french grape varieties

Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “

CHAPTER 1

History of grapes

Grapes are one of the earliest cultivated fruits, and probably around the Black Sea

Region. It is estimated that grapes were cultivated in Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq)

as far back as 6,000 B.C. their cultivation spread to Phoenicia and Egypt and by 2,000

B.C .all over the Mediterranean region.

Grapes were cultivated 6,0000 years ago in Europe. there are over 60 varieties of

grapes that are cultivated for wine making and over 50 varieties are in current

production as table grapes. Over 200 years ago, Franciscan monks brought grapes to

California for the purpose of making sacramental wine. As the population grew, more

grape varieties were introduction.40 years later, the vineyard for tables grapes was

planted

The whole point of growing grapes in those early days was making wine.

the Greeks had Dionysus, who later was renamed Bacchus by the Romans, a god

dedicated full time to matters of grapes and wine.

Cultivation of the vine began several thousand years before Christ and is mentioned

many times in the Old Testament. The ancient Egyptians made wine; the early Greeks

exported it on a considerable scale.

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During the Roman Empire vine cultivation was extended to such a degree that a surplus

ensued, and in AD 92 the emperor Domitian decreed that half the vines outside Italy be

uprooted. When replanting was later permitted, vineyards extended into northern France

and Germany and even into southern England.

The middle Ages, AD c.400-1200, saw little progress in viticulture. From about 1200,

monasteries kept alive the art of wine making. Later the nobility also owned extensive

vineyards. The French Revolution and the secularization of the German vineyards by

Napoleon, however, removed many vineyards from ecclesiastical hands.

From the beginning of the 13th century, the wines of Bordeaux (an area under the

English crown from 1152 to 1435) were commonly shipped to England, the Hanseatic

ports, and the Low Countries. By the 14th century wines from Spain

and Portugal were also widely exported. Drinking habits were largely

governed by changing fashions at court, political relations with

producing countries, and changing rates of excise duty. During the 18th

century heavy duties on French wines and an English alliance with

Portugal led to a sharp rise in English consumption of Portuguese

wines.

For convenience in commerce, the Bordeaux merchants classified their finest red wines

as early as 1725, but it was not until 1855 that such a classification, based on the market

price for each wine, received official recognition. The wines of the Médoc district were

divided into five classes, or crus. The 1855 classification stands today with only one

recent significant change.

During the middle and second half of the 19th century the European vineyards suffered

from a series of disastrous diseases and pests, particularly mildew, or Oidium, and the

plant louse, Phylloxera. First discovered in 1863, Phylloxera spread across Europe,

destroying the vines by attacking their roots. Not until about 1880 was the grafting of

European vine species onto immune American rootstock accepted as the only viable

solution. Selective replanting also led to improved grapes.

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http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/Wine/DF_wines3.shtml#Classifications


Simultaneously, a movement began to ensure the authenticity of wine, culminating

(1936) in France when the appellation controlée (quality control) law, now the model for

similar legislation in other countries, came into effect. The law allows only wine made

from grapes grown in the Champagne region, for example, to be called champagne.

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CHAPTER 2

The vine

The vine belongs to the Ampelidaceae family, as does the Virginia creeper and other

climbing berry-bearing growths (but not common ivy). It is only the genus Vitis(vine)

that interests the wine-maker. There are five families of wine-producing vines: Vitis

vinifera, Vitis riparia, Vitis ruspestris, Vitis labrusca and Vitis berlandieri. Of those, Vitis

vinifera (wine-bearing vine) produces all the noble grapes associated with European

vineyards but are now used throughout the world, with just a few exceptions. These are

in the east coast of America and Canada where other species are cultivated because they

are more suited to the terrain and climatic conditions.

Composition of the vine

The vine consists of:

Roots These are for anchorage and for absorbing nutrients and moisture from the

earth. The root system is large and can reach to a depth of about 12 m (13 yds)

Leaves Chlorophyll is the green matter in the leaves and is necessary for photosynthesis.

When sunlight falls on them, carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere through

the leaves into the plant where it combines with water, absorbed through the roots, to

make sugar. The sap which is circulating in the vine takes the sugar and stores it within

the grape. Leaves also shade the grapes in very hot climate.

Flowers Vine flowers are very small, They self-pollinate from May to June in the

northern hemisphere and from November to December in the southern hemisphere.

Flowering lasts about ten days when, hopefully, the weather remains warm and dry. Frost

is the great enemy- if it arrives during the flowering, unprotected vines will not bear

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grapes. Frosts can be combated by smoke and heat devices and by spraying the vines

with water.

Grapes The grapes from after pollination. At first they are small, hard and green, but as

they ripen, they swell out and change color in August and September. They should be

fully ripe 100 days after flowering. A ton of grapes produces 675 liters (148 gallons),

equivalent to 960 bottles of wine.

Composition of the grape

Stalk When the stalk is used it imparts tannic acid to wine. It is mostly used in the

making of big, flavorsome red wine and is not used when making white and light wines.

Tannin is a necessary ingredient as it acts as a preservative and antioxidant. If over-used,

it makes the wine astringent as nasty. It is recognized on the palate by its tongue-furring

properties.

Skin The outer skin or cuticle has a whitish downy or cloudy coat known as bloom. This

waxy substance contains wild yeasts and wine yeasts, millions of minute enzymes which

contribute to the fermentation process. It also contains other micro organisms such as

bacteria, principally the acetobacter which is a potential danger to wine. If uncontrolled,

it can turn wine into vinegar. The inside of the skin imparts color which is extracted

during fermentation.

PIPS Crushed pips impart tannic acid, oils and water. If left uncrushed, they do not

contribute to vinification.

PULP The flesh of the grape provides the juice, also known as must, which is essential

for fermentation. The must contains

1. 78%-80% water;

2. 10%-25% sugar;

3. 5%-6% acids.

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As we can see, water makes up the bulk.

Sugar is formed in the grape by sunlight and is of two kinds: grape sugar(dextrose and

glucose) and fruit juice (laevulose and fructose). They are found in about equal

quantities.

Tartaric, malic, tannic and citric acids in the must help to preserve wine and to keep it

fresh, brilliant and give balance. Esters are formed when the acids come in contact with

alcohol and it is these that give wine its aroma or bouquet.

The must (unfermented grape juice) will also have trace elements of nitrogenous

compounds such as albumen, peptones, amides, ammonium salts and nitrates, as well as

potassium, phosphoric acid and calcium, all of which have influence on the eventual taste

of the wine.

Annual cycle of work in the vineyards in the northern hemisphere

January The year starts with pruning the vines and general maintenance to walls, posts

and wire used for vine training.

February Pruning, to regulate quality, continues and cuttings are taken for grafting.

Machinery is cleaned, oiled and put in good working order.

March Pruning is completed and ploughing begins to aerate the soil. This allows roots

to breathe and facilitates free drainage of water to the roots. Bench grafting takes place.

That means American root stock and Vitis vinifera scions are joined together in a nursery

rather than a vineyard.

April Ploughing is completed, weeding continues and year-old cuttings are planted out.

May Vines are treated with copper sulphate against mildew Vine suckers are removed

June The vines flower and treatment spraying continues

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July Weeding and spraying continues. Overlong green shoots are pinched back.

August weeding as before and trimming of the vines to allow maximum sunshine to the

grape bunches. Wine-making apparatus is prepared. Grapes swell and begin to change

color.

September Grapes continue to swell and color deepens. White grapes change to yellow-

green. Black grapes change from yellow-green to violet or deep purple. Sunshine is badly

needed now to finish the ripening. Refract meters are taken into the vineyards to gauge

the sugar level within the grapes. That, and the acidity level, will decide when the harvest

can begin. Traditionally the grape should be perfectly ripe and ready 100 days after

flowering. Bands of pickers will be contracted and the vintage usually starts about the

third week in September, depending on location.

October The cellar master finishes making the wine. Fermentation can take from six

days weeks depending on the style of wine. Vineyard are deep ploughed and fertilized

with chemicals to compensate for any deficiencies.

November More fertilizing. Long shoots are cut off and the base of the vines are

chilled up with soil for protection against snow and frost.

December Wine equipment is cleaned and stored away. Deep ploughing of soil

continues. Minor pruning commences and the cycles of work begin again.

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FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY

Soil

Vineyards usually thrive where other crops struggle. Poor soils rich in minerals

are best for the vine as they provide nutrients such as phosphate, iron, potassium,

magnesium and calcium all of which contribute to the final taste of the wine. Flavoured

soils are chalk, limestone, slate, sand, schist, gravel, pebbles, clay, alluvial and volcanic.

These soils have good drainage and moisture retention to keep the vine roots healthy.

Drainage is especially important, as the vine does not like having wet feet. Soil is

analyzed annually and any chemical deficiency is compensated for.

Climate

The vine needs a good balance of moisture and heat. Temperature should

average 14-160 C (57-60 0 f). The lowest annual average temperature necessary for the

vine to flourish is 10 0 C(50 0f). It is estimated that the vine needs about 68 cm (27 in) of

rain per year mainly in winter and spring and at least 1,400 hours of sunshine.

The main climatic types are as follows

Arid Desert landscape, no rain for all or most of the year. Very hot summers , mild

winters.

Semi-arid No rain for more than half the year; rivers dry in the summer. Very hot

summers, cold winters.

Continental Hot summers, cold winters , rain for more than six months of the year.

Temperate Rain all the year round, hot summers, cold winters, wet springs and

autumns.

Maritime Rain all the year round, high humidity. Cooling breezes.

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Micro-climate

A micro-climate is a particular and usually beneficial weather pattern

which prevails in a single vineyard or a group of vineyards or within a small region. It

could be to do with hills or mountains protecting the vine from heavy winds, or even a

break in the mountain range allowing the air to freshen and fan the vines in very hot

weather. Sometimes the angle of the sun especially the clear brilliant morning sun will

strike on vineyard more favorable than another. The rise and fall of the terrain will also

have an effect, as will location besides water for ground moisture and reflected heat.

These subtle differences in atmospheric conditions, allied to the quality of the soil and

the grape variety used are the reason why some vineyards have such outstanding

reputations.

Bio-climate

This is the relationship of soil and climate in a specific vineyard. Such

knowledge can be used to obtain stable yields of high quality grapes.

Aspect

Vineyards are ideally planted on south facing slopes where they point at the sun and

benefit from maximum sunshine and good drainage. Siting is of prime importance to

capture the sunlight for photosynthesis and good ripening. Some vineyard are sized up to

243m (266 yds) or more on mountainsides, while many of the great vineyards are located

in river valleys and along lakesides benefiting from humidity and reflected heat.

winter (pruning)

There are four basic choices

1.Cane pruning ( The most skilled)

2.Spur pruning ( easier and quicker )

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3.Machine pruning ( effectively spur pruning)

4.Minimal pruning ( effectively no pruning at all during winter )

Mechanical pruning is after followed by a certain amount of hand pruning or cleaning up

in all cases late pruning will delay the development of the buds and result in a more even

bed-break.

Spring (planting)

The optimum time for planting is in early spring as the ground is starting to warm up yet

still retain good moisture. If the rooting are planted too early the roots may not new

world vine are sometime kept in cool stores and planted in early summer.

Foliage sprays

The first of the lime.sulphur sprays are applied at woolly-bud stage ( as the buds swell

and soften ) to guard against fungal disease. Organic growers or those wishing to

minimize spraying will still accept the use of these sprays and Bordeauox mixture.

Working the soil

There is an increasing recognition of the choice between the traditional agricultural

practice of ploughing the soil and of leaning it untilled - relying in the latter case on the

use of herbicides to control unwanted weed or excessive grass growth.

In frost- prone areas a Billiard table smooth. Base surface between the vines allow air

circulation and hence protection a variety of plants to grow there. Thus providing a

natural food chair (protecting the grapes ) and adding nitrogen to the soil.

