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THE COLLEGE CHOICES OF HISPANIC/LATINO STUDENTS 2

The College Choices of Hispanic/Latino Students

I. Introduction

There are gaps between the high school graduation rates of minorities and their

enrollment in college. In particular, only 62% of Hispanic/Latino high school graduates enrolled

in two or four -year colleges (Baum, Ma, & Payea, 2013). While there ar e many factors as to

why a large group of Hispanic/Latino students choose not to enroll in college, there is not

sufficient research and literature that helps depict the issues that are related to the college choices

of this racial/ethnic group. Moreover, the Hispanic/Latino population is growing rapidly in the

United States and it is essential to better understand these students in regards to

their choices and

experiences in respect to college access. In particular, this minority group faces many specific

challenges that may affect their decision of attending college. According to conceptual model of

student college enrollment, there are four layers that influence students in their college

enrollment and choice. These layers include the individual’s habitus, the school and community

context, the higher education context, and the social, economical, and policy context (Perna et

al., 2008).

Within these contexts, financial resources, academic preparation, support from others,

and information about college and financial aid are categories that can predict college choice and

enrollment (Perna & Jones, 2013). For Hispanic/Latinos, these predictors do affect their choice.

Moreover , their college choice and enrollment is influenced by their particular backgrounds and

cultures. Some literature touches upon a couple of these issues but literature focuses on a deficit

approach when presenting recommendations for enrollment management practitioners.

This literature review will examine a variety of research articles that illustrate why a large

group of Hispanic/Latino students do not enroll in college and recommendations will be made to

help enrollment management practitioners to understand how they could effectively inform,


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support, and mentor these individuals through the college choice process. The purpose of this

literature review is not only to gain a better understand of why some Hispanic/Latino students do

not enroll in college, but also why some do choose to go to college. An analysis of current

information may help shed light on ways in which we could address the problem. Those positive

experiences will be utilized to construct adequate recommendations to help support this group o f

individuals. Moreover, a focus will be added on what further research must be done to aid this

group of students. Hispanic/Latino students are associated with being underrepresented, as

minority students of color. They will be compared to their affluent peers because of their

economic and racial/ethnic privilege. By understanding why and how Hispanic/Latinos make

their college choices, compared to their other peers, we can better understand how to assist in

their choice and enrollment process. “Increasing the educational attainment of this target group

has to be our number -one priority if we are to improve the overall educational attainment level in

the Unite States- and to reduce disparities related to race/ethnicity” (Bowen, Chingos, &

McPhweaon, 2009, p. 213).

II. Methodology

In order to locate a substantial amount of research related to college choice and

Hispanic/Latino students, an initial search for articles that included Hispanic/Latinos and

colleges were analyzed. Additionally, articles and books about college access and choice that

included sections or ideas about underrepresented students, such as Hispanic/Latinos, were

included. After reviewing sources and research, commonalities were found among various

research articles. Those commonalities were used to build an analysis that is split into the four

factors that predict college enrollment and choice, according to Perna and Jones (2013). The

sources that were used to analyze these four factors, for Hispanic/Latinos, were chosen only if


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they included a high number of Hispanic/Latinos in the populations they studied. Moreover,

sources that included or compared Hispanic/Latinos to privileged peers were used to make a case

for problems that Hispanic/Latinos face during their college choice. Finally, research that

highlighted positive college choices for Hispanic/Latinos were utilized to formulate

recommendations. The research was analyzed by comparing various sources that studied similar

questions. Their validity was proven by comparing those various sources to indicate the

challenges Hispanic/Latinos face while making a their college choice.

