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Carbon Sequestration

Geoscience Controls on Macroengineering Problems

Julio FriedmannUniv. Maryland

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AcknowledgementsDag Nummedal, Donna Anderson, Peigui Yin, Mike Batzle

Inst. For Energy Research, Univ. WyomingRM-CUSP (Rocky Mts. Regional Partnership)

Vicki Stamp, Michael MillikenRocky Mt. Oil-field Testing Center

Gerry Stokes, Jim Dooley, Jae Edmonds, Steve FetterJoint Global Change Research Inst, Univ. Maryland, Battelle-Pacific NW National Labs

Robin Newmark, James JohnsonLawrence Livermore National Labs

Other industrial contributors

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Massive Energy DemandTremendous growth in demand

By 2050, another 300 exojoules neededSignificant growth in developing countries (India, China)

We will rely heavily on fossil fuels for our energy needsWe will rely heavily on fossil fuels for our energy needs18

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lentLimits to technologies that can

bridge demandMany off-the table technologies

(fusion, tidal, space-based solar)Many promising technologies require

deployment timeMany promising technologies require

development timeEnergy research funding down for 30

years

Stokes et al., 2002

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Unconventional Liquids and Gases

40,000 PgC

Atmosphere 750 PgC

Coal

5,000 to 8,000 PgC

Oil 130 PgC

Gas 120 PgC

Vegetation 610 PgC

Fossil Fuel Concerns

CARBON DIOXIDE AND GHG EMISSIONS ARE MAJOR CHALLENGE

On a grand scale, SOx, NOx, ozone, and metals are negligible concerns (rapid progress, low cost, straightforward regulatory framework)

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CO2 Concentration in Ice Core Samples andProjections for Next 100 Years

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Years Before Present

Vostok RecordIPCC IS92a ScenarioLaw Dome RecordMauna Loa Record

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Projected (2100)

CO2 Concentration for last 400,000 yrs

www.clivar.org

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Separation of natural and non-naturalMost of the Observed Warming of the Last 50 Years is Attributable

to Human Activities

www.clivar.org

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Projected Temperatures for the 21st Century Are Significantly Higher Than at Any Time During the Last 1000 Years

These projected changes are larger than in 1995 due lower projected emissions of sulfur

www.clivar.org

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Carbon Sequestration Basics: Kaya Equation

Despite significant gains in efficiency, current emissions increase in (mostly increased energy consumption)

Economically and politically painful to reduce energy consumption

CARBON SEQUESTRATION WILL HAVE TO BE DEPLOYED VERY RAPIDLY AT AN ENORMOUS SCALE FOR SAFE GHG STABILIZATION IN THE ATMOSPHERE

CO2 Emissions = Population x (GDP/capita)x (Energy/GDP) x (CO2/Energy)

- (Removal from the Atmosphere)

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India and China

Growth of developing nation energy, esp. China and India, will be coal-based, requiring CO2 storage options

Almost 40%of world populationLarge coal resources, consumptionFew oil/gas resourcesLimited waterGrowth of auto industry

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Carbon Sequestration: General Modes

Ocean Sequestration – risky, uncertain, and priceyDirect, deep-ocean injection -- high Ph, monitoring, NIMBYBiogeoengineering -- very risky, uncertain efficiency

Geological Sequestration – point-source limited (pricey)Saline Reservoirs -- infrastructure costsOld Oil/Gas fields -- containment risksCoal Beds -- infrastructure costs, tough to monitor

Soil/Plant Sequestration – low-volume and problematicNo-till farming – low volume, low retention, tradingAdding biomass – monitoring, short time frame, small volume

Chemical Sequestration -- pricey and diceyCreating terrestrial solids – expensive, energy intensiveCreating hydrates – very risky, probably v. costlyBasalt injection – untested technology, slow reaction ratesAdvanced concepts – unproven or developing technology

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Carbon Sequestration: General Modes

