Translated from: Pochvovedeniye, 1975, No. 12:32-44

MAIN SOIL GROUPS OF INDONESIA

V.M. FRIDLAND, V. V. Dokuchayev Soil Institute

Judging from the generalized soil map of B 50-65 em YR3/4) j red spots of un­weathered rock appear from a depth of 65 em. Transition gradual.

Indonesia [11J I the most common soil groups in this country are: Ando soils (and other volcanic solIs); Red-Yellow Podzolic soilsj Brown soils, Red-Yellow Lateritic Boils; Mediterranean soils, Yellow Podzolic Be 65-90(110) Transition from evenly

colored horizon to spotty rock, homogeneous material predominates. Transition to spotty rock dIstinct, but at varying depths.

Boils, and groundwater Podzols. em

The first four soil groups were studied by us during trips in western Java. Samples from the last three sol1 groups were given to us by our Indonesian colleagues.

The results of our study of Ando soils and other volcanic soils have already been published [5]. Here we report the results

C, 90(110)-150 cm

spotty- (red, yellow, Whitish), less vividly red rock. Transition gradual.

of investigations of the other Boil groups. Cz 150-180 em More vividly red and more distinctly spotty rock. Transition gradual. Descriptions of the profiles of these soils

are given below.

Profile 6. Taken 55 Ion to the west­northwest of Bogar (near Banar village of the Parumpaltjan commune) at an elevation of about 200 m above sea level. The area has n dissected hilly relief and consists of strongly weathered shales, exposed at the bottoms of creeks and small rivers. Secon­dary forest near a dry-farmed rice field.

A 0-20 cm

AB 20-50 em

B 50-65 em

Brownish-dark gray (7.5 YR3/2), clayey. nutty structure, breaks down in­to indiVidual grains, slightly compact, moist to damp. Transition gradual.

Reddish-brown (5 UR4/4). weakly blocky, somewhat moister (damp) plastic, clayey. Transition gradual.

Similar to the preceding, but more vividly red (2.5

661

C3 180-230 em Noticeably lighter colored rock but equally spotty as the C1 horizon.

According to the Indonesian classification, this soil is a Red-Yellow Podzolic soil. We classify it as aneroded Red-YelIowFerral­li tic soil. Erosion is evidenced by the nutty structure of the upper horizon and the presence in it of distinct clay tongues, tes­tifying to its illuvial nature.

Profile 8. Talten to the south of the Bandung Bogar road, to the southwest of Sultabumi city. Hilly relief, elevation of about 500 m, level area (slope of -4") , teak (Tectona grandis) plantation.

Al 0-18 cm Dark gray, nutly, breaking down to granu­lar, clayey, slightly moist. Transition gradual.

V.M. FRIDLAND

AB 18-55 em

C 55-90 em

From gray in upper part to brown in lower part, structure disappears grad­ually. clayey. moist. Tran­si tion gradual.

Light brown plastIc clay, very viscous, gray, crystal­line limestone fragments in the lower part of horizon.

Accordlng to the Indonesian nomenclature this is a Braunlehm. The structure of the profile and its micromorphology indicate that the soil is eroded.

Profile 9. Taken to the southwest of Sukabumi on the Gembau plateau consisting

Profile 21 (133768/71, according to the numbering of the Institute). Madura Island, Pamekasan dIstrict, hilly area at an eleva­tion of 310 m above sea level. Total annual precipi~tion in this area is 1484 mm, the evaporative power is about 1000 mm, and the dry period lasts about 4 months. Manioc fields alternate with bamboo growthll. The profile was taken in a plowed field.

Aplow 0-15 em Grayish-brown (5 YR4/2-4/3), sandy clay loam, unstable fine nutty-pris­matic structure, very hard lime concretions and limestone fragments. Transition even, clear.

of Tertiary andesites at an elevation of Bz•1 15-38 em Brown to reddish-brown (5 YR/3-4/4), 100Be, fragile fine nutty­prismatic structure, lime concretions and fragments. Transition gradual, even.

about 500 m. Growth of Eupatoria and Camara lantane shrubs. Area under limited agricultural use, growing the least demand-ing crops.

0-60 em Gray-brown. blocky-granular I becoming gradually lighter Bz.z colored with depth and assuming

38-60 (90) em

Reddish-brown (5 YR4/4-5 YR3/2), sandy-clayey, loose, fragile. porOU8-granular structure, lime concretions and frag­ments, changes sharply to limestone, boundary uneven.

a yellowish-red color, clayey, sllghUy damp.

60-700 em Yellowish-red (light orange), homogeneous, fine-grained, damp, clayey.

According to the Indonesian classification it is a Red-Yellow Latoeol, but according to us it 15: a Red Ferrallitic soU.

The region where these soils were des­cribed has an annual temperature sum ex­ceeding 8000 C, a mean temperature above 18 C in all months, an annual precipitation of more than 2000 mm, an annual evapora­tion of about 900 mm, and a dry period (with monthly wetting coefficients of 0.6 to 0.8) of no more than 2-3 months.

The next three descriptions were made by the members of the Soil Institute of Indonesia (at Bogor) and kindly given to UB together with the soil samples.

662

According to the accepted IndonesIan classification this is a Red-Brown Mediter­ranean soil. The profile structure indicates that it is eroded.

Profile 22 (1372s7/62, according to the numbering of the Institute). Central Borneo, Palangkaradja dIstrict. quartz sand platn, 50 m above sea level. Total annual precipi­tation exceeds 3000 mm, evaporative power is about 1100 mm, and there is no dry sea­son. Primary tropical forest.