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Canopy trimming and training

Directing and later in the season limiting the exuberant new growth is of critical

important in establishing the balance of the vine and achieving appropriate exposure of

the grape Bunches to sunlight traditionally a skilled hand job. it can now be done by a

machines which can lift wires and shoots or weave support strings through the canopy

(3) Summer

Irrigation

This period of flowering and fruit set a critical time in which the vine needs warm calm

weather and in which the intervention of the grower is limited. Irrigation will begin at

this in dry regions in the new world

Vine maintenance

a) Foliage sprays

In cool humid regions to prevent botrytis attacking during flowering such attack destroys

the grapes before they can begin to form

The vine also need to be sprayed regularly against odium and mildews. Bordeaux

mixture ( a solution of copper sulghatelime and water) or systemic fungicides are

frequently used. These latter chemical sprays are absorbed in to the sap stream of the

plant unfortunately fungal diseases rapidly develop resistance to specific chemicals

making it necessary to vary the formula.

b) Trimming the vine

Though out the growing season the comes must be trimmed and the remaining foliage

raised and attached to the trellis wires to allow the maximum sunlight to reach the leaves

and grapes

Working the soil

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While the area under the vine will not be disturbed traditional growers still lightly plough

the soil between the rows of vine in order to prevent runoff and thus conserve moisture.

Pest control

Caterpillars, moths and towards ripening birds have to be controlled other pests to which

vine and grapes are lost include rabbits, foxes, snails.

(4) AUTUMN

Harvest

The choice ties between the speed and economy of machine harvesting ( where the

vineyard permits it ) and the gentler, slower and more controllable hand-picking.

Post-Harvesting sprays

At approximately 50% leaf fall a spray is applied to kill mildew spores which would

other wise establish themselves on the vine over winter.

Working the soil and appliations of fertilizers

Traditional growers will work manure and fertilizer in to th soil and bank the soil up

under the vine. These by also protecting them from frost. The choice lies with the type

and amount of fertilizers on steep sites to counter any run-off the soil may be brought

back up the hill side.

Vineyard maintenance

Between the end of harvest and the commencement of pruning much vineyard

maintenance is carries out pruning are removed and either burnt or chopped up and

incorporated in to the soil and trellising is checked

CHAPTER 3

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Regions in France

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Bordeaux

Bordeaux tends to be seen as a talisman of order and immutability, but analysis of

its vineyard throws awakes some surprising facts. Cabernet Sauvignon, for instance, the

vine variety regarded as Bordeaux’s greatest and much-traveled ambassador has a

relatively recent history in the Gironde. While Pinot noir was made, drunk, enjoyed and

chronicled in burgundy as early as the fourteenth century and possible long before,

Cabernet Sauvignon emerged to inject quality into the substantially white-grape vine-

century. Merlot was becoming established in st-Emilion only at about the same time, and

took several decades to cross the Gironde.

Today, planting of Cabernet Sauvignon in the Gironde départment form a much

smaller proportion of the total than most connoisseurs would imagine-les than 18percent

while Merlot covers 32percent of available vineyard land. Only in the Médoc and

southeastern half of the Entre-Deux-Mers is Cabernet Sauvignon rather than Merlot the

dominant re grape variety –just, in the Médoc the split is Cabernet Sauvignon 52percent,

Cabernet Franc 8percnt and merlot 40 percent, and in St-Emilion, Pomerol.Fronsac,

Bourg and Blaye, Merlot outweighs Cabernet Sauvignon by more than five to one.

Cabernet Franc is quantitatively important only in St-Emilion and Fronsac.

Currently, these three major planted in the Gironde, nearly 90percent of all dark

grapes planted in the Gironde,and their proportions are carefully adjusted in each district

within the départment to take account of local microclimates. There are signs of a

growing realization, however, that some of the traditional, if difficult, varieties

such as Petit Verdot and Carmenère could repay perseverance by providing

valuable “seasoning”.

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Perhaps much more interesting than the relative importance of the red varieties is

the role still played by various while varieties, some of them not very distinguished .the

last census of the Girondin vignoble showed that plantings of Trebbiano or Ugni Blanc

were as high as 6500 hectares (16,250acres), making it the second most planted white

vine variety after Sémillon,whose166000 hectares(41,500acres) put it only just behind

Cabernet Sauvignon in area covered. Nearly two-thirds of the Ugni Blanc area was in the

Hauts de Gironde (Bourg and Blaye bordering on the cognac vineyards of the Charentes,

which are also dominated by Ugni Blanc. There were a further 2,000 hectares

(5,000acres) of vineyard producing thin, tart Ugni Blanc wine in Enter-Deux-Mers.

That other alembic-directed white variety of western France,

Colombard ,occupies a total Girondin area more than half as important as that of Ugni

Blanc wine in Enter-Deux-Mers.

That other alembic-directed white variety of western France, Colombard, occupies a total

of Girondin area more than half as important as that of Ugni Blanc, while planting of

Merlot Blanc, not a variety of which the wine lover is taught much covered a good 1,700

hectares(4250acres) of Bordeaux vineyard.

In 1979,Sauvignon planting were only one-eighth those of sémillion-an

unexpected statistic in view of the number of Sauvignon-dominated white Bordeaux that

are now available.

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The Loire

Even superficially, the Loire valley presents a vary diverse pattern of cine

plantings ,from Sauvignon Blanc around the major bend in the river through Chenin

Blanc, Cabernet France and Gamay in the middle of the seaward stretch to Muscadet or

Melon de Bourgogne at the river mouth. Closer inspection reveals an even more

confused picture, with unexpected high reliance on hybrids

As recently as 1979,no fewer than 23 different vine varieties covered more than

100 hectors (250acres) of the Loire total of well over 60,000 hectares (150000 acres) of

vineyards .Variety such as Grolleau, Arbois Pineau d’Aunis and Folle Blanche, none of

them exactly of great fame, are among the Loire’s most popular And, just to add further

diversity, all sorts of Loire satellite regions ,Haut-Poitou or St-pourςain-sur-Sioule, for

example , are now emerging as viticultural entities –usually with their very own variety

profile.

In 1979 the hybrids plantet, Chambourcin, Villard Noir and Bacos Noir and Blanc

accounted for 6,000 hectares (15,000acres), or 10 percent of all Loire vines.

Many of these have doubtless have doubtless been grubbed up in the late few

years, but their continued importance illustrates well just how much very ordinary wine

is made in the Loire. In vignerons nor for their resistance to winter cold ,but for their

resistance to or recovery from spring frost.The change in the balance of grapes varieties

has provided the real drama in the

Loire in the last decade or so. Although the total vignoble of the Loire-et-Cher

département at the easternmost tip of the main Loire wine region has shrunk,Gamay and

Sauvignon doubled their area in the seventies at the expense of Arbois, Pineau d’Aunis

Chenin and Plantet These planting have firmly established the two varietals from what

might be called Greater Touraine.Meanwhile plantings of Gamay in Indre-et-Loire

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around the town of Tours itself have actually declined; and the département has become

yet more polarizes as a producer of

Chenin/Bourgueil district .Grolleau is in decline here

In Anjou country, Grolleau, mainstay of France’s most exported rosé, has been

holding its own, while Cabernet Franc has been catching up on Chenin.Chenin Blanc

remains the great mystery of the Loire valley. Delicious as the best of its an

inconveniently early budding and late-ripening variety for a wine region so far from the

equator. Some Chardonnay has been creeping in to Anjou Blanc, to figure in official

statistics.

An increase in plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon was already noticeable by 1979

when there were more than 1,300 hectares (3,250acres) in the middle of the Loire

vignoble compared with only 400(1,000 acres) in the reds of both Anjou and

Saumur, and its success adds weight to the view that Cabernet Sauvignon could

thrive much better in St-Emilion and Pomerol than most growers believe.

Around the month of the Loire, the Muscadet grape Melon represents one vine in

every two and has been gradually increasing its importance to the detriment of the Folle

lanche or Gros Plant Nantais .All sorts of other varieties are grown on the fringes of the

main Muscadet vineyard, however, including some Gamay and Cabernet Franc as well as

an array of hybrid.

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Alsace

Alsace must occupy a vary special place in a work of this sort .Not only do its

winemakers show more concern to get pure grape flavour into the bottle than any of their

counterparts else where, they have also worshipped vine varietal labeling.

Every act in a quality-conscious Alsace wine cellar is designed to reserve natural

varietal aroma; no nuance is masked by the deliberate maintenance of residual sugar.

And a good bottle of wine from Alsace (good, happily, being typical) sings out its grape

of inspiration on the label as well as in the glass. Alsace was the last major French wine

region to join the Appellation Contrôléé party and did so with just one basic appellation

to be predicated only by grape variety.

Today the region’s vines are a happy combination of French and German

influence but it is worth considering that if it were still German, as it was at the turn of

the century, then Muller-Thurgau (of which there is not a single vine today) would

presumably reign supreme.

Although the world’s connoisseurs tend to think of Alsace as a homogeneous

wine region there is a sharp viticultural distinction between the Haut-Rhin and Bas-Rhin

départements ,or between those vineyards on the flatter land north of Sélestat and the

more obviously Vosgienne wineland to the south.

In the coarser soils of the vineyards of the Plaine d’ Alsace in Bas-Rhin Silvaner

(sylvaner) has been the most popular variety, but Riesling and now Pinot

Blanc are fast catching up as wine consumers become disaffected with the

some hat austere character of Silvaner (though give it an aroma and you almost

have Sauvignon Blanc).Up and well into the lee of the Vosges,Gewűrztraminer is

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quantitatively the most important vine, grown to produce sufficient of Alsace’s

most distinctive wine to meet the demands of visitors from across the Rhine. It is

here, in the concentration of the finest ,steepest sites that by far the highest

proportion of each of the region’s cépages nobles is grown

Although the range of varieties allowed in this relatively small wine region is

wide for northern France, Alsace vine growers are backed by sufficient history so that

they can match variety to site with a precision that would be the envy of many in the

world’s newer wine regions. Even in an area as tiny as the commune of Riquewihr

(population 2,000),for instance it is well-known that steep, chalky Schoenenbourg

vineyard is for Riesling, the heavier soils and gentler elevation of sporen for

Gewűrztraminer.

Although Pinots Gris and Noir fascinate Alsace enthusiasts, and constitute major

items on the wine lists of the regions excellent restaurants these varieties are planted in

only very limited quantity –through Pinot Noir plantings have been increasing over the

last few years, just as they have further along the frontier of red wine possibility in

Germany.

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Even in 1982 Pinot Noir plantings covered less than a third of the total area

planted with Alsace’s most important varieties – Gewűrztraminer, Riesling, Silvaner and

what is usually called Pinot Blanc.

For some reason, Alsace chooses to hide the identity of one of its most planted

grapes varieties. Auxerrois is rarely seen on a label, yet it constitutes nearly half the

blend of many a wine sold as Pinot Blanc Auxerrios covers for Pinot Blanc’s meanness

in poor years, but gets little public recognition for it, even though plantings of both

Auxerrois and true Pinot Blanc have been increasing at the expenses of Silvaner since

1979.

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Champagne

Perhaps the most surprising fact to emerge from viticultural analysis of the

Champagne regions the supremacy of Meunier, in quantitative terms at least. About 50

percent of all Champagne vineyards in the major Marne heartland shown here were

planted with Meunier in1979, while the much nobler Pinot Noir accounted for only 24

percent and Chardonnay 26 percent.

The area of marne vineyard increased enormously in the seventies, by about a

tideland this expansion has increased apace in the eighties, too Plantings of Chardonnay

increased significantly more than those of the dark grapes, as one would expect at a time

when the (surely tautological?) Blanc de Blanc style came into its own, not only for

champagne but also for still wine of all kinds.

The general principle on which varieties have been chosen by the vignerons

of champagne, however, is that the most capricious vine of the there .Pinot Noir, is

planted wherever there is more than half a chance of its ripening properly. the

Meunier is planted wherever the lane is so vulnerable to spring frosts that

Chardonnay would be at risk and Pinot Noir impossible .It is the only variety for

the low-lying vineyards of the vallée de la Marne and those in the Aisne

département

The vineyards of the Aube to the south on the other hand are considerably

warmer than the Marne average and 2,700 of the 3,400 hectares(6,750 of the

8,500acres) are planted with Pinot Noir this means that once the encépagement of

the Aube and Aisne is included in the overall cuvée ,the Pinot Noir’s contribution

increases to 30 percent Meunier’s decreases to44 percent and Chardonnay’s

remains at 26 percent .other varieties such as Petit Meslier and Arbane are there

as mere smatterings.

