h p ed n w d e v r e ty o f w y t o m k e b ur e u cr t c o r g n

z t o n p pe r n t ur n d ne ce r y A o ng t he m n p u t on

n ot t o o obv ou t h c h rc t er t c h e p rt h e rt h n h n de rt h e rh et

or c b t y to p er u d e

Th f ormof rh et orc h ow ev e r w y d e ce p t ve Th e re du c t on

of h umn d e t o t he t t u of t h ng n d t he c on e qu e nt m t k e n

t re t me n t of t h e t h ng f t h eyw e re t h e d e t he me v e

p roc e of te n c e d re f c t on f f yh umn e xp ere n ce by e dn g

p e op e t o t h n k t h t f ormof f e t he y re e dn g t he e q u v e n t

o f f e t e f 4 9 P eo p e th n k of t he m e ve e mp o ye e n d c t

c c ordn g t o t he rc on ce pt on of w h t n e mpoye e f orexmp e

omeone oy t o t he orgn zt on g o t he rebyd p t n g t he me v e

toformof experencen tedof recognzngth ttheycn cretefor

t he me v e w h t t he e f orm h ou db e B u t w th out t h e t rck of

re f c t on bu re u c rt c t h eort w ou dn ev e rb e b e t o d d t o

g et he r d f f er en t f c e t o f f e t o d ev e t ru ct ur e t h t t f e

t h e u b ec t ve d e r e n d o b e ct v e n ee d o f th e n d v du

Norc ou d t h e y f n dn e ed of o c e ty t h t d e mn d c e rt n f orm

o f or g n z t o n to t f y t he m L f e wo u d r et n t c om p ex c h r

c te r p ec t o f f e wo u d m u t ne ou y c o nt n p o b t e f or

c h ng e n d f ru t r t o n t h t m p ed e th o e p o b t e H um n r e

tonhp wthnthebureucrcywoud boththretentodomn tethe

n dvdu n dgv e h er/h mf u f me n t b o th re t r n n d e nh n c e

48 R HOFSTADTER, SOCIAL DARWINISM IN AMERICAN THOUGHT 45 rev ed I955 quoting

S u ndy c hoo dd re byJohn D Rock e fe e r

49 The literature on reification is vast See, e g, J GABEL, FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS AN

ESSAY ON REIFICATION (M. Thompson trans. I962); G. LUKACS, Reification and the Conscious-

ness of the Proletariat, in HISTORY AND CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS 83-222 (R Livingstone trans

