from exercise intention to behaviour and beyond hagger & chatzisarantis, chapter 3

From exercise intention to From exercise intention to behaviour and beyondbehaviour and beyond

Hagger & Chatzisarantis, Hagger & Chatzisarantis, Chapter 3Chapter 3

OutlineOutline Recap on theory of planned behaviourRecap on theory of planned behaviour Limitation of social cognitive theories Limitation of social cognitive theories

and introducing volitional processesand introducing volitional processes Intention-behaviour relationshipsIntention-behaviour relationships Implementation intentionsImplementation intentions Self-determination theorySelf-determination theory Transcontextual modelTranscontextual model Other pre-decisional strategies:Other pre-decisional strategies:

Continuation intentionsContinuation intentions Decisional balanceDecisional balance Combined strategiesCombined strategies

Motivational interviewingMotivational interviewing

Applying the TPB to Exercise Applying the TPB to Exercise BehaviourBehaviour

PerceivedControl

Attitudes

Subjective Norms

Intentions Behaviour

.30*

.36*

.28*

.08*

Source: Hagger, Chatzisarantis & Biddle (2002)

Intention-Behaviour Intention-Behaviour RelationshipsRelationships

However, Intention-Behaviour However, Intention-Behaviour relationships are often not perfectrelationships are often not perfect

What does this mean?What does this mean?

Intentions Behaviour.36*

Less than 1.00!

Intention-Behaviour Intention-Behaviour RelationshipsRelationships

This means that we often do not do what we intend This means that we often do not do what we intend to do!to do!

Why?Why?– Intention instabilityIntention instability: Additional information comes to : Additional information comes to

light and we change our mindlight and we change our mind– Principle of correspondencePrinciple of correspondence: Errors in measurement of : Errors in measurement of

intentions and behaviourintentions and behaviour– Intention formationIntention formation: Poorly formed intentions: Poorly formed intentions– Self-schemaSelf-schema: People with tendency to enact intentions: People with tendency to enact intentions– Volitional and forced intentionsVolitional and forced intentions: Intentions based on : Intentions based on

personal beliefs and others’ beliefspersonal beliefs and others’ beliefs

Limitations of Social Cognitive Limitations of Social Cognitive Theories and Introducing Volitional Theories and Introducing Volitional

ProcessesProcesses

Intention stabilityIntention stability Intention stability initially considered a Intention stability initially considered a

‘technical problem’ by Ajzen (1985) due to ‘technical problem’ by Ajzen (1985) due to inherent inaccuracies in measurementinherent inaccuracies in measurement

More than a technical problem – a More than a technical problem – a boundary conditionboundary condition and an important and an important ‘property’ of intention (Hagger et al., 2001)‘property’ of intention (Hagger et al., 2001)

Stable intentions are better predictors of Stable intentions are better predictors of exercise behaviourexercise behaviour

Intention stability therefore moderates the Intention stability therefore moderates the intention-behaviour relationship (Conner et intention-behaviour relationship (Conner et al., 2000)al., 2000)


ProcessesProcesses

Scale correspondenceScale correspondence Intention-behaviour link strongest When Intention-behaviour link strongest When

measures correspond in terms of Action, measures correspond in terms of Action, Target, Context, Time (TACT; Ajzen, 1985)Target, Context, Time (TACT; Ajzen, 1985)

Results in exercise show that Results in exercise show that correspondence rule does not fully explain correspondence rule does not fully explain variations in intention-behaviour relationship variations in intention-behaviour relationship (Hagger et al., 2002)(Hagger et al., 2002)

Intention formationIntention formation Poorly formed intentions (i.e., vague, ill Poorly formed intentions (i.e., vague, ill

rehearsed) are vulnerable to change because rehearsed) are vulnerable to change because of retrieval and forgettingof retrieval and forgetting

Well-formed intentions predict behaviour Well-formed intentions predict behaviour more effectively (Bagozzi & Yi, 1989)more effectively (Bagozzi & Yi, 1989)


ProcessesProcesses

Self-SchemaSelf-Schema Self-schema are cognitive generalisations Self-schema are cognitive generalisations

about the self derived from past experienceabout the self derived from past experience People who rate important characteristics People who rate important characteristics

relevant to the self highly relevant to the relevant to the self highly relevant to the exercise domain are considered exercise domain are considered schematicsschematics

Contrast with Contrast with non-schematicsnon-schematics and and aschematicsaschematics