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There are subtle variations on the general principle outlined above, however.

Wherever the chalk underlay of the countryside is at its most exposed, Chardonnay is the

natural choice. Thus, the Côte des Blancs to the south of Epernay, the very similar Côte

de Sézanne to the southwest and the Chardonnay planting around the northern

escarpment of the Montagne de Reims are where Champagne’s best white grapes are to

be found

Pinot Noir is at its greatest concentration on the southern slopes of the

Montahene de Reims because that is where the vineyards enjoy maximum

exposure to the sunshine and warmth. The stricture that Meunier is not allowed in

the most august sites in the top crus is hardly needed since there is every economic

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incentive for growers to plant the two cépages nobles for which an extra

franc a kilo is automatically paid.

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The philosophically minded will wonder why it is these three grapes, which have

been chosen as ingredients for the world’s most famous fizz. As has been outlined above,

Pinot Noir at least is far from ideal for this climate, and Meunier has its detractors even

in the region itself. Put those facts together with the difficultly of producing white wine

from black grapes , and the difficulty some tasters have in distinguishing Blanc de Blancs

champagnes from the more usual Blanc de Blanc champagne from the more usual Blanc

de Noire et Blanc, and one sometimes wonders why Chardonnay is not more widespread

in the region

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Burgundy

The Burgundian is the original proponent of varietals wines , although if you said

that to him he would have not a clue what you were talking about. For centuries –longer

than in any other tine wine region made them, with only a few temporary hiccups, from

one grape variety alone.

In Burgundy, red means Pinot Noir and white means Chardonnay. Chablis to the

north is faithful to Chardonnay but on the Côte d’Or, France’s most concentrated stretch

of top-quality vineyard, more than seven in every to vines is Pinot Noir. This may

surprise those makers and drinkers of wine in the newer wine regions who are so

besotted with Chardonnay. It certainly helps to explain the astronomical prices of fine

white burgundy.

Who can blame the Burundians for their tenacity with Pinot Noir when they

appear to have almost executive rights to its successful cultivation? While Chardonnay

has shown itself an enthusiastic traveler and adapted well in almost every country which

claims to be a wine producer. Only a handful of non-Burgundy Pinot Noirs have so far

shown anything like the quality deemed normal in the thin strip of vineyards from Dijon

to Chagny. Devotion to Pinot Noir seems only sensible.

Some pinot Noir plant material has been of very disappointing quality , however,

with predictable results in the bottle. It took the seventies’ experience of the world’s

connoisseurs, and Burgundy’s vignerons, the importance of clonal selection.

There had been hints that quality was not uppermost in every vine grower’s

heart ever since the vignoble had been so intricately parcellated after the

Revolution. In the first half of this century even those working the precious Côte

d’Or Vineyards were tempted by the disease resistance and high sugar levels

offered by the likes of Oberlin, Plantet and Baco Noir. In 1968 these three

varieties still occupied 10 percent of available Côte d’Or vineyard land, although

they have been substantially grubbed up by now. Even Gamay and Aligoté have

28


been declining in the Côte d’Or and now represent only about 10 percent of total

vines.

Aligoté, Burgundy’s definitely second white-vine variety, seems to be on the way

out. It is being replaced by the more lucrative Chardonnay throughout Burgundy. This

has been particularly. This has been particularly obvious in the Côte Chalonnaise and the

Mâconnais where Chardonnay has almost overtaken

Gamay to become the most planted variety. Point Noir accounts for about a

quarter of total vineyard land in the area between the Côte d’Or and Beaujolais proper. In

the seventies much of the 1,000-odd hectares Gamays Teinturiers was replanted with

Pinot Noir.

Gamay Teinturiers were never a specialty of the heartland of the Beaujolais

region, which is doggedly Gamay county and presents the wine lover with as successful

an illustration of matching variety to region a he will ever encounter. Is

29


30


31


it significant that true Gamay has traveled so little and so unhappily from

its base in the Beaujolais hills?

Burgundy is distinguished, if that is the right word , by its exceptionally high cine

density: up to 13,0000 plants per hectare now , and at one time even more

32


CHAPTER4

French red grape varieties

Cabernet Franc

Recent studies in ampelography, using the

relatively new application of DNA fingerprinting,

have determined that cabernet franc is one of the

genetic parents of cabernet sauvignon (the other is

sauvignon blanc). Both cabernet varieties are

among the five major grapes of Bordeaux. The

differences between franc and sauvignon become

apparent when grown and fermented in close

proximity.

Cabernet franc vines bear thinner-skinned, earlier-ripening grapes with

lower overall acidity, when compared to cabernet sauvignon. Yields are similar,

although cabernet franc normally buds and ripens somewhat earlier. Consequently

vineyards in climates where rain is a harvest-time threat often plant this grape, in

place of or in addition to cabernet sauvignon. Cabernet franc vines survive cold

winters better than cabernet sauvignon, but are more susceptible to being

damaged by Spring frosts.

France has by far the most cabernet franc plantings of any wine producing

nation with over 35,000 acres. There are significant plantings of cabernet franc in

St. Emilion, the Loire Valley (where it is known as Breton), and south west

France (aka Bouchy). There are cabernet franc vineyards in Romania, Hungary,

the Balkans, and the Friuli region of north eastern Italy (aka cabernet frank). New

plantings in the 1990s in Australia, New Zealand, and Argentina show promise.

In the United States, cabernet franc is planted in Long Island, New York, and in

33

http://www.biology.uch.gr/gvd


Washington state. California has about 2,000 acres, mostly planted since 1980,

over half in Napa and Sonoma.

Depending a great deal on vineyard practices, the flavor profile of

Cabernet Franc may be both fruitier and sometimes more herbal or

vegetative than Cabernet Sauvignon, although lighter in both color and

tannins. Over-cropping and underexposure each tend to accentuate the

vegetative flavor elements. Typically somewhat spicy in aroma and often

reminiscent of plums and especially violets, Cabernet Franc is more often

used as a secondary or tertiary element in varietally-blended red wines, such

as Bordeaux or Meritage, instead of as a stand-alone varietal bottling.

Cabernet Franc Smell and Flavor Descriptors

Varietal

Aromas/Flavors:

Processing

Bouquets/Flavors:

Fruit: raspberry,

cherry, plum, strawberry

Oak (light): vanilla,

coconut, sweet wood

Floral: violet Oak (heavy): oak, smoke,

toast, tar

Herbal: bell pepper,

stems

Bottle Age: musk,

mushroom, earth, cedar, cigar box

34


Cabernet Sauvignon

Cabernet Sauvignon makes the most dependable

candidate for aging, more often improving into a truly

great wine than any other single varietal. With age, its

distinctive black currant aroma can develop bouquet

nuances of cedar, violets, leather, or cigar box and its

typically tannic edge may soften and smooth

considerably.

It is the most widely planted and significant

among the five dominant varieties in the Medoc district of France's Bordeaux

region, as well as the most successful red wine produced in California.

Long thought to be an ancient variety, recent genetic studies at U.C. Davis

have determined that Cabernet Sauvignon is actually the hybrid offspring of

Sauvignon Blanc and Cabernet Franc.

Cabernet sauvignon berries are small, spherical with black, thick and very

tough skin. This toughness makes the grapes fairly resistant to disease and

spoilage and able to withstand some autumn rains with little damage. It is a mid

to late season ripener. These growth characteristics, along with its flavor appeal

have made Cabernet Sauvignon one of the most popular red wine varieties

worldwide.

The best growing sites for producing quality wines from Cabernet

Sauvignon are in moderately warm, semi-arid regions providing a long growing

season, on well-drained, not-too-fertile soils. Vineyards in Sonoma County's

Alexander Valley, much of the Napa Valley, and around the Paso Robles area of

the Central Coast have consistently produced the highest-rated California

examples.

Typically, Cabernet Sauvignon wines smell like black currants with a

degree of bell pepper or weediness, varying in intensity with climatic conditions,

35


viticulture practices, and vinification techniques. Climates and vintages that are

either too cool or too warm, rich soils, too little sun exposure, premature

harvesting, and extended maceration are factors that may lead to more vegetative,

less fruity character in the resulting wine.

In the mouth, Cabernet can have liveliness and even a degree of richness,

yet usually finishes with firm astringency. Some of the aroma and flavor

descriptors most typically found in Cabernet Sauvignon are:

Cabernet Sauvignon Smell and Flavor Descriptors

Varietal

Aromas/Flavors:

Processing Bouquets/Flavors:

Fruit: black currant,

blackberry, black cherry

Oak (light): vanilla, coconut,

sweet wood


asparagus (methoxy-

pyrazine), green olive

Oak (heavy): oak, smoke, toast,

tar

Spice: ginger, green

peppercorn, pimento

Bottle Age: cedar, cigar box,

musk, mushroom, earth, leather

Cabernet Sauvignon began to emerge as America's most popular varietal

red wine in the mid-60s. By the late 1980s, it had replaced "burgundy" as a

consumer's generic term for red wine (as had Chardonnay, replacing "chablis" as

the equivalent for generic white wine). This popularity was based partly on the

flavor appeal of the grape and partly on its status or snob-appeal as a "collector's"

wine. Indeed Cabernet Sauvignon is the wine most subject to inflationary climb,

as fans, collectors, and the Nouveau Riche bid the supply ever upward.

36


Carignan

The most widely-planted red wine grape in

France is Carignan (sometimes spelled Carignane in

the US, a.k.a. Carginano in Italy and Cariñena or

Mazeulo in Spain). Planting became widespread in

France during the 1960s, when Algeria gained its

independence and was no longer an inexpensive

source of ripe grapes. Most Carignan is confined to

the Languedoc and southeastern France and is

gradually being replaced with more distinctive and

aromatic varieties.

Carignan buds and ripens quite late, so is not

prone to spring frosts, but requires a long season. A vigorous, though not really

hardy vine, it is very sensitive to downy mildew and powdery mildew (a.k.a.

oidium). Carignan has but a single characteristic to recommend it for planting:

high yields. An acre of Carignan may easily produce 10 to 12 tons of grapes.

The berries are bluish-black, round and fairly large, with fairly thick,

astringent skins. They hang in large, rather compact clusters that are short-

stemmed, difficult to harvest, and susceptible to grape worms. They also rot

easily.

Like Pinot Noir, Sangiovese, and Grenache, Carignan is a somewhat

unstable species, with the tendency to mutate. The French recognize and approve

over 25 separate clones.

Carignan mostly produces wines that have high color, acidity, and tannin,

without displaying much distinct flavor or personality and with very little appeal.

Only a few growers carefully manage vine vigor and limit crop size to produce

interesting, distinctive wines from this grape. As with many other varietals, older

37


carignan vines seem to produce wines with generally more character and less

brutality.

Thus, Carignan frequently becomes a wine for blending or, on its own, for

inexpensive everyday consumption. The whole cluster fermentation technique of

carbonic maceration can somewhat improve its tendency toward harshness. Oak

treatments, on the other hand, seem merely to exacerbate the variety's underlying

toughness, while adding little to either its complexity or interest.

l Carignan Smell and Flavor Descriptors

Varietal

Aromas/Flavors:


Fruit: cherry,

strawberry, raspberry

Carbonic Maceration: banana,

bubblegum, cotton candy (spun sugar)

Floral: violet,

rose petal

Oak (light): vanilla, coconut,

sweet wood; (heavy) oak, smoke,

toast, tar, anise, licorice

Cinsaut

38


Cinsaut (or Cinsault) is most often used as a blending grape with other types.

France has more Cinsaut planted (50,000 hectares) than Cabernet Sauvignon and

there is as much Cinsaut acreage planted in its former backdoor wine colony of

Algeria.