Ocean & Geological modes have the highest storage capacity, which would cover from 50 to >250 years of current emission volumes. They also have long term sequestration potential

DOE, Carbon Sequestration Roadmap

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Geological Sequestration in the US

DOE Vision & Goal:1 Gt storage by 2025, 4 Gt by 2050

• Near sources (power plants, refineries, coal fields) • Near other infrastructure (pipelines)• Need sufficient storage capacity locally• Must be verifiable (populated areas problematic)

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CO2 Streams for Geological StorageHigh purity stream (> 90% CO2) critical

Currently, mostly natural sources

Refineries, IGCC’s and gas processing facilities are cheapest; capture devices on traditional plants possible.

Courtesy of R. Bajura, NETL

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power plant (coal)

ammonia plant (ethanol)

Ananda, 1983

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CO2 Burial: Saline Reservoirs

S. Texas:• DOE/U. Texas• Frio Trend• closure dependent; already mapped• Small (2000 tons)

Different test sequestration projects 2002-2004Mountaineer Project

• AEP/Battelle• Mt Simon Fm.• NOT closure dependent --dynamic sequestration

US saline reservoirs have a potential of up to 130 G tonnes sequestration

DOE, 1999

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Sleipner Vest: Utsira Formation

Miocene Aquifer: DW fan complex

30-40% porosity, 200 m thick

high permeabilitybetween 15-36 oC – w/i

critical range

Geol. Survey of Denmark & Greenland

http://www.statoil.com

Economic driver: Norwegian carbon tax on industry ($50/ton C)Cost of storage: $15/ton C

FIRST major attempt an large volume CO2sequestration, offshore Norway. Active since 1996. Monoethanolamine (MEA) capture

Target: 1 MM ton C/yr.So far, 6 MM tons

Operator: StatoilPartners: Norsk-Hydro,

Petoro, Shell-Esso, Total-Elf-Fina

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4D seismic monitoring and visualization

Seismic Survey of Utsira Fm.

Courtesy of Statoil and IEA

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CO2 Burial: Coal ReservoirsMany current coal-bed methane CO2 injection projects

Large, active project in N. New Mexico, injecting both CO2 & N2 for ECBM recovery

DOE, 1999

Courtesy Adv. Resources International

The estimated US sequestration potential is 10 G tonnes, but is probably higher

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CO2 Burial: Coal-bed adsorption capacityCO2 adsorbs directly onto the micropore surface of coal cleats. In the process, it displaces CH4.

• Commonly, 2 CO2 captured for every CH4 molecule. • This may vary with coal rank.• Worst ECBM coals may make best sequestration coals

Data from H. Gluskoter & R. Burruss, USGS, Reston

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Anth Bitum Sub-bit Lign

Uncertainties include effects of coal mineralogy, brine chemistry, other issues

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Oil Shales (High TOC mudstones)

Low-moderate grade organic-rich mudstones have some petrologic similarities to coal as regards their gas adsorption. This means that they are a viable CO2 storage targets

Almost nothing is known about these rocks as potential reservoirs.

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Plateau BasaltsThese flows involved 40,000 cubic miles of mafic rock. This may react with with carbon-rich fluids to form iron and magnesium carbonates.

The permeability is fracture controlled. The slow reaction rates and uncertain hydrology make these targets problematic.

Pacific Northwest Labs is preparing a test site for potential carbon storage.

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CO2 Capture: Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)At right temperature and pressure, CO2 will dissolve in oil through multiple-contact miscibility. This decreases in-situ viscosity and increases oil volume. improving recovery of oil in place.

http://www.ieagreen.org.uk/

Although some CO2 is co-produced, most remains dissolved in subsurface oil, where it is effectively sequestered.

