from college entrance exams and admissions
TRANSCRIPT
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China’s Human Capital Inequality: Evidence
from College Entrance Exams and Admissions
Hongbin Li
C.V. Starr Professor of Economics
School of Economics and Management
Tsinghua University
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A Quiz
猫-狗=2,狗-兔=3,兔+兔=6,问猫=?
Cat-Dog=2, Dog-Rabbit=3, Rabbit+Rabbit=6,
Cat=?
This is a question from the entry exam for an
elite primary school in Beijing!
To get in, the 6-year old need to
Pass this exam
Have 300,000 RMB cash at hand
Have a connection to pay this cash
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My Talk
To measure inequality in human capital, by
looking at what will happen to kids 12 years
later, when they take the college entrance
exam
and in the job market of college graudates
(if time permits),
It has been extremely hard to measure
educational inequality, due to the lack of
data
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China’s Education System
9 years of compulsory education
• 6 years of primary school
• 3 years of junior high school
High school: 3 years
• Sciences (physics, chemistry, biology,
difficult math)
• Arts/social sciences (geography, history,
easy math)
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College Entrance Exams (CEE)
To get into college, most students need to
take the College Entrance Exams (CEE) on
June 7-9
• Math
• Chinese
• English
• Composite (one of the two)
–Sciences
–arts/social sciences
Fate-determining exams for Chinese
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Applications and Admissions
Before/after the exams (before/after scores
known), students need to fill in their
• college preferences in order
• Major preferences in order
Scores are known
Admission
• Based on scores
• Each college sends an admission team to every
province (where it has admission quotas)
• The quotas and distribution are ultimately set by the
Ministry of Education, but colleges have some
freedom
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Data: CEE Takers in 2003
The population of all CEE takers
6.2 million students in 2003
Information
• Exam takers: high school name,
location, hukou, birth date, gender,
ethnicity, health status, repeating
taker, science, scores of College
Entrance Exams (CEE)…
Admissions: university name, major
Could get access more years potentially
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Applicants vs. Population
0.479
0.792
0.106
0.433
0.524
0.069
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.700
0.800
0.900
Female Rural Minor
Applicants vs. Population
Population
Applicants
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Supply of Higher Education
Two categories of higher education
• Colleges (2-3 years)
• Universities (4 years)
Universities
• Elites: 985 universities (in May 1998,
President Jiang’s speech: build world-
class universities)
• Good ones: 211 universities (21st century:
invest in 100 universities)
• Other universities
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985 Program
Tier 1: to become top universities in the world
• 2: Tsinghua University; Peking University
• Funding: all from central government
Tier 2: to become top universities in China,
well known in the world
• 10 universities
• Funding: ½ from central, ½ from local
Tier 3: to become well known universities in
China and the world
• 27 universities
• Funding: ½ from central, ½ from local
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Type Number of
colleges
Number of
students
Percent of the
population
Not Admitted 0 1960199 0.316
College 1123 2424147 0.391
University 602 1365827 0.220
211 Universities 76 284212 0.046
985 Universities 29 138686 0.022
Top 9 Universities 7 26672 0.004
Top 2 Universities 2 6497 0.001
Total 1839 6206240 1
Rate of Admission in 2003
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CEE Scores: Total
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Majors: Scores (985 Univ)
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Educational Inequality
Gender bias
Urban (rural) bias
Income bias
Home bias
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性别差异——高考成绩
0.497 0.507 0.476
0.460
0.504 0.491
0.532 0.553
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
Total Grade Math Chinese English
Percentile of CEE Scores: Female vs. Male
Male
Female
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Gender Bias
% of females among students in top 10%; top 5%; top 1%
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0.384
0.469 0.453
0.410
0.337 0.335
0.381
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
Not Admitted College University 211 univ 985 univ Top 9 Top 2
Proportion of Female Admissions in Each Type
0.433
Gender Bias
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Educational Inequality
Gender bias
Urban (rural) bias
Income bias
Home bias
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Hukou Bias (CEE Scores)
0.493
0.484
0.512 0.512
0.506
0.513
0.489 0.490
0.465
0.470
0.475
0.480
0.485
0.490
0.495
0.500
0.505
0.510
0.515
0.520
Total Grade Math Chinese English
Percentile of CEE Scores: Rural vs. Urban
Urban
Rural
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Hukou (urban) Bias
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0.574
0.524 0.491
0.430 0.386
0.293
0.181
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.700
NotAdmitted
College University 211 univ 985 univ Top 9 Top 2
Rates of Rural Students
0.524
Hukou (urban) Bias
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Educational Inequality
Gender bias
Urban (rural) bias
Income bias
Home bias
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Income Bias
Children from rich families
Repeat exam takers (only once
a year)
Go to elite high schools
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Repeating Exam Takers
0.477 0.477 0.487 0.485
0.476
0.579 0.579
0.546 0.551
0.579
0.400
0.420
0.440
0.460
0.480
0.500
0.520
0.540
0.560
0.580
0.600
pctile_total pctile_math pctile_chi~e pctile_eng~h pctile_com~e
Percentile of Grade: Repeater vs. First-Timer
Not Repeat
Repeat
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Income Bias