AOl 0-2 em Dark cinnamon-brown (10 YR3/7) with occ'Bional sand grains, mellow. Transition gradual.

SOVIET SOIL SCIENCE

A, 2-15 em Light cinnamon-brown (10 YR!2), mellow sandy. Transition gradual.

A, 15-46 em Light gray, being (10 YR7!2), mellow sandy. Transition clear, wavy.

B, 46-60 em Dark cinnamon-brown, sandy I massive, hard. Transl tlon gradual.

Bhg 60-90 em Dark, yellowish-cinna-mon brown (10 YR2!3), sandy t massive but less

8(12)-40(45) em Grayish-yellowish (2.5 YR6!4), sandy coarse Loam, weak fine-pored granular structure. Transition cLear, wavy.

B, 40(45)-50(70) em

Light, from yellow­ish-brown to orange yellow (10 YR6!4-7!6), sandy coarse Loam, weak nutly structure, mellow. Transition clear, wavy.

compact than the preced- BZ.2 50-(70)-110 ing. Transition gradual, em

Orange (7.5 YR7!6), sandy coarse loam, nutty structure, com­pact, occasional brighter spots. Tran­sition gradual.

diffuse.

BCg 90 em Beige, tight (10 YR7 !2, sandy, distinctly granular, but compact.

This is a groundwater PodzoI, accord­ing to the Indonesian classification. Its morphology corresponds to that of ground­water-gleyed Humic-Illuvial Podzols, found in many areas of the Soviet Union {3, 2]. However, there is a significant difference: the humic accumulative horizon is very dis­tinct in the tropical Podzol (which, judging from the data of other researchers, is typi­cal of these soils), which does not exist in the soils described in the Podzolic soil zone. However, the Humic-lliuviai Podzols of Western Europe usually have a humic accumulative horizon and they are virtually identical to the tropical Podzol in morphology.

Profile 23 (127 402!07, according to the numbering of the Institute). West Borneo, Siktang Province. Plain made up of quartz­ites, about 25 m above sea level. Total annual precipitation is 3300 mm, evapora­tive power is about 1100 mm, and there is no dry season. Mainly Melastoma shrubs.

AO( 0.2 cm Grayish-cinnamon brown (10 YR4!3-4!4), sandy coarse loam. Transition gradual.

A, 2-8(12) em Dark cinnamon-brown (10 YR3!1-3!2), sandy coarse loam. mellow. Transition gradual.

663

BC 110-140 em Orange (7.5 YR7!6), sandy coarse loam, weak. flne nutty struc­ture, compacted, oc­casional brighter spots.

According to the Indonesian classification this is a Yellow Podzolic soil. Its morpho­logical structure indicates that it belongs to podzolized Ferrallitic Yellow soils.

All these soils have formed under similar th~rmal condi tioos of the equatorial belt with high temperatures throughout the year, ranging, according to mean monthly data, from 23 to 26 C. However, wetting condi­tions differ: Profiles 22 and 23 are exces­sively wet all the time, Profiles 6, 8, and 9 have formed in a climate with a brief dry period, and Profile 21, in a climate with a distinct dry season. The soils differ also in their parent materials, i. e. , quartz sand, and andesite, limestone, shale, and quartzite eluvium. The state of cultivation of the soils also differs, i. e. , primary tropical forest, shrubs and secondary forests, and plowland.

Most distinct in its structure among the soils described is Profile 22 of the ground­water-gleyed Humic-Illuvial Podzol, which differs morphologically from the same soils at temperate and boreal latitudes by having

Y.M. FRIDLAND

Table 1

Particle-size composition of Indonesian Boils

Content of [rae., %; particle dilun., mm

Hygro- " " Profile Horizon and depth, scopic 0_ o.g": ooU • 6 " ~ No. em water, ~li:C • 1 'i 'i ~

;; ~ tl;alll • ,; ~ .3 ~', .; .; .;

• A o-to 5,1 ',8 7,1 22,9 11,2 6,' iB.5 at, t AB 20-30 ',2 3,8 7,3 16,8 14,8 ',' ',5 43,2 B 50-60 ',0 3,8 5,5 5,9 14.8 5,5 to, 1 54,3 BC 70-80 ',2 3,' ',6 24,t 10,7 3,6 H,t 42,0 C, 120-140 3,8 3,' 12,4- 41;5 17,8 3,1 ',1 15,2 C, 160-170 ',' ',' 8,' 35,2 hl,3 3,7 13,5 15,3 C, 220-230 5, I

" I 8,' 42,6 27,0 4,' " t 7,'

B' A, 0-10 3,' Not det. None 10,6 8,8 4,' 0,' 67,0 AB 20-110 3,2 , t,7 2,8 7,1 7,6 12,9 67,9 C 40-50 4,8 , Nco. ',8 5, t 5,5 8,3 76.3 C 75-80 5,1 , - 7,' ,,' ',B 7,' 75,8

• , 0-20 1,2 t,7 ',5 at,a 7,9 2,0 13.4 4.2,0 C, 140- tHO ',' 2,5 1,8 27,6 ',5 2,5 13.8 40,B C, 500-,,20 3,2 2,B 7,8 10,8 16,7 6,1 H.~ 44,5

21' Aplow 0-15 3,1 Not det. H,1l 36,8 4,3 3, t 3,0 40,0 81.1 15-35 ',2 , 13,1 45,4 9,7 3,0 7,6 21,2

