from clone to boneassets.cambridge.org/97811070/03262/index/9781107003262_index.pdfarchosaur, 2,...
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Index
aardvark, 39
acanthodian, 182
scales, 153
Acanthoracida, 193
Acanthostega, 314
polydactyly, 305, 317
Acanthothoraci, 194
Achoania, 195
acipenserid. See Acipenseridae
polyploidy, 157
scales, 153
Acipenseridae, 154
actinopterygian, 4, 9, 135, 154.
See Actinopterygii
basal forms, 142
dentition, 185, 190, 199
replacement, 195
dermal denticles, 198
ectodysplasin signalling in, 138
fins, 149
pectoral, 137
relationships with other vertebrates, 38
scale development, 153
Actinopterygii, 2, 185
actualism, 9, 136
adapisoriculid, 51
and affinities of Afrodon, 51
Adapisoriculus, 51
adaptation
rate of, 83
adaptive landscape, 84
adaptive radiation, 60, 62
Afrodon, 51
Afrosoricida, 55, 57
afrosoricidan. See Afrosoricida
Afrotheria, 39, 48
apomorphies of, 51
relationships of, 39
afrotherian. See Afrotheria
and affinities of Afrodon, 51
Afrotherian
thoracolumbar count, 241
agnathan, 11, 169, 183
derivation of jaws, 183
pharyngeal denticles, 183
pharyngeal teeth, 139
Akmonistion, 180, 182
Alcinonyx, 241
algae, 125
alligator. See Alligator mississippiensis
Alligator mississippiensis, 343
allometry, 106
in mammal dentary, 211
allotherian
relationships of, 50
Ambondro mahabo, 49, 58
Amia, 195
amniote, 26, 27, 28
atlas/axis complex, 245
caudal vertebrae, 243, 247
conserved body plan, 280, 292
digit reduction, 343
embryonic pharyngeal pouches, 292
limb development, 261, 262
polydactyly, 305
prepollex/prehallux, 307
relationships of, 279
relationships with other vertebrates, 2–4, 38
ribs, 279, 282, 283
scapula, 286
vertebral number, 147
Wolffian ridge, 289
amphibian, 2, 4, 25
body elongation, 144
dentition, 177
prepollex/prehallux, 307
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Anas
domestica, 353
platyrhynchos, 343, 353
Anaspida, 169
Andreolepis, 192
Andreyevichthys, 196
angiosperm, 25
Anguilliformes, 152
anlagen, 302, 305
of avian digits, 304
of dentary, 213
of turtle carapace, 281, 289, 293
of turtle scapula, 287
anteater. See Tamandua tetradactyla
Antiarchi, 193, 194
anuran, 306
limb development, 270
ape, 5
Aphanius anatoliae, 152
Apical Ectodermal Ridge (AER), 349
in the marsupial forelimb, 261, 262–4
in the marsupial hindlimb, 264
polydactyly, 310, 313
resemblance to carapacial ridge, 289
apoptosis, 315
in chickens, 146
in limb patterning, 310, 311
in marsupial limbs, 264
Apteryx, 354
australis, 354
owenii, 354
archaeocete, 243
Archaeopteryx lithographica, 338, 352
digit reduction, 340
phalangeal formula, 352
archosaur, 2, 340, 347. See Archosauria
digit reduction, 340
digits, 353
relationship to turtles, 279
Archosauria, 340
Arthrodira, 193, 194
arthrodiran. See Arthrodira
dentition, 193
dentition development, 195
arthropod, 247
molecular clock, 55
species selection in, 127
artiodactyl, 39
thoracolumbar count, 241
Australidelphia, 50
australidelphian. See Australidelphia
dispersal into Australia, 53
Australosomus, 154
australosphenidan, 44
Aves, 9, 26, 27
cell-labelling studies, 285
dermal skeletal elements, 285
digit identity, 311
wing development. See avian wing
avian hindlimb
metatarsals II-IV, 340
tarsometatarsus, 340
avian wing, 138, 328–55
anterior necrotic zone, 347
apical ridge. See Apical Ectodermal Ridge
(AER)
carpometacarpus, 338, 340
carpus, 328, 329–34
distal carpus, 334–8
metacarpals, 334–8
proximal carpus, 335
cell death, 347–8
chondrogenic foci, 355
claws, 340, 348, 351
comparison with hindlimb, 340
digit, 314, 328
digitus alulae manus, 329, 346
digitus majoris manus, 329
digitus minoris manus, 329, 343
ectopic digit, 344
digit homology, 304–5, 339–54
digit phenotype, 340, 348–54
digit position, 339
digit reduction, 340
by claw loss, 352
by phalangeal loss, 352
by size reduction, 352
comparison with non-avians, 346
element X, 339
embryonic hexadactyly, 345
embryonic pentadactyly, 345
frame shift, 305, 343, 355
364 Index
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handplate, 348
intercalary element, 348
mesopodium, 329
metacarpals, 338, 346
nomenclature, 330–5
os carpi radiale, 335
os carpi ulnare, 335
phalangeal formula, 352–4
phalanx-forming region, 355
pisiform, 335
postminimus, 346
pre-axial polydactyly, 344
prepollex, 346
primary axis, 343–4
processus extensorius, 346
processus pisiformis, 339
radiale, 335
radius, 328
rescue of digit I, 344
ulna, 328, 335
ulnare, 335
ungual, 349
wrist, 328. See mesopodium
Zone of Polarizing Activity, 348
axial skeleton, 95
of mammals, 8, 230–48
of Saurichthys, 10, 159
axolotl, 177
basilosaurid, 243
bat, 68, 230, 257
limbs, 301
forelimb development, 268
wing, 138
bear, 122
Belonidae, 150
bichir, 144. See polypterid
bird, 100, 311, 329, 352. See Aves
beaks, 151
conservation of odontogenic signalling
pathways, 167
digit reduction, 351
evolutionary rate, 97
feather development, 178
feather patterning, 179
flight, 97
genome
chromosome type, 27
repetitive elements in, 26
size of, 25–6
molecular clock, 55
relationship to theropod dinosaurs, 9
relationship to turtles, 279
relationships with other vertebrates,
2–4
sacrum, 245
secondary cartilages, 212
wing development, 9. See avian wing
Birgeria
stensioi, 144, 147
bivalve, 91
bony fish, 2, 4
boreosphenidan, 44
Bothriolepis, 193
Bradypus, 237
Branchiostoma, 2
Bustylus, 51
butterfly fish, freshwater. See Pantodon
buchholzi
caecilian, 2
body elongation, 144
Cairina moschata, 353
Calchides, 347
Callichthyidae, 154
Callorhinchus. See chimaera
Caperea, 237
marginata, 239
Capromys pilorides, 57
capybara. See Hydrochoerus
Carcharinidae, 180
Carnivora, 38, 152
face length, 151, 159
thoracolumbar count, 241
carnivoran. See Carnivora
carnivore
prehallux, 306
prepollex, 306
thoracolumbar count, 241
carp