97 Gabe Re fcaton n Lega Reasonng 3 RESEARCH N LAW & SOC 25 980




984 BUREAUCRACY 295

her/hs sense of freedom f the contrad ctory nature of these rea-

t onshps were fu y recognzed, peope woud treat a bureaucratc

structures as permtt ng and needng revs on Moreover, the obect

of ths transformaton woud not be merey to f nd the rght structure

or to repace one structure wth another but permanenty to ater the

reat on of structure and freedom50 Ony by contnua y overcomng

the structures that fas fy her/hs human potenta coud the nd vdua

engage n the sef-transformng, se f-creatng process of freedom

Thus, the very proect of bureaucratc theorsts - fnd ng a structure

that s necessary to promote and defend human freedom and reyng

on the devce of refcat on to make such a structure nte gb e - s

tse f an mpedment to human beraton By constran ng the pos-

sb tes of fe wthn fase forms, a such structures deny ndv duas

the ab ty to create and re-create ther own form of fe They

dramatze the dangerous fut ty of the quest for a perpetua-moton

machne of soca and po tca fe an attempt to escape the burden

of udgng and revs ng specfc, contestabe forms of soca fe, the

nst tutona arrangements that defne them, and the vs ons of human

e f ho od n d o c t o n t h t th ey e n c t 5 1

E TheChoceBetweenBureucrcy ndDemocrcy

These assertons about ega argumentat on appy to much more

than bureaucratc eg tmat on ndeed, one purpose of ths Artc e s

to present a genera methodoogy for exposng decept ve argumenta-

ton esewhere n the ega system But have not chosen to dscuss

the attempts to ustfy bureaucracy at random Bureaucracy s the

prmary form of organzed power n Amerca today, and t s therefore

a prmary target for those who seek beraton from modern forms of

human domnaton The deo ogy that reassures us that bureaucracy

s eg tmate s demob zng because t conceas the need to reorder

Amercan socety to brng to fe better versons of the dea of human

freedom Crt ca theory seeks to undermne ths deo ogy by exposng

the fase conscousness through whch peope understand the word

S uc h n e x po u r e t e f n c t o f b er t o n 5 2

Of course ths sort of beraton cannot aone ensure human free-

dom New forms of human assocaton des gned to take the pace of

bureaucracy must themseves be subect to the same crt que But

ths crt que has ts mts - there s a stoppng pace Th s woud

be reached when peop e abandoned abstract arguments that seek to

defend some form of fe as a structure that can protect human nd-

vdua ty - when peope o nty recogn ze that no structure can pro-

50U n g er u p rn o t e 47 t 58386660662

5 1 d t 6 o8

52 For a description of critical theory as an attempt to liberate social actors from the false

constrants of ther deoogy see D Kennedy supra note at 35-o2





t e ct u f rome c h o t h ergv e n t he v r b e n t eru b e c t v e n t e rd e

p e nd e nt n t u re of h umn re t on h p Th e formof orgn zt on

t h t w ou d t he n b e c re t e dw ou dn o t b e und e rt ood n n w e rt o

thehumnpredcmentTheywoudbetr np rentyopentotrn

f o rm t o n n o f or m of o r g n z t o n n ec e r y n d w y n n ee d

of t rn f ormt on f orm of orgn zt on c re t e f ormof d omn t on

tht needtobecombtted

u e t h e d e of p rt c p t oryd emocrc y t ore pre e n t th d f f ere nt

k n d of o c orgn zt on Of c ou re ome p rop on en t of p rt c

p t oryd emocrc y re d uc e t t o c onc ret e t ru ct ure t h t ov e t h e

p rob e mof o c f e 53The e p rop on en t h ou db e u b e c te d t o t he

me c rt q ue t h t odge h e re g n t t h e p rop one nt of bu re u c rc y

Butother dvocteof renvgortng thenotonofdemocrcy renot

vunerbe tothecrtque dvncedhere54Theyundertndtheterm

democrcy torefertotheproce bywhchpeopecreteforthem

e v e t h e f ormof orgn ze d e x t e nc e w t h n w h ch t h ey v e On y

bycretngthee formtogethercn peopeconfrontthenterubec

t v e n t u re of o c f e M oreov er un e p eop e d oo t he me v e

t h e rt f c t ruc tu re t h rou gh wh c h t he y op ert e w t h re t e n t o

f unc t on b ey ond t h e rc ont ro n t h v e w t h e t e rm prt c p t ory

d e mo cr c y d o e n o t de c r b e f x e d e r e o f m t ed p o b t e o f

h umn orgn zt on bu t t he d e und e rwh c h t h e po b t e of on t

t r n f or m t o n of o c f e r e c o e ct ed T h e y n t te mp te d

contrbutontotheeffortofmny other55 tomkethecret onof

u ch n e w f ormof orgn z t on p o b e 56

ANANALYSS OFADMNSTRATVEANDCORPORATELAW

DOCTRNES

n t h P r t p n t o u t r t e th e r g um en t ou t n ed n P r t

b y d c u n g p e c f c do ct r ne o f c o rp or t e n d d m n t r t v e w

Th e d o ct rn e e e c t byn ome n e xh u t v e y c ove rt he e t w ore

o f w n te nd m p y to u b ec t ex em p r y f c et o f t h e e bo d e o f

w t o m y n y E c h do ct r ne h t he m e ch r c t er t c T he

d o ct rn e p o t u t e n n t u b e ct v e /ob e ct v e t ru c tu re b u t u b

e c t v t y n e ve rth e e dmt te dn t o t he p e ct t h t n e e d t ob e

53 See, e.g., J. COHEN & J. ROGERS, ON DEMOCRACY: TOWARDS A TRANSFORMATION OF

AMERICAN SOCIETY I46-83 (I983); Markovic, New Forms of Democracy in Socialism, i PRAXIS

N T L 2 3 9 8

54 See, e.g., Pitkin & Shumer, On Participation, 2 DEMOCRACY 43 (i982); R. Unger, supra

note i. See generally B. BARBER, STRONG DEMOCRACY: PARTICIPATORY POLITICS FOR THE

NEW AGE (forthcoming I984) (proposing a reinterpretation of democratic theory).

55 See, e.g., Klare, supra note 29; P. Brest, Participation in the Making and Interpretation

of Constitutions (I984) (unpublished manuscript on file in Harvard Law School Library); R.

U n g er u p rn o t e

56 There is, in short, nothing in this essay that smacks of nihilism. But cf. Fiss, Objectivity

and Interpretation, 34 STAN. L. REv. 739 (I982) (criticizing nihilistic tendencies in legal theory).