B I •1 40-55 3,2 , H,O 31,6 7,7 3,2 5, t 40,5

22' A .. 0-2 1,8 , 73,4 H,B 6,2 2,3 t,7 ',8 A, 2-t5 ',8 , 68,2 23,2 3,5 1,2 t,2 2,7 A, 20-35 3,2 , 59,2 32,4 3,5 t,o 1,6 2,3 B. 50-60 3,3 , 51,6 26.0 5,' 3,3 5,2 B,O B.g 65-75 3,' , 60,2 27,3 2,' t,3 t,5 7,3 BCg DD-iOO 3,0 , 57,6 27,3 5,' t,l t, I 7,'

23 A .. '_2 2, t 5,3 3B,7 35,8 7,8 t,7 2, I 8,B A, 2_fO ',2 2,1 ',5 67,5 0,' 2,2 1,8 t2,D B. 20-20 ',3 2,1 28,2 42,4 10,4 2,5 3,0 H,4 B2.~ 50-60 3,8 1,8 28,8 39,5 6,5 2,5 I,' t9,1

B~.2 80-100 2,5 1,2 as," 31,0 '7,9 1,7 1,0 2t,S

*PreptU'ed for Ilnalysts by the pyrophosphate method.

a humic accumulative horizon. The thick­ness of the podzolic horizon (31 em) is somewhat greater than that in the 8011s of northern latitudes, but does not exceed that in the thickest profiles.

Let us turn to the results of analyses of this soil. It has a sandy texture (Table 1) and an insignificant amount of clay I es­pecially in the eluvial part of the profile, whereas the illuvial part is somewhat enriched with it. This enrichment in the humlc-illuvial horizons can be explained by the accwnulation of organic matter. In the deeper horizons, which contain much less humus, the increase in clay content can be explained only by the accumulation of mineral substances. The results of analy­ses of oxalate and dithlonlte extracts (Table 5) show that aluminum and iron oxides do not accumulate either in these horizons.

664

From acid in the upper horizons, the Humic-lliuvial Podzol (Table 2) becomes weakly acid with depth and base saturation increases sharply. Studies of tropical HUmic-llluvial Podzols [6, 14, 7] give similar results, testifying to Borne ground­water mineralization in these soils, produc­ing a geochemical barrier for migrating organic substances and saturating tile lower part of the profile with bases. Anionic ad­sorption, determined at a soil to solution ratio of 1:20, is insignificant In the mineral horizons and quite naturally increases sharply in the humic-ill uvial horizon. The total chemical composition of this soil (Tables 3 and 4) is also typical of Humic­Illuvial Podzols: there is more than 95% SiOz in all the horizons of the profile, ap­proaching 99% In eluvial horizons. The ac­cumulation of AlzO) is very distinct in the illuvial horIzons. This supports the

SOVIET SOIL SCIENCE

Table 2

Results of analyses of Indonesian soils

pH Humus co,

~ Horizon and • depth, em

12 ii % 2 • ~ '" • 6 A 0-10 5,0 a,B 7,73 Not det.

AB 20-30 4,B a,B 3,0:1 • B fill-liD 4,1 3,5 1,110 • Be 70-80 4,7 a,o t,tI!1 • e. 120-140 4,7 a,s Not det. · e, 160-170 4,7 3,5 • • C, 220-230 4,B a,s • •

B A. 0-10 6,t 4,n 5,35 0,27 AB 20-30 0,2 5,0 -1,80 0,21 e 411-50 6,a 5, t 3,03 0,02 e 75-80 6,0 5,11 1,71 0,37

0 A 0-20 4,B a,o 7,01 Nat det .. C. 140-t1lO I,' a,6 Not det. • C, 500-520 5, t a,1 • •

2t AplOW 0-15 7,4 O,B a,2B 0,02 8,.t J,j-35 B,a 7,2 2,90 1,87

B" 40-55 B,O B,7 1,42 0,45 22 A .. 0-2 a,. 2,0 Not det. Notdct ..

A. 2-15 4,5 a,B o,ga • A, 21]-35 5,4 4,1 0,27 • SIl-IlO n,l1 4,4 5,15 • 11:'1-75 11,1 4,7 t,05 • 90-too 5,B 4,B Not det. · " A .. 0-2 a,B a,o • • A, 2-to 4,6 a,B 4,23 • B. 20-30 5,a 4,0 2,07 •

B~.~ 50-no 5,a 1,4 0,74 • B1.~ 80)-100 4,0 4,t Not·dp.t. • C 120-130 4,n a,6 • •

assumption that clay minerals accumulate in them. They accumulate both in the humlc-illuvial horizon and under it. This suggests that Buspensions of clay minerals are more resistant to flocculating effects thllIl colloidal organic-matter solutions.

The insignificant amounts of sesquioxides extracted by oxalate IlIld dithionite extracts and the low content of these oxides in il­luvial horizons (Table 5) permi t the state­ment that organic matter migrates mainly in free forms rather than in the form of organomlneral complexes. This distin­guishes these soils from the Humic-Illuvlal Podzols of temperate lati tudes. This is also supported by the decrease in the Fed to clay ratio from the upper to the lower horizons. The absence in the oxalate ex­tract of even traces of aluminum and iron

Adsorbed cations,

'" e. ~:;:: meq{l00 g

" o ~o 0 .a g-': "II •• 0

to t ] ~ ~ -~

it + • a 08 x B ~ rt.N.~ .....