III. Analysis and Discussion

Predictors of College Enrollment and Choice

Financial Resources

When it comes to college enrollment and the type of colleges students attend, family

income is consistently an important factor considered (Baum et al., 2013). In particular,

Hispanic/Latino families f rom a low-income status are associated with low levels of educational

attainment (US Census Bureau, 2004). Specifically, Radford, Berkner, Wheeless, and Shepherd

(2010) found that only 25.5 % of low-income families, earning $32,000 a year,

are able to

complete a bachelors degree within six years. Recently, college tuition has grown and with that,

loans have increased for low-income student to be able to pay the difference. There has been an

increase in high quality research that focuses on loan debt for minorities. “For Hispanics and

other low-income minority students, increased debt prospects can serve only to turn many away

at the doorstep” (Gardner, 2005, p.59). Once low-income students see debt, something they are

not accustomed to, they walk away from the opportunity. The few who do consider a higher

education with loans, must work a second job and this make retention difficult for them.


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Not only do a limited amount of financial resources affect the ability to obtain a bachelors

degree, it also affects the type of school students choose to attend. Latinos tend to begin their

higher education at community colleges regardless of their ability to attend a 4-year institution

because of the financial attainability of a community college (Núñez, Sparks, & Hernández,

2011). Research shows that there has been an increase in Hispanic/Latinos applying and getting

into colleges. However, Carnevale and Strohl (2010) discovered that high-achieving, low-

income minorities are missing the opportunity to attend elite colleges that accept them. The

reason that low-income students attend schools that are less selective is because they are less

expensive.

Yet, students who are low-income tend to pay more of their income than the middle and

higher income groups, even after receiving grants. According to Heller (2011), students in the

lowest income group utilized 58% of their income to pay for the net price of their college

education. Therefore, low-income students not only lack financial resources to pay for college,

when they are aided with loans, they are burdened with the debt and still pay more of their

income than middle and upper socioeconomic groups. Moreover, the financial implications of

college push students to attend less selective schools, even when they are good enough to pur sue

a more challenging school. While 66% of the U.S. Latino children live in low-income

households (Wildsmith, Scott, Guzman, & Cook, 2014), it is imperative that Hispanic/Latino

students and their parent’s receive early assistance to understand how they could be saving and

investing their money in order to increase their wealth. By increasing their economic status, they

are able to financially support their children in their college choices and enrollment.

Additionally, Hispanic/Latino families should be educated on pursuing and applying for need-

based aid in order to increase their ability to receive as much financial assistance as possible.


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Academic Preparation

The academic preparation for Hispanic/Latino students starts long before they even

consider the college application process. For college admission, a high academic preparation

includes grades and also brings significance to the types of high schools students attend and the

tests scores students obtain. “Human capital theory assumes that students consider their

academic readiness when weighing the costs and benefits of enrolling in college. But, academic

readiness is influenced by the structures and contexts in which students are embedded” (Perna &

Jones, 2013, p. 19). Typically, Hispanic/Latinos have inferior K -12 school experiences.

Researchers found that Hispanic/Latinos have less prepared teachers and counselors, poor

facilities, and lack of college preparation opportunities (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010). Not only do

Hispanic/Latino students lack academic resources, the types of schools they attend also isolate

them in their college pursuits. According to Rodriguez, Rhodes, and Aguirre (2014), there is a

direct connection between academic preparation and the types of institutions students apply to

and are admitted to.

Academic preparation for college is determined early in a student’s career. According to

Sacks (2007), students get labeled in remedial, regular, or accelerated categories from sixth to

seventh grade depending on standardized test performance and teacher recommendations. Those

early placement tests, track students into specific classes, classify students for teachers, and

create divisions among classmates. The placements follow the students until they are seniors in

high school and this creates expectations of what they cannot and can achieve. Moreover, the

placements of these students determine their coursework and that could have a direct effect on

their college access. Furthermore, Hispanic/Latino students, who speak Spanish, get placed in

bilingual or English learning courses and these students have difficulty transitioning into English


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only instruction in college (De La Garza & Phillips, 2014). Therefore, affecting their perception

of readiness. They may face difficulty transitioning in these English courses not only because of

the academic difference but also their perception of preparedness. While many find that

bilingualism is a benefit for the student and their futures, they may find it difficult to find cultural

sensitivity among professors and peers in this transition. This situation not only affects their

education but their identity development. There is a lack of research that focuses on bilingual

students and the affects it has on their college attainment. Precisely, in terms of if it benefits or

hinders their confidence in academic preparedness.