scales, 152, 157, 159
carpalia, 331
Index 365
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carpus
of birds, 329–34
of urodeles, 330
cartilaginous fish, 2, 4
Cassuarius cassuarius, 354
catfish, 152
catfish, armoured, 154
catshark, 150
cave bear. See Ursus spelaeus
Caviidae, 347
centrale, 331
Cercopithecus, 243
Cetacea
absence of pelves, 233
origin of, 64
cetacean. See Cetacea
body size, 62
caudal vertebrae, 243
fluke, 243
increased lumbar count, 242
polydactyly, 305
rate of molecular evolution, 55
Cetartiodactyla, 39, 48
apomorphies of, 50
Chalcides chalcides, 343, 352
chicken, 10, 27, 328, 344, 353. See Gallus
apoptosis, 146
BAMBI expression, 352
chick
Apical Ectodermal Ridge, 262
axial skeleton, 148
dentition, 171, 197
jaw articulation, 207
limb development, 270
limb position, 149
phalangeal formula, 354
tooth restoration in, 167
dentary, 224
distal carpus, 338
ectopic digit, 344
element X, 339
foot, 349
frame shift, 343
genetic mechanisms, 136
induction of phalanges, 351
limb position, 149
necrotic zones of limb, 347, 348
pisiform, 347
primary axis, 343
talpid3 (ta3) mutant, 310
wing development, 305, 328, 355
chimaera, 138
Chinese soft-shelled turtle. See Pelodiscus
sinensis
chiropteran
os falciforme, 309
prepollex, 306
Chlamydoselache, 182
Chlorurus, 124
Choloepus, 237
didactylus, 347
hoffmanni, 237, 347
chondrichthyan
dental lamina, 182, 189
dentition, 179, 193
dermal denticles, 177, 179, 198
ectodysplasin signalling in, 138
heterodont dentition, 169
pharyngeal denticles, 183
placoid denticles, 173
scale patterning, 198
scale replacement, 179
tooth development, 167
Chondrichthyes, 2, 193
chondrification
in limb development, 304, 310
chordate, 2, 8
species selection in, 127
chrysochlorid, 47
cichlid, 10, 169, 171
dentition, 192, 197
development, 184, 186
diversity of, 171
pharyngeal, 176, 183
jaws, 151
tooth shape diversity, 185
cingulate, 47
clam, 92
claws
in birds, 340, 352
in crocodilians, 352
in fossil birds, 352
366 Index
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in hoatzin, 353
in Neornithines, 352
in talpid moles, 311
coelacanth, 2
Coelodonta antiquitatis, 20
condylarth, 46, 47
conodont, 169. See Conodonta
dentition, 193, 194
pharyngeal denticle co-option, 198
odontodes, 169
Conodonta, 169, 183, 193
coral, 121, 125
Craniata, 311
craniate. See Craniata
crinoid, 119
crocodile. See crocodilian
dermal ossification of the trunk, 283
relationship to turtles, 279
crocodilian, 27
digit reduction, 352
manus, 340
primary axis, 343
crocodylomorph, 100, 101
Cryptotis parva, 310, 316, 317
Cuvier, Georges, 234
cyclostome, 4
cynodont
coronoid bone, 222
double jaw joint, 208
cypriniform, 190
Cyprinus carpio, 157
Dactylopsila trivirgata, 215
darwin (unit), 93, 94
Darwin, Charles, 4, 90, 91, 98, 135, 151, 159
Dasypus, 243
Date-A-Clade, 18
Deccanolestes, 46, 51, 54
delphinoid, 244
dermal armour, 280
dermal skeletal elements, 10
denticles, 199
in birds, 285
in dentition, 167
in Saurichthys, 142
in the turtle shell, 281
in vertebrates, 283
desman, 307
swimming, 307
tibial sesamoid, 313
deuterostome, 4, 67
developmental bias
in mammal axial skeleton, 231
developmental constraints, 305, 346
and pleiotropy, 106
in birds, 97
in mammal axial skeleton, 231, 232
in marsupial limbs, 260, 271, 273
in the notochord, 106
in turtle shell evolution, 280
developmental genetics, 8, 9, 304
Diabolepis, 196
Diacodexis, 50
diapsid, 2, 26
dentary, 224
relationships with other vertebrates, 38
Didelphis, 92
digits, 9
development, 310
in marsupials, 264
homology in birds, 339–54
mouse, 343
of horses, 338
prepollux/prehallux, 306
reduction in ungulates, 345
Dilambdogale gheerbranti, 47
dinosaur, 26, 136
extinction, 61
generation time, 94
genome size, 25
interrelationships with birds and
theropods, 9
dipnoan, 25
divergence times, 104, 108
estimation of, 18, 85–9
in mammals, 38–70
limitations of molecular data, 104
multiple calibration points, 88, 89
rate heterogeneity, 85, 86, 88
using morphological data, 104–6
fossil calibration, 40, 85, 87, 88, 105
fossil data
Index 367
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divergence times (cont.)
assumptions of, 40–54
in crown-placental mammals, 6
molecular clock, 54–8
local clock, 57, 67
rate constancy, 87
relaxed clock, 57, 67
molecular data
assumptions of, 54–70
of hominines, 5
of Laurasiatheria-Euarchontoglires, 5
diversification rate, 7, 117
and morphological disparity, 92
Djarthia murgonensis, 50
DNA, 6
ancient DNA, 6, 18, 20–1
limitations of, 22
cDNA, 171
chromosome, 26, 27, 28
22qii deletion, 219
7q36, 309
autosome, 27
macrochromosome, 27
microchromosome, 27
sex chromosome, 7
sex chromosomes, 27
copy error, 83
epigenetic gene regulation, 21
exons, 21
introns, 21, 25
linkage disequilibrium, 16
long interspersed nuclear element, 26
mitochondrial, 19–20, 55, 66
point mutation, 83
polymorphism, 16
recombination, 16, 83
repetitive elements, 25, 26
reverse transcriptase, 25, 26
sequencing, 6
direct multiplex sequencing, 21
single molecule sequencing, 21
short interspersed nuclear element, 26
single nucleotide polymorphisms, 21
substitution rate, 86
dog, 306
polydactyly, 313
Doliodus, 182
dolphin
hyperphalangy, 302, 349
Dromaius novae-hollandae, 354
Drosophila, 140, 146
dryolestoid, 47
duck, 328. See Anas
wing, 353
Dugong, 242
Echimydae, 57
ectopic gene regulation
in turtles, 280, 283
edentate
prehallux, 306
prepollex, 306
elephant, 22, 309
elephant shrews. See Macroscelididae
endochondral skeletal elements
in the turtle shell, 281
Eohippus, 91
Eomaia, 49
scansoria, 59
epigenetic effects, 84
and phenotypic plasticity, 83
in fish scale development, 154
on morphology of the dentary, 213
Equus quagga
relationships of, 19
Eremitalpa granti, 347
Eritherium azzouzorum, 48
Erpetoichthys calabaricus, 145
Erythrozootes, 47