Cinsaut is one of those "grower" varieties that easily produces a very large crop of

6 to 10 tons per acre. At this crop level, it shows little flavor distinction. When

properly managed to crop from just 2 to 4 tons per acre, it can produce quite

flavorful wines of strong aroma and easy quaffability.

The tight bunches rot easily, so it does best in drier climes. The Cinsaut vine is

fairly drought tolerant and has a fairly short growing season. With cluster stems

that easily detatch from the vine, Cinsaut adapts well to machine harvesting.

It is one of the most often planted varieties in Southern France, Algeria and

Morocco, and is a major red variety in South Africa, Corsica, and Lebanon. The

North African plantings were particularly important when, as colonies of France,

their wine was shipped across the Mediterranean for blending. The grape was

originally known as "Hermitage" in South Africa (although French Hermitage has

none in its blend). When a South African professor crossed the grape with Pinot

Noir, he therefore named it Pinotage (now the Top Red there). There are also

Cinsaut plantings in Australia, although it has yet to achieve popularity there.

Wine made from cinsaut grapes can have great perfume and supple texture. Fairly

low in tannin, it is often made into rosé by itself or blended, to brighten the fruit

and tone down the harsher edges of carignan, in particular. Although officially

sanctioned in Châteauneuf du Pape, it is used by only a few producers in their

blends.

Cinsault Smell and Flavor Descriptors

Varietal

Aromas/Flavors:

Processing

Bouquets/Flavors:

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http://www.winepros.org/wine101/grape_profiles/pinotage.htm


Fruit: strawberry Terroir: musk, meat

Floral: Oak (light): sweet wood,

vanilla

Spice: Oak (heavy): oak, smoke,

toast, tar

Herbal: Bottle Age:

Gamay Noir

Gamay noir is the primary black grape of France's

Beaujolais region, where the wines are typically

fermented, spared from aging, and consumed young

to appreciate their fresh, fruity qualities, with more

tang than tannin.

40


In 1395, the Duke of Burgundy, Phillip the Bold, ordered Gamay vineyards to be

torn out and banned the variety evermore from being planted in the vineyards of

Burgundy, so that it would not compete with Pinot Noir. Although this decree

nearly erradicated Gamay altogether, it found a new home to the south in

Beaujolais.

The name is so closely associated with Beaujolais, that many vineyard plantings

and wines, in California especially, were incorrectly identified as the variety

"Gamay Beaujolais" for many years (an illegal practice after 2007). Gamay is

also planted, but is less significant, in the Loire, Rhône, Jura and Savoie

appellations of France.

Although gamay noir vines grow with moderate vigor in many soil types, it seems

partial to granite and limestone soils. Gamay can be quite productive, averaging

five to seven tons per acre. Heavy crop loads may slow growth to below average,

as well as reduce fruit quality, so crop thinning is often used to control this

tendency.

Gamay begins its annual cycle early as grapes go, budding and flowering early

and may therefore become victim to early Spring frosts. Ripening is usually early

to mid-season. Both the clusters and juicy berries of gamay noir are large and it is

a relatively easy variety to pick, with relatively thin but tough skins. The true full

name of this grape is Gamay Noir à Jus Blanc; there are, however, some clones

of teinturier gamays, with colored rather than clear juice.

Generally light in color with hue that usually is more blue-purple than red, wines

made from gamay noir can be very fragrant, full of fruit and fresh, floral esters.

Frequently tart in their youth, wines made from gamay noir tend nonetheless to

be short lived. Like its distant cousins, Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, Gamay tends

to easily lose its varietal aroma and flavor identity when blended with another

grape variety. Both red wines and rosés are typically produced from unblended

gamay noir.

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http://www.winepros.org/consumerism/varietal.htm#geebee


The technique of carbonic maceration is quite often used to enhance the fruitiness

of this grape. The fruit is placed whole, uncrushed, in the fermenting vessel and

the fermentation begins within the individual berries, trapping the forming

bubbles of carbon dioxide until the grape bursts. The resulting wine has a lighter,

yet brighter color, a "banana", "candy" or "bubblegum" quality in the fruity

aroma, often accompanied by a slight petillance or "tickle" to the texture.

l Gamay Noir Smell and Flavor Descriptors

Varietal

Aromas/Flavors:


Fruit: cherry,

strawberry, raspberry

Carbonic Maceration: banana,

bubblegum, cotton candy (spun

sugar)

Floral: violet,

rose petal

Oak (rarely): vanilla, coconut,

sweet wood, oak, smoke, toast, tar

Gewürztraminer

Gewürztraminer is one of the most pungent

wine varietals, easy for even the beginning

taster to recognize by its heady, aromatic scent.

While the French have achieved the greatest

success with this grape and its name may be

German, the history of Gewürztraminer began

in Italy's Tyrollean Alps, near the village of

Termeno (Tramin) in Alto Adige.

42


Since the Middle Ages, the parent variety traminer has grown there. Traminer

also is grown widely throughout Eastern Europe, but neither abundantly nor very

successfully. With hardly any of the characteristic of its spicy offspring, traminer

berries are pale green and make much less interesting or appealing wine, hardly

scented at all.

Like pinot noir, however, traminer vines do have a propensity to mutate.

One of these mutations, a few centuries ago, resulted in a vine that produces dark

pinkish-brown, spotted berries and makes very distinctive and heady wine.

The French began calling this prized clone traminer musqué, traminer parfumé,

or traminer aromatique; the Germans roter traminer; and the Italians traminer

rosé, traminer rosso, or termener aromatico. In the late 19th century, the

Alsatians began calling this vine gewürztraminer, although it wasn't until 1973

that this name was officially sanctioned. Wine texts often report that "gewürz"

translates from German as "spicy", but considering the list of various synonyms,

the more likely contextual meaning is "perfumed".Alsace has achieved the most

success with Gewürztraminer. Even here some producers give it less priority than

other varietals and make accordingly dull wines. Those houses that pay specific

attention to and take particular pride in their Gewürztraminer include Léon Beyer,

Schlumberger, and Zind-Humbrecht.

While the gewürztraminer vine is prized for its wine, it can be despised for its

viticultural difficulty. It buds early in the Spring, so it is particularly susceptible

to damage from frost. Gewürztraminer also has weak defenses against viral vine

infections. Even healthy vines are not very productive, with small clusters, so

there is a great temptation for growers to over-crop, which results in dilute,

lightweight wine.

The berries, with their thick and tough skins, can attain high sugar levels of

amazing concentration. Alcohol levels, therefore, can get quite high in dry

versions. Conversely, low acidity and high pH in Gewürztraminer are

problematic. Close monitoring and precise harvest timing are critical. Early

43


picking retains acid, but without long "hang time" distinctive varietal character

fails to develop. Pleasant results are nearly impossible in warm climates.

At the Colmar viticultural station in Alsace and at Geisenheim in Germany work

is underway developing clones that bud and ripen later, produce larger fruit

clusters, with more consistent and greater production levels and that are virus-

free. The challenge is to gain these improvements in economy while retaining

gewürztraminer's unique character and intensity.

The dark pink color of gewürztraminer grapes results in wines colored from light

to dark golden yellow with a copper tone, depending upon the fruit ripeness.

Gewürztraminer is quite full-bodied, more so than most any other white wine

type. In fact, the combination of its strong, heady, perfumey scent, exotic lychee-

nut flavor and heavy-oily texture can be overwhelming and tiring to many

palates. There is a slight tendency to bitterness that seems exacerbated by

ripeness, so a light touch is needed at the wine press. Many makers finish their

Gewürztraminer with a mask of residual sugar. Gewürztraminer can be made into

an excellent dessert wine, in fact.

The most frequently encountered (but not exclusive) smell and/or flavor

elements found in Gewürztraminer-based wines include:

Gewürztraminer Smell and/or Flavor Elements

Varietal

Aromas/Flavors:

Processing

Bouquets/Flavors:

Floral: rose petal, gardenia,

honeysuckle

Petroleum: terpene, diesel

Fruity: lychee, linalool,

peach, mango

Wood: oak (not usually)

Aggressive: spice, perfume Late Harvest: Botrytis, honey,

sweet cabbage

44


Gewürztraminer wines are an excellent match for fresh fruit and cheeses and a

good complement to many simple fish and chicken dishes, especially recipes that

include capsaicin (hot pepper) spices, oriental five spice, or even curry.

Due to limited popularity and viticultural and production difficulties,

gewürztraminer acreage has remained relatively static in most world appellations

for several years. Encouraging signs of new success come from fairly recent

plantings in New Zealand 1(apparently since 1990, NZ Gewürztraminer acreage

has see-sawed from a low of 210 to as much as 540 acres) and the Pacific

Northwest (Oregon total 182 acres; Washington, 330 ac).

The nominees for Best Supporting Appellation in California Gewürztraminer

(1,670 acres total) are: Mendocino County (298 ac), Monterey County (716 ac),

Russian River Valley, and Sonoma County (175 ac). California wineries that have

consistently produced outstanding results are so few that they bear mentioning:

Navarro grows Gewürztraminer in Mendocino and makes stellar and award-

winning wines in both dry and dessert styles. Thomas Fogarty makes an excellent

dry style from Monterey County grapes. Fetzer makes a lightly-sweet version that

is always serviceable and reasonably-priced and, occasionally, an excellent

example.

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http://www.fetzer.com/

http://www.fogartywinery.com/

http://www.navarrowine.com/

http://www.winepros.org/wine101/grape_profiles/gewurz.htm#acres


Grenache

Grenache noir is the world's most widely

planted grape used to make red wine,

sometimes made into a stand-alone varietal,

frequently as a rosé, but most often as a

backbone of red blends.

Used as a component in some Northern

Rhône reds, nearly exclusively for Rhône

rosés and as the primary component in

nearly all Southern Rhône red blends, Grenache is probably most notable as the

base varietal for Chateauneuf du Pape, Cotes du Rhône and Gigondas. In spite of

its fame coming from French wines, Spain is most likely this grape's origin1.

Grenache is known by local names (alicante, carignane rousse) in the

Mediterranean regions of France. Particularly important in the areas of the

Languedoc and Rousillon, there are also variants with different colored berries:

white grenache blanc, and pink grenache rose or grenache gris. Nearly three

times as much grenache is planted in Spain as in France. The spanish know this

grape and wine as garnacha or garnacha tinta and it is the dominant red wine

variety in the Rioja and Catalonia. The grape is known in Italy as cannonau.

In the New World, Australia has extensive plantings of Grenache and has been

very successful making full-bodied Grenache-dominated red blends. Until

surpassed by plantings of merlot in the past decade, Grenache was the third most

planted red variety in California after Zinfandel and Cabernet Sauvignon. Most of

this acreage is in the Central Valley and used to produce bulk rather than

premium wine.

An abundant producer of fruit, grenache habitually will "alternate" a crop of 8 to

10 tons per acre one year and 14 to 16 tons the next. The vine is very sturdy and

woody, lends itself well to head or spur pruning, and survives arid and drought

46

http://www.winepros.org/wine101/grape_profiles/grenache.htm#note


conditions better than less vigorous vines. Cool and damp conditions can cause

"deadarm" disease in grenache, however, and its compact and well-filled clusters

are quite prone to rot. Grenache is also susceptible to shatter or coulure.

The grenache grape is relatively low in both pigment and malic acid, and oxidizes

readily. Although some 100% varietal wines are produced from grenache,

particularly in Spain's Rioja and from some "old vines" plantings in California, it

is mostly used to "fill out" red blends and soften harsher partners, such as syrah

and carignan.

On its own, grenache makes fleshy, heady, very fruity wines in their youth. They

tend to age rapidly, showing tawny colors and prone to oxidation or maderization

after only a relatively short time in bottle. The general character and mouthfeel of

Grenache wines are more distinctive and identifyable than any particular aromas

or flavors.