Finally, Hispanic/Latino students are also not academically prepared because of the

schools they attend. Typically, schools that serve underrepresented students have a lack of

academic rigor and therefore, do not offer courses that help students become competitive in

college applications. Schools that serve students of color , provide less Advanced Placement

courses and do not prepare students adequately for Academic College Testing (ACT) than

schools that serve white students (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010). “Advanced Placement courses,

which have become the ticket to higher GPAs in the race to pile up credentials for college

applications- and which have also become the new standard by which colleges evaluate an

applicant’s college-worthiness- are dominated by white students” (Sacks, 2007, p. 66). Schools

in more affluent neighborhoods provide more college preparatory and honors courses than in

underrepresented student neighborhoods. Sadly, Bowen et al. (2009) found that GPAs were a

greater indicator of college graduation rates than any type of tests that provide colleges with

admission information. With so little riding on these types of tests, it is important that colleges

and policy makers understand the disadvantages that Hispanic/Latino students are at and do not

take these tests into as much consideration because of the lack of equity. Finally, in order to


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increase retention of Hispanic/Latinos in college, academic support is needed. Rodriguez et al.,

(2014) found that support and remedial courses were needed for Latinos in order for them to

pursue a higher education and therefore, academic preparation should be of much great

importance to educators and policy makers in order to ensure equity in colleges.

Support From Others

For Hispanic/Latinos, especially, others influence their academic pursuits. Consequently,

human capital and social capital are essential in order to navigate the college application process.

According to Baum et al. (2013), those who do not attend college are highly correlated with their

parent’s lack of education. Moreover, their teacher’s expectations of them

highly affect their

ideals. For example, “Latino high school dropouts believed that high school administrators had

low expectation of them” (Rodriguez et al., 2014, p. 4). Another factor is their peers who

influence their thoughts and actions. Above all, however, parents were found to be the most

influential in association with college related outcomes (Perna & Jones, 2013). If this is the case,

Hispanic/Latinos are at a disadvantage, compared to affluent peers, in the fact that their parents

have little knowledge in the college search and choice process. For Hispanic/Latinos, the

majority of them are first-generation students in the United States and the majority of their

parents never attend college (Gardner, 2005). Therefore, their understanding of college is

minimal and they receive little guidance from their parents. This showcases an inequality in

familial cultural and social capital among minorities compared to racially/ethnically-privileged

individuals (Gándara, 2002). Parents don not know the college system and don not have access

to social networks. Nonetheless, the assumption that Hispanic/Latinos are not supportive of their

children’s education is false. Their parents might not understand the system but they typically

have high educational aspirations for their children (McCallister, Evans, & Illich, 2010). While


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most parents are not be a fountain of information for their children, they are a source of support

in their college search and enrollment phase.

Most students, who lack the direction of their parents, look to high school teachers,

counselors, and administr ators for assistance in the pursuit of a higher education. Unfortunately,

many Hispanic/Latinos parents and students reported expecting information about college from

school personal but never did or received it too late (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010).

Underrepresented minority serving high schools tend to have a high number ratio of counselors

to students and this impedes the availability of information to all students (Perna & Jones, 2013).

Most teachers and counselors chose to support only high academic achievers in their college

search and selection process. Students with low grades are not aided and ther efore, inherently

are put on track to drop out, start in the workforce, or attend a community college even if they

could be successful at a more selective institution. What is even more alarming is that

Hispanic/Latinos perceived that counselors provided more attention to affluent families and

athletes (Rodriguez et al., 2014). While some schools provide specific outreach to minorities,

including Hispanic/Latinos, it is not

enough to cater to this growing population.