984BUREAUCRACY297

ob e ct v e n d ob e c t v t yn t o t he p e ct t h t n e ed t ob e u b e c t ve

conequenty thedoctrne ttempt todrw yetnother nebetween

th e t wore m B ec u e t h e e g d o ct rn e n qu e t on c n n o t drw

t he e n e t n t e d r e e nt e y r e t t e t he p ro b em o f h ow t o

c ombn e y e t e p rt e u b e ct v t y n d ob e ct v t yA re u t t h e

d oc tr n e be co me o m n p u b e t h t t c n v d t e o r n v d t e

n y e xe rc e of b u re uc rt c p ow er u b e ct t o c rut n y e x pe c t th t

o nc e th e re d er e e t h p ro ce p p e d n um be r o f t me / he w

b e b e t o m g n e o r c t u y c r ry o ut t h e m e pr oc e w t h re p ec t

t o o t he rd o ct rn e w t h n t h e e t w ob od e of w

T o m p f y th p re e nt t o n o f co rp or t e n d d m n t r t v e w

doct rn e h v e orgn ze d t he mn t o t he f ourmod e of bu re u c rt c

e g t m t o n k et ch ed e r e r t he f or m t e x pe rt e u d c r ev e w

n dmrke t /pu r t mode 57t myc ont e nt on t h t c orp ort e n d

d m n t r t v e w t ho ug h no rm y t u g ht n d wr t te n b o ut f

t h eyw e re e p rt e b od e of w c n n f c t b e b e tt erun d ert o od

t oge t he rt hrough t he e f ou rg en er w y of e xp n n gn d u t f yn g

b ur e u cr c y n t h P r t d c u e c h mo de n e p r t e Se ct o n

Wt h n e c h S e ct on f rt n trodu c e th e mod e t e f t h en n y ze

p ec f c e g d oc tr n e n d f n y o f fe r g en er o ve rv e w of t he

mode orof t c rt q u e S ome re d e rm y t t h p on t b e t e mp t ed

t ok p t he f orm t n d e xp e rt e mode on t he g roun d t h t n oon e

b e e v e n t h em n ymore t h t w y t h ey c n mov e d re ct y t o t h e

ud c re v ew n dmrk et /pur t mode c u rre nt y f v ore d bydf

f er en t gr ou p o f e g c ho r F ee f r ee f t h t w h t yo u w n t to

d oOn e w ord of c u t on n ord er h owe v er myc rt q ue of t h e

f n t wo m od e b e d on m y cr t q ue o f th e fo rm t n d ex pe rt e

mode On ce y ou und ert n dw hyn e t he rof t ho e mod e c n b e

convncngyouw eewhynoneofthemorerecentttemptto

u t f ybu re u crc y n dn on e of t ho e k e y t of oow t h em c n

beconvncngether

ATh e F orm t M ode

Th e M ode D e c rb ed 58 C p t v t e d by t he ore of n t ru

me nt rt on t yn dn ot on of t e ch n oc rt c e f f c e nc y f orm t

thnkerh ve ttemptedtoundertnd bureucrcyby kenngt to

5 7 S ee u pr p p 2 8 2 8 4

58Th e prn c p w ork on w h ch h v e re e d n c on t ru c t ng t h mode n c u de E FREU ND

supra note 24 J HABERMAS TOWARD A RATONAL SOCETY 50- 22 J Shap ro trans 970

M HORKHEMER, ECL PSE OF REASON 974 G LUKACs, supra note 49 J MARCH & H

S MON ORGANZATONS 9 58 D MCGREGORs up ra no t e 2 5 a t - 4 4 Theo ry X HS MON

ADMNSTRATVEBEHAVOR2d ed 9 5 7 F TAYLOR s upr a no te 2 4 MURBANTHEDE-

OLOGY OFADMNSTRATON5 39 982M WEBER uprn o te E t zon Tw oAppro c he

t o O rga nz a t onaAna y s s ACr tque a nd a Sug g es t o n5 ADSC Q 2 5 7 9 6 0 No ne t The

Legtmaton of Purposve Decs ons 68 CALF L REV 263 280-82 980 the post vst

mo de A s o hep fuwer eJ MASHAWBUREAUCRATCJUSTCE 9 8 3C PERROWs up ra





mc h n e 59Th mc h n e m gery e v ok e n umberof d f f ere nt

d e F r t m c h ne m e n e m p oy ed t o c h e ve o th er e nd

Th e e e nd myb e c on trove r b u t th e mc h n e t e f t k e n op rt

n re ovn g t h e c ont rov e ryTh e mc h n e n eu t r d e v ce

v u e u dgme nt t k e p c e out d e of t op ert on Th e mc h n e

t e f d o e n ot e xe rc e d c r e t on n n y e n e T he m c h ne o

h gh y t e ch n c n d c omp e x d ev c e on e t h t w ou db e dmge d

b y m er e y m n t n k er n g t w o r k b ec u e e c h p r t h

pecfedfunctontht propery ntegrtedwth thepecfed func

t on of t h e o th erp rt M c h n e w ork b ec u e t h ey re w e d e

gn e d n te e c t u e f fort c on c ern n g t he mc h n e g o e n t o t

de gn On ce t h e mc h n e f un c t on n gn c cordn ce w t h n d e

u t e b u ep r nt p ro b em r e t n g to t o pe r t o n c n f e y be

e nt ru t ed t o t ec h n c n f t h e mc h n e f t ow ork p rop e ry on e

c t he p e ron w hod e gne d t orn o t h ere x p ert t of x t Th e re

n ore on t o t h n k t h t t h e ope rt on of mc h n e w poe t h re t

t h t h ou db e ch e ck e dby n ou t d e f orce k e u d c re v ew t he

d c p n e of t he m r k et o r d e mo cr t c c o nt ro F n y m c h ne

re o p owe rfu n d e ff c e n t t h t f e w t hou t th em n con ce v b e

On y f oow ou du gg e t t h t re tu rn t oh n dmde p rodu c t w ou d

b e d e r b e ore v e n po b e Th e re medyf or n yprob e mge ne rt e d

bymc h n e t omprov e t he mn ot t ore p c e t he mw t h romn t c

notonof morehumnformofproducton

T he e t hr ee p ec t o f t he m c h n e t n t ru me nt r e t o n h p

t o pr ed et er m ne d en d t t ec hn c d e g n n d t y mb o c o c

t on w t h mod ern e ff c e n cy re t he c e nt r e e men t n t h e f orm t

v o n o f b ur e u cr c y B u re u cr c y w e r e t o d m p y m e n

t o e ff ec t u te t h e e nd of t c on t t ue n t t he c t ze n or h re h ode r

w ho e n te re t t e rv e B u r e uc r t c o rg n z t o n b e d on t he

c t eg or e o f n t r um en t r t o n t y t h r p y d t n g u h e v u e

n d f ct e nd n d me n d e r e n d p er fo rm n ce 6 0 V u e e nd

n dd e re t he u b e ct v e p rt of t h e h umn p e ron t y re t he

ttrbuteoftheconttuentwhocontrothebureucrcyr therthn

of t he b u re u c rc y t e f Th e bu re crc y ob e ct v e t c n n o t

e x erc e t hre t e n ngd c ret on b e c u e t me re y re p on d t o c on t t

e nt c om m nd f t he h r eh o de r y M x m z e p ro f t o r th e

e g t or y E m n t e d ng er ou h e t h h z r d t d oe o

T he e d r e ct o n r e f o rm y r e z b e t he y m pe t h e bu re u

cr t c o f f c t o re p o nd t o m u t tu de o f f c t t u t o n n w y

note i, at 58-89 (aspects of the classical theory ); Stewart, supra note i, at I67I-88 (aspects

of t h e t rd t on mode

59 On the significance of the machine imagery, see A. TRACHTENBERG, supra note ii, at

38-69; Morgan, Paradigms, Metaphors, and Puzzle Solving in Organization Theory, 25 AD.

