fractured states and u.s. foreign...

Fractured States and U.S. Foreign Policy

This page intentionally left blank

Fractured States and U.S.Foreign Policy: Iraq, Ethiopia,

and Bosnia in the 1990s

Evelyn Farkas

FRACTURED STATES AND U.S. FOREIGN POLICY

© Evelyn N. Farkas, 2003.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in anymanner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of briefquotations embodied in critical articles or reviews.

First published 2003 byPALGRAVE MACMILLAN™175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 and Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, England RG21 6XS.Companies and representatives throughout the world.

PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Farkas, Evelyn N.Fractured states and U.S. foreign policy : Iraq, Ethiopia, and Bosnia in

the 1990s / Evelyn Farkas.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.

1. United States—Foreign relations—1989– 2. United States—Foreignrelations—Iraq. 3. United States—Foreign relations—Ethiopia. 4. UnitedStates—Foreign relations—Bosnia and Hercegovina. 5. Iraq—Foreign relations—United States. 6. Ethiopia—Foreign relations—United States.7. Bosnia and Hercegovina—Foreign relations—United States.I. Title: Fractured states and US foreign policy. II. Title.

E881.F365 2003 327.73�009�049—dc21 2003049872

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Design by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India.

First edition: November, 200310 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2003 978-1-4039-6373-4

ISBN 978-1-349-52765-6 ISBN 978-1-4039-8243-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9781403982438

ISBN 978-1-349-52765-6

To Edit and Charles Farkas

Those who are gifted with the moral power of love and vision of spiritualunity, who have the least feeling of enmity against aliens, and the sympa-thetic insight to place themselves in the position of others, will be the fittestto take their permanent place in the age that is lying before us, and those whoare constantly developing their instinct for fight and intolerance of aliens willbe eliminated.

Rabindranath Tagore, Nationalism*

* Rabindranath Tagore, Nationalism (Calcutta, India: Rupa & Co, 1992), 79–80.

Contents

Preface xi

Maps on pages (xiv–xvi)

Introduction 1

Chapter 1 Managing Ethnic Conflict 5

Chapter 2 Iraq 17

Chapter 3 Ethiopia 47

Chapter 4 Bosnia-Hercegovina 71

Chapter 5 Conclusions 109

Notes 127

Bibliography 147

Index 165

Preface

T he journey to this book began in 1996, as I made my way along a winding rock-strewn road perched among the jagged Bosnianhills between Sarajevo and the small town of Gorazde. I spent the

next five months working in this town, a so-called safe area during the Bosnian war, which had managed to fend of Serb attacks and remain inthe control of its majority Muslim inhabitants. The price for this success wasgeographic isolation from the rest of the Muslim–Croat federation withinBosnia; the town was surrounded by the Serb-controlled territory of theSerbian republic. Gorazde was caught in the middle of the de facto partitionof Bosnia between the Muslim–Croat and Serb political and territorial enti-ties. And I was to become fascinated with the tragedy, past and present,which enveloped the state of Bosnia and its people. As a Human RightsOfficer for the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe(OSCE), I found myself arguing with a drunken judge in Serb-controlledRogatica over the fate of three Muslims from Gorazde who had been arrestedalong that winding road between Gorazde and Sarajevo. I popped a pickuptruck tire on a Hungarian-built pontoon bridge while French soldierswatched and ultimately rescued me and one of the two ethnic Serb leaders inGorazde, who sat, somewhat amused, in the backseat. Our foiled missionwas to visit an elderly ethnic Croat returnee. What I heard from ethnicMuslims, Serbs, and Croats during my time there spurred me to embarkupon a study of the process that leads to partition, de facto, and de jure.