0,0 4,0 18,7 28,7 35 2B 5,5 5,5 211,0 :17,0 " 21 5,0 2,5 HI,a 26,8 2B 2R 2,5 2,5 28.3 33,3 to 20 a,o a,s 30,il 38,8 t7 21 :1,5 3,5 SR.!! 45,0 IS 2B a,s 3,5 41.0 4B.O t4 2B

-ill.Q 7,0 Not det. 51,0 Notdet. t4 44,0 6,0 • 50,0 • 20 41,0 7,0 · 4B,0 • 20 50,0 5,0 • 55,0 • 20 5,0 0,0 7,1 t8, t 61 22 3,0 4,0 If1,7 :m,7 26 2B 3,0 4.5 to,7 tB,2 41 26

i3,0 1,0 Not det. 20,0 Not det. It tlJ ,0 0,0 • 25,0 • 10 1,0 iO,D • 17,0 • 14 3,0 2,0 B,B HI,8 31 Not det. a,o 2,0 1,2 0,2 B1 4 3,5 2,5 0,0 0,6 ot 4 3,5 2,0 ,,0 14,5 3B 29 3,0 1,5 1,6 0,1 74 tB 3,0 I,D 0,8 4,' sa Not dct.

Traces . 2'51 2'51 H,t IlB,tl

3t 14 2,5 2,5 2,4 7.1 liB 18 3,0 2,0 1,1l lI,1l 76 13 2,5 t ,5 1,5 5,5 73 B

Not det.

testifies to the very intense acid leaching of the Boils in question under natural condi­tions. Andriesse (6J I who investigated tropical Humic-lliuvial Podzols in East Malaysia, also came to the conclUsion that the organic matter in these Boils migrates in the free state in the Uluvial horizon. A t the same time, the organic matter of the Humic-muvial Podzol (Table 6) is extremely mobile. A direct alkaline extract removes more than 50% of organic matter from the upper horizon and more than 90% from the illuvial horizons. The insoluble residue is correspondingly about 40% In the humus horizon and from 5 to 10% in the illuvial horizons. This suggests that there are two entirely different types of organic matter in Humic-nluvlal Podzols. The organic mat­ter in the humus horizon forms mainly in situ, contains SUbstantial amounts of humic acids I and is relatively strongly bound with

665

Profile No.

6

8

• U

22

23

Profile No.

, 21

23

V.M. FRIDLAND

Table 3

Total chemical composition of Indonesian Boils (% af Ignited sample)

a Molecular u Ignition ",d",

;f losret,'1I: SIO, Fe,O. Al,o, c.a M,O Total ~ ~ 510. • , Fe.O, AJ.O, 0

o-tO 21,05 63,10 8,59 24,56 t,17 1,34 IIB,82 19,48 4,30 20-30 17, tB f12,2b 8,62 25,91 0,97 1,36 9£1,12 19,20 4,08 50-00 17,57 59,58 9,43 28,24 0,94 1, 79 1111,68 16,81 3,58 70-80 17,48 59,23 10,20 28,20 0,82 t ,50 tOO.04 15,40 3,50

120-140 10,20 61,28 8,03 27,66 1,92 1,95 100,74 t8,88 3,76 tflO-i70 16,00 111,86 8,52 110,97 1,08 2,41 tOO,84 19,43 3,90 220-230 16,09 60,13 0.71 20,09 0,80 1,20 98,53 10,40 3,91

Weather~ ed rock 19,60 5[1,97 9,54 20,57 3,52 3,67 07,27 16,65 .s,DS

D-to 22,88 55,69 {2,65 26.61 2,57 1,03 99,62 ff,73 3,55 !!O-30 22,35 53,60 13.47 27,M 2,80 1,70 119,51 iQ,49 :i,27 0\0-50 21,01 53,72 13,34 28,35 2,23 t ,913 fl9,GO to,77 3.25 75-85 11l,813 53,U8 H,05 28,30 2,63 N:,72 98,2.fI 12,31 3,26 nOpOJlIl 44,21 0,34. 0,25 0.13 04,03 ot det. 95,65 3,62 0,45

0-20 25,43 45,53 16,4.4. 35,03 1,00 0,52 !l8,61 7,36 0,22 140-160 IB,12 45,4.0 16,73 35,84 0,66 0,49 99,12 7,20 2,16 500-520 10,75 48,83 M,OO 34,00 0,82 0,08 00,59 8,65 2,46

0-15 D,OD 76,04 7,31 13,57 0,3!) None 07,31 22,3t '171 15-35 8,05 82,23 5,25 8,74 2,17 O,H 08,64 4.1,48 ffi:02 40-50 !l,t3 73,65 0,43 fO,27 0,85 0,48 97,Il8 30,65 7;71

2-15 0,80 9S,!)4 0,35 0,02 0,21 0,37 DR,8D 823,50 823,5 25_35 0,37 97,22 0,36 0,97 0,67 None I!9,22 809,05 i7ff,BB 50-60 9,12 95,40 0,56 1.94 0,56 0,00 98,52 453,7 83,57 65-75 3,31 90,66 0,55 i,79 0,33 0,03 !l1l,30 533,00 M,OO !lO-too 1,54 97,HI O,M 0,28 0,60 0,07 100,38 BOG,OO 73.54

0-0 23,97 02,61 1,08 3,07 0,70 None 99,01) 154,to 30,53 2-tO 22,15 89,25 1,29 8,87 0,69 o,ts 100,25 ::185,75 t7 ,DB

30-30 7,08 RO,3t 1,66 7,25 0,00 O,Oi Oll,flO 150,40 21,18 50-60 5,06 87,25 1,21 9,93 0,60 None 90,02 ,181,63 :14,98 80-JOO 4,26 88,00 i ,30 9,38 0,49 • 99, i7 183,12 15,50

.