Grenache Smell and Flavor Descriptors

Varietal

Aromas/Flavors:

Processing

Bouquets/Flavors:

Character: rustic,

fleshy, sweet, dusty

Oak (light): vanilla, sweet

wood


blackberry

Oak (heavy): oak, smoke,

toast, tar

Bottle Age: tobacco,

dried apricot, cigar box

Partly due to its commonplace abundance and partly due to its hardiness in

warmer climates

47


Merlot

Merlot is to the American wine consumer in the 1990s as "burgundy" was

in the 70s: the new generic red. A "boom" in wine consumption, combined with

the consumer trend to move away from generic wine blends and into varietals,

stimulated plantings of "new," as well as "proven" wine grapes in California

during the '70s. Merlot did not appear as a California varietal label until the end

of the decade and was not a big seller until the end of the '80s. Less than 2,000

acres existed in California in 1985; there are over 50,000 acres in 2003.

Merlot is by far the most widely planted grape of the entire Bordeaux

region and third, behind carignan and grenache as the most planted black variety

in France. However, it has a starring role in only one region, historically, north of

Bordeaux's Gironde River, where it is the basis of the wines of St. Emilion and

Pomerol. Château Petrus, which has risen in consumer stature in the past three

decades, is over 90% Merlot. South of the Gironde, however, merlot usually

plays a supporting role in typical Medoc blends with cabernet sauvignon and

cabernet franc. Château Palmer in the medoc is about 60% Merlot.

Because merlot ripens at least a week earlier than either cabernet variety,

it is "vineyard insurance" where rains are a factor at harvest. The best quality

merlot grows in rocky, arid ground, but is fairly adaptable and grows better than

the cabernets in clay-based soils, even in damp, cool climates. Since merlot both

buds and flowers early, growers' main worry is susceptibility to shatter or

coulure, brought about by frost, rain, or early heatwaves in the Spring. The berry

of merlot is relatively thin-skinned and somewhat prone to rot.

Merlot is moderately vigorous in vine growth, but must sometimes be

reined in from setting too large of a crop by judicious pruning, often followed

weeks later by cluster thinning. Merlot on fertile soil may produce eight tons per

acre, but best fruit quality is gained if the crop is kept at six tons per acre or less.

Merlot's tendencies towards both shatter and over-cropping are paradoxical.

48


Careful selection of both clone and site can avoid this problem, as shatter is more

serious in colder climates.

While its flavor profile is similar to Cabernet Sauvignon1, Merlot tends to

be less distinctive and slightly more herbaceous overall in both aroma and taste.

Ripeness seems critical; both under ripe and overripe grapes lean away from fruit

and towards herbaceousness. Merlot has slightly lower natural acidity than

Cabernet and generally less astringency, therefore usually a more lush mouth-

feel.

The most frequent, but not exclusive, aromas and flavors typically found

in Merlot include:

Merlot Smell and Flavor Descriptors

Varietal

Aromas/Flavors:

Processing

Bouquets/Flavors:

Fruit: currant, black

cherry, plum


coconut, sweet wood

Floral: violet, rose Oak (heavy): oak, smoke,

toast, tar

Spice: caramel,

clove, bay leaf, green

peppercorn

Bottle Age: truffle,

mushroom, earth, coffee,leather,

cedar, cigar box


green olive

.

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http://www.winepros.org/wine101/grape_profiles/merlot.htm#notes


Earlier than Cabernet Sauvignon to mature in bottle, Merlot is held in

higher esteem by wine drinkers than by wine collectors.Syrah is richer and

darker, Pinot Noir lighter and more velvety, but Merlot has become the darling

red wine. Is it because the consumer finds Merlot easy-to-drink or is it perhaps,

because Merlot is easy-to-say? I'll have a glass of Merlot, please, while I think

about it.

50


Mourvèdre

Mourvèdre originated in Spain, where it is called monastrell or bobal, and, with

over 250,000 acres planted there, only grenache outnumbers its total vineyard

acreage. It is the principal black grape of the five appellations that cluster on

Spain's Southeastern Mediterranean Coast, Almansa, Valencia, Alicante, Jumilla,

and Yecla. Prior to the late Nineteenth Century phyloxera devastation, mourvédre

was also widely planted in Southern France.

There are contradictions and anomolies in the growth characteristics and

properties of mourvédre vines. Mourvédre is a very late variety in both bud break

and ripening season. It can recover quite well from Spring frosts, but sometimes

fail to survive cold Winter temperatures. It craves heat, but is drought-sensitive.

Phylloxera nearly drove mourvèdre to extinction, because the vines took so

poorly to grafting that most vineyardists deemed the results not worth the effort.

Replanting did not begin seriously until following World War II, 60 years after

the devastation, when sufficient vinestock was developed that had both adapted to

grafting and had consistent production history.

Until the late 1960s, however, the main French plantings of mourvédre were in

Provence, where it is the dominant grape in Bandol. Total mourvédre vineyards

in France increased from 2,200 acres in 1968 to nearly 14,000 by 1988.

Mourvèdre is a slow-ripening variety that develops tight bunches of grapes that

need good ventilation to avoid rot. It seems to do best in windy climates like

Southern France, and in parts of Spain and Algeria.

On their own, Mourvèdre wines tend to be deep-colored, quite tannic, somewhat

alcoholic, and have generally "spicy" aromas and, sometimes, "gamey" flavors in

their youth.

51


Typical Mourvèdre Smell and/or Flavor Descriptors

Varietal

Aromas/Flavors:

Processing

Bouquets/Flavors:

Spice: thyme, clove,

cinnamon, black pepper

Oak (heavy): oak,

smoke, toast, tar, sweet wood

Faunal: gamey .

Floral: violet .

Fruit: blackberry .

52


Pinot Noir

Pinot Noir is one of the oldest grape

varieties to be cultivated for the purpose of

making wine. Ancient Romans knew this grape

as Helvenacia Minor and vinified it as early as

the first century AD. Recognized worldwide as

a great wine grape, pinot noir has many alias

and is grown in Algeria, Argentina, Australia,

Austria (called Blauburgunder or

Spätburgunder), Brazil, Canada,

Czechoslovakia, England, France, Germany

(Spätburgunder), Greece, Hungary, Italy (Pinot Nero), Mexico, New Zealand,

Switzerland (Clevner, labeled "Dole" when blended with Gamay Noir), the

United States, and Yugoslavia (Burgundac).

The reputation that gets pinot noir so much attention, however, is owed to

the wines of Burgundy (Bourgogne), France. For most of wine history, this two-

mile-wide, thirty-mile-long stretch of hills, called the Côte d'Or ("Slope of

Gold"), is the only region to achieve consistent success from the pinot noir vine.

The quality of Bourgogne is due to a number of factors. Its vineyards

slope gently down toward the East, providing the vines with long sun exposure

yet avoiding afternoon heat. The soil there is very calcareous (chalky; containing

calcium carbonate), offering good drainage. Well-drained soils have a higher

average temperature, which assists ripening. Pinot noir seems to reflect more

pronounced Gout de Terroir, or flavor of the soil, than other black grape types,

making vineyard site selection a critical factor.

Difficulties plague pinot noir at every step, from propagation to even its

bottle-aging characteristics. Genetically unstable, the parent vine may produce

offspring that bear fruit that is nothing like the parent's in the size and shape of

the berry or cluster and will frequently even have different aromas, flavors, and

53


levels of productivity. There are 46 recognized clones (genetic variants) of Pinot

Noir in Dijon, France. Ampelographers estimate there are as many as 200 to

possibly 11,000 clones of pinot noir worldwide. By comparison, cabernet

sauvignon has only twelve identifiable clones.

Nearly every affliction known to affect vines is common among pinot noir

vineyards. Although quite tolerant of cold climates, it is particularly susceptible

to Spring frosts, because it is one of the earliest-leafing varieties. The

sharpshooter leafhopper finds pinot noir a perfect host. This bug carries Pierce's

Disease, which can destroy an entire vineyard in as little as three years. Leaf-roll

virus is prevalent in almost all pinot noir plantings over ten years old. The pinot

vines are not very vigorous and often lack adequate leaf cover to protect the fruit

from birds, which do much damage. Even if the grapes survive the birds, if not

picked promptly at maturity, the thin-skinned and tender berries shrivel and dry

out rapidly (notice this shriveling in the photo), resulting in a raisiny aroma and

neutral flavor.

Pinot Noir is also one of the more difficult wines to ferment. Partly due to

the presence of 18 amino acids, which are naturally balanced in this variety, Pinot

Noir ferments violently, often "boiling" up and out of its container, speeding the

process out of control. Color retention is a major problem for the thin-skinned

berries. Pinot is very prone to acetification and often loses the sometimes

promising aromas and flavors it seems to display through fermentation and aging,

as soon as it is bottled.

There is one component in which Pinot Noir seems naturally quite rich,

three to four times higher compared to other varieties, especially when it is grown

in cooler and more humid climates: resveratrol. While this may not affect the

aspects of sensory enjoyment, it may draw the attention of health-conscious

consumers.

Pinot Noir shows some promise and has a possible future in the

Willamette Valley of Oregon, the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia, and in

54

http://www.cnr.berkeley.edu/xylella/page2.html

http://www.cnr.berkeley.edu/xylella/page2.html

http://www.winepros.org/wine101/grape_profiles/pinot.htm#clone


New Zealand, although all may prove to have growing seasons that are generally

too short and too humid for consistently outstanding results.

The popular image persists that California Pinot Noir is a light, fruity

wine of no consequence, but California vintners over the past twenty years have

been improving site and clonal selections, viticultural methods, and vinification

techniques to increase their record of success. The nominees for Best Supporting

Appellation in California Pinot Noir are much the same as for Chardonnay: Santa

Maria Valley (Santa Barbara County); Russian River Valley (Sonoma County);

Carneros (in both Sonoma and Napa Counties); Anderson Valley (Mendocino

County); as well as the Pinnacles (Monterey County) and, recently, Santa Lucia

Highlands (Monterey County).

Great Pinot Noir creates a lasting impression on the palate and in the

memory. Its aroma can be intense with a ripe-grape, vaguely pepperminty or

black cherry aroma. Ripe tomato, mushroom, and barnyard are also common

descriptors for identifying Pinot Noir. It is full-bodied and rich but not heavy,

high in alcohol, yet neither acidic nor tannic, with substantial flavor despite its

delicacy. The most appealing quality of Pinot Noir may be its soft, velvety

texture. When right, it is like liquid silk, gently caressing the palate. Pinot does

not have the longevity in the bottle of the darker red wines and tends to reach its

peak at five to eight years past the vintage.

55


Pinot Noir Smell and Flavor Descriptors

Varietal

Aromas/Flavors:


Fruit:

cherry, strawberry,

raspberry, ripe

tomato

Terroir: mushroom, earth, barnyard,

truffle, leather, meat

Floral:

violet, rose petal

Oak (light): vanilla, coconut, sweet

wood

Spice:

peppermint,

rosemary,

cinnamon, caraway

Oak (heavy): oak, smoke, toast, tar

Herbal:

rhubarb, beet,

oregano, green

tomato, green tea,

black olive

Bottle Age: cedar, cigar box

56


Syrah

Syrah is the only grape used to make the famous Rhône

wines of Côte Rotie and Hermitage, but also forms the

backbone of most Rhône blends, including Chateauneuf du

Pape.

Although cultivated since antiquity, competing

claims to the origin of this variety gave credit to it either

being transplanted from Persia, near the similarly-titled city

of Shiraz or to being a native plant of France. Starting in 1998, combined

research of the University of California at Davis and the French National

Agronomy Archives in Montpellier proved syrah is indeed indigenous to France.

DNA profiling proved syrah to be a genetic cross of two relatively obscure

varieties, mondeuse blanc and dureza.

More than half the world's total Syrah acreage is planted in France, but it

is also a successful grape in Australia (called Shiraz or Hermitage), South Africa

and California. Syrah is a fairly new variety in California, first introduced in

1971. Some of the state's vines were propagated from Hermitage and some from

Australian cuttings. It is also one of California's most rapidly increasing varieties.