““Physically active”, “exercise regularly”, Physically active”, “exercise regularly”, “keeps in shape” rated on “keeps in shape” rated on describes me-does describes me-does not describe menot describe me scales and importance i.e., scales and importance i.e., not at all important-very importantnot at all important-very important


ProcessesProcesses

Self-SchemaSelf-Schema

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

Intention

Exer

cise

beh

avi

our

SchematicNon-Schematic

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Source: Sheeran & Orbell (2000)


ProcessesProcessesVolitional and forced intentionsVolitional and forced intentions People may intend to do exercise, but their People may intend to do exercise, but their

intentions may not be based on personal intentions may not be based on personal attitudes or reasons for engaging in the attitudes or reasons for engaging in the behaviourbehaviour

People may therefore intend to do something People may therefore intend to do something because they feel they are ‘forced’ to (Festinger because they feel they are ‘forced’ to (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1958)& Carlsmith, 1958)

Volitional intentions are those that people feel Volitional intentions are those that people feel they want to execute by themselvesthey want to execute by themselves

Chatzisarantis et al. (1997) found that both Chatzisarantis et al. (1997) found that both volitional and forced intentions predicted volitional and forced intentions predicted exercise behaviour independent of traditional exercise behaviour independent of traditional intentionsintentions

Effect sizes were small so impact was relatively Effect sizes were small so impact was relatively weakweak

Implementation IntentionsImplementation Intentions Gollwitzer et al. (1999) Implementation Gollwitzer et al. (1999) Implementation

intentions: “Strong effects of simple plans” intentions: “Strong effects of simple plans” How do we furnish our How do we furnish our goalsgoals with with actionsactions to to

achieve the goals?achieve the goals? ““I intend to achieve goal/outcome X”I intend to achieve goal/outcome X” ““I plan to do behaviour Z will help me to achieve I plan to do behaviour Z will help me to achieve

X”X” ““If condition Y arises I will do behaviour Z”If condition Y arises I will do behaviour Z” This does not change intentions, but This does not change intentions, but

strengthens the intention-behaviour relationship strengthens the intention-behaviour relationship

Thus implementation intentions act as a Thus implementation intentions act as a moderator of the intention-behaviour moderator of the intention-behaviour relationshiprelationship

Under conditions of high implementation Under conditions of high implementation intentions there will be a strong intentions there will be a strong intention-behaviour relationshipintention-behaviour relationship

Thus implementation intentions act in a Thus implementation intentions act in a ‘‘post-decisionalpost-decisional’ manner’ manner

Implementation IntentionsImplementation Intentions

Implementation IntentionsImplementation Intentions High implementation intentions result in strong

intention-behaviour relations

Intention Behaviour

Imp

lem

enta

tio

nIn

ten

tio

nN

o I

mp

lem

enta

tio

nIn

ten

tio

n

Intention Behaviour

++

+

Studies Using Implementation Studies Using Implementation IntentionsIntentions

Three studies in health behaviour support use of Three studies in health behaviour support use of implementation intentions in the field:implementation intentions in the field:

Orbell et al. (1997) Breast self-examinationOrbell et al. (1997) Breast self-examination Sheeran and Orbell (1999) Vitamin tablet intakeSheeran and Orbell (1999) Vitamin tablet intake Orbell and Sheeran (2000) Function after surgeryOrbell and Sheeran (2000) Function after surgery

Key findings:Key findings:– Attitudes, intentions did not changeAttitudes, intentions did not change– Behaviour engagement changedBehaviour engagement changed– Intention-Behaviour relation strengthenedIntention-Behaviour relation strengthened

Studies support the use of implementation Studies support the use of implementation intentionsintentions

You are more likely to exercise for at least 30 minutes per day in the next week if you say when and where you will exercise and stick to your plan. In the boxes below write down when and where you plan to exercise in the next week:

When: At lunch time after accounts meeting

Where: In the gym at work

You are more likely to exercise for at least 30 minutes per day in the next week if you say when and where you will exercise and stick to your plan. In the boxes below write down when and where you plan to exercise in the next week:

When: At lunch time after accounts meeting

Where: In the gym at work

What Does an What Does an Implementation Intention Implementation Intention

‘Look’ Like?‘Look’ Like? Typically use a ‘pen and paper’ Typically use a ‘pen and paper’

manipulation:manipulation:

Continuation IntentionsContinuation Intentions Chatzisarantis et al. (2004) figured that Chatzisarantis et al. (2004) figured that

people’s intentions are inadequatepeople’s intentions are inadequate As we approach a behavioural goal the As we approach a behavioural goal the

outcome becomes less salientoutcome becomes less salient Continuation intentions (CI) focus on Continuation intentions (CI) focus on

providing intentions to continue beyond the providing intentions to continue beyond the attainment of salient outcomesattainment of salient outcomes

CI of Success – Plan to continue with CI of Success – Plan to continue with exercise program if successful in achieving exercise program if successful in achieving goalsgoals

CI of Failure – Plan to continue with exercise CI of Failure – Plan to continue with exercise program if unsuccessful in achieving goalsprogram if unsuccessful in achieving goals

Continuation IntentionsContinuation Intentions Goal progress – how close a person is Goal progress – how close a person is

to achieving their exercise goalsto achieving their exercise goals Results in exercise found CI of success Results in exercise found CI of success

and failure predicted additional and failure predicted additional variance in behaviour compared with variance in behaviour compared with intentions aloneintentions alone

Perceived goal progress moderated Perceived goal progress moderated effects of CI of success and failure on effects of CI of success and failure on exercise behaviourexercise behaviour

High CI success = greater exercise High CI success = greater exercise engagement BUT only under conditions engagement BUT only under conditions of high perceived goal progressof high perceived goal progress

-1-0.8-0.6-0.4-0.2

00.20.40.60.8

1

High Low High Low

Exerc

ise b

ehavio

ur

ProgressNo Progress

CI Success CI Failure

Continuation IntentionsContinuation Intentions

Intention-Behaviour Intention-Behaviour RelationshipRelationship

How else can we strengthen the How else can we strengthen the intention-behaviour relationship?intention-behaviour relationship?

Intentions Behaviour.36*

Change these!

How Do We Change How Do We Change Intentions?Intentions?

Change attitudes, perceived behavioural control Change attitudes, perceived behavioural control to affect decision to exercise before it is madeto affect decision to exercise before it is made

Various strategies have been usedVarious strategies have been used Attitudes: Information giving and personalised Attitudes: Information giving and personalised

feedback (Armitage & Conner, 2000)feedback (Armitage & Conner, 2000) Motives from Self-Determination Theory, using Motives from Self-Determination Theory, using

autonomy support strategies (Chatzisarantis et autonomy support strategies (Chatzisarantis et al., 2002; Hagger et al., 2002b)al., 2002; Hagger et al., 2002b)

For enjoyment, pleasure and fun; no discernible reinforcement.

For external reinforcement such as gaining rewards or avoiding punishment.

For avoiding external sources, of disapproval (guilt) or gaining externally referenced approval (self-esteem)

For personally-held values such as learning new skills, resulting in feelings satisfaction; High internalization

DefiningFeatures

AUTONOMOUSMOTIVES(high autonomy)

CONTROLLING MOTIVES(low autonomy)

Position on Autonomy Continuum

Intrinsic Motivation

Identification Introjection External regulationPerceived

Locus of Causality Scale

IntrinsicMotivation

Extrinsic MotivationType of Motivation

Intrinsic HighInternalisation

LowInternalisation

Degree of Internalisation

Self-Determination TheorySelf-Determination Theory

Self-Determination Theory and ExerciseSelf-Determination Theory and Exercise

IntrinsicMotivation Amotivation

IntrojectedRegulation

ExternalRegulation

IdentifiedRegulation

Source: Deci and Ryan (1985)

Internal External Locus of Causality

“I exercisebecause it’sfun”

“I exercisebecause ithelps keepme fit”

“I exercisebecause Iwill feelguilty if Idon’t”

“I exercisebecause Iwill bepunished if Idon’t”

“I’m notreally surewhy Iexercise”

Influence of Overarching Motives fromSelf-Determination Theory

Source: Hagger , Chatzisarantis and Biddle (2002) BJHP

Intention

PerceivedControl

Attitude

SubjectiveNorm

.41

.45


Intention

PerceivedControl

Attitude

SubjectiveNorm

.41

.45 R2 = .32



External

Intention

PerceivedControl

Attitude

SubjectiveNorm

Intrinsic

Introjection

.41

.71

.45.37

.74

R2 = .55

R2 = .51

R2 = .32


Introjected Regulation

Behavior(R2 = .28)

Intention(R2 = .63)