Table 4

Total chemical composition of clay in Indonesian soils (% af ignited sample)

Molecular mtios Depth, • 0 510. Pe,O. AI,O, e.O M,a TotlLl em '0·

:;j S[O. 5[0. Pe,O. AI,O.

O-W 23,45 43,40 14,34 38,81l 1,00 0,58 90,08 8,03 1,90 140-fOO 18,52 44,29 14, it 41,04 1,09 O,:U 100,84 ' 8,37 1,82 500-520 18,04 48,64 t2,1Q 38,01 1,10 0,29 100,213 10,80 2,17

0-15 t9, ::19 46,08 15,17 34,88 t,9t 1,13 99,17 8,07 0,:!4 15-35 20,61 4.5,57 15,38 33,27 2,26 0,85 97,33 7,90 2,33 40-50 19,03 44,99 15,60 35,32 1,64 0,57 (18,12 7,64 2,16 2-10 35,29 43,60 6,79 45,18 a,08 0,14 98,79 18,36 t,7ll

20-30 28,71 41,40 5,68 49,59 1,04 0,53 99,14 19,69 1,41 80-100 18,82 42,95 5,25 50,86 0,89 0,4.1 100,36 2f.,BO 1,43

666

SOVIET SOIL SCIENCE

Table 5

Composition of extracts from Indonesian Boils Oxalate extract (after Tamm) Fe203 in dl-

thlonite cx-% of absolutc- % of total content t:nu:t (after

Iy dry soil Jackson) f", Profile Horizon and Fe.-

No. depth, em " or " or

'Fed clay

SID. AI.O, re,D, SID, At,O. fe,O d'l' tot. soil ,=-

tent

6 A O-to Not detennlncd 3,40 39,11 N'!tdet o,it Aa 20-30 0,4B 0,28 0,57 0,8 1,1 11,7 3,88 M.D 0,15 0,09 a 50-60 0,60 0,32 0,45 1,0 1,1 4,B 3,92 41,5 0,12 0,07 ac 70-80 0,54 o,aa 0,26 D,D 1.2 2,5 '," 41,0 0,0(1 O,to C. 120-140 0,86 0,40 0,29 1.4 1,4 3,4 4.03 46.8 0,07 0,26

& HlO-t70 1, t6 0,27 0,17 1.9 1,0 2,0 3,45 40,5 0,05 0,22 220--230 1,61 0,23 0,18 2,7 D,!) [,0 4,20 43,3 0,04 0.5;

8 A. 0-[0 0,14 0,36 1,25 0,3 [,3 0,0 0,72 52.8 O. tQ 0,10 Aa 20-30 D,M 0,47 :1,14 0,3 [,7 B,5 7,07 52,5 O,la 0,10 C 40-50 0,23 0,70 0,72 0,' 2,5 5,' 6,77 50,5 O,tO 0,09 C 75-80 0,21 1, to 0,27 0,' 4,[ 2,3 B,3S M,5 0,04 o,oa

9 A 0-20 0,36 0,02 1,34 0,7 2,0 B,[ 9,91 60,0 0,13 0,23 C, 14.0-160 0,49 0,60 0,5t [, [ [,7 3,[ to,57 Il3,O 0,05 0,21 C, 500-520 0,32 0,82 0,35 0,7 2,4 2,3 8,83 58,0 0,04 0,20

21 Aplow 0-15 0,18 0, t5 0,68 0,02 [,5 9,3 4,77 65,3 0,14 0,12 Bu t5-35 0,19 O,tO 0,47 0,02 [, [ 8,9 2,05 56,0 0,16 0,14

82.2 40-55 0,55 0,01 0,43 0,07 0,4 0,7 5,62 81,0 0,08 0,14

22 A, 2-15 0,10 Net det. 0,001 Net det. 0,10 .i6,0 otdet 0.06 20-35 0.10 • 0,001 • Netdet - • Net det. A, 50-60 0, i1 • 0,001 • 0,20 35,9 • 0,03 65-75 0,10 • 0,001 • 3~,1l • 0,03 90-toO O,iO • 0,001 •

0,22 0,03 33,3 • 0,01

23 A. 2_10 0,12 0,10 0,38 0,01 11,5 22,6 0,72 42,7 0,53 0,07 a, 20-30 0,27 0,58 0,37 0,03 .,0 22,0 0,83 50,0 0,45 0,07 B!.2 50-60 0,18 0,32 0,26 0,02 . 3,2 20,8 0,08 78,5 0,26 0,05

B~.~ aO-fOO 0,12 0,10 0,04 O,Oi [, [ 3, [ 1,15 88,5 0,03 0,05

*Fee is iron in exnlatl!. extract Ilnd Fed is iron in dlthlonite extrllct.

the mineral mass. Fulvic acids predomInate sharply in the organIc matter of illuvialhorl­ZODS, which Is very weakly bound with the mineral mass.

Thus I the results of chemical analyses and morphological structure testify to a considerable similarity of the Podzol in question to the groundwater-gleyed Humic­lluvlal Podzols of temperate latitudes, as well as to distinct differences between them. The latter lie mainly in the presence of a hUmic-accumulative horizon in the tropical Podzol, which differs sharply in organic matter composition from the humic-illuvial horizon, and in the absence of illuviated iron and aluminum oxides in the latter horizon.

The reason for the similarity between temperature-latitude and tropical Podzols is the effect of simllar factors, 1. e., ex­treme poorness of the parent material, high humidity and leaching· water regime, and forest vegetation. The reason for the differences is apparently the more active biological cycle in the tropics (larger amount of litter and its more rapid decom­position), which produces accumulation of some amount of D.shelements, and, with it, the formation of a humic-accumulative ho­rizon. The nonaccumulation of ~O:J in the humlc-Illuvlal horizon 18 probobly due to the more intense leaching of the Boils and more limited flocculation factors (extreme­ly rare soil drying, no Boil freezing).