Sci. Q. 605 (I980). For a more general analysis of the machine image in igth century American

thought, see L MARX, THE MACHINE IN THE GARDEN (I964)

6 0 S ee 2 M W E BE R u pr n ot e t 9 78 8 0




984BUREAUCRACY299

d e te rmne dby t he d re c t ve t e f 61n e g t h eory t erm t he re

on n gf romt he ru e u ed by t h o e w h ocon tro t h e b u re u c rc y

f orm t c t h e me re n vo c t on of t he ru e t oge t he rw t h t he c on

cu on they mpy determne theoutcomeofny concretebureu

crt c d e c on 62

Th e bu re u crc y b t y t ore p on d c c u rt e y t o c on t t u e nt

c ommn d e n h nc e d by t h e t ec hn c e x pe rt e of t e mpoy e e

e c h of w homoc cu p e t h e d e te rmn t e p e c ze d ro e t h t /h e b e t

p e rformTh e e ro e re orgn zed bymn ge r t h eme v e e x pe rt

n t h e t ec h n c p rob e mof run n n gn orgn z t on A e mpoy e e

h gh n d ow f un ct on t oge t he rn c c ordn c e w t h th e rp e c ze d

n te gr t e d ro e t he r r e t o n h p b e d no t on p er o n f c to r

b u t on t h e mp eron re qu re me nt of t he orgn zt on f ormSu c h

t e ch n c yd c p n ed orgn zt on op ert n gun d erf ormy re

z b e ru e t he v e ry e e n c e of mod ern e ff c e n cyToq u o t e Mx

We be r f mou f ormu t on u c h n orgn zt on

c p b e o f t t n n g t he h g he t d e gr ee o f e ff c e nc y n d n t h e n e

f ormy t he mot r t on k n ow n me n of e x e rc n gu t h ort y ov er

h um n b e ng f o t he n ee d o f m d m n tr t o n m ke t

c omp e t e yn d p e n b e Th e ch o c e on y t h t b e tw ee n bu

r e u cr c y n d d e t t n t m n t h e f e d o f d m n t r t o n 6 3

t m po rt n t to e e ho w th f or m t m g e o f b ur e u cr c y c n

beundertoodtobe con tentwthhumnfreedom Fr tof

pe op e re c e r y f ree t op u ru e t he row n go n f e w he n t he y c t

b u re uc rt c c on t t u en t n t h c p c t y p e op e c h oo e w h t t h ey

w n t bu re u c rc y t od of ort h e mTh e form t mod e t he ref ore

d e gn e d to e n u re t h t t h f ree dom n ot th re t en ed bybu re uc rt c

p ow erOf c ou re c on t t ue nt myd gree mong t h eme v e b out

w h t c t on bu re u c rc yh ou d t k e n d ome c on t t ue nt my

ttempttoue thebureucrcy powertothretenthenteret of

o t he r B u t u c h po t c c onf c t o c c ur on y ou t d e t h e b ure u c

rc y t t k e p c e mon g c t ze n or h re h ode rorb e t we e n th em

n d t he g roup t h e e g t orort h e v ot n g t ru t ee t h t t rn mt

th e rw h e t o t h e b ure u c rc yTh u c omp n t b out b u re u crt c

c t on h ou db e d re ct edn o t t t h e orgn zt on t d o e n o t d e c de

n y t h ng bu t t t h o e w h oe d e c on t h e bu re u crc y mpe me nt

n gF e ow c t ze n orf e ow h re h ode rm yt h re t e n t he n t e re t

of t h e n dvdu bu t th e b ure u c rc y me re y t h e t oo t h t t h eyu e

t od oo On e h ou dbme t h e murd e re r n dn ot h k n f e f ort he

crme /hecommt

E v e n w t h n t he h e rrc h c orgn zt on t e f t h e de mrc t on of

d c r et e or g n z t o n r o e p e rm t n d v du t o r ec on c e o rg n

61S e e Ken ne dy up rn o te t 687

62S e e RU NGERLAWN MODERNSOC ETY 94 976

6 3 M W E BE R u pr n ot e t 2 2 3





zt on f e w t h t he d e of h umn f re ed omAf te r t he b u re uc

rc y orgn ze dn c c ordn c e w t h th e mp e ron d emn d of t ec h

n c n ec e t yNo n dvdu w t h n t h e orgn z t on t h re t e n t h e

n te re t of o t h er b e c u e e c h mpyp e rf orm pprop rt e y d e m

te d t k t w ou d b e b z r r e to c cu e m n g e r of d om n t n g

h e m p o ye e t w ou d b e to c cu e c r t ee r ng w he e o f

d omn t n g t t re Th e mn g e r mpy e f fe ct u t e t h e ob e ct v e

n ee d of t h e orgn zt on n yf e rof p e ron d omn t on ort y rn n y

w t h n t h e h e rrc h y t he ref ore u oryB u re u crc y op e rt e n

c c o rdn ce w t h f m rd e f n t on of f re e domt ob e f ree on e mu t

b e n d e pe n de n t of t h e p eron oru b e c t v e w of o th e r n du b

e rv e nt on y t og e ne r mp eron w 64F u rt he rmore b e c u e

t e ch n c c omp e te n ce d e f ne e c h p e ron p o t on w t h n t h e org

n zt on e v ery on e h t he opportun t y tor e t o t h e e v e of h er/h

b t e T he f or m t v o n th u e m bo d e b o th n or m o f eq u

opportun t yn d t h e d emocrt c d e of e mn t n g t h e re evn c e of

o c h e rrc h e n t h e e e c t on of t ho e w h oe x erc e p owe r65

2 F orm m n Admn t rt v e L w Th e Nond e e g t on D oc t rne

Th e do c trn e of dmn t rt v e w t h t b e t re f e ct t he t te mpt

t o e ff ec t u te u b e ct v e c on t t u e nt g o t hrough n ob e ct v e

b u re u c rc y t h e n ond e e g t on d oc t rne 66Th d o ct rn e g round

t he e g t mc y of g ove rnme nt bu re uc rc e on e g t v e u t h orz