Euarchonta, 51
euarchontan. See Euarchonta
and affinities of Afrodon, 51
and affinities of Purgatorius, 52
Euarchontoglires, 5, 39, 65
Eulipotyphla, 307
Eutheria, 46
earliest members, 49
eutherian, 39, 237. See Eutheria
and affinities of Ambondro, 49
and affinities of Deccanolestes, 51
Cretaceous forms, 45
early memmbers, 50
368 Index
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Gondwanan forms, 46
origin of, 59
South American forms, 47
tribospheny, 44
evo-devo, 158, 225, 328, 330. See evolutionary
development
evolution
predictability of, 139–41
evolutionary canalization
in sesamoid development, 309
evolutionary development, 7
evolutionary rate, 83–108
directional selection, 98, 99, 100
evolutionary constraint, 99
extinction, 87
extinction rate, 89
in mammals, 92
genotype-phenotype correlation, 97
in bivalves, 91
in horses, 92
in mammals, 91
molecular clock, 85, 100, 105
local clock, 89
rate heterogeneity, 88
relaxed clock, 89
molecular data, 98
molecular evolution, 84, 85
measuring rate of, 85–9, 90
morphological clock, 108
morphological data, 98
morphological evolution, 84, 85, 100, 108
darwin (unit), 93, 94
disparity analysis, 96
divergence time estimation, 104–6
felsen (unit), 94
haldane (unit), 93
measuring rate of, 89–97
patristic dissimilarity, 94
patristic distance analysis, 94
patristic methodology, 95, 96, 105
stochasticity in, 98–104, 105, 107
nearly neutral model, 99, 101
neutral model, 98, 100, 104
phenotypic change, 84
rate heterogeneity, 107
speciation rate, 87, 89, 93
stabilizing selection, 98, 99, 107
stochasticity in, 83, 84, 85, 86, 104, 108
extant phylogenetic bracket, 23, 137
in Saurichthys reconstruction, 157, 158
extinction, 16, 116, 161
in species selection, 117
K/T event, 40
rate of, 7, 83
fascia palmaris, 306
Fayum fauna, 47
Felidae, 38
felsen (unit), 94
ferret, 171
fibulare, 340
fin to limb transition, 9, 301
Fisher, R. A., 98
fissiped
os falciforme, 309
frog, 2
autopodium, 313
prepollex, 307
Galloanserae, 329
Gallus, 27
gallus, 328
Ganungulatum xincunliense, 48, 50
gars. See Lepisosteidae
Gasterosteidae, 154
Gegenbaur
Carl, 330
genetic drift, 83
genetic mechanisms, 9, 136, 139, 140
in Drosophila
shaven baby/ovo, 140
in mammal axial skeleton
Hox, 8
in pectoral fin development
Hox, 137
in Saurichthys, 10, 158
calmodulin, 159
caudal, 146
cdx, 145
ectodysplasin, 157, 159
ectodysplasin signalling, 154, 157
Eda, 10
Index 369
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genetic mechanisms (cont.)
FGF, 10
Fgf signalling, 146, 154, 157, 159
Hox, 10, 159
pleiotropy, 157
retinoic acid, 10, 145, 159
runt, 159
Tbx, 10
Wnt signalling, 146
in Saurichthys body elongation, 148
in Saurichthys fin position, 148–50
in Saurichthys jaw elongation, 150–2
in Saurichthys scales, 152–8
of (marsupial) limb development
Fgf8, 263
of avian wing development
BAMBI, 352
fgf8, 349
Hox, 348
hoxa13, 329
hoxd13, 329
pitx1, 344
Sox9, 345
wnt14, 349
of feather development
BMPs, 178
Fgf-4, 178
follastatin, 178
Ptc, 178
Shh, 178
of fish scale development
bmp2b, 179
Eda, 179
Edar, 179
ephA4, 179
Runx, 179
shh, 179
of hair development
BMP, 178
ectodyplasin, 178
Edar, 178
of jaw development
Hox, 183
of jaw elongation
Bmp4, 151
calmodulin, 151
Runx2, 152
of limb development
BAMBI, 351
BMP, 310
BMP signalling, 352
Fgf4, 262
Fgf8, 262, 270
Gli3, 348
Hox, 352
Hoxa13, 315
hoxd, 352
HoxD, 314
Hoxd10, 315
hoxd11, 344
Hoxd12, 305, 315
Hoxd13, 305, 315
Msx, 310
in AER formation, 310
in bone development, 310
Msx1, 310
Msx2, 310
in digit separation, 311
retinoic acid, 313
Shh, 310, 313, 315
sonic hedgehog signalling, 348
of mammal axial skeleton
Hox, 231
homeotic variation in, 235
Hox10, 246
Hox11, 246
of mammal axial skeleton Hox, 232
and cervical ribs, 237
regionalization of the vertebral column,
246
of mammal dentary, 216–20
Alk2, 218
cre-recombinase system, 218
Dlx5, 218, 219, 222
EDA, 220
Gsc, 220
MyoD, 219
Pax9, 216, 218, 219, 221, 222, 223, 224
Prx1, 219
PTHrP, 221, 224
Runx2, 213, 216, 220
Sox9, 218
370 Index
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Tbx1, 219, 222, 223
TCOF1, 220
Tgf b 2, 216, 217
Tgfb signalling, 218, 221
Tgfb2, 218, 221, 224
Tgfbr2, 217, 218, 220
Tgf-b signaling, 222
Tgf-b2 signalling, 223type II collagen, 216
Wnt1, 219
of marsupial limb development
Fgf8, 268
Gli3, 268
Hand2, 268
Hoxd9, 268
Pitx1, 267
Tbx4, 267
Tbx5, 267
of median fin position
Hoxd10, 150
Hoxd12, 150
Hoxd9, 150
Tbx18, 150
of mouse limb development
HoxC10, 267
Tbx4, 267
Tbx5, 267
of paired appendage position
Gdf11, 149
Hox, 149
hoxc10a, 149
retinoic acid, 149
Wnt signalling, 149
of pelvic fins
pitx1, 149
Tbx4, 149
of somite development
cdx, 148
Fgf, 148
Fgf signalling, 148
nodal, 148
retinoic acid, 148
t-box, 148
Wnt, 148
Wnt signalling, 148
of talpid mole limb development
Fgf8, 311, 317
Hox, 315
Msx, 311
Msx2, 311, 317
Shh, 311
Sox9, 310, 314, 316, 317
of turtle shell development
APCDD1, 289
BMP signalling, 283
Hox, 281
Lbx-1, 287
Lef-1, 289
Pax3, 287
Sp5, 289
Wnt, 289
Wnt signalling, 289
of vertebrate axial skeleton
Hox, 147
Hox12a, 148
Hoxc10a, 148
of vertebrate dentition
Barx1, 167
BMP signalling, 185, 187,
191
bmp2, 180, 186, 189
bmp4, 180, 181, 186, 189, 190
Bmp4, 185, 187
BMP4, 167, 187
dlx, 190
dlx1a, 190
dlx2, 180, 186, 190
dlx6b, 190
ectodin, 191
ectodysplasin, 186, 191
eda, 178, 180, 186, 189
Eda, 187, 191
Eda signalling, 185
edar, 180, 186, 189
ephA4, 176
FGF signalling, 185, 187, 190
Fgf-10, 181
Fgf-3, 181
fgf8, 189
FGF8, 167
Fgfr1b, 181
Fgfr2b, 181
Index 371
Cambridge University Press978-1-107-00326-2 - From Clone to Bone: The Synergy of Morphological and Molecular Tools in PalaeobiologyEdited by Robert J. Asher and Johannes MüllerIndexMore information
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genetic mechanisms (cont.)