667

'" '" '"

Table 6

Group composition of organic matter in Indonesian Boils (numerator, % of absolutely dry Boili denominator, % of mass of organic matter)

l Profile Tot:J.ior- Substances Humus comporition

Depth, ' gllnic car- extracted burniE: acids fulvic acids Ch• No, em bon (% of dwing de-

Cr. Residue Total

init. soil calcifica- free fraction fraction total froc fraction fraction total weJght) tioo 2 3 2 3

a,m 0,23 0,10 0,07 0,17 1,34 1,12 0,31 1,43 0,12

2,58 '-',34 , 0-10 4,48 --a,57 U 2,23 ~ ""3,70 ZU ,1l1 25,00 ti,ii1 31 ,Ill 57,59 Uif,8u 0,09 0,06 0,04- 0,01 0,05 D,nO 0,32 0,05 0,37

O,i3 1,33 1,&1

20-30 t,70 5,U2 a,35 ""'2,23 -o,5ii 2,79 33,52 17,88 2,7H 20,67 74,lm 102,78

0,08 o,oa 0,03 0.01 0,04 0,54 0,32 O,OB 0,40 0,10

0,55 1,07 50-60 0,08 8,16 --a,uU 3,00 1,02 4,08 55,10 32,65 8,18 :m:1i1 5U,12 109,07

O,lZ 0,07 0,62 0,05 0,67 0,51 0,75 (J,07 0,82 0,81

1,51 3,15 B 0-10 3,10 4,00 2,20 2U,00 T,ill 21 ,Iii 11l,.J:i V0Y ~,2U 2U,45 50,00 102,00

o,to 0,01 0,37 0,06 0,43 0,57 0,28 O,id 0,41 1.69 2,63 20-30 2,78 3,UO 0,36 13,31 2,15 15,4Ei 20,50 11,20 4,67 15,87 1,05 IlU,7U 05,72

1,76 0, t3 0,05 0,05 0,03 0,08 0,3S 0,22 O,ta 0,35 1,38 1,04

40-50 7,39 2,77 2:n 1,70 4,47 !-1O,43 12,50 7,38 1D.Bs 0,23 78,40 1to,14

4,41) 0,17 0,79 0,17 0,017 0,187 0,G9 1,32 o,to 1,42 2,49 4,27

9 0-20 3,7U 17,25 3,79 0,3!) 4,18 20,IJO 2U,37 2,22 31,59 0,13 54,3ii 93,95

2-t5 0,54 0,01 0,12 0,14 0,u7 0,' 0,17 0,00 0,02 0,11

1,90 0,20 0,53

22 1,85 22,22 25,\J2 12,911 38,88 . 31,48 16,66 3,70 20,3U 37,04 98,13

1,38 0,48 0,26 0,05 0,a1 2,37 0,89 0,01 O,UO 0,15 2,69 50-60 2,95 45,08 16,27 8,81 1,69 ro,5o 80,34 30,17 0,34 30,51 0,34 5,08 9t,17

O,Gi 0,15 0,18 0,04- 0,04 0,40 0,36 0,04 0,40

O,to 0,00 0,05

65-75 24,59 29,03 Ei,5ti None """6;5ti 65,58 59,02 H,56 U5,58 9.83 106,58 --

< ~ ~ ~ ~ o

SOVIET SOIL SCIENCE

Let us now examine the Boils formed on strongly calcareous parent materials. Pro­file 8 has formed under more humid and Profile 21 under more arid conditions. The first contains carbonates only in residual fonn and the second in secondary form. Both Boils are obviously eroded.

The results of particle-size analysis (Table 1) testify to a difference in parent ma.terial. Profile 8 has a very fine texture. the Boil has formed on a fairly pure lime­stone eluvium (Table 3), while Profile 21 bas developed on calcareous sand. The tex­tural differentiation of the profiles is weak; it is more accurate to say that the material fa somewhat inhomogeneous.

These Boils are neutral or slightly alka­line •. have a high cation excbange capacity I nnd a relatively low anion adsorption capa­city (Table 2). The humus content is high and the deep horizons are humifled to a considerable degree.

The total chemical composition of these salls differs considerably. The clayey Pro­file B is much richer in aluminum, iroD, and calcium than the sandy coarse loam Pro­file 21. However I both profiles have a dis­tinct siallitlc composItion, which is also evidenced by the results of total chemical analysis of the clay of Profile 21 •.

The organic matter of Profile B has a low content of free forms extractable directly with alkali. Fraction 2, bound with calcium, predominates sharply in both the humic and Culvic acids. The humic to fulvic acid ratio Is fnirly high. The nonextractable residue, strongly bound with the mineral soil mass, accounts for half to three quarters of the Boil organic matter. ThuB, according to their chemical and physicochemical proper­ties, the soils in question are similar to Sod-Calcareous salls. However, their morphological structure does not permit to class them under Sod-Calcareous soils. The uniqueness of Profile 8 lies in the nutty structure of the upper horizon, plasticity of deeper horIzon, and in a very fine texture. The classification of these soils as a special Iype of Braunlehm [12J is quite justified, in our opinion.

669

An important feature of Profile 21 is the large content of secondary carbonates, testifying to the great importance of the dry season with a nonleaching water regime. According to its structure and the results of analyses, this soil can be classed in the group of tropical Red-Cinnamon Brown soils. The uniqueness of these soils and the aridity Of their regime are stressed in the Indonesian classification in which they are called Mediterranean soils.