I returned to Bosnia in 1997, and again in 2000, when I also had theopportunity to visit Kosovo and Macedonia, thanks to a grant from the AirForce Institute for National Security Studies. I saw how the forces that led topartition or de facto partition in places as disparate as Iraq, Ethiopia, andBosnia, were operating among the ethnic Albanian population inMacedonia. In a restaurant located in a castle set high above the city ofSkopje I was asked about the languages I spoke. When I uttered the fewwords of Albanian that I knew, the ethnic Albanian waiter exclaimed,

“Albanian! It’s the language of the future!” As the Slav manager angrilyhushed him and the other two waiters who had joined him for this exchange,I was struck by this manifestation of the impact of the war in Kosovo, andmore generally by the durability of the challenge of ethnic politics.

This book is essentially an edited doctoral dissertation, and therefore owesmuch to the individuals and institutions who supported me during theresearch and writing of the dissertation. If this book constitutes even a mod-est contribution to the field of international relations, it is a shared achieve-ment. I owe a tremendous debt to my family, friends, colleagues, and curiousindividuals who encouraged, assisted, and inspired me. Primary thanks goesto my principal advisor at The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy,Professor Robert Pfaltzgraff, and my two readers, Professors Richard Shultzand Eileen Babbitt. There were others at the Fletcher School who assistedme. General John Galvin, the Dean, gave generously of his time, allowing meto interview him more than once and sharing his own writing with me.Thanks are also due to Professors Arpad von Lazar and Hurst Hannum, aswell as Roberta Breen, Frieda Kilgallen, Polly Jordan, Bernadette Kelley-Lecesse, Karen McMaster, Carol Murphy, and Miriam Seltzer.

At the Marine Corps Command and Staff College, where I worked during most of the time that I was writing, I benefited from the enthusiasticand thoughtful support of my supervisors, Col. Kevin Conry, Col. RichardGoodale, and Col. Darrell Browning, as well as valuable assistance based ontheir own research from colleagues including Professors Gordon Rudd,Norm Cigar and Janeen Klinger. Others provided welcome encouragement,including Col. Sue Hoeft, Professors Jack Matthews, Doug McKenna, Chris Harmon, Mark Jacobsen, Kamal Beyoghlow, Rich DiNardo, and myteaching partners Colonels Jack Rees and Bill Kellner.

Several individuals that I interviewed for this project were especially generous with their time, including Ambassadors Bob Beecroft and Hank Cohen, Secretary Paul Wolfowitz, Dr. Andy Semmel, and Gil Kapen.My editor at Palgrave, Toby Wahl, was patient, responsive, and absolutelyessential to this project; he offered me encouragement and gave the book,life. Thanks go also to Heather Van Dusen and Ian Steinberg at Palgrave, andV. S. Mukesh at Newgen Imaging Systems. Dr. Bob Filippone, Dr. JamesAnderson, Dr. Peter and Monica de Janosi, Barbara and Charlie Vamossy,and Jennifer Whitaker served as unofficial mentors. Also, the followingfriends provided unfailing support throughout this project: Karen PapeJohnson, Sarah Allen Huq, Luisa Boverini, Desiree Filippone, Dr. RhodaMargesson, Gabriella Rigg, Camelia Mazard, and Anita and DougWeisburger. I also owe much to the inspiration given to me by the people

xii ● Preface

and my friends in Bosnia; this book is, in part, a tribute to their suffering andendurance. Penultimately, I thank my siblings—Mik, Elizabeth, and Maria.Maria served as my trusted editor and advisor during the tedious two-yearprocess of repeated revisions.

Finally, this book is dedicated to my parents. They raised me to believethat limits were only self-induced, and encouraged healthy ambition. Theirsearing experiences during the war and revolution in Hungary, and as immi-grants in New York, left an indelible legacy etched on the consciousness oftheir children. They taught us to take nothing for granted and to seek under-standing of other cultures, including those found around us everyday. Theyare the broader inspiration for this study. I hope that any redeeming quali-ties found in this book reflect brightly upon them. Let the shadow of theerrors, omissions, and slights of hand, fall only upon the author.