Hedgehog signalling, 185, 190
Hh signalling, 187
Hox, 183, 184
Lunatic fringe, 181
Msx, 187
Msx1, 167, 187
Msx2, 167
Notch, 181
odontode gene regulatory network, 178
Osr2, 187, 191
Otlx2, 167
pax9, 180, 186, 189, 192
Pax9, 167, 187
pitx2, 180, 181, 185, 186, 189
Pitx2, 167
Runt, 176
Runx, 176
Runx2, 176, 180, 186, 189
shh, 178, 180, 181, 185, 186, 189, 196
Shh, 187, 189, 191
TGFß signalling, 185, 190
Wnt signalling, 181, 185, 187, 190, 191
wnt7b, 178, 180, 186, 189
Rag-1, 4
SPAG17, 22
genome
duplication, 139
mitochondrial, 54
nuclear, 54
of elephant shark, 137
sequencing
in marsupials, 224
genomics, 6, 11, 16, 18, 29, 30
genome size, 7
directional evolutionary change, 25
inference of, 25–6
paleogenomics, 7, 16–31
genotype-phenotype map, 84, 85, 108
genotypic sex determination
evolution of, 27
giant panda, 309, 317
‘thumb’, 317
Gill, Theodore Nicholas, 2, 4
giraffe, 230
Glires, 39
Glyptodon, 283
gnathostome, 2, 4, 183, 185
appendage patterning, 311
dentition, 166, 181, 195, 199
ectodysplasin, 138
genetic mechanisms, 137
mandible, 207
oral teeth, 139
pharyngeal denticles, 183
relationships with other vertebrates, 38
golden mole, 47
golden mole, Grant’s, 347
gonadal steroids, 315
gondwanatherian, 47
relationships of, 50
goose, 329
gorilla, 5
Gorilla, 309
Granada, Spain, 316
great ape, 5
rate of molecular evolution, 55
guinea pig, 211
dentary, 214, 223, 224
Guiya, 195
Haeckel, Ernst, 2, 4, 279, 304
hagfish, 2
haldane (unit), 93
hallux, 306
haramiyidan
relationships of, 50
hedgehog, 307
Helarctos, 241
Hemiergis, 347, 348, 349, 352
hemoglobin, 5
molecular clock, 54
Herpetotheriidae, 92
heterochrony, 282
in dolphin hyperphalangy, 349
in mammal dentary, 211
in marsupial syndactyly, 302
in whale hyperphalangy, 302
sequence heterochrony, 261
heterotachy, 22, 55, 64, 66, 69, 89
heterotopy
in the turtle shell, 282
372 Index
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in turtles, 280
in vertebrate dentition, 176
heterotropy, 169
hippopotamus, 191, 213
hoatzin. See Opisthcomos hoatzin
Holodipterus, 197
hominid, 55
hominine, 5
Homo
neanderthalensis, 22
sapiens, 22
horse, 5, 19, 91, 338
evolutionary rate, 92
human, 5, 8, 20, 22, 26, 257. See Homo sapiens
cervical ribs, 237
dentary, 223
divergence time, 5
hand, 303
hypodontia, 187
interbreeding with Neanderthals, 22
interrelationships of peoples, 22
Inuit, 22
limbs, 313
Native Americans, 22
polydactyly, 309, 314
prehistoric pacific islanders, 19
Saqqaq people, 22
temporo-mandibular joint, 207
Huoshanornis huji, 352
Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, 347
hyperphalangy, 349
in tetrapods, 302
in turtles, 302
in whales, 302
Hyracoidea, 62
ichthyosaur, 27
hyperdactyly, 302
Ichthyostega
polydactyly, 305, 317
posterior digits, 314
Ignacius graybullianus, 51
Insectivora, 39
insectivoran, 39
os falciforme, 309
prehallux, 306
prepollex, 306
intermedium, 331
invertebrate, 157
marine, 105
terrestrial, 105
Itaborai fauna, 47
Juramaia sinensis, 50, 59
K/T boundary, 6
K/T mass extinction, 40
kangaroo, 191, 257
Kharmerungulatum, 46, 54
killifish, 152
koala, 8. See Phascolarctos cinereus
labrid fish, 125, 126, 130
pharyngeal jaws, 124
lacunae, 25
lagomorph, 39
lamprey, 2, 183, 184
median fin, 150
unpaired fins, 149
lateral plate mesoderm, 248
in paired appendage development, 149
Laurasiatheria, 5, 39, 48, 65
lepidosaur, 92
Lepisosteidae, 150
Lepisosteus, 195
Lineatriton, 143
Lipotyphla, 39. See Eulipotyphla
lipotyphlan. See Eulipotyphlan
Lissodelphis, 242
living fossils, 92
lizard
dentition, 197
manus, 348
primary axis, 343
tooth replacement, 166, 189
lobe-finned fish, 2
Loganellia, 183
Lophosteus, 192
Loricariidae, 154
lungfish, 171, 178. See dipnoan
dentition, 10, 196–7
replacement, 195
Index 373
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Macroscelidea, 39, 57
mammal, 5, 10, 25, 26, 27, 28, 41, 50.
See Mammalia
adaptive radiation of, 62
body size, 62
cell proliferation, 268
Cretaceous forms, 62
dentition, 42, 169
dual molecular origin, 177
genetic mechanisms, 186–90
heterodonty, 169, 171
reduction of, 186
reiterative signalling cascade, 167
tooth position, 185
tooth replacement, 166, 181
tribospheny, 49
dentition development, 166, 171, 184
genetic mechanisms of, 185
dermal armour, 283
dermal ossification of the trunk, 283
digit reduction, 346
dispersal of, 53
diversity of, 257
evolution
effect of marsupial constraint, 259
evolutionary rate, 91, 92, 97
extinction rates, 92
generation time, 94
genome
chromosome type, 27
repetitive elements in, 26
size of, 25–6
hair development, 178
heterotachy, 65
juvenile fossil material, 50
limb diversity, 257
limb evolution, 272
limb modularity, 260
mandible, 8
Mesozoic mammals, 100, 101
reduction lumbar ribs, 241
middle ear ossicles
homologues in tetrapods, 207
polydactyly, 305, 306
relationships of, 38–70
from molecular data, 39
from morphological data, 38, 39
relationships with other vertebrates,
2–4
sacrum, 245
tribospheny, 44
mammal axial skeleton, 8, 230–48
abaxial patterning, 231, 238, 239,
240, 248
abaxial structures, 231, 233
analogy with arthropods, 247
associational variation, 235
in caudal vertebrae, 243
caudal count, 243
caudal vertebrae, 230, 233
in cetaceans, 243
modular change in, 243–5
cervical vertebrae, 230, 233
atlas, 233
axis, 233
constraint, 237, 248
in humans, 237
in manatees, 239
in pygmy right whales, 239
in tree sloths, 237
modular change in, 237–40
cervicothoracic boundary, 233
column series definitions, 232–4
developmental constraint, 230, 231,
232
homeotic variation, 235
cervical ribs, 237
thoracolumbar count, 241
homologous variation
in cervical vertebrae, 247
ilium, 232, 233, 243
intercalation, 231, 239
lumbar vertebrae, 230, 233
modular change in, 240–3
lumbosacral boundary, 233, 243
meristic variation, 235
in caudal vertebrae, 243
modularity, 234–5, 248
homologous variation, 235
pelvic girdle, 233
presacral count, 241
primaxial patterning, 231
374 Index
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primaxial structures, 231, 233
primaxial-abaxial shift, 238, 239
redivision, 231
sacral vertebrae, 230, 233
modular change in, 243
sacrum, 233, 243
segmentation clock, 231, 244
somite clock, 235
somitogenesis, 235
sternum, 232, 233, 241
thoracic vertebrae, 230, 233
modular change in, 240–3
thoracolumbar count
conservation of, 241
thoracolumbar differentiation, 241
transposition, 231
mammal dentary, 207
angular process, 209
in common shrews, 211
inflection in marsupials, 212, 213, 215
lack of in humans, 212
placental mammal, 213
changes during development, 213–16
condylar process, 209
coronoid process, 209
in guinea pigs, 211
in mice, 211
in rabbits, 211
in weasels, 211
reduced integration of, 221–2
development
in guinea pigs, 214
in mice, 213
DiGeorge syndrome, 219
ectotympanic, 213
effect of ecology on morphology
in carnivores, 223
in herbivores, 212
in humans, 213
in mice, 212
in omnivores, 212
in rats, 212
genetic mechanisms, 216–20
human syndromes, 220
in mice, 216–20, 221
jaw musculature, 221
marsupial neonate jaw articulation, 208
micrognathia, 219
modularity, 209–10
morphological units, 210
alveolar bones, 210
angular process, 210
condylar process, 210
mandibular body, 210
mental/rostral process, 210
proximal coronoid, 210
secondary cartilages, 210
morphological variation of, 210–13
musculature, 208
neural crest, 218, 219
postdentary bones, 208, 222
hearing, 208
homologues in tetrapods, 207
rat, 221
secondary cartilages
in human, 212
in mice, 212
in rats, 212
sesamoid bones, 212
squamosal-dentary joint, 207
selection pressure, 208
unilateral occlusion, 208
Treacher Collins syndrome, 220
tympanic ring, 213
velocardialfacial syndrome, 219
X-linked Hypohidrotic ectodermal
dysplasia, 220
mammal divergence times, 38–70
and paleobiogeography, 53–4
crown-group diversification, 40
crown-group origin, 40
fossil data
apomorphy lag, 48, 52
assumptions of, 40–54
character funnel, 43, 44
explosive model, 53, 65
gaps, 45–8
ghost lineage, 52
induction ratchet, 44, 45
long-fuse model, 67
morphological clock, 52
phylogenetics, 48–52
Index 375
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mammal divergence times (cont.)