The last three profiles were classified by us as Ferrailitlc soils formed under dIfferent wetting conditions. Profiles 6 and 9 have formed in a tropical climate with a short (2-3 months) dry season, while Profile 23 has formed in a permanent­ly humid climate. These soils are de­veloped on the weathering products of dif­ferent rocks: Profile 6 on those of shale, Profile 9 on those of Tertiary andesites, and Profile'23 on those of quartzites.

The texture of these soils (Table 1) clearly shows the predominance of clay over sand. There is little silt, especially medium and fine silt, as in all Ferrallitic soils. The nature of the parent material is also distinctly revealed in the texture of tbes.e soils. The soil developed on quartzites is sandy, that developed on shale is less sandy, and that developed on ande­site is extremely rich in sand, which is clear from the results of the dithionite ex­tract (Table 5). This extract removed much more iron from this than any other soil. These results suggest that the sand fraction consists mainly of concretions. Study of this fraction under a binocular and its treatment with dithionite confirmed this assumption. A large part of the sand frac­tion dissolved and the undissolved part proved to consist of clay minerals of kao­linitic appearance. Ferrallitic soils on pre-Quaternary andesites are frequently sandy because of the formation of concretions.

The upper horizons of all three Ferral­litle soils are poor in clay. This is mani­fest even despite some erosion of these soils. The least differentiated soil is de­veloped on basalt. Micromorphological study of Ferrallitic soils on quartzite and

V.M. FRIDLAND

especially on shales revealed the presence of distinct illuvlal clay films in the eluvial horizons. This testifies once more to the erosion of the Boils.

All FerralliUc Boils, especially that of Profile 6 in the forest, are acid and have a low content of excbangeable bases. The Bum of exchangeable catioDs is highest in the most fine-textured of the Ferrailitic Boila (Profile 6) and lowest in the coarsest (Profile 23). The Boil of Profile 9, similar in texture to that of Profile 6, has a much lower cation exchange capacity, probably because of the effect of ferruginous films. The variations in anion adsorption capacity are the saIDe as in cation exchange capacity.

The total chemical composition of the Boils reflects the composition of the initial rocks, i. e., the content of silica increases and that of iron. aluminum, and manganese decreases from Profile 9, developed on andesite, through Profile 6, formed on shale. to Profile 23, formed on quartzite. The content of calcium is low in all three pro-

. flIes and the differences in it are smaller than in the content of other elements.

The reasons for such patterns are ob­vious. They are determined for the first four elements by the quartz content of the initial rock and for calcium, the most bio­genous of these elements, by the intensity of the biological cycle.

The removal of clay from the upper hori­zons is reflected in an increase of the SiOz to Alz0 3 ratio in the upper horizons. In addition to being removed vertically, clay is also removed from the surface because of differential erosion. This process is vividly reflected in the texture and total chemical composition of the AOt horizon (depth of 0-2 cm) of Profile 23.

The total chemical composition of clay in Ferr.llltlc soils (Table 4) is typical of soils of this group and differences between profiles are less distinct than in the total chemical composition of soils as a whole. The SiOz:A1I!P3 ratio testifies to the kaolini­tic composition of the clay and to the pres­ence of free aluminum oxides in it. Profile

670

9, formed on andesite, is distinguished by a high iron content in the clay. Unusual for the composition of the clay of Ferrallitic : soils is the relatively high content of calcium. : and magnesium, that of calcium being even ' slightly higher than in the soil as a whole.

The total chemical composition of clay in the Ferrallitic soils developed on ande­site is close to that of the entire soil. In thes'e soils, as in the Red Earths of Georgia developed on Tertiary andesite eluvium {11 and in the dark red Ferrallltic solls of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam developed on Quaternary andesites [41. the iron con· tent in the soil as a whole is higher than in the clay. This suggests that one of the important forms of iron in these soils are concretions and ferruginous films on coarse particles. Examination of the samples under a binocular supports this assumption.

Analysis of oxalate and dlthionite ex­tracts (Table 5) testifies to a high content of iron oxides in these soils. These oxides are strongly crystallized in Profiles 6 and 9 and much less. so in Profile 23.

The organic matter of Indonesian Fer­rallitic soils (Table 6) is very similar in composition to that of the same soils in other regions (41. Fulvic acids predomi­nate sharply over humic acids in them. Both fulvic and humic acids are very mobilei they are almost completely extracted by direct soil treatment with alkali. More than half of the soil organic matter is in the form of humins and strongly bound with Boil minerals.

Analytical data have confirmed that the three soils in question belong to the Ferral­liUc class. At the same time, these soils differ very Significantly from each other. so that they can be classed under three dU· ferent varieties.

Profile 6 can be classed as a Red-Yellow Ferrallitic soil. and Profile 9 as a Dark­Red Ferrallitic soil. We shall not describe these groups of soils. their description was given by us earlier [4J •

SOVIET SOIL SCIENCE

Table 7

Optical density of humic acIds in Indonesian Boils

Profile Depth, Wllvelength, mp. No. em 126 '65 ". 6 20-30 0,440 0,489 0,0:'10

50-flO 0,207 0,435 0,572 70-BO 0,283 0,34.7 0,438

8 0-10 0,560 0,640 0,880 20-30 0,862 0,772 1,[]20 40-50 0,04.5 0,805 1,050

0 0-20 0,280 0,373 0,478 22 2-15 0,532 0,626 0,840

50-60 0,418 0,525 0,650 65-75 0,345 0,402 0,661

23 20-30 0,150 0,280 0,440

Profile 23 belongs to the Yellow Ferral­title soil group_ These Boils are identified according to the French Boil classification [81 and are shown over large areas in South America, especially the Amazon region [13J • They are called Xanthic Ferraisols in the legend of the FAO-UNESCO soil map of the world [10] and in the map of South America [91. These soils, having the main charac­tersitics of Ferrallitic Boils, have a low content of iron, which is hydrated to a large extent and less crystallized. They form in a permanently humic tropical climate and their properties are more distinct when they form on the elUVium of acid and espe­cially ultra-aoid rocIts.