In 1984, there were less than 100 acres. Syrah now accounts for 12,700 vineyard

acres, almost half of which is less than three years old and not yet bearing fruit.

Syrah vines are relatively productive, yet not too vigorous. Like Merlot, it

is sensitive to coulure, and although Syrah buds fairly late, it is a mid-season

ripener. Syrah requires heat to get fully ripe, but can lose varietal character when

even slightly overripe. The berry is thick-skinned and dark, almost black.

Syrah forms intense wines, with deep violet, nearly black color, chewy

texture and richness, and often alcoholic strength, with aromas that tend to be

more spicy than fruity.

Syrah Smell and Flavor Descriptors

57


Varietal Aromas/Flavors: Processing

Bouquets/Flavors:


blackberry

Terroir: musk, civet,

truffle, earth

Floral: grass Oak (light): vanilla,

coconut, sweet wood

Spice: black pepper,

licorice, clove, thyme, bay leaf

Oak (heavy): oak,

smoke, toast, tar

Herbal: sandalwood, cedar Bottle Age: cedar,

cigar box, earth, leather

Each time our tasting panel reviews Syrah, we conclude that, for both

sensual appeal and great value, we should drink this varietal more often.

58


CHAPTER 5

French white grape varietiesChardonnay

Rich is the word that best both describes

Chardonnay and explains its popularity. Its

aroma is distinct, yet delicate, difficult to

characterize, easier to recognize. It often smells

like apples, lemons, peaches or tropical fruits.

Its delicacy is such that even a small percentage

of another varietal blended into a Chardonnay

will often completely dominate its aroma and

flavor. Oak commonly takes over Chardonnay if the wine is fermented or aged in

new barrels or for too long in seasoned ones.

This delicacy also allows Chardonnay to absorb the influences of both

vinification technique and appellation of origin. In the Chablis region of France,

it is the only grape permitted and it renders a "crisp, flinty" wine. In the

Meursault appellation, chardonnay takes on a lush, ripe, "fleshy", "buttery"

quality. Even in quality sparkling wines and French Champagne, it is the major

varietal used. California Chardonnay is every bit as variable and possibly even

more exciting because of the effusive varietal quality it develops there. In spite of

this variety in style, Chardonnay is unmistakable in the mouth because of its

impeccable sugar/acid balance, its full body, and its easy smoothness.

Researchers at the University of California at Davis used DNA profiling

in 1999 to prove that Chardonnay originated as a cross of an obscure, ancient, and

nearly extinct variety called gouais blanc with a member of the "pinot" family,

quite likely pinot noir (although ampelographic research has not yet been able to

pinpoint this).

59


Vineyards in France are commonly planted with an intermingling of

chardonnay and pinot blanc vines, so that "pinot" has often been attached to

chardonnay, incorrectly. In spite of its heritage, Chardonnay is not considered a

member of the "pinot" grape family (pinot noir, pinot blanc, pinot gris, etc.).

California has achieved real success growing chardonnay and popularity of its

wine. It has also been a successful grape in Australia, where it also is sometimes

misnamed "pinot chardonnay".

Unfortunately, chardonnay vines are shy-bearing and susceptible to a

myriad of maladies. Chardonnay berries are relatively small, thin-skinned, fragile,

and oxidize easily. This makes chardonnay somewhat more sensitive to

winemaking techniques and more difficult to handle from harvest to bottling than

most other grape types.

Different wine making techniques also produce wide variances in the

Chardonnay flavor profile. Such techniques as barrel fermentation, proportion of

new to old cooperage, lees stirring, and partial, complete, or prevention of

malolactic fermentation generate controversy and lively discussion among

winemakers.

Chardonnay's intrinsic blank canvas quality also allows its flavors to be

dramatically affected by differences in soil, climate, and vineyard practices. Not

uncommon among wine grapes, the chardonnay vine also has a tendency to

mutate and research has identified over 400 clonal variants. Each clone has

chardonnay family traits, but displays individually specific tendencies in such

characteristics as length of ripening cycle, crop load, berry and cluster size, acid

retention, etc., therefore producing wines with various flavor differences.

The widespread popularity of varietally-labeled Chardonnay wines

spurred many new California plantings in the early 1970s. The most commonly

planted clone was the "Wente" clone (UCD 2A) and, later, clone 108, isolated at

UC Davis from vines grown in Carneros. Due to this grape's blank canvas nature

and the proliferation of new vineyard sources using essentially only two clones,

60


regional variations in Chardonnay wines became more apparent than perhaps in

any other varietal wine in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

In the 1990s, California vintners began paying much more attention to

matching, not only varieties but also clones, to specific microclimates and

vineyard sites. Many new vineyards and re-plantings since then, especially in

cooler regions, have propogated the "Dijon" clones (particularly 75, 76, 78, 95

and 96), the "Espiguette" clone (352) or, in fewer locations, "Champagne" clones.

The most common (but not exclusive) smell and/or flavor elements found

in chardonnay-based wines include:

Chardonnay Smell and Flavor Elements

Varietal

Aromas/Flavors:

Processing

Bouquets/Flavors:

Stone Fruits:

apple, pear, peach,

apricot

Malolactic: butter, cream,

hazelnut

Citric Fruits:

lemon, lime, orange,

tangerine


sweet wood, coconut

Tropical Fruits:

pineapple, banana,

mango, guava, kiwi

Oak (heavy): oak, smoke,

toast, lees, yeast

Floral: acacia,

hawthorn

Terroir: flint, mineral,

mint

Chenin Blanc

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At the beginning of the 1970s,

Americans began to discover that

California's better wines are labeled by

the predominate grape variety. Made in

the style of the day, fragrant and lightly

sweet, and also easy to pronounce,

Chenin Blanc quickly became the best-

selling wine of the era.

As wine popularity rocketed,

Chenin Blanc helped to introduce another, completely unpopular, wine

phenomenon that became the varietal's 1sales death knell: allocation. The "boom"

in wine, especially white varietals, caught most producers by surprise. Charles

Krug was the top-selling brand and, from 1972 to 1977, the winery completely

controlled the chain of supply, using the demand for whites as a reward to buyers

of the 2less-popular reds.

Chenin blanc is arguably the most versatile of all wine grape varieties.

Crisp, dry table wines, light sparkling wines, long-lived, unctuous, nectar-like

dessert wines, and even brandy are all produced in various areas of the wine

world, all of chenin blanc.

It might even be said that chenin blanc is France's most successful export

variety, if only considering the vine rather than the wine. Although the native

region for chenin is the Loire Valley (where the grape is often called Pineau de la

Loire), there is less planted in all of France than in most wine-producing countries

of the New World. It is planted as Pinot Blanco in Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and

Argentina, where there are over 10,000 acres of chenin blanc. Nearly a third of

vines in South Africa are chenin blanc, where it is also called Steen. In California,

it is the third most widely planted white wine grape. Australia has close to 1,500

acres and New Zealand 500.

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http://www.winepros.org/wine101/grape_profiles/chenin.htm#reds

http://www.winepros.org/wine101/grape_profiles/chenin.htm#reds


Resistance to many diseases, vine vigor, and the tendency to early bud break and

late ripening suits chenin blanc to grow in climates too warm for many vinifera

types. The vine grows well in many soil types and can be very vigorous in either

sandy loam or clay loam. Production is fairly consistent at from five to eight tons

per acre. At three or four years old, the vines tend to overproduce and may set

crops too large to fully ripen in the coolest areas. Chenin blanc grapes are

susceptible to both bunch rot and sun burn.

In spite of its wide plantings and potential flavor palates, most chenin

blanc is made into serviceable, but generally bland wine. A general tendency to

over-irrigate and overcrop further reduce most Chenin Blanc to the forgettable.

Careful viticultural practices easily overcome chenin blanc's weaknesses and can

result in excellent wine.

. When conditions are right, Botrytis cinerea adds additional complexity

and intensity.The most frequently encountered (but not exclusive) smell and/or

flavor elements found in Chenin Blanc-based wines include:

Chenin Blanc Smell and/or Flavor Elements


Bouquets/Flavors:

Floral: honey, honeysuckle .

Fruity: quince, melon, esp.

Honeydew, cantaloupe

Wood: vanilla, sweet wood, oak

(not usually)

Aggressive: iodine, "gym socks" Mineral: flint, smoke

Herbal: grass, hay .

63


Pinot Gris

Pinot gris (or pinot grigio, as it is known in

Italy) probably is the best-known "white"

variant-clone of Pinot Noir. Ripe pinot gris

grapes may be described as having colors

from bluish grey to light pinkish brown.

Clusters with a variety of colors are not

unusual.

The variety can attain a very high level

of sweetness, but will begin to lose acid

rapidly when near to fully ripe. Sometimes it

is used to add richness and to lighten, when blended with Pinot Noir.

Some pinot gris is grown in Burgundy, where it may be called pinot

beurot. Where planted in Germany, it is known as ruländer. It is of little

commercial significance in either locale. Friuli, in Italy, produces the largest

quantity, but only two appellations have Pinot Gris stars in the wine quality

galaxy: Alsace, France, the traditional base of Pinot Gris appreciation and

Oregon, the newest Pinot Gris area to come to light.

In Alsace, the pinot gris grape is called tokay d'Alsace (no relation to the

Hungarian Tokay). The Alsatians value it as a full-bodied wine that can stand up

to food without introducing any flavors of its own. In Italy, Pinot Grigio can be

quite distinguished, coming from some producers, especially in the Friuli region,

who devote attention to growing and vinifying. Unfortunately for its reputation,

there are many other Italian Pinot Grigio makers that overcrop and harvest early

to produce crisp, but vapid wines.

64


There are winemakers in the United States who are putting serious efforts

into growing and producing Pinot Gris. Nearly 1,620 acres are planted in

California, mostly in the Central and South coastal areas. Both quality and sales

have been erratic thus far. Many Oregon wineries, on the other hand, have had

good success and are moving steadily away from making Chardonnay while

increasing production of Pinot Gris. In the 2000 vintage, Pinot Gris total

plantings (1270 acres) and quantity crushed (2917 tons) surpassed Chardonnay

(1125 acres, 2523 tons) for the first time.

Pinot Gris / Pinot Grigio is usually delicately fragrant and mildly floral

with lightly lemon-citrus flavors. Depending upon ripeness at harvest and

vinification technique, Pinot Gris can be tangy and light, or quite rich, round and

full bodied. Made in an appropriate style, it is one dry white wine that may even

age well.

Pinot Gris Smell and/or Flavor Elements

Varietal

Aromas/Flavors:


Fruit: lemon,

apple, pear

Oak: vanilla, sweet wood,

almond, smoke

Floral: (vague) Malolactic (unusual): butter,

cream

65


Sauvignon Blanc

Classic white-wine producer variety commonly

planted in the Bordeaux and eastern Loire regions of

France. Shows vigorous growth and is late maturing.

Members of the cépage are now thought by some to

be descendants of the ancient Fié variety once

common in the Loire region of France. A recent

(2002) DNA study suggests derivation from an earlier

Traminer cross, eg: Sauvignon Rose below, that must

have mutated to a later state. The sauvignon cépage apparently derives the latter part of

its name from the color of its skin. Other members include the recent (4-97) genetic

parental link to Cabernet Sauvignon and other mutations known as the Sauvignon Noir,

Sauvignon Jaune and Sauvignon Rose. The last named variety is also known as

Sauvignon Gris. In the Styria region of Austria the named variety is occasionally referred

to as the Muskat-Sylvaner.

All versions of the cépage show a tendency towards a grassy, herbaceous flavor in the

grapewine, often referred to as "gooseberry" by professional tasters, when the grapes are

grown in temperate regions. In warmer regions, the flavors and aromas tend to be more

citruslike, (e.g: grapefruit or pear), plus the characteristic "earthy" taste. New Zealand

has had much success with the grape in recent years.