ton ndcontro ofther cton Accordngtothedoctrnethe

e g t u re mu t re t n p rmryd e c on mk n gu t h ort y f org ov e rn

64 See I KANT, Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose, in KANTS

POLTC ALWRTNGS45H Re e d 1977

65 See 2 M. WEBER, supra note i, at 983-84.

66 For general discussions of the doctrine, see S BREYER & R STEWART, ADMINISTRATIVE

LAW AND REGULATORY POLICY 59-85 I979 W GELLHORN, C BYSE & P STRAUSS, ADMIN-

ISTRATIVE LAW CASES AND MATERIALS 52-80 7th ed I979 Although the doctrine has long

been considered largely defunct, it has recently been subject to something of a revival, both by

commentators, see, eg , J ELY, DEMOCRACY AND DISTRUST I3I-34 (I980) T LowI, THE

END OF LIBERALISM 297-99 (I969) Wright, Beyond Discretionary Justice, 8i YALE LJ 575,

582-86 (I972), and, at least rhetorically, by the courts, see, e.g., Industrial Union v. American

Petroleum Inst, 448 US 607, 67I (ig80) (Rehnquist, J, concurring in the udgment) National

Cable Television Ass n v. United States, 4I5 U.S. 336 (I975). For a critique of this revival, see

S te w r t u p r n o te t 6 9 3 9 7

Because the nondelegation doctrine, like the other doctrines discussed in the context of the

formalist and expertise models, is a judicial invention, one can also understand it in terms of

the judicial review model. Later in the Article, I discuss the doctrines explored in the formalist

and expertise models from the perspective of the judicial review model. See infra pp. I334-

1355. My discussion of the nondelegation doctrine at this point is designed to emphasize the

way the doctrine portrays the bureaucracy/constituent relationship itself. The doctrines attempt

to ground bureaucratic legitimacy on constituents' control can readily stand alone, independent

of any attempt to ensure constituents ability to control the bureaucracy through judical inter-

vention. Compare, e.g., J. MASHAW, supra note 58, at I-4, I87-90 (criticizing the effectiveness

of judicial review and advocating instead the formalist model), with, e.g., Liebman & Stewart,

Bureaucratic Vision, 96 HARV. L. REV. I953 (I983) (reviewing J. MASHAW, supra note 58)

d e fe ndn g t h e u d c ro e




984BUREAUCRACY30

men t c t v t yb ec u e t re p re e n t t h e u b e c t v e de re of t h e

d e moc rt c e e c to rt e B u re u crt mu t c rry ou t t he w h e of t h e

p e op e e xp re e d by t h e rc ho e n re pre e nt t v e n o t th e row n

p e ron c on c ep t on of t h e g ood S u b e ct v t y or t e t t h e

mport n t p e ct of u b e c t v t y t h u o c t e d ou t d e t h e b u

reucrcy Thenondeegt ondoctrneeek toenforcebureucrtc

ob e ct v t ybyprev e nt n g t h e e g t u re f romh f t n gn y c rt c

p e ct of u b e c t v e de c on mk n g t o t he b u re u c rt c g e nc y f

u ch d e e g t on of p ow e r t te mpt ed t w b e d ec re d unc on t

tuton

Th e n on d e eg t on d o c trn e h ow ev er h n ev e r e rte d mp e

n d rgdd e mrc t on b e tw ee n u b e c t v e e g t v e d e c on mk n g

n d ob e ct v e b u re u c rt c mp e me nt t on Th e do c trn e o n e rt

u b e ct v t yn t o t h e b ure u c rt c ro e n d ob e ct v t yn t o t h e e g

t v e on e Admn t rt v e g e nc e h v e n e ve rb ee n re t rc te d t o

p u re y ob e c t v e fun ct on ome roomf ord c re t on ry c t v t yw t h n

t he c ommn dmpe men t n gbure u c rc yh w y e eme dn d

p e n b e 67Th e t k of t h e non de e g t on d o ct rn e h b e en t od

t n guh t h e k n d of d c re t on g e n c e c n e x erc e f romt h e k nd

t h t mu t b e e xe rc e d on yby t h e e g t u re Th e d t n c t on drw n

by t h e d o ct rn e t h t t h e e g t ure mu t mk e t he f undme nt

p o c yd e c on n ou ro c e t y 68w h e t h e b ure u c rc y p e rmt t ed

t he e e w y n ec e r y to m p e me nt t ho e d e c o n f C on gr e h

y d ow n by e g t v e c t n n te g b e p r n c p e to w h ch t he p er o n

orb ody u t horze d to c t d re ct ed t o c onf orm 69t h e pe ron

t o wh om u th or t y d e eg t ed c n t h en f u p th e de t 7 0 n

o t h erw ord t h e e g t u re mu t b e t h e p rn c p n d t he b u re uc rc y

t h e g e nt n t h e formu t on of g ove rnme nt p o c yTh g e nc y

frmeworknotony enure bureucrtcob ectvtybyforcng d

m n t r t v e g en c e t o t y w t h n th e bo un d e t by t he e g t ur e

b u t o f ford t h e g e n c e t h e mount of d c ret on n d p e n b e

tother effectveoperton

n d d t on t o d m t t ng d n ge ro u u pp e me nt o me u b

ectvty ntobureucrtcobectv tythenondeegtondoctrneem

b od e n ob e c t ve re t r n t on e g t v e u b e c t v t yTh e n on d e

67 Eary statements of the nondeegat on doctrne mted agency dscreton to factf ndng

the eg sature was responsbe for the task of determn ng the expedency or ust operaton of