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CO2 Injection Schemes for EORThere are multiple approaches which are optimized as a function of AGI gravity, water saturation, wettability, permeability, and CO2 slug size

WeyburnWeyburn CO2 CO2 RecompressorRecompressor( under construction)( under construction)

http://www.ieagreen.org.uk/weyburn6.htm

Startflood

Stopflood

Stopchase

Startchase

CO2 H2O Natural Gas

Continuous

Contin./H2O

WAG/H2O

TWAG/H2O

WAG/Gas

Jarrell et al., 2002

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EOR Project: Weyburn FieldEnCana EOR project, Saskatchewan

Takes ~5000 tonnes/day CO2 from a coal gasification plant in North Dakota (330 km pipeline) to recover 130-160 MM bbl incremental oil

Carbonate reservoir at 1400 m• Injection has resulted in local dissolution; enhanced porosity• Unexpected fracture trends

Discovered in 1954, 50 000 acres Initial OIP 1.3 billion barrels w/ 23-34o API gravity. Primary production + waterflood = ~34% of the STOOIP With enhanced recovery, almost 50% of the oil. Will extend field life 25 years in a 40 year projectThe first CO2 injected in the 2000.

http://www.ieagreen.org.uk/weyburn4.htm

At project end, ~19 million

tonnes CO2sequestered

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Large Scale Studies

Learnings from Weyburnand Sleipner

Learnings from petroleum industry (5 year rule of thumb)

Due to the scale of the problem, large-scale results are critical to large-scale sequestration efforts

Remember that world-wide, ~2000 MM tons/yr needed for stabilization

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Courtesy of S. Fetter, UMD and JGCRI

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Rocky Mountains as a logical testHigh Density of potential reservoirs

• Unmineable coal seams• Old oil fields (e.g. Rangely)• Large capacity gas fields near blowdown• Saline aquifers (dynamic&static)• Oil shales

CO2 and industry infrastructure• Wyoming: 89 MM tons/yr• Long-lived hydrocarbon industry• Enormous public/private data base for science/engineering• Carbon advisory boards

Low population density Low risk of serious environmental/seismic hazards

Current WY-CO-UT CO2 Pipelines with 10, 25 & 50 km radii

D. Anderson, Col. School of Mines and CUSP

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CARBON UTILIZATION & STORAGE PARTNERSHIP (RM-CUSP)

Major Multi-sectoral EffortSeven UniversitiesFour petroleum companiesTwo coal companiesFive power companiesThree national labs/facilitiesSix NGO’s/Environmental groupsMultiple state govt. agencies

Multidisciplinary teamGeologists, geochemists, geophysicistsBiologists, geographers, ecologistsEconomists, policy experts, politiciansEducators, museum communityPetroleum, mechanical, & chemical engineers

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Zero Emissions Plants: Siting & Construction

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Within a 2ºC warming scenario, we must build a 900 ± 500 MW zero-emissions plant somewhere in the world each day for 50 years.

Stabilization of atmospheric concentration of GHG/CO2 requires extremely steep reduction of emissions and rapid deployment of zero-emissions power plants.

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Feedstocks:Coalbiomasssolid wasteorimulsion

Gasified, Combined Cycle Plants (IGCC)

Reduction in cost and efficiency improvements are needed to deploy these plants more broadly (high cap. ex.)

High efficiency (50%), high wattage (>500 MW) plants

• Mix feedstock with steam (syngas)• Strip sulfur, metals as slag• No ash/fly ashCombustion by-products: • Hydrogen (feedstock for fuel cells)• Pure CO2 stream

www.ieagreen.cc.uk

British Coal gasifier: burns sewage sludgeGasification

Process

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FutureGen (Zero Emissions Plant)

Successful plant siting requires proper characterization of injection targets in terms of capacity (~50 years) and rate

“Today I am pleased to announce… a $1 billion, 10 year demonstration project to create the world’s first coal-based, zero-emissions electricity and hydrogen power plant” -- G.W. Bush

Carbon Capture:• Initial goal: 90% capture• Ultimate goal: 100% capture Economics: • <10% increase in cost of electricity• H2 production at $4/million Btus• S and N2 used for fertilizersPower Generation: • ~275 MW (small prototype)• 50-60% efficiency