Children from rich families
Repeat exam takers (only once
a year)
Go to elite high schools
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High schools
111 118
153
327
390401 403
426 427450
473
538 540552
617643
655 656679 685
728
764
792
856
899
1001
11451171
1197 1203
200
400
600
800
1,0
00
1,2
00
Hig
h S
cho
ol
Hain
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gxi
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gh
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Gu
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Tia
njin
Jili
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qin
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Yu
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go
lia
Ga
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jian
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Heilo
ng
jian
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Sh
aa
nxi
Jia
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Sh
an
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Fu
jian
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Hub
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Heb
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hu
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Sic
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Jia
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Hun
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Hen
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gd
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Number of High Schools in a Province
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High School Gini
High school Gini coefficients for
different level of colleges
Eg: High school Gini for admission
to Top-2 universities
Count the number of successful
applicants of each high school
Calculate the Gini coefficients
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Type (inclusive) Gini Coefficient
College 0.556
University 0.712
211 Universities 0.804
985 Universities 0.861
Top 9 Universities 0.929
Top 2 Universities 0.959
High School Gini: # Admitted
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Type Top 10% of
high schools
Top 5% of
high schools
College 0.365 0.222
University 0.510 0.318
211 Universities 0.664 0.456
985 Universities 0.764 0.565
Top 9 Universities 0.914 0.756
Top 2 Universities 1 0.858
Admissions from Top High Schools
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Educational Inequality
Gender bias
Urban (rural) bias
Income bias
Home bias
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Home Bias
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Home Bias
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Type (inclusive) Percent of local
admissions
College 0.658
University 0.667
211 Universities 0.456
985 Universities 0.393
Top 9 Universities 0.388
Top 2 Universities 0.209
Local Admissions of Each Type
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Ethnicity Difference: CEE Scores
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Home Bias
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Bottomline:
Who have the best chance to
enter an (elite) college?
Rich, urban, boys from elite high
schools located in “good” provinces
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Inequality in the Job Market:
Evidence from the Chinese College Student
Survey (CCSS)
New data!
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Chinese College Student Survey
Conducted by the China Data Center, Tsinghua
University
Annual survey of college students – 2010
– 2011
National representative random sample – Final sample: 100 colleges
– 2010 pretest sample: 19 colleges
38
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Ownership Type: Ideal Jobs
2011-5-18 39
4.03
32.36 31.98
11.45
18.04
0.39 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Private SOE Government Foreign Start Own
Business
Collective
%
Source: Chinese College Students Survey 2010, Tsinghua CDC
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Ownership Type: Real
2011-5-18 40
36.13 34.75
10.23 9.67
3.65 2.34
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Private SOE Government Foreign Start Own
Business
Collective
%
Source: Chinese College Students Survey 2010, Tsinghua CDC
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Monthly Wage of College Graduates
by GPA or English Score
2011-5-18 41 Source: Chinese College Students Survey 2010, Tsinghua CDC
Yuan
2000
2050
2100
2150
2200
2250
2300
2350
High CET4 Low CET4
Yuan
1900
1950
2000
2050
2100
2150
2200
2250
2300
High GPA Low GPA
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Monthly Wage of College Graduates
by Party Membership or Student Leader
2011-5-18 42 Source: Chinese College Students Survey 2010, Tsinghua CDC
Yuan Yuan
2000
2050
2100
2150
2200
2250
Party member Non-member
2000
2050
2100
2150
2200
2250
Student Leader Non-Leader
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1800
1850
1900
1950
2000
2050
2100
2150
2200
2250
2300
2350
2400
Female Male
Monthly Wage of College
Graduates by Sex
2011-5-18 43 Source: Chinese College Students Survey 2010, Tsinghua CDC
Yuan
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Monthly Wage of College Graduates
by Parental Background
2011-5-18 44 Source: Chinese College Students Survey 2010, Tsinghua CDC
Yuan
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
Rich Poor
Yuan Yuan
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
Cadre parent Other parents2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
Parent college Parent below
college
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1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
985 211 Others
Monthly Wage of College Graduates
by University Quality
2011-5-18 45 Source: Chinese College Students Survey 2010, Tsinghua CDC
Yuan
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To Enter Primary School?
Cat-Dog=2, Dog-Rabbit=3,
Rabbit+Rabbit=6, Cat=?
Answer: Cat=8
Another question: A group of children
standing in a line; counting from the left,
you are number 3; counting from the right,
you are number 4.
How many children are there?