Subjective Norm

Perceived Behavioural

Control

AttitudeIntrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation

Introjected Regulation

Identified Regulation

External Regulation

Identified Regulation

External Regulation

Perceived Autonomy

Support

The Transcontextual ModelThe Transcontextual Model

Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Culverhouse & Biddle (2003) Journal of Educational Psychology

Time 1: PE Context Time 2: Leisure-Time Context

Time 3: Leisure-Time Context

Important Effects in the TCMImportant Effects in the TCM

Control

Behaviour

.27*

PerceivedAutonomy

Support

AutonomousMotives

AutonomousMotives

.25*.39*.49*

.10

Attitude

Intention

.16* .15*

.20*

Time 1: Physical EducationContext

Time 2: Leisure-Time ContextTime 3:PhysicalActivityBehaviour

*p < .05

Guidelines Based on Self-Guidelines Based on Self-Determination Theory and Trans-Determination Theory and Trans-

Contextual ModelContextual Model

Reeve (2002) puts forward the Reeve (2002) puts forward the behaviours which promote autonomous behaviours which promote autonomous motivation:motivation:– Avoid use of external incentives and Avoid use of external incentives and

controlling feedbackcontrolling feedback– Promoting choice and sense of ownershipPromoting choice and sense of ownership– Focus on task and personal goals rather Focus on task and personal goals rather

than comparisons with othersthan comparisons with others– Provide a personal rationaleProvide a personal rationale– Feedback that is information related to Feedback that is information related to

competence focusing on progresscompetence focusing on progress

Another Example of a Pre-Another Example of a Pre-decisional Strategy: Decisional decisional Strategy: Decisional

BalanceBalance The decisional balance sheet (Wankel, The decisional balance sheet (Wankel,

1984) outlines the positive (‘pros’) and 1984) outlines the positive (‘pros’) and negative (‘cons’) aspects of exercisenegative (‘cons’) aspects of exercise

Similar to a ‘cost-benefit’ analysisSimilar to a ‘cost-benefit’ analysis Exercisers attended 84% classes using Exercisers attended 84% classes using

DB sheet compared with 40% without DB sheet compared with 40% without (Hoyt & Janis, 1975)(Hoyt & Janis, 1975)

Some have focused on changing stage Some have focused on changing stage from contemplation to action in TTM from contemplation to action in TTM (see Prochaska & DiClemente, 1993)(see Prochaska & DiClemente, 1993)

What About Pre- and Post-What About Pre- and Post-decisional Strategies in decisional Strategies in

Combination?Combination?

Decisional Decisional BalanceBalance

NoNo

Decisional Decisional BalanceBalance

ImplementatioImplementation Intentionn Intention

CombinedCombined Imp. Int.Imp. Int.

OnlyOnly

NoNo

ImplementatioImplementation Intentionn Intention

Dec. Bal. Dec. Bal. OnlyOnly

ControlControl

IV2: Decisional balance

IV1: ImplementationIntention

Prestwich, Lawton& Conner (2003)

Results: Graphical Results: Graphical RepresentationRepresentation

8

9

10

11

12

13

Decisional balance No decisionalbalance

ImplementationIntention

NoImplementationIntention

Ph

ysi

cal act

ivit

y

beh

avio

ur

Decisional Balance and Decisional Balance and Implementation IntentionsImplementation Intentions

Source: Prestwich, Lawton & Conner (2003)Source: Prestwich, Lawton & Conner (2003)

Decisional balance in combination with Decisional balance in combination with implementation intention exerciseimplementation intention exercise

Experimental strategies produced a greater Experimental strategies produced a greater increase in exercise frequency and total increase in exercise frequency and total time spent exercising per week time spent exercising per week

Volitional groups taken together produced Volitional groups taken together produced greater increase in time spent exercising greater increase in time spent exercising than the DBS alonethan the DBS alone

The DBS may have aided recall of the The DBS may have aided recall of the implementation intention or increased implementation intention or increased commitment to itcommitment to it

A theoretically based exercise A theoretically based exercise promotion techniquepromotion technique

Borrowed from alcohol abuse and Borrowed from alcohol abuse and smoking clinical interview techniquessmoking clinical interview techniques

Main proponents: Stephen Rollnick Main proponents: Stephen Rollnick and Colleaguesand Colleagues

Aim to focus on resistant non-Aim to focus on resistant non-exercisers and help investigate exercisers and help investigate personally-relevant reasons c.f. Deci personally-relevant reasons c.f. Deci et al. (1994)et al. (1994)