governmental policy, whereas the bureaucracys role was simply ascertaining [the] fact[s]

in obedience to the legislative will Field v Clark, I43 US 649, 693 I892 But this definition

of the bureaucracys dscreton, proved demonstraby too narrow to descrbe egs atve phe-

nomena or to fulfill political needs L JAFFE, supra note i, at 34 As a result, the history of

the doctrine is characterized by increasingly expansive statements of the amount of bureaucratic

d c ret on t h e do c trn e p e rmt S e e n f rn o te 6870

68 Arizona v California, 373 US 546, 626 I963 For a defense of this statement of the

d oc t rne e e JFRE EDMAN uprn o t e 35 t 7894

69Hmpt on v U n t ed S t t e 276U S 394409 928

7 0 U n te d St t e v G r m u d 2 20 U S 5 o 6 5 7 9




302 HARVARD LAW REVEW Vo 97 276

e g t on d o ct rn e d e gn e d t opu t ome ob e ct v e mt on t he

egsaturesdesre toavoddec sonmakngbypassngthe bucktothe

bureaucracy Ths ob ectve restrant on the eg satures power to

deegateauthortysuppementsthedoctrnesgenera effortto ocate

pocymakngauthortyn thehandsoftheegs ature71Yetcourts

thathaventerpretedthenondeegatondoctrnehaverecognzedthat

o neo fthe cr t c a ng red ents o fp o cy makng a utho r ty s the a b ty

todecdehow muchtodecdeonesef andhowmuchto etothers

decdeasprobemsdeveop Toorgorousarestrctonon deegaton

woud r ender t mpo s s b e t o exer c s e p ower a t a 7 2 The

e g s a tu re m u st b e f re e t o c ho os e t he f e x b t y at ta n a b e

by the use of ess restrct ve standards 73 Accordngy, the nondee-

gatondoctrnemustspecfywhenthe egsaturecanrefusetodecde

p ub cp o cy s s ue s no rd er t o pr e se r vefexb ty a nd whent ne ed s

todecdethemnordertocontroexce vebureucrtc d creton

We now have the conf ctng structure of the nondeegaton doc-

trne before us Wth respect to the reatonshp between the eg sa-

ture and the bureaucracy the crt ca task of the doctrne s to confne

the bureaucracy wth n the obect ve mts charted by the egs atures

subectve po cy udgments Vewed from the standpont of the eg-

sature aone the doctrne seeks to mpose obectve constrants on

the egsatures subectve desre to shrk ts responsb tes From

the pont of vew of the bureaucracy aone, the doctr ne must permt

agences adequate subect ve dscret on they must have enough room

to maneuver or the whees of government w stop 74 The non-

deegaton doctrne s thus cruca y dependent on the nes t seeks to

draw between the approprate funct ons of the egs ature and those

of the bureaucracy between egt mate and egt mate egs atve de-

cs ons to deegate power and between the proper knd of bureaucratc

u b e ct v t y n d t n ee d ed ob e c t v t y

nan attempttodrawthese nes thecourtshaveartcuateda

seres of te sts that a deegat on of power must meet n order to be

co nst tut o na the eg s a tur emus t a y d owna n nt e g b e p rncp e

71 See Wright, supra note 66, at 583 ( At its core, the [nondelegation] doctrine is based on

the notion that agency action must occur within the context of a rule of law previously formulated

b y e g t v eb od y

72 Hampton v Un ted States, 276 US 394, 407 928

73 Yakus v. United States, 32I U.S. 4I4, 426 (I944); see I K. DAVIS, supra note 26, ?? 3.I,

3.2, 3.5; Stewart, supra note i, at I695. The Court expressed a similar view in Buttfield v.

St r n h n 9 2 U S 4 7 0 9 6 4

Congress legislated on the subject as far as was reasonably practicable, and from the

necessities of the case was compelled to leave to executive officials the duty of bringing

about the result pointed out by the statute. . .. To deny the power of Congress to

delegate such a duty would, in effect, amount but to declaring that the plenary power

vested in Congress to regulate foreign commerce could not be efficaciously exerted.