short-fuse model, 67
from morphological characters, 41–5
molecular data
and fossil calibration, 58–60
assumptions of, 54–70
fossil calibration, 67, 68
local clock, 57, 67
molecular clock, 54–8, 68
neutral theory, 54
quality of, 67–70
relaxed clock, 57, 60, 67
molecular evolution
rate of, 55, 60–7
Mammalia, 49, 70
crown-group root, 50
digit reduction, 346
divergence times, 40
mammaliaform, 53, 208. SeeMammaliaformes
coronoid process, 222
Mammaliaformes, 43
mammoth. See Mammuthus
mammoth, woolly, 22. See Mammuthus
primigenius
Mammut americanum, 23
Mammuthus primigenius, 20
manatee. See Trichechus
cervical vertebrae, 239
maniraptoran, 96, 338
Manis tetradactyla, 243
manus
avian, 354
marine reptile, 27, 241
marsupial, 8, 10
American marsupials, 261, 264
angular process inflection, 212, 213, 215
Australian marsupials, 261, 264
divergence time, 49
diversity of, 257
epipubic bones, 43
genome, 224
morphological diversity, 257
neonate, 257, 271
jaw articulation, 208
os falciforme, 309
postcanines, 49
reproduction, 257
sexual dimorphism, 302
syndactyly, 302
tooth replacement, 51
marsupial limbs, 10, 257–72
development
anterior-posterior patterning, 268, 271
Apical Ectodermal Ridge, 271
apoptosis, 264
cell proliferation, 264
chondrogenic events, 260
gene expression, 265–70, 271
independence of fore-/hindlimb
development, 260–5
prechondrogenic events, 260, 261
proximal-distal patterning, 268
developmental constraint, 260, 270, 271
forelimb, 258, 260–4
accelerated development, 261
Apical Ectodermal Ridge, 261, 268, 271
developmental constraint, 273
molecular AER, 263
physical AER, 262
hind limb, 264–5
Apical Ectodermal Ridge, 262, 264
delayed development, 264
in neonates, 260
microarray assay, 265–70
modularity, 260
pelvis, 257
reduced fore-/hind limb covariation, 259,
262, 264, 268, 270, 271
scapula, 257
selection pressures on, 259
shoulder girdle, 257, 258
mastodon. See Mammut americanum
maximum likelihood, 121
Meckel’s cartilage, 207
medaka, 138
dentition, 186
pattern, 179
tooth initiation, 190
scales, 154, 159
membranous bone, 282
Mephitis, 241
mesenchyme condensation
376 Index
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in limb development, 304
mesoderm, 8
lateral plate mesoderm, 8
somitic mesoderm, 8
Metatheria
earliest members, 49
metatherian. See Metatheria
of South American, 47
Metazoa, 104
metazoan. See Metazoa
mice. See Mus
microarray, 10, 263
mineralization
in limb development, 304
minnow
scales, 152
minnow, naked, 154
mitochondria
endosymbiotic theory of, 18
genome of, 19, 20, 21
sequencing of, 19–20
moa, 20
modern synthesis, 91
mole, 9, 306, 307–16. See talpid mole
shrew mole, 307
Sox9 expression, 311
molecular clock, 5
early application of, 5
limitations of, 6
molecular mechanisms, 9, 135, 137, 159
in denticle development, 183
in marsupial limb development, 271
in Saurichthys, 135–59
in vertebrate dentition, 171, 187, 197
molecular reconstruction, 136–41
actualism, 136
in Saurichthys, 158
parsimony, 136
uniformitarianism, 136
molecular systematics
and species selection, 130
mole’s thumb, 9, 307–16
Hox gene expression, 315
mollusc
species selection in, 127
Monodelphis, 10, 224, 268
forelimb
Apical Ectodermal Ridge, 261, 262, 263,
271
hind limb
Apical Ectodermal Ridge, 262
limb development
anterior-posterior patterning, 270, 271
apoptosis, 264
cell proliferation, 264
fore-/hind limb covariation, 268
gene expression, 265, 268
transcriptome, 273
Monodelphis domestica, 10, 224, 261, 271, 273
monotreme, 44, 47
and affinities of Ambondro, 49
divergence of, 50
limb covariation, 259
prehallux, 306
relationships of, 50
tibiale, 307
Morganucodon
double jaw joint, 208
MorphoBank, 42
Morse’s law, 346
mosasaur, 27
mouse, 10, 224, 311, 317
axial skeleton, 148
caudal-related genes, 146
dentary, 225
coronoid process, 211
development of, 213
genetic mechanisms, 216–20
secondary cartilages, 212, 222
Tgf-b2 knockout, 217Tgfbr2 knockout, 218
dentition, 171, 176, 177, 224
replacement, 181
dentition development, 167, 169, 171, 184,
197
genetic mechanisms of, 180, 186–90, 191
digits, 343
genetic mechanisms, 136
gonadal steroids, 314
limb development, 305, 352
anterior-posterior patterning, 270
Apical Ectodermal Ridge, 262, 263
Index 377
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mouse (cont.)