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http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#saub

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#sgris




http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#cab


http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#traminer

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#fie


Sauvignon Blanc Smell and Flavor Elements


Bouquets/Flavors:

Herbaceous: grass, weeds, lemon-grass,

gooseberry

vanilla, sweet wood

Vegetal: bell pepper, green olive,

asparagus, capsicum

butter, cream

Fruity: grapefruit, lime, melon oak, smoke, toast

Aggressive: mineral, "catbox" flint

With naturally high acidity, Sauvignon Blanc is always tangy, tart, nervy,

racy, or zesty, and this character pervades even sweet and dessert versions,

keeping them from being cloying and sticky-tasting.

Dry-style Sauvignon or Fumé Blancs are very versatile in accompanying

foods and can handle components such as tomatoes, bell peppers, cilantro, raw

garlic, smoked cheeses or other pungent flavors that would clash with or

overpower many Chardonnays and almost all other dry whites. In fact, Sauvignon

Blanc is probably the best dry white wine to accompany the greatest variety of

foods.

67


Semillon

Semillon grapes make up 80% of the blend in

the most expensive and famous dessert wine in

the world, Château d'Yquem. Semillon seems

the favorite foil of Botrytis Cinerea, the noble

rot which concentrates the sugars and flavors

and intensifies the aromas for d'Yquem and

the other "late-harvest" dessert wines of

Monbazillac and Sauternes. These wines hold

up spectacularly in antiquity, unique in the

spectrum of unfortified wines.

Consistently productive at six to eight tons per acre and of vigorous vines,

semillon is easy to cultivate. It is fairly resistant to common vine diseases, with

the notable exception of rot, which most often is hoped to be the noble type and

not the destructive strain. This viticultural profile has led to widespread

propagation and popularity of semillon vineyards.

While semillon is the majority white variety in Bordeaux, Graves, and

Sauternes, more grows in Chile than anywhere else on earth. Early in the

viticultural development of Australia, semillon (often incorrectly labeled as

Riesling) dominated as the major white variety, although the vineyards are mostly

Chardonnay and sauvignon blanc today.

California has an ongoing checkered relationship with Semillon. Acreage

has fluctuated up and down over the past several decades, from 1,200 acres in

1961, to 2,800 acres in 1981, to currently over 1,500 acres planted.

Most California Semillon today is blended with Sauvignon Blanc and

rendered dry, but an experimental dessert wine created a sensation in the middle

of the 20th Century.

68


In 1956, winemaker Myron Nightingale, then of Cresta Blanca winery,

made a dessert wine by spraying spores of Botrytis cinerea on semillon and

sauvignon blanc grapes to produce French Sauternes-like results. The wine was a

breakthrough success in the industry, because the California climate had always

been considered too arid for the Noble Mold to naturally exist at a high enough

population level to any beneficial effect.1 Financial problems caused Cresta

Blanca to change hands and production ceased after the 1966 vintage.

The ripe semillon berry is a rich yellow color at maturity, although

increasing sun exposure may turn it amber-pink. In warmer climates, there is

always danger of sunburn and raisining. If processed as a dry or semidry table

wine, the thin skins and tender, juicy pulp require speedy but gentle handling.

Semillon Smell and Flavor Elements

Varietal

Aromas/Flavors:


Fruity: fig,

lemon, pear

Botrytis: apricot, quince, peach,

honey, pineapple, vanilla, candy

Spice: saffron Malolactic: butter, cream

Herbal: grass,

weeds

Oak (light): vanilla, sweet wood

Vegetal: bell

pepper, asparagus

Oak (heavy): oak, smoke, toast

69

http://www.winepros.org/wine101/grape_profiles/semillon.htm#note


Wines dominated by Semillon may lack much youthful aroma, but have

fairly full body and tend to be low in acidity, even "fat" at times. This is the

flavor profile of a supporting role grape, rather than a star, and most Semillon is

blended. Semillon is the soft, subtle, rich Yin to balance the Yang of Sauvignon

Blanc, which can be aromatically aggressive and acidic. Semillon even works

well when blended with that notoriously standoffish loner, Chardonnay,

providing weight and richness without diverting aromatic delicacy.

70


Viognier

Viognier seemed literally an endangered variety

only a few years ago, but seems to be recovering

worldwide in both popularity and acreage. Less

than 35 acres remained planted in all of France, its

homeland, in the late 1960s. Its newest realm,

California, has 2,001 acres as of 2002 (although a

considerable portion is not yet mature enough to

bear a commercial crop) and there are also

relatively new plantings in Australia and Brazil, as

well as other U.S. plantings in Colorado, New

York, North Carolina, Oregon, Texas, Virginia, and

Washington.

The major drawback of the viognier grape is that it is a very shy producer

and somewhat difficult to grow. Although drought tolerant, it is easily infected

with powdery mildew in damp conditions or humid climates. Like many other

varietals, viognier must be harvested at its peak of maturity in order to display its

unique aroma and flavor character. The grape's tendency to develop high sugar

but low acid can result in wines with neutral, merely vinous flavors and high

alcohol. These cultivation problems and producer desires to capitalize on the

grape's somewhat rarity combine to make many Viognier wines relatively

expensive.

Viognier is the only grape used for the Northern Rhône appellations

Condrieu and Château-Grillet (one of France's smallest appellation contrôlée,

with less than ten acres and only one owner). Viognier is also sometimes used to

add fragrance and to soften and lighten the syrah in Côte Rotie. Plantings of

viognier in France have expanded in recent years from the Rhône (1830 acres), to

71


the Languedoc (3440 ac.) to smaller plantings in Roussillon (212 ac.) and

Provence (272 ac.).

Probably the main attraction of Viognier is its potentially powerful, rich,

and complex aroma that often seems like overripe apricots mixed with orange

blossoms or acacia. With as distinctive and sweet an aroma-flavor profile as

Gewürztraminer, Viognier is nevertheless usually made in a dry style and seems

to appeal more to the typical Chardonnay drinker. The distinctive Viognier

perfume holds up even when blended with a large portion of other grapes. The

fruit usually has very deep color, but is somewhat low in acidity. As California

wineries experiment with Viognier-Chardonnays, Viognier-Chenin Blancs, and

Viognier-Colombards, this may be the grape's ultimate destiny, as a blender.

Both Chardonnay and Viognier share tropical fruit flavors and a creamy

mouthfeel. Even with little or no wood aging, Viognier can be as full-bodied as

an oaky Chardonnay, but has much more distinctive fruit character. It also has a

Viognier smell and Flavor Elements

Varietal Aromas/ Flavors: Processing Bouquets/Flavors

Floral: orange blossom, acacia, violet, foneyMalolactic: butter, cream

Spice: anise, mint Oak(light): vanilla, sweet wood

Herbal: mown hay, tobacco

Viognier alcohol easily gets out-of-hand, so some vintners leave a touch

of residual sugar to mask the heat. The combination of heady aromas and sweet-

hot flavors may be overbearing to some palates. Even for those who favor

Viognier's brash personality, a little can go a long way and a single glass may

satiate one's wine thirst. There are also occasional late-harvest and dessert

versions made that can be as headily-intriguing as the finest Sauternes.

72


Because the prime appeal of Viognier is its fresh and striking aroma, it is a wine

that should be consumed young in most instances. The exception is Château

Grillet, where the grapes are harvested early and the wine kept in oak for several

months prior to bottling; this wine has a reputation for aging up to two decades.

As to food matches, Viognier works well with dishes that might normally

call for Gewürztraminer. Spicy dishes, such as spicy oriental stir-frys and even

curry, especially Thai-style which is made with coconut milk, may be

accompanied and complemented by Viognier. Also fruit salsas, atop grilled fish

or chicken, can be miraculously tasty with Viognier.

CHAPTER-6

73


Hybrid Varieties

ARRILOBA:

Variety derived from a Raffiat de Monade x Sauvignon Blanc cross, released around

1960 by the INRA, France. Currently grown by select vineyards in the Landes region of

France where it is used to create a white wine described as rich and golden. (No other

details as yet).

AUBIN BLANC:

Recently DNA checks have revealed this variety to possibly be the result of a Gouais

Blanc x Traminer cross. No other information on this variety other than it was grown in

the Moselle river area of France.

AUXERROIS BLANC:

Local name for variety, used for white wine production, grown in the northeast Moselle

and Alsace regions of France. Used to produce mildly acidic wines that add a honied

intensity to blends with the Pinot Blanc in the better vintage years. Is one of the 16

known varieties possibly directly descended from the ancient Pinot cepage x Gouais

Blanc cross. .

BACHET NOIR:

Francois Noir is one of the 16 known direct possible descendants of the ancient Pinot

cepage x Gouais Blanc cross that resulted in this red-wine creating variety.

BALZAC:

Has several synonym names including Limousin Blanc. Recent DNA checks revealed

that this variety is possibly derived from a Gouais Blanc x Chenin Blanc cross. No other

details at present.

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BARESANA:

Table/Wine grape cultivar derived from a Golden Hamburg x Muscat of Alexandria

variety cross. Has about a dozen synonym names including Golden Champion and White

Tokay. Widely grown in Europe and other cool climate regions.

BEAUNOIR:

It is Chardonnay-like white-wine creating variety that is one of the known 16 possible

descendants of a Pinot cepage x Gouais Blanc ancient variety crossing and has several

synonym names including Cep Gris, Mourillon and Pinot d'Ai. .

BOUCHY:

Local name for the Cabernet Franc grape grown in the Pyrenees region of France. Makes

one of four wines blended to produce a full-bodied red wine called "Madiran". The

others are Courbu Noir, Pinenc and Tannat. .

CABERNET DORIO:

Vinifera variety, synonym name developed and subsequently released in November,

1999 by the Weinsberg/Württemberg Research Station, Baden, Germany. Derived from a

Cabernet Sauvignon x Dornfelder cross. Red wine is recommended for fine fruitiness

with velvety, distinctive taste.

CABERNET CUBIN:

Has synonym name WE 70-281-35. Developed and subsequently released in November,

1999, this V.vinifera cross is reported as derived from Cabernet Sauvignon x Lemberger

parentage by the Weinsberg/Württemberg Research Station, Baden, Germany. Red wine

is claimed to be rich in fruit aromas and requiring oak cask ageing/vinification.

CALADOC:

Derived from a Grenache x Malbec cross for use in the Mediterranean climate of the

coastal regions of southern France. Having similarities to the former parent cultivar it is

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http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#cabcubin

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#dornfelder


http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#tannat

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#pinenc

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#courbn

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#cabfranc

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#beaunoir





http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#char

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#baresana



http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#musalex

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reported as being used in limited amounts as a red wine tannin/aroma enhancing agent in

the lesser wines of the region.

CARMINOIR:

Variety resulting from a Pinot Noir x Cabernet Sauvignon cross.

CHARMONT:

White-wine producing variety with Chasselas x Chardonnay pedigree grown in the

Valais district of Switzerland.

COUNOISE:

Semi-classic grape grown in the southern Rhone and Pyrenees regions of France and

used in the red wine blends of Chateauneuf-du-Pape or Banyuls, and other local wines of

those regions to create aroma and acidic freshness. Thought by some to be of unknown

Spanish grape origin.

DAMERON:

Has several synonym names including Pinot Rouge. Is possibly derived from a Pinot

cepage x Gouais Blanc cross that occurred in the distant past. No other details as yet

other than this variety is grown in France and can be made into red wine.

DORAL:

Variety resulting from a Chasselas x Chardonnay cross. No other details as yet other than

it is used to create white wines in Switzerland. .

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FLORA:

Has synonym name California H59-90. Reported to be a selected cross of Semillon x

Traminer Rot created by H. Olmo for white wine production. Currently grown in

California, Australia and some other countries on a limited scale.

FORTA:

Derived from a Silvaner x Madeleine Angevine cross. Frost-hardy in a good site.

Reported as having sugars and acidity higher than Müller-Thurgau. Used to make a

varietal white wine claimed to have profile similarities to Pinot Gris. .

FRANC NOIR DE LA HAUTE SAÔNE:

Variety possibly derived from a Pinot cepage x Gouais Blanc cross. Has several synonym

names including Plant Jacquot.

GARANOIR:

Variety derived from a Gamay Noir x Reichensteiner cross. Has synonym names Granoir

and Pully B-28. Created in 1970, along with Gamaret, the two wines can be blended to

make a red wine of character that.