Motivational InterviewingMotivational Interviewing

AimsAims•To provide information without To provide information without

threatening autonomy and without threatening autonomy and without evoking ‘psychological reactance’evoking ‘psychological reactance’

•To explore conflicts and encourage To explore conflicts and encourage interviewees to express their own interviewees to express their own reasons for changereasons for change

•To use an appropriate strategy To use an appropriate strategy according to a person’s ‘readiness for according to a person’s ‘readiness for change’change’

Motivational InterviewingMotivational Interviewing

Motivational InterviewingMotivational Interviewing Key conceptsKey concepts

• AmbivalenceAmbivalence• Problem: Pro’s and Con’s associated with change, Problem: Pro’s and Con’s associated with change,

cannot be reconciledcannot be reconciled• Solution: MI aims to explore conflict & encourage Solution: MI aims to explore conflict & encourage

people to express their own reasons for people to express their own reasons for concern/changeconcern/change

• Readiness to changeReadiness to change• Problem: People vary on continuum of readiness:Problem: People vary on continuum of readiness:

• Solution: Moving forward on continuum is desired Solution: Moving forward on continuum is desired outcome, even if actual behaviour change does not outcome, even if actual behaviour change does not occur, key strategies ‘a typical day’/‘good occur, key strategies ‘a typical day’/‘good things’/‘less good things’things’/‘less good things’

Not at allready tochange

Undergoing decisionmaking and actualbehaviour change

Strategies in Motivational Strategies in Motivational InterviewingInterviewing

A ‘menu’ of strategies:A ‘menu’ of strategies: Raise awarenessRaise awareness Provide informationProvide information The ‘future and present’ strategyThe ‘future and present’ strategy Exploring concernsExploring concerns Helping with decision makingHelping with decision making

Source: Rollnick, Heather & Bell (1991)Source: Rollnick, Heather & Bell (1991)

Key StrategiesKey Strategies(1) Raise awareness – e.g. “have you ever thought about exercise?” and “do you know what exercise can do for you?”, avoid scare tactics like “if you don’t exercise you might die of a heart attack!” and statements like “the less good things about exercise are....”(2) Provide information - Providing information in the most optimal way do not “wag your finger”(3) The future and the present strategy - “How would you like things to change in the future” and “what’s stopping you from doing exercise?”(4) Exploring concerns - provide information about the behaviour and how they would like it to change(5) Helping with decision making - Patients in the preparatory phase require assistance in making their decision, self initiation.

(4) Exploring concerns - provide information about the behaviour and how they would like it to change (5) Helping with decision making - Patients in the preparatory phase require assistance in making their decision, self initiation.

Key StrategiesKey Strategies

Self-determination Theory Self-determination Theory and Motivational Interviewingand Motivational Interviewing

MarklandMarkland, Ryan, Tobin, & Rollnick (2005) and Vansteenkiste & Sheldon (2006)• Initially - intrinsic motivation stated as a core ‘aspect’ of Initially - intrinsic motivation stated as a core ‘aspect’ of

MI, but no theoretical basisMI, but no theoretical basis• Recent authors present a SDT ‘reading’ of MIRecent authors present a SDT ‘reading’ of MI• Approach in SDT supports psychological needs for Approach in SDT supports psychological needs for

autonomy, competence, and relatedness:autonomy, competence, and relatedness:• Autonomy: Clients suggest personal reasons for change Autonomy: Clients suggest personal reasons for change

and experimenter ‘rolls with resistance’and experimenter ‘rolls with resistance’• Competence: Clients given clear feedback and encouraged Competence: Clients given clear feedback and encouraged

to arrive at their own goalsto arrive at their own goals• Relatedness: Clients ‘supported’ by non-judgemental Relatedness: Clients ‘supported’ by non-judgemental

interviewer who expresses empathy.interviewer who expresses empathy.

StructureAutonomy Support

Involvement

Motivational interviewing

Present clear and neutral information about behaviour and outcomes

Provide positive feedback

Develop appropriate goals

Elicit and reinforce self-motivational statements


Present options

Let client make decisions

Develop discrepancy to allow client to change

Roll with resistance


Express empathy

Demonstrate understanding

Avoid criticism and judgement

Explore client’s concerns

CompetenceSelf-

Determination Relatedness

Source: Markland (2004)Source: Markland (2004)

from exercise intention to behaviour and beyond hagger & chatzisarantis, chapter 3

Documents

n volitional intentions

intentions n people

behaviour n people

n studies

n stable intentions

n wellformed intentions

n chatzisarantis

behaviour z n