d t 4 96

7 4 F e d v C a r k 4 3 U S 6 49 6 94 8 92




984BUREAUCRACY303

d ec d e th e f un d m en t p o c y qu e t on e xe rc e t h e e e nt o f

t h e e g t v e f unc t on 75Th e e t e t p p e rh rmon ou y t o c ombn e

u b e c t v t yn d ob e ct v t y t he y c omf ort u byugg e t n g t h t f

t h ey re met t he re w b e d e q u t e e g t v e d e c on mk n g t o

e n u re me n n gfu bu re u c rt c ob e ct v t yy e t n o t omu c h e g t v e

d e c on mk n g t op rev en t n ee d ed bu re uc rt c d c ret on A w e

h e e t h e t e t c n u gge t t h e p rop e rf u on of u b e c t v t yn d

ob e ct v t y on ybyre t t n g t h e u e t ob e d ec d e dTh e on y c on t en t

t h t wo rd k e n te g b e f un d me nt n d e e n t h v e

t he rc p c t y t oun t e b o th t h e u b e c t ve n d ob e ct v e e e men t of

t he n ond e e g t on u e B u t w h e t h e rt re ng t h e n t h e rb t y

t ou gg e t t h t f t h ey re p rop e rypp e d e v e ry t h ngw b e

r g ht t h e r we k ne e n t he r n b t y to g en er t e n y c on t en t

p p c t on L e g rgume nt b out n ond e e g t on c on t of ppyn g

t he e t e t t op e c f c d e e g t on of p ow e r pp c t on t h t g e n ert e

c on t rd c tory c on c u on n yd e e g t on b ot h d oe n dd o e n o t t

fythereevnt tet

On e formt h e g rgume nt t k e t o t re t t he k e yw ord of

t he e t e t b t rc t on bu t on e c n d e d uc e f romt he e b t rc t on

o pp o t e r e u t 7 6 C o n d er f o r e x mp e p ec f c d e eg t o n o f

u t hort y t h e F ed e r P rc e Admn t rt orp ow e rt of x p rc e of

c o mm od t e f t he p r ce n h u dg me nt w b e f r n d eq u t b e

n dw e ff ec t u t e th e p urp o e of t h e A c t 77L e g rgume nt b out

whetherth deegton meetthetetof thenondeegt ondoctrne

t he g o o f y ng d ow n n n te g b e pr n cp e c on t n

t re t n g ome p e ct of t h e u b e c t ve ob e c t ve c ombn t on t h t t he

t e t u n te f t w e re t he t e t o n y me n n g t m g ht b e r g ue d

f orexmp e t h t t h e d e eg t on me e t t h e t e t b ec u e t h e te t re q u re

o n y m t ed d et T he e g t ur e ne ed t o p r ov d e on y n n t e

g b e p r n c p e n ot b u ep r nt T h r gu me nt e mp h z e t h e

n ee d f or u b e ct v t y on b o th d e of t h e e g t ure /bu re u c rc y

b oun d ry t he mport n ce of e g t v e f e x b t yn d t h e n ec e t y

of bu re u c rt c d c ret on A t e rn t v e y t mgh t b e rgu ed t h t t h e

de e g t on f t he t e t b e c u e t h e t e t re qu re d e qu t e d e t

Th e e g t u re mu t p rovd e n n te gb e p rn c p e n o t emp ty

w ord Th rgume nt e mph ze t h e n e ed f orob e ct v t y on b o th

d e of t h e b oun d ry t he mport n ce of re t rn n g e g t v e

b d c t on of re p on b t yn d of c u rbngun con tro e d bu re u crt c

75 See Arzona v Ca forna, 373 US 546, 626 963 Hampton v Unted States, 276 US

394, 409 I928 Amalgamated Meat Cutters v Connally, 337 F Supp 737, 746 D DC I97I

76 See Cohen Transcendenta Nonsense and the Functona Approach 35 COLUM L REv

809 935 Dewey, supra note 47 See genera y Snger, The Lega Rghts Debate n Anayt ca

Jursprudence from Bentham to Hohfed, 982 Ws L REV 975 d scussng the rea st proect

t ffectedgthcentury n ytc ur prudence

77 See Yakus v Unted States, 32 US 44 944 consderng ths anguage under the

nondeegtondoctrne





d c ret on B e c u e t h e w ord n te gb e d e gn e d t o combne t w o

c ont rd c t oryn o t on on e en b n g t he e g t u re t od e e g t e n d

n e re t r n n g t b o th rgume nt c orre ct y ppy t h e te t Th e

d u n t u re of t h e g o g e ne rt e t h e t wo d ed c h rc t e rof e g

r gu me nt w e t u t m t e n de te rm n c y T h e te t m er e y

re t t e t h e qu e t on of t he pp rop rt e e x te nt of d e e g t on t c n n o t