apoptosis, 264
cell proliferation, 264
fore-/hind limb covariation, 268
gene expression, 265, 267, 271
limb position, 149
middle ear ossicles, 207
polydactyly, 310
prepollex/prehallux, 307
mouse, beach, 140
mouse, pocket
melanism, 140
mRNA, 146
multituberculate, 58
relationships of, 50
muraena, 152
murid. See Muridae
dentition, 186
Muridae, 212
Murtoilestes abramovi, 59
Mus. See mouse
Mus musculus, 213, 224, 312. See mouse
development
anterior-posterior patterning, 271
limb development
apoptosis, 264
cell proliferation, 264
limb transcriptome, 273
Musculus abductor pollicis longus
in association with sesamoid, 309
in primates, 309
myocytes, 20
myotome, 282, 283
Neanderthal, 21, 22. See Homo neanderthalensis
nearest neighbour hypothesis, 179
needlefish. See Belonidae
Neoaves, 329
origin, 59
Neoceratodus, 178
forsteri, 196
Neoceratodus forsteri. See lungfish
neocete, 244
Neognathae, 328
Neornithe, 335, 352
neural crest, 310
as origin of turtle costal plates, 285–6
homology, 304
in dentary development, 218
in jaws, 183
elongation of, 151
in mammal dentary, 219
in tooth development, 166
in vertebrate dentition, 177
odontogenic capacity, 177
neutral theory, 54, 97, 98
notochord, 145, 292
developmental constraint, 106
Numenius, 353
Odontochelys, 9, 290, 293
carapacial ridge, 290
neural plates, 282
scapula, 290
semitestacea, 9
serratus anterior, 290
odontode
homology, 178
Oncorhynchus mykiss, 189
Ophidiiformes, 152
Opisthcomos hoatzin, 353
opossum, 92
opossum, short-tailed, 224. See Monodelphis
domestica
oral teeth, 199
organogenesis
in turtles, 280
Osborn, H. F., 91
osetoglossomorph, 92
osteichthyan, 192
dentition, 196
development, 167
heterodonty, 169
pattern, 179
pharyngeal denticles, 183, 195
replacement, 195
postbranchial lamina, 195
osteoarthritis, 313
osteoderms
in pariesaurs, 283
in xenarthra, 47
Osteostraci, 169
378 Index
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ostrich, 339, 353. See Struthio camelus
claws, 354
digit size reduction, 351
pseudoulnare complex, 339
oyster, 92
paddlefish. See polyodontid
paenungulate, 39
palaeanodont, 47
Palaeognathae, 329
Palaeospondylus, 136
Panderichthys, 314
Pantodon buchholzi, 92
Parageogale, 47
Parareptilia, 279
pareiasaur, 280
dermal armour, 283
relationship with turtles, 283
parrotfish, 124, 125
sexual dichromatism, 125
parsimony, 9
Patterson, Colin, 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 169
pearlfish, 152
pectoral fins
in sarcopterygians, 314
Pedetes, 306
capensis, 306
Pelodiscus sinensis, 285, 290
penguin, 353
pentadactyl limb, 355
pentadactyl manus, 339, 340
pentadactyly constraint, 313
Perciformes, 152
Peristediidae, 154
phalangeal formula
in Archaeopteryx lithographica, 352
in birds, 353
in crocodilians, 352
in Huoshanornis huji, 352
in reptiles, 353
phalanx-forming region, 349
pharyngeal teeth, 199
Phascolarctos cinereus, 215
phenotypic plasticity, 83, 95
Phocoenoides, 242
phospho-histone H3, 265
Phoxinellus, 154
phylogenetic consensus, 4–5
phylogenetics
Bayesian methods, 23, 69, 86, 87, 88, 89, 101,
106, 107
from fossil data, 48–52
ghost lineages, 96
maximum-likelihood, 86, 87, 106, 107
parsimony, 86, 95, 99, 100, 105
stratigraphic debt, 96
temporal paradox, 95
phylogeography, 20
pika, 65
pipefish, 154
pisiform, 339, 346, 347
placental mammal. See Placentalia
adaptive radiation of, 62
angular process, 212
divergence time, 45, 46, 70
explosive model, 44, 48
long-fuse model, 67
of crown, 6
short-fuse model, 67
diversity of, 257
heterotachy, 65
morphological diversity, 257
paleogeography, 45, 46
postcanines, 49
placental mammal limbs, 272
apoptosis, 264
cell proliferation, 264
development of
gene expression, 267
prechondrogenic events, 261
fore-/hind limb covariation, 259, 268, 270
forelimbs, 268
gene expressoin, 271
hind limb, 264
shoulder girdle, 257
placental mammal/marsupial split, 49
Placentalia, 40, 46, 52
initial differentiation, 53
placoderm. See Placodermi
dental lamina, 182, 189
dentition, 193–4, 195
replacement, 195
Index 379
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placoderm. (cont.)
dentition development, 195
genetic mechanisms, 137
pharyngeal denticles co-option, 198
postbranchial lamina, 194
Placodermi, 10, 169, 193, 194, 195
placoid denticles, 173
plant
species selection in, 127
pleiotropy, 237, 305
constraint on development, 106
in Saurichthys, 157
plesiadapiform. See Plesiadapiformes
and affinities of adapisoriculids, 51
Plesiadapiformes, 51
Plotus, 353
polar bear, 20
polydactyly, 313
caused by gonadal steroids, 314
in dogs, 313
in humans, 309
polyodontid, 142
polypterid, 142, 144
Polypterus, 145, 198, 199
possum, 257
possum, striped. See Dactylopsila trivirgata
possum, Western Australian honey.