DOE Fossil Energy

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Orimulsion Gasified Fuels

Orimulsion has various issues about how to maintain fluid transport w/o deposition in pipelines or tankers, as well as how to best atomize for combustion

Orimulsion is a bitumen (70%) emulsified with water (30%), with some stabilizing additives. It is a fuel well suited for gasified combustion, and is the product of heavy-oil (tar sand) production

Very large reserves:• Orinoco: 1.2 trillion STOOIP• Canada: 1.4 trillion STOOIP Energy content • Coal – 6700 Kcal/kg• Fuel oil – 10600 Kcal/kg• Orimulsion – 7200 Kcal/kg

www.orimulsion.com

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Critical EOR Research TargetsSandstone Reservoirs (EOR and Saline aquifers)

Reservoir architecture and heterogeneityMultiphase fluid flow in porous mediaBrine/rock/CO2 chemical interactions

Carbonate reservoirs (EOR and Saline aquifers)CO2 dissolution: poro-perm enhancement, seal leakageFracture characteristicsBrine/rock/CO2 chemical interactions

EOR specific researchDissolution kinetics/miscibility in sequestrationProduction response given initial API gravity, viscosity

Coal/ECBM/Oil Shale ReservoirsEffects of coal/shale petrologyFractures density, permeability, and distributionFar-field aquifer affectsGas mixture adsorption

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CAPTURE DEVICES!

Significant reductions of cost or even comparative cost will enable rapid deployment of carbon storage schema

The cost of capture is the single largest impediment to implementation of carbon sequestration at a grand scale

Carbon/Hydrogen Capture:• Amine (MEA) scrubbing• Ceramic membranes• Oxygenated combustion

DOE Fossil Energy

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Cap Rock IntegrityA major concern in sequestration is preventing leakage and “blowout”. These issues rely on the integrity of the seal or cap rock.

New models suggest that certain minerals (Magnesite, Dawsonite) may precipitate at the top of the CO2 reservoir, increasing the thickness and decreasing the permeability of the cap rock.

Johnson et al., 2001

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Capillary Entry PressureSeals integrity is commonly estimated by capillary entry pressure tests. Air, gas, or mercury is injected into rock, and pressure difference across rock sample is measured.

When pressure is high enough to overcome capillary forces or to induce fracturing, fast paths are established and leakage occurs.

This is a concern where overpressurizing reservoirs via CO2 injection, but most natural seals are sufficient

Harrington & Horseman., 1999

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Effective Monitoring and Verification

3D and 4D seismic

Electrical Resistance Tomography (ERT)

Spiking of injection stream

Soil Surveys

Subsurface and near field water sampling

Courtesy Robin Newmark, LLNLhttp://geosciences.llnl.gov/esd/ert/

Necessary for both public safety and proper crediting

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Advanced Storage Concepts

• Genetic engineering of carbonate-forming minerals

• Distributed capture devices (e.g. venetian blind technology)

• Pulverized serpentine wind tunnels

The goal of many of these approaches is solid-state deposition of carbon as new minerals

In general, these approaches rely on untested technology with large costs or uncertainties.

Critical component of a research portfolio

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Geological-Biological Interactions

Microbially mediated carbonate precipitation

Methanogenic/chemotrophicbacteria in coal seams and oil shales

Adequate accounting of key subsurface actors

Everybody’s favorite next-generation science: many short- and long-term projects and studies aimed at subsurface sequestration

Atomic force micrograph of Shewanella bacteria (yellow) on the hematite surface (blue) immersed in anaerobic solution.

Courtesy of S. Lower, UMD

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Conclusions

Fossil fuels will be a primary component of future energy supply, driving carbon capture & storage

MUCH geology, geochemistry, and geophysics is needed to meet the rapidly evolving needs

LARGE SCALE tests are crucial to understand true feasibility and create appropriate policy/economic structures

The agenda is broad and the needs immense, but together we are equal to these challenges.

Kofi AnnanScience, March 2003