Finally, Hispanic/Latinos search for support among each other. Peers play a very

influential role to Hispanic/Latino students because they can associate and trust each other. This

theory is proven by the idea of chain enrollment and college enclaves. Person and Rosenbaum

(2006), found that Latinos were more likely to find information about a college from social

contacts who attended that institution. Most times, Hispanic/Latinos choose schools based on

their social network rather than their relationship with professors and faculty. For Tinto (1994)

who defines academic integration as relationships with college staff, this could be a problem for

Latino students who find support from friends rather than other academic individuals from the


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institutions. Moreover, if the peer they received information from is not properly informed, it is

possible that this Hispanic/Latino chose a college on inadequate information which can add to

reasons of low retention rates (Pérez & McDonough, 2008). Nevertheless, Hispanic/Latinos

look to their social networks for advice and this creates college enclaves. On the other hand, this

creates small communities of cultural support for Hispanic/Latinos on those campuses.

Finding a strong support system for Hispanic/Latinos is essential not only to receive as

much information as possible but also to increase the positive aspirations in students. Parents

and family members are highly influential as support systems for Hispanic/Latinos yet; if they

are not informed about the college process they have little ability to help their children.“Well

-

educated parents … advocate vigorously to get their children into accelerated math courses,

exploiting what wiggle r oom there is in school policies about track placement” (Sacks, 2007, p.

21). Obviously, there is a stronger support system for students whose parents are highly

educated on their rights. Further research on how to educate parents on how they could be

advocates for their children is necessary. Additionally, guidance counselors play an important

role in the life of students. In particular, they could be great assets to Hispanic/Latinos who are

missing guidance. When counselor ratios were 100 to 1, 85% of students attended a four -year

institution but since those have risen to 500 to 1, that percentage has declined to 59% (Sacks,

2007). With such a notable difference, more research should be done to examine a more

effective and yet financially possible ratio for counselor to students. Also, since social networks

are very influential in the lives of Hispanic/Latino students, it is important to bridge the

connection of prepared college students with high school seniors. Thus, it is imperative that

community members become stronger support systems for Hispanic/Latino students; in

particular for those who are first-generation students and those who are academically at risk.


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Gándara (2002) advocates for community involvement to increase college access because child

development is greatly affected by the resources available in the neighborhood.

Information About College and Financial Aid

There are various levels of knowledge that students r equire to understand the college

application and enrollment process. For example, students need to understand the difference

between selective and non-selective institutions and how to tell them apart, the adequate way to

fill out a college application, what financial implications a college education requires, and they

must learn their own way of deciding their ‘fit’ or ‘match’. These examples of information that

students must learn about and/or understand are complex and definitely require guidance.While

many individuals receive this information from family and/or counselors, typically

underrepresented minorities lack these connections and support. As claimed by Martinez and

Cervera (2012), Latinos’ college search is less extensive than other populations therefore, when

they do review their research on college options, they are not seeing the full extent of

information. The information that highly affects Hispanic/Latinos the most is knowledge in

regards to financial aid. Awareness of college prices and financial aid are particularly low

among underrepresented groups in higher education (Perna, 2005). Those with less information

have more negatively related college expectations and therefore, fewer enrollments. In

particular, by providing accurate and useful information about financial aid and assistance in

filing for the Free Application f or Federal Student Aid (FAFSA), this promotes positive college

outcomes to students (Perna & Jones, 2013).