Thus the six profiles of Indonesian salls studied represent six distinctly different (despite the erosion of some of them) soil groups, testifying to the great diversity of Boils in tropical regions. These differences between the salls were also clearly revealed by a study of the optical density of humic acids (determined in alkaline solutions with a carbon concentration of 0.136-0.138 g per liter on a Pulfrich spectrophotometer with 4-fold replication), The results of these determinations (Table 7) show thnt optical density decreases from the upper to the lower horizons in Ferrallitic soils (Profile 6) and in the Hwnic-nluvial Podzol, whereas in Profile 8 (Braunlehm), developed onilmestone, it increases from the upper to the lower horizons. The reason for this is obvious, it lies in the change in acidity and In the content of exchangeable bases along the profile.

671

". >l' '" 465 E.:£.

0,878 1,21 1,58 1,90 4,3 0,788 1,07 1,48 1,80 6,7 0,612 0,001 1,25 t ,5B 5,6 1,07 1,35 1,70 1.88 3,4 t,36 1,45 'l,fO 2,70 4,1 1,37 1,80 2,30 2,50 3,9 0,048 0,£101 1,25 1,50 5,3 f,to 1.40 1,05 2,00 3,8 0.818 1,14 1,52 1,80 4,3 0,843 l,fO 1,47 1,70 4,6 0,6110 0,910 1,22 1,60 10,6

There is another distinct pattern: the optical density of the humic acids is lowest in Ferrallltlc soils (Profiles 6, 9, and 23), highest in the soil developed on limestone (Profile B), and medium in the Humic­lliuvial Podzol, whereby in the upper humic-accumulative horizon it is close to that in the soil developed on limestone and in the lower, illuvial horizons, close to that in Ferrallitic soils.

The foregoing and also other data on tropical salls suggest that soils classed in the Tropical group, although they have a more or less common thermal regime, differ in the other regimes as significantly and in properties and composition even more Significantly than the Boils of tem­perate latitudes.

Indeed, the weathering and soil forma­tion rates are higher in the tropics than at temperate latitudes. In large regions of the tropics, where old relief surfaces pre­Vail, the duration of soll formation is also longer. Quaternary mantle deposits are also limited in the tropics. These are the reasons for the great diversity of parent material (from very saline to deeply fer­rallitized) and also for varying and very significant relict structural soil characteristics.

These reasons make the world of tropi­cal soils more diversified than the world of Boils of the temperate belt. At the same

V.M. FRIDLAND

time, Boile having properties similar to those of temperate-latitude Boils frequently fann on nonferrallitic parent materials in the tropics and occupy considerable areas.

Received April 14, 1975

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. SABASHVILI, M. N. 1949. Pochvy Gruzil (Soils of Georgia). Thlllsi.

2. TONKONOGGV, V. D. 1972. Podzolo­obrazovaniye na kvartsevykh peskakh (on primere Severa RUBSkoy ravniny) [Podzol formation on quartz sands (as exemplified by the north of the RUBsian plain)]. Author'S summary of his dissertation. Moscow.

3. Ukazaniya po klassificatsii i diagnostlke pochv. vyp. 1. Pochvy tayezhno­leanykh oblastey SSSR (Instructions on the classification and diagnostic of Boils. Vol. 1. Soils of the taiga­forest regions of the USSR). 1967. Moscow.

4. FRIDLAND, V. M. 1964. Pochvy I kory vyvetrivaniya vlazhnykh troplkov (Boils and weathering crusts of the humid tropiCS). Moscow.

5. FRIDLAND. V.M. 1975. Volcanic Boils of Java. In: Geokhimicheskiye i pochvennyye aspekty v izuchenii laodshaftov (Geochemical and soil aspects in landscape study). Izd. MGU.

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6. ANDRIESSE, J. P. 1969. A study of the environment and characteristics of tropical podzols in Saravak (East Malaysia). Geoderma, 2(3).

7. BLANKENAUX, P. 1973. Podzol, et sols ferrallitiques dans Ie Nord­Ouest de la Guyane franfaise. Cah. ORSTOM, pEdol., 11(2).

8. Classification des BoIs. Edition 1967.

9. FAO-UNESCO. Soll map of the world 1:5, aDO. 000. Vol. 4. South America. 1971.

10. FAO-UNESCO. 1974. Soil map of the world 1:5. ODD. ODD, Vol. 1. Legend.

11. Generalized soil map of Indonesia, scale 1: 2,500. OOO~ 1964.

12. KUBIENA, W. 1953. Soils of Europe.

13. SIOLI, U. and H. KLINGE. 1961. tlber GewH.sser und Bt5den des Brasilianischen Amazonasgebietes, Z. Ges. Erdk" Berlin, 92(3) ..

14. TAN I K. H. I H. F. PERKINS. Rnd R. A. McGREERY. 1970. The char­acteristics. classification and gene­sis of some tropical spodosols. SoU Sci. Soc, Amer. Proc .• 34(5).