See Tarsipes rostratus
postbranchial lamina, 198
Price’s theorem, 117, 130
primate, 44, 51
crown-group origin, 58
dentition development, 185
molecular clock, 55
monophyly, 66
prehallux, 306
prepollex, 306
sesamoid, 309
primitive streak, 245
Proboscidea, 48
Prochrysochloris, 47
prosimid
prepollex, 306
protein sequencing, 5
Protenrec, 47
proteome
protein preservation, 22–3
protostome, 67
Protungulatum, 48
Psammobates geometricus, 347
Psarolepis, 195
pufferfish, 152
punctuated equilibrium, 118
Purgatorius, 52
pygmy right whale, 239. See Caperea
python, 171
quail, 224, 295
rabbit, 65, 92, 211, 223
radiale, 331
ragfish, 152
Ramapithecus, 5
raptor, 27
rat, 306
secondary cartilages of dentary, 212
ratite, 20
wing, 348
ray-finned fish. See Actinopterygii
Reichert, Karl, 207
relationships
of actinopterygians, 38
of Afrotheria, 39
of allotherians, 50
of amniotes, 38, 279
of archosaurs, 279
of birds, 9, 279
of crocodiles, 279
of diapsids, 38
of Equus, 19
of gnathostomes, 38
of gondwanatherians, 50
of haramiyids, 50
of mammals, 38–70
of monotremes, 50
of multituberculates, 50
of polar bear, 20
of rhinoceros, 20
of sarcopterygians, 38
of symmetrodonts, 50
of tetrapods, 38
of theropods, 9
380 Index
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of triconodonts, 50
of turtles, 279–80
of vertebrates, 2–4
Remiculus, 51
reptile, 304. See Reptilia
body elongation, 144
dentary, 224
dentition, 177, 197, 199
genetic mechanisms, 186–90
pattern, 180
replacement, 166, 181, 186
feeding mechanism, 208
genome
chromosome type, 27
retroelements in, 26
size of, 26
jaw closure, 221
phalangeal formula, 353
sex determination of, 27
Reptilia
digit reduction, 346
Rhea
americana, 354
pennata, 354
rhinoceros. See Rhinocerotidae
rhinoceros, woolly. See Coelodonta
antiquitatis
Rhinocerotidae
relationships of, 20
RNA sequencing, 265
rodent, 2, 6, 39
body size, 62
clock-like clades, 57
crown-group origin, 58
dentition, 58, 186
necrotic zones of limb, 348
os falciforme, 309
prehallux, 306
prepollex, 306
presacral count, 241
rate of molecular evolution, 55
tarsal navicular, 306
tibiale, 307
Rodentia
thoracolumbar count, 241
Romundina, 193
salamander, 2
body elongation, 143
salmon, 138, 197
sarcopterygian, 314
dentition
replacement, 195
digit homologues, 314
pectoral fins, 137
relationships with other vertebrates, 38
Sarcopterygii, 185
Sauria, 339
Saurichthyidae, 142
Saurichthys, 10, 135, 141
body elongation, 141, 148, 159
caudal vertebrae, 147
costasquamosus, 145, 150, 154
curionii, 145, 147, 150
dawaziensis, 145
deep scales, 154
dentition, 142
dermal bones, 142
diversification of, 142
elongate jaws, 159
fins
fulcra, 143
position, 141, 148–50, 159
segmentation fin rays, 143
jaw elongation, 142, 150–2
neural crest, 151
krambergeri, 145
macrocephalus, 145, 147, 150
madagascariensis, 143, 154
male copulatory organ, 142
molecular mechanisms in, 135–59
operculum, 143
paucitrichus, 145, 154
scales, 142, 143, 152–8, 159
anal loop, 147
sclerotic ring, 143
somites, 145
toxolepis, 145, 150
viviparity, 142
saurischian, 25, 26
sauropterygian, 27
Saurorhynchus brevirostris, 152
scales, deciduous, 152
Index 381
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Scandentia, 39
scapula, 9
Scarus, 124
sciurid, 171
dentition, 186
Sciurus, 306
Scyliorhinus canicula, 176, 179
seahorse, 154
seal
dentition, 186
searobin, armoured, 154
segmentation, 143, 353
in Saurichthys, 145
semaphoront, 41, 42
semilunate
of birds, 339
of maniraptorans, 338
sexual dichromatism
in parrotfish, 125
sexual dimorphism, 27
in limb morphology, 302
sexual selection, 130
in parrotfish, 125
shark, 173
dental lamina, 182, 195
dentition, 173, 180
fossils, 180
pharangeal arches, 176
scale patterning, 179
unpaired fins, 149, 150
shark, dogfish. See Squalus
shark, elephant, 137
shark, Port Jackson, 169
shrew, 57, 307, 311, 312
dentition, 171, 224
Sox9 expression, 311
shrew,NorthAmerican, 317. See Cryptotis parva
Siluriformes, 152
Simpson, G. G., 6, 91, 92, 93
Sinodelphys, 49
Sirenia
absence of pelves, 233
sirenian. See Sirenia
reduced lumbar count, 242
thoracolumbar count, 243
skink
digit reduction, 347
frame shift, 343
phalangeal loss, 352
phalanx-forming region, 349
sloth, giant ground, 230
sloth, three-toed. See Bradypus
sloth, two-toed, 347. See Choloepus
snake, 241
dentition, 197
limb reduction, 261
limblessness, 301
tooth replacement, 166
Solenodon, 307
Somateria mollissima, 353
somites
in amniotes, 283
in mammals, 231
in Saurichthys, 145
in vertebrates, 148
somitic mesoderm
in paired appendage development, 149
somitogenesis, 10
clock, 145
in Saurichthys, 145, 146
sonic hedgehog, 343, 348
Sorex, 57
soricomorph, 310
speciation, 20, 67, 116
cladogenesis, 91
in species selection, 117
rate of, 7, 83
species selection, 7, 116–30
detection of, 121–4
diversification rates, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121,
122, 125, 126, 129
estimation of, 120
extinction, 116, 117, 118, 119
extinction rate, 122
measurement of, 120–1
frequency of, 127–9
group selection, 118
labrid fish, 124, 125, 129
molecular phylogenies, 124–7
parrotfish, 127
pharyngeal mill, 125, 129
sexual dichromatism, 125, 127
382 Index
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Price’s theorem, 117, 120, 122, 124, 129
punctuated equilibrium, 118, 124
sexual selection, 125, 129
speciation, 116, 117, 118, 119
speciation rate, 122
measurement of, 120–1
species drift, 121
strength of, 127–9
Yule model, 119
Spheniscidae, 353
Sphenodon, 97
punctatus, 92
Sphyraenia
barracuda, 143
springhare. See Pedetes capensis
Squalus, 138
squamate, 2
body elongation, 144
limbless, 241
stickleback, 138, 154
fins, 149
pelvic fin, 149
scales, 152
stickleback, threespine, 157
strepsirrhine, 59
Struthio camelus, 338
sturgeon. See acipenserid
scutes, 153, 154
supernumerary digits. See tetrapod limb,
polydactyly
symmetrodont, 47
relationships of, 50
synapsid, 2
axial skeleton, 240
cervical vertebrae, 245
differentiation of, 245
hearing, 208
syndactyly, 302, 310
Syngnathidae, 154
Taeniopygia, 27
Talpa, 307, 309
occidentalis, 310, 311, 316, 317
Talpa occidentalis, 316
talpid mole, 9, 317
claws, 311
genitalia, 313
gonadal steroids
role in skeletogenesis, 313–14
Iberian mole, 310, 316, 317. See Talpa
occidentalis
limb development, 307–16
Fgf8 expression, 311
Sox9 expression in, 310–12
Musculus abductor pollicis longus, 309
Musculus palmaris longus, 309
os falciforme, 309, 317. See mole’s thumb
acropodial origin, 314
os radiale externum. See mole’s thumb
prehallux, 307, 309
prepollex, 307, 309. See mole’s thumb
radial sesamoid, 314, 315. See mole’s thumb
sesamoid bones, 309, 315, 317
Sox9 expression, 311
tibial sesamoid, 307, 313, 315, 317
talpid3 mutant, 310
Talpidae, 307
Talpini, 313, 315
Tamandua tetradactyla, 347
Tarsipes rostratus, 212
teiid lizard, 351
teleost, 138, 157, 189
dental lamina, 182, 189
dentition, 10, 181, 190, 197
development, 195
tooth initiation, 190
fin position, 150
scale replacement, 179
Telestes, 157
tenrec, 47
tenrecoid, 47
testudine, 9
Testudo
campanulata, 347
gemoetrica, 347
graeca, 347
marginata, 347
Tetraodontiformes, 152
tetrapod, 4. See Tetrapoda
axial skeleton, 245
abaxial patterning, 245
dental lamina, 189
Index 383
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tetrapod (cont.)