For Hispanic/Latinos, becoming informed about financial aid and college costs increases

the chances of the student to enroll in a four -year versus a two-year intuition (Rodriguez et al.,

2014). Therefore, not only does a lack of college information affect Hispanic/Latinos in their


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decision to attend school, it also plays a very decisive role in what type of institution they enroll

in. Currently, the research shows that Hispanic/Latinos are more likely to end of up in

community colleges, rather than four -year institutions, because of the lack of information

( Núñez, Sparks, & Hernández, 2011). Hispanic/Latinos typically search for their information

from their friends, family, and community members. This denotes a small radius around the

community of these individuals. Therefore, these individuals share only what they know and

what they know tends to be close to home. Consequently, the information Hispanic/Latinos

receive is only about other Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSI) and community colleges in the

area (Martinez & Cervera, 2012). As stated previously, in the support from others section,

individuals close to the students play an important factor to the student’s choices and information

gathering phase.

Informing Hispanic/Latinos about the college choice process and financial aid is a

definite way in which the choices of these students can be more informed and therefore, more

positive in regards to enrollment. Obviously, in order to increase the information to

Hispanic/Latino students there needs to be a more conscious choice, on behalf of high schools

and colleges, to reach out to this population. Materials, resources, and mentoring must be

available to these students and their parents; they must be English and Spanish in order to create

a complete awareness among all family and community members. School guidance counselors,

teachers, and community members, that students trust, should be better informed about college

information and utilized to disseminate this information to Hispanic/Latino students (Zarate &

Burciaga, 2010). Accurate information and guidance is not only essential for this particular

population, it is necessary to help create social mobility and equity for these students using their

positive cultural characteristics.


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Positive Implications to Community Cultural Wealth

Much of the literature reviewed framed Hispanic/Latino college choices with challenges

that put this population at a deficit when it comes to college access. However, there are positive

implications to the cultural wealth that Hispanic/Latino students bring to their college search and

choice process. Although this does not fall under the four predictors of college choices, it is

important to validate the positive factors that contribute to the students who do decide to enroll in

college. This is necessary in order to be able to further highlight the positive implications of

community cultural wealth among Hispanic/Latino students who are at risk of making a negative

choices inregards to college. Yosso (2005) challenged Bourdieuean’s traditio

nal form of cultural

capital by considering community cultural wealth or assets that people of color bring to the

classroom and their lives. In particular, this model combats the idea that there should be a focus

on parents level of education but rather that the value that parents put on education is more of an

indicator of their children’s success (Bergerson, 2009). Yosso (2005) described the seven forms

of capital as aspirational, linguistic, familial, social, cultural, navigational, and resistant. These

forms of capital prove why some Hispanic/Latinos do choose to attend college. For example,

although students lack financial resources to attend college, they use their resistant capital to face

the negative challenge and find a way to afford college. In the situation of a lack of academic

preparation, these students utilize their aspirational capital to maintain hope in their academic

endeavors as they search for academic support on college campuses. In terms of support from

others, Hispanic/Latinos use their familial and social capital to find strength in their history and

in their network of people to help guide them. Finally, although many of these students do not

receive proper information regarding the college choice process, they could inquire information

by using navigational and social capital.


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It is clear that by focusing on the assets Hispanic/Latino students bring to the table can be

very beneficial to their college choice and enrollment. For example, according to Saenz and

Ponjuan (2009), Latino males are not attending college because of social pressures and because

their culture identifies males as their family providers and not as academics. However, their

strong family network can be used to support academic achievement and therefore, providing for

their family. It is up to families, communities, peers, teachers, and counselors to view the

positive assets of Hispanic/Latinos as essential to their college choice process to validate their

culture and worth. It seems counterintuitive to have them play the victim card but still expect

them to succeed. It is important to make sure the community cultural wealth model becomes a

well-known model; in particular in communities in which underserved and minority populations

are served. Engberg and Wolniak (2010) emphasized the importance to encourage human,

social, and cultural capital in communities in which the sharing of capital is scarce because of the

positive influence in enrollment patterns. “Working-class minority students are especially

dependent on nonf amilial institutional agents for essential college-related information,

particularly if they are the first in their family or community to attend college” (Perna & Jones,

2013, p. 14). Therefore, there is a large need for all stakeholders involved with the college

enrollment process for Hispanic/Latino students to focus on the assets rather than the deficits of

these students.