KANZLER:

Winegrape derived from a Müller-Thurgau x Silvaner cross that was released in 1927.

Has synonym name Alzey S.3983. Possessed of moderate vigor, crop potential, despite

wood hardening deficiencies. Claimed to produce a white wine with a delicate bouquet,

rich in extract and having a fruity flavor.

KOZMA CSVT 55:

V.vinifera variety red-skin grape claimed to be derived from a Rayon d'Or x Perle von

Csaba cross .

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http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#kanzler

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http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#muller-thurgau

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#gamaret

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#garan

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#garan

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#reich

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#gamayn

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#franchs



http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#pgris

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http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#mad

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#sylvaner

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#gtram

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#semillon

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#flora


MARCELAN:

Recently developed variety, derived from a Grenache x Cabernet Sauvignon cross,

grown in France.

MÜLLER-THURGAU:

Early ripening cross once thought to have been developed from Sylvaner and Riesling

but some authorities now contend, based on DNA analysis (2002), that there is a high

degree of genetic similarity between the varieties Chasselas de Courtiller and Madeleine

Royale .

MUSCAT HAMBURG:

According to the Geilweilerhof (Genres) database, see above, this variety was derived

from a Schiava Grossa x Muscat of Alexandria cross. Has over 30 synonym names,

including Black Hamburg (see comments re. Schiava Grossa synonym name), Black

Muscat, Golden Hamburg, Hampton Court Vine, Queen's Arbor and Venn's Seedling..

NEVA MUNSON:

T.V. Munson variety reported to be derived from a Neosho x Herbemont cross. Claimed to

have some resistance to Pierce's Disease. No other details as yet.

NEW YORK MUSCAT

Derived from a Muscat Hamburg x Ontario cross. Moderately hardy with loose, large-

berried clusters that have good Muscat profile and little if any labrusca flavor. Reports

from some areas indicate moderate vigor with a tendency to low productivity. Claimed to

make a pleasing red or whit.

NITODEL:

T.V. Munson variety derived from a Salado x Pense cross. Has synonym name Nitodal.

No other details as yet.

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http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#mhamburg

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#herb

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#neosho

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#mhamburg%23mhamburg






http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#schiavag%23schiavag


http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#musalex%23musalex

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#schiavag%23schiavag

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#madroy%23madroy

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#madroy%23madroy

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#chassdc%23chassdc

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#riesling%23riesling

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#sylvaner%23sylvaner


http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#grenache


PINOTAGE:

Derived from the crossing of Pinot Noir x Cinsaut. Used to make a popular, hearty red

wine that ages well - (and often requires it). Also grown in some quantity on New

Zealand's North Island .

ROMULUS:

Has synonym name NY 15291. Reported as derived from a Ontario x Thompson

Seedless cross and mainly used as a tablegrape. No other details as yet.

RUBY:

Reported as a Keuka x Ontario cross developed around the mid-1930's at the Geneva

Institute of N.Y.

SCHUYLER: Is a cross between Zinfandel and Ontario varieties.

SOLARIS:

Derived from a Merzling x (Saperavi Severny x Muscat Ottonel) cross.

ST. FRANCIS: Complex American/Vinifera variety derived from a Muench x Gros Guillaume cross.

TARHEEL: Complex V.rotundifolia (ie. Muscadine) cultivar. Derived from a Luola x (Eden x (Eden x V. Munsonia)) cross.

TETRA: Derived from a Herbert x Worden cross. This hybrid variety is widely grown in Georgia .

WAYNE: Reported to be an early ripening cross of the Ontario x Mills varieties.

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http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#tarheel

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#eden

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#eden

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#luola

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#muscadine

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#guillaume

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#munch

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#musott

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#sapsev

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#merzling


http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#zinfandel


http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#keuka

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#thompson

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#thompson


http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#romulus

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#cinsaut%23cinsaut

http://www.wineloverspage.com/wineguest/wgg.html#pnoir%23pnoir


CHAPTER 7

Disease to The Grapes

Angular Leaf Scorch

Type of Pest: Disease

Frequency of Occurrence: Angular leaf scorch is most likely to become a problem

when high rainfall occurs during the period of early shoot growth.

Damage Caused: Disease symptoms occur mainly on the leaves and first appear as faint

chlorotic spots. Lesions enlarge and change from yellow to reddish-brown, eventually

killing the tissue. Lesions are confined by major veins and can have a yellow, red, or

absent margin. Infected leaves often fall prematurely.

% Acres Affected: 35%

Pest Life Cycles: The fungus survives winter in infected leaves on the vineyard floor.

Mature spores are ready for discharge in spring when grape buds begin to grow. During

rainfall, spores are released into the air from fruiting structures and susceptible tissue is

infected.

Timing of Control: Fungicides should be applied prior to rainfall, beginning at the 3-

inch stage and continuing through fruit set. Angular leaf scorch is typically only a

problem during years with extremely wet springs.

Yield Losses: Premature loss of leaves is detrimental to sugar accumulation in berries

but is more detrimental to overall vine health in cold sensitive varieties.

Cultural Control Practices: Cultural practices that increase air circulation can reduce

duration’s of leaf wetness that favor disease development. Destruction of leaf litter by

cultivation, before bud break, can also reduce disease incidence.

Biological Control Practices: None available at this time

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Post-Harvest Control Practices: None

Other Issues: There is no currently labeled fungicide to control this disease. However,

mancozeb utilized to control other diseases on grapes will control angular leaf scorch.

Black Rot

Type of Pest: Disease

Frequency of Occurrence: 3- to 5-inch shoot growth through approximately

August 1

Damage Caused: Black rot is one of the most serious diseases of grapes in the

eastern United States. This disease can cause substantial crop loss under the

appropriate environmental conditions. All green tissues of the vine are susceptible

to infection.


Pest Life Cycles: The black rot fungus overwinters primarily in mummified fruit

on the vineyard floor or fruit retained within the vine. It can also overwinter

within cane lesions. Spores within cane lesions are available for infection starting

at bud break; however, the vast majority of spores (those within mummified fruit)

first become available about 2-3 weeks after bud break, then reach peak levels

from about 1-2 weeks before bloom until about 1-2 weeks after, depending on the

year. Rain triggers the release of infective spores from mummies, and infection

occurs if susceptible tissues remain wet for a sufficient length of time, which

depends on temperature. Pycnidia develop within lesions caused by current

season infections and release a new crop of spores during the summer. It is this

secondary round of spore release and infection that is responsible for the majority

of fruit rot damage. Thus, if very few current season infections are present,

protective sprays can usually be stopped once most of the overwintering inoculum

has been depleted (about the time berries become pea-sized). However, if more

81


than a few current infections (and new spores) are present, protection must be

maintained until fruit begin to ripen.

Timing of Control: Disease severity the previous year and varietal susceptibility

to black rot are the major factor in determining how early protection is required.

Under heavy disease pressure protectant application could begin as early as 3-inch

shoot growth on susceptible varieties. However, the two most important sprays

are the immediate prebloom and 10 to 14-days later at the immediate postbloom.

Yield Losses: 50% in years of frequent early rainfall which favors development

of primary infections.

Cultural Control Practices: Removal of mummified clusters during pruning

significantly reduces disease pressure for the coming season; spring cultivation to

bury mummies also can contribute to a reduction of inoculum. Cultural practices

that open the canopy are beneficial because they increase air circulation and

improve spray coverage.

Biological Control Practices: None available at this time

Post-Harvest Control Practices: Removal of mummified berries during pruning

Banded Grape Bug

Type of Pest: Insect

Frequency of Occurrence: Sporadic pest of grapes. When present damage

occurs between mid-May and early June

Damage Caused: Feeding injury results in floret drop, reduced berry set, and

reduced cluster number


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Pest Life Cycles: Nymphs of this insect emerge in the spring and feed, using

their sucking and piercing mouth parts, on flowers and young berries. Injury by

small nymphs, occurring between 3- to 5-inch shoot growth (around May 15) and

early June, results in floret drop, reduced berry set, and reduced cluster number.

Subsequent feeding by larger nymphs and adults does not affect cluster

development. This injury only occurs in the early prebloom stages (between 5-

and 10-inch shoot growth). Subsequent feeding by nymphs does not reduce berry

set. Adults appear to be predaceous and do not cause injury to berries. This pest is

sporadic and does not require treatment in most years.

Timing of Control: 3- to 10-inch shoot growth

Yield Losses: Up to 100% reduction in area infested by this pest through loss of

florets. Reduction of crop size of 50% is typical when banded grape bug exceeds

the economic threshold of 1 nymph per 10 shoots

Grape Cane Gallmakers

Type of Pest: Insect

Frequency of Occurrence: Early spring

Damage Caused: Gall-like swellings on canes are caused by the oviposition

injury. Galls are usually twice as thick as the cane and 2.5 to 4 cm long. In newly

planted vineyards gallmaker can destroy canes necessary for developing a training

system, resulting in an extra year being necessary before a crop can be harvested

from the vine. Galls usually have little effect on vigor and growth of mature vines

but they can weaken the mechanical strength of the cane and cause breakage. In

cases of severe infestations, shoot length can be severely stunted resulting in the

loss of the crop on infested canes and the loss of the shoot for canopy

management for next year.

% Acres Affected: 10-15%

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Pest Life Cycles: The grape cane gallmakers has only one generation per year.

Timing of Control: 4 to 6-inches of shoot growth

Yield Losses: In newly planted vineyards gallmaker can destroy canes necessary

for developing a training system, resulting in an extra year being necessary before

a crop can be harvested from the vine. Galls usually have little effect on vigor and

growth of mature vines but they can weaken the mechanical strength of the cane

and cause breakage. In cases of severe infestations, shoot length can be severely

stunted resulting in the loss of the crop on infested canes and the loss of the shoot

for canopy management for next year.

Regional Differences: Grape Cane Gallmakers appear to be most common in the

part of the county along Lake Erie.

Cultural Control Practices: Removal of infected canes below the galls during

dormant pruning. This is not always feasible if infestation was severe or if canes

are needed to maintain training system.

Biological Control Practices: None available

Post-Harvest Control Practices: Removal of infected canes below the galls

during dormant pruning. This is not always feasible if infestation was severe or if

canes are needed to maintain training system.

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Broadleaf weeds

Type of Pest: Weed

Frequency of Occurrence: Yearly, throughout the season

Damage Caused: Weeds compete directly with the vine for water and nutrients. Weed

growth under the row in vineyards has been shown to be responsible for stunted vine size

and crop reduction.


Pest Life Cycles: Variable due to species of broadleaf weed

Timing of Control: Prior to emergence, prebloom

Yield Losses: Up to 30% dependent on species of weeds present and degree of ground

surface covered. Reduction in vine size due to competition of weeds for water and

nutrients can result in decreased yield capacity over the next several growing seasons.

Cultural Control Practices: The practice of "hilling up" or pushing a berm of soil

against the vine and "pulling away", or the removal of the berm, can reduce weed

populations under the row. However, these practices are labor intensive and less cost

efficient than traditional pesticide based practices.


Post-Harvest Control Practices: Not applicable

85


86


Grasses

Type of Pest: Weed

Frequency of Occurrence: Yearly, throughout the season

Damage Caused: Weeds compete directly with the vine for water and nutrients. Weed

growth under, and between, the row in vineyards has been shown to be responsible for

stunted vine size and crop reduction.


Pest Life Cycles: Variable due to species of grass

Timing of Control: Prior to emergence, prebloom

Yield Losses: Up to 30% dependent on species of weeds present and degree of ground

surface covered. Reduction in vine size due to competition of weeds for water and

nutrients can result in decreased yield capacity over the next several growing seasons.

Cultural Control Practices:


Post-Harvest Control Practices: Not applicable

87

french grape varieties

Documents

decreased yield capacity

weinsberg wrttemberg research station

angular leaf scorch

biological control practices

severely stunted resulting

maintain training system

prebloom yield losses

cultural control practices