dentition, 176, 180
development, 178
early tetrapods, 305, 314, 317
forelimbs, 138
gene knockout, 136
genome size, 26
head
as a morphological unit, 210
jaw articulation, 207
limb, 43
development, 264, 270
position, 148, 149
reduction, 261
limbless tetrapods, 302
mandible, 207
as a morphological unit, 210
relationships with other vertebrates, 38
stem-tetrapods, 307
tetrapod limb, 9. See also talpid mole, limb
development
acropodium, 302
developmental patterning, 310
evolutionary origin, 314
anatomy, 301
autopodium
developmental patterning, 310
evolutionary origin, 314
carpal navicular, 306
carpus homology, 303
development
apoptosis, 310
mole’s thumb, 307–16
Msx expression, 310
digit homology, 303
digit reduction, 351
diversity of, 301, 302, 303
fabella, 313
hyperphalangy, 302
hypodactyly, 302
mesopodium
evolutionary origin, 314
mineralized tendon, 305, 309
morphology, 316
Musculus gastrocnemius, 313
os falciforme, 306, 309
os peroneium, 313
palmar aponeurosis. See fascia palmaris
polydactyly, 302, 305, 317
prehallux
homology, 305–7
prepollex, 309
homology, 305–7
primary axis, 304, 314
radial sesamoid, 306
scaphoid, 309. See tetrapod limb, carpal
navicular
sesamoid bones, 305, 309
homology of, 309
tarsal navicular, 306
tarsus homology, 303
tibial sesamoid, 307
trapezium, 309
Tetrapoda, 305
thelodont. See Thelodonti
dentition, 193, 194
pharyngeal denticle co-option, 198
pharyngeal whorls, 177
Thelodonti, 169, 175, 183, 193
therian mammal, 38, 259
and affinities of Ambondro, 49
cochlea, 41
diversity of, 257
fossil record, 45
origin, 40
premolar number, 41
South American forms, 47
theropod, 25, 100
digit homology, 304
digit reduction, 343, 351
feathers, 95
relationship to birds, 9
teeth, 95
Time Tree, 18
Tingamarra Local fauna, 46
tortoise
digit reduction, 347
tribospheny, 49
Trichechus, 234, 237
absence of sacral vertebrae, 242
manatus, 239
triconodont
384 Index
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relationships of, 50
trout, 171
trout, rainbow, 189. See Oncorhynchus mykiss
tuatara, 97
Tuatara. See Sphenodon punctatus
Tulerpeton
polydactyly, 305
TUNEL, 265
tunicate, 2
Tupaia
os falciforme, 309
turtle, 4, 290, 347
acromion process, 280
dermal armour, 280
embryo, 290, 293
hyperphalangy, 302
primary axis of limb, 343
relationship with pareiasaurs, 280, 283
relationships with other amniotes, 279–80,
283
turtle shell, 8, 279–93. See also Odontochelys
anatomy, 281
axial arrest of ribs, 290, 292, 293
carapace, 9, 281, 282, 283, 287, 290, 293
carapacial ridge, 9, 289–90, 292, 293
cell labelling studies, 285
costal plate origin, 283–6
cell lineage labelling, 283
from neural crest, 285–6
in dermatome, 283, 285
in rib perichondrium, 283
in rib periosteum, 283, 285
in sclerotome, 285
costal plates, 281, 282, 283
dermal skeletal elements, 281, 282, 283
dermal/endochondral derivation, 281–6
embryo
recapitulation, 291
endochondral skeletal elements, 282, 283
flabellate ribs, 289, 290
heterotopy, 282, 283
intercostal muscles, 292
neural crest, 286
neural plates, 281
in Odontochelys, 282
nuchal plates, 281
plastron, 9, 281, 290, 293
in Odontochelys, 293
pygial plates, 281
ribs, 281, 283, 293
scapula, 280
latissimus dorsi, 287
migrating muscle precursor, 287
pectoralis, 287
rhomboid/levator scapulae (RLS), 287
serratus anterior (SA), 287
scapula encapsulation, 286–90, 291, 292, 293
somites, 285
suprapygial plates, 281
turtle shell evolution, 290–4
developmental constraints, 280, 290–3
tympanic ring, 207
Tyrannosaurus rex, 23
ulnare, 331, 339, 340
ungulate, 47, 48, 345
uniformitarianism, 9
urodele
carpus, 330
limb development, 270
Ursus spelaeus, 21
vertebrate, 25, 27, 225
axial locomotion, 241
axial skeleton, 8, 159, 245
comparative development, 303
dentition, 10–11
dermal skeletal elements, 282, 283
digits, 317
Fgf signalling, 157
fossil record, 90
genome duplication events, 138
homeotic regionalization, 147
jaws, 207
limb development, 260
limb patterning, 313
molecular clock, 105
neural crest, 285
notochord, 292
paired appendages, 149
relationships of, 2–4, 38
segmentation, 147
Index 385
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vertebrate (cont.)
terrestrial, 305
tooth evolution, 10
vertebrate dentition, 166–99
acquisition from dermal skeleton, 167–9,
173, 176–8, 193
acquisition from pharyngeal endoskeleton,
167–9, 175, 176–8, 184, 193
continuous tooth replacement, 189
co-option and molecular mechanisms,
184–6
co-option models, 182–4
dental lamina, 173, 175, 181–2, 189, 195
dermal denticles, 173, 175, 176, 178, 179, 182,
183, 184, 198
patterning of, 179
dermal scales, 168
development of, 166
reiterative signalling cascade, 167
enamel knot, 181
first dentition, 192–3
genetic mechanisms, 186–90
molecular modification of, 190–2
in early vertebrates, 169
lungfish dentition, 196–7
neural crest, 166, 177, 198
odontode, 168. See vertebrate dentition,
dermal denticles
gene regulatory network, 178
origin, 169
oral dentition, 192
origin
alternative hypotheses, 176–8
old hypotheses, 173–6
patterning, 177
‘dental pattern’, 175
gene networks, 168, 169
pattern induction, 180
pharyngeal denticle co-option, 198
pharyngeal denticles, 168, 169, 175, 179, 183,
192, 194, 195
pharyngeal patterning, 194–5
placoderm dentition, 193–4
placoid scales, 176, 177
postbranchial lamina, 194
region-specific tooth loss, 167
skin appendage patterning, 178–80
successional teeth, 187
supernumerary teeth, 187
tooth germs, 166, 167
tooth induction
order of, 175
tooth initiation, 181
tooth restoration in chick, 167
vertebrate limb
Apical Ectodermal Ridge, 289
virus, 88
dengue, 105
rate of molecular evolution, 55
viviparity, 27
in Saurichthys, 142
Weejasperaspis, 194, 195, 198
whale, 230, 257
dentition, 186
early, terrestrial, 39
hind limb development, 268
hyperphalangy, 302
limb, 301
reduction, 261
Widanelfarasia bowni, 47
Wolffian ridge
in amniotes, 289
Xenarthra, 47
xenarthran. See Xenarthran
apomorphies, 51
origin, 47
Youngolepis, 195
Yule model, 119
Yunnanolepis, 194
zalambdodonty, 47
zebra, 19
zebra finch, 27. See Taeniopygia
zebrafish, 10, 138
axial skeleton, 148
dentition, 171, 186
pattern, 179
pharyngeal, 177, 196
tooth initiation, 190
386 Index
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tooth replacement, 189
fins, 149
pelvic fins, 149
jaw
articulation, 207
development, 151
scale, 153, 159, 179
reduction, 154, 157
Zone of Polarizing Activity (ZPA)
polydactyly, 310, 313
Index 387
Cambridge University Press978-1-107-00326-2 - From Clone to Bone: The Synergy of Morphological and Molecular Tools in PalaeobiologyEdited by Robert J. Asher and Johannes MüllerIndexMore information
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