IV. Conclusions and Recommendations

Hispanic/Latino students face many challenges when deciding which college to attend.

Most ar e faced with lack of financial resources to be able to afford college. The majority is not

academically ready to attend college or at least feel that they are not prepared. Moreover, some

lack proper support and guidance. Finally, for the most part, they are not informed enough about


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colleges and financial aid. However, the biggest challenge Hispanic/Latino students face is not

one of the factors that predicts college choice and enrollment, rather it is the negative focus that

individuals who guide students have on Hispanic/Latinos. Those who believed in the community

cultural wealth of Hispanic/Latino students helped them make positive college choices and they

enrolled in college. Their supporters believed in their positive attributes and used those to aid

them in the college choice process. Of course, in order to help individuals see the power that the

community cultural wealth model can have on college access, it is important to take on various

recommendation that incorporate this model to various activities and the stakeholders of college

access.

First, it is highly recommended that Hispanic/Latinos become educated about how to be

more financially savvy in order to save for their children’s higher education. Moreover, it is

critical that families r eceive more information about financial options and how to get need- based

aid (Gardner, 2005). Politically, more grants should be made available to low-income minorities

who could benefit from a higher education and social mobility. By increasing the education of

financial literacy

to Hispanic/Latinos, it can become a part of their new navigational capital.

Secondly, in terms of academic preparedness, it is necessary for school officials and policy

makers to increase the resources for schools to implement their academic rigor and coursework

that would allow students to be competitive enough to get into selective institutions. Moreover,

schools must stop tracking students and should evaluate their assets rather than categorize them

by testing. Additionally, colleges and universities should look at the community of cultural

wealth that Hispanic/Latinos bring to their institution rather than admit them by test scores.

Third, in order to increase the positive support for Hispanic/Latino students, parents and

community members should be more involved in the college information search and choice


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process. It is necessary, precisely for Hispanic/Latino who value family and community, to find

support from those who they care about. Students should also be put into groups in which they

have positive outlooks on college in order to be support systems for each other. For example, the

Posse Foundation allows students to share high academic expectations with each other and

therefore reassuring their aspirational capital (Bowen et al., 2009). Moreover, it is important for

teachers and guidance counselors to instill high expectations for all their students (Zarate &

Burciaga, 2010). Furthermore, each student should be treated as an individual; so information

and assistance should be tailored to the unique students whom individuals assist (Perna, 2005).

Finally, in order to increase the information these students receive it is valuable tocreate more

support services and intervention programs. The programs should focus on the capital these

students bring to the college application process and students should feel comfortable accessing

them (Martinez, 2003). Programs like Upward Bound and TRIO have had long term success

because of their focus on minority and low-income students who need the assistance (Rodriguez

et al., 2014).

Focusing on access and completion among minorities is not

enough; there needs to be a

conscious goal of improving upward mobility in order to create more successful equitable

postsecondary education (Carnevale & Strohl, 2010). With this in mind, further research must

be done to identify more ways in which aspirational, linguistic, familial, social, cultural,

navigational, and resistant capital can be utilized to increase upward mobility among

Hispanic/Latinos after they obtain their higher education. Additionally, more research could be

gathered on how to best educate and explain financial aid and debt to Hispanic/Latinos.

Furthermore, it would be beneficial to gain a deeper understanding about how bilingual students

are affected in their perception of academic readiness for college. In addition, it is important to


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understand how we can educate parents to be advocates for their children and how to train

counselors to include the community cultural wealth model in their advising methods. Above all,

the most research that is lacking is the explaining about how Hispanic/Latino students seek and

gather college information in the search stage of their process. It is possible to discover ways in

which the search influences their college choice. By increasing research, college enrollment and

social mobility for this population can increase and under matching will decrease. College

access and awareness can improve for the rapidly growing Hispanic/Latino population with the

implementation of positive resources and further research.


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