n f orm d e c on t h t re q u re re ou t on of t h e d e eg t on u e

An terntvemethodof eg rgumentre e onthephenomenon

of re f c t on d e c rb e dn P rt J78Th mode of rgume nt t re t

n te g b t y n ot g o t o b e c h ev ed b ut o me th ng o me

t h n g t h t e t h erd o e ord o e n o t ex t t h e f o cu n o t on t h e

me n n gof t e t b u t on th e f c t of t he d e e g t on t e f B u t

b e c u e t h ere h n ev e rb ee n t t u te t h t gv e t h e bu re u crc yn o

n t ru ct on w h t o e ve rn d t h e re h n ev e rb ee n one t h t gv e t

c omp e t e yd et e dn t ru c t on e v ery t t u te d e e g t n gp owe rt o t he

b u re u c rc y n f c t c ombn e ome prn c p e t ob e f oow edw t h

n d ec on b ou t o th e r p e ct of t he p rob em ddre e dC ont rd c

t ory e g rgume nt c n t h u b e g e n ert e d by e mph zn g on e f c et

o f th e g t v e c t o n t t he e xp en e o f t he o th er C o n d e r g n

thedeegtonof prcecontro uthorty Tofndthedeeg ton

p rop er on e wou d e mph ze w h t t h e e g t ure d dd e c d e n d t h e

c on t r n t t h t t he e d e c on mpoe on t he b u re u c rc y t h e mge

ofobectvty togetherwththednger nherentboth nexce ve

nt e rf ere nc e w t h e g t v e d e e g t on d ec on n dn e x c e v e c on

tr n t on bu re u crt c f e x b t y t h e n ee d ed u b e ct v t y 79To r

gu e th t t h e d e e g t on mprop er on t he o t he rh n d on e w ou d

e mph ze w h t t he e g t u re f e d t od ec d e n d t h e un ch rt e re d

b ur e u cr t c f e x b t y th t t h f u re c re t e t he m g e of u b e c

v t y t og et he rw t h t he n e ed t o c on t rn b o t h e g t v e b d c t on

of d ec on mk n gre p on b t yn dbu re u crt c d c ret on t h e

neededobectvty80 Becue every ttutecombnethe ngredent

forbothrgument theybothcorrecty ppythe tet ofnondee

g t o n t o th e f ct e ve n u m ng t h t t he t e t h d u n t r y me n n g

w h c h t d o e n o t

Thebfurctednturebothofthetet ndofthe ttutory nguge

t o wh c h th e te t p p e d h p e e g r gu me nt n e v er y de e g t o n

c e E v e ry t t u te c n b e t t c k e dn dd e fe n de dw t h t he me

rgume nt B e c u e t h e non de e g t on d o ct rn e t e t re y on w ord

t h t c ombn e b o th d e of t h e u e t h e yprovd e nogu dn c e w h t

o e ve rb ou t w h e re t od rw t h e n e mongd e e g t on On ce t h

p o nt r ec og n ze d m n y e g c ho r r et re t t o t he f c t T he

u e c n n ot b e d e c de dn t h e b t rc t t he y y b ec u e e ve ry c e

7 8 S ee u pr p p 2 9 3 9 5

7 9 S ee e g Y k u 3 2 U S t 4 26

8 0 Se e e g d t 4 5 R ob er t J d e nt ng




984BUREAUCRACY305

t u rn on t ow n f c t 81B u t th e f c t t h e me v e on y re t t e t he

prob e mTh e e g t u re d e c d ed ome th n g n df e d t od ec d e

o t he r n o th n gn t h e f c t d e nt f e w h c h p e ct t ob e t re t e d

t h e more mport n t B o th t h e g o n d t he f c t re t t e t h e u e t o

b e d ec d e d b ec u e t he n e ce ry n e b e t we e n u b e ct v t y n d ob

ectvtycnnotbedr wnThedemndfor bureucrtcobectv ty

c n n ot b e o t e d fromt he d e mn df orbu re u crt c u b e ct v t yn or

c n t h e d e re f ore g t v e u b e c t v t yb e o t ed f romt he d e re

to re t r n t h t u b e ct v t y

3F orm m n C orport e Lw Agen c yTh e oryn dTru t e e The

o ry A e mb od e d n c o rp or t e w t h e fo rm t v o n fr m e

c orp ort e e g t mc y n t e rm of t he h re hod e rmn g e men t re t on

h p r e t o n h p n o g o u t o th e e g t ur e g e nc y re t o n h p n

d m n t r t v e w C or po r t e th eo r t t r t w t h th e u mp t on t h t

ubectved cretonconcernngcorporte ctvty houdbe odged

n t h e h re h od er n d t he y e e k t o c on t n t h e c orp ort e b ure u c

rc yw t h n t h e mt e t by t he e g t mt e e x erc e of h re h ode r

w Th f orm t t ruc t ure f ort he h re h ode rmn g e me nt re

t on h ph b e en e b ort ed n t w ov erydf f ere nt w y Th e f rt

v er on p ort ry t he re t on h p on e of prn c p n dg e n t U n de r

t h v e w e v e ry c orport e c t on un de rt o od e t h er n e x p c t

d e c o n of t he h r eh o de r p r nc p o r t he d ec o n of t he r

g e nt t ow homt he yh v e d e e g t ed u t hort yAn t e rn t v e v e ron

of t he f or m t m od e r e ec t t h p r nc p g en t n o gy n t e d t

dhe ren t p ortrym n ge me n t t ru t ee f ort he h re h ode r

f d uc r e w ho e rv e th e h r e ho d er n te re t n t h e b o r t o n

of t he f orm t mode mn g e me nt d c ret on mt e dn ot b e c u e

h re hod e rc n d re c t mn g e me n t c t on but b e c u e mn g eme nt

u n de r e g du ty t omp e me nt t h e h re h od er w h e n dn ot

t o wn

AgencyTheory Agencytheor t pctureoftheh rehoder

mn g e men t re t on h p h t h e me g en e r u b e ct v e /ob e ct v e

t ruc t ure t h e form t t h eort d e c rp t on of th e e g t u re g e nc y

re t on h p n dmn t rt v e w B ot h t t rb ut e t he u t hort y of t he

gentthebureucrcyto thedeegtonof powerfromtheprncp

t h e h r e ho d er o r e g t ur e d e eg t o n t he p r nc p u b ec

t v e yd e re B o th p ortry t h e b u re u c rt c g e nt un de rt he c on

t ro o f t p r nc p T he e m g e o f t he p r nc p v o un t ry t r n f er

of u t h ort y n d of t b t y t ow e du t m t e c on t roov e rt h e

e x erc e of t h t u t h ortygroun dbure u c rt c e g t m c y on t he u b

ec t v e d e re of t h e h re hod e ror e g t ure n o t t h o e of t he

bureucrcy 82

81 Overwhelming is the conviction that broad forms of words are chaos, that only in

close study of the facts salvation lies Llewellyn, What Price Contract? - An Essay in

Pe rp e ct v e 40Y ALE LJ70475 93

82 For a classic formulation of agency theory, see V MORAWETZ, TREATISE ON THE LAW

frug excerpts

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