Preface ● xiii

✈✈

✈

✈

✈

✈

✈

✈

Sarajevo

Bogatic

Ugljevik

Krstac

Zvornik

Bratunac

Kamenica

Vlasenica

Cerska

Srebrenica

Sokolac

Rogatica

Priboj

Pljevlja

Avtovac

Nevesinje

Stolac

BlagajVrgorac

Medugorje

MetkovicOpuzen

Blato

Kalinovik

Trebinje

CetinjeKotor

PaleHrasnica

Fojnica

Rumboci Prozor

Duvno

MesihovinaVinica

Sinj

Ervenik

Bos.Grahovo

Titov Drvar Sipovo

Bos.Petrovac

Sanica

St. RijekaSanski Most

Krujpa-naVrbasu

Maslovare

Mladikovine

Turbe

Pucarevo

Kiseljak

Prnjavor

Miljanovci

Ivanjska

PrevicDerventa Odzak

Olovo

Jasenjani

JablanicaKonjic

Travnik

Vitez

BosanskaKrupa

BosanskaDubica

Piskavica

Srebrenik

Gacko

Prisoje

Kupres GornjiVakuf

Doboj

Maglaj

Kladanj

Skender-Vakuf

Jajce

Budva

Bar

Imotski

BosanskiNovi

Breza

Listica

Divulje

Srem.Metrovica

Herceg-Novi

Knin

Vosavka

Hvar

Trogir

Postire

Makarska

LivnoDrnis

Gracac

Trzac

Sturlic

V. Kladusa

Varoska-Rijeka

Kljuc

Glamoc

RaskoPolje

Ljubuski

Kocerin

G. Dreznica

Mrkonjic-Grad

Bileca

Cajnice

VisegradGorazde

Vogoscá

Tarcin

Busovaca

Zepa

OrahovackoPolje

Zepce

Vares

Banovici

Zavidovici

RadusaTeslic

GracanicaVuckovci

GradacacBrcko

BosanskaGradiska

Korcul

a

Bajina Basta

BanjaKoviljaca

Konjevici

FocaOmis

Bijeljina

Tuzla

Zenica

Vinkovci

Mostar

Dubrovnik

Split

Banja Luka

Prijedor

Loznica

Niksic

Sid

Bac. PalankaN. Gradiska

Sibenik

Podgorica

Sabac

Bihac

Sava

Vrbas

Danube

Sava

Una

Sana

Una

Bosna

Dri

na

Drina

Piva

LakeScutari

A D R I A T I C S E A

Krivaja

Lim

Neretva

Tara

Drina

Spreca

aksrotoKakoB

Busko jezero

ˆ

Ramskojezero

Jablanickojezero

ˆ

Hvar

Korcula

Lastovo

Mljet

Solta

Mali Drvenik

Veliki Drvenik

Pakleni Otoci

VisSvetac

D

a

l

m

a

t

i a

PeljesacPeninsula

B r a c

Susac

Sipan

Ciovo

Bisevo

Scedro

SERBIA

MONTENEGRO

VOJVODINA

B O S N I A C - C R O A T F E D E R A T I O N

REPUBLIKA SRPSKA

REPUBLIKASRPSKA

CROATIA

CROATI A

AL

BA

NIA

SER

BIA

AN

DM

ON

TE

NE

GR

O

Map No. 3729 Rev. 3 UNITED NATIONSFebruary 2003

Department of Public InformationCartographic Section

The boundaries and names shown and the designations usedon this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

National capital

Town, village

International boundary

Inter-entity boundary line

Republic boundary

Provincial boundary

Main road

Secondary road

Railroad

Airport✈

BOSNIA ANDHERZEGOVINA

0

0 10 20 30 40 50 km

10 20 30 mi

42°

43°

44°

45°

19° 18°

45°

44°

43°

42°

16°

17° 18° 19°

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

✈✈

✈

✈

✈ ✈✈

✈

✈✈

✈

✈

✈

✈

✈

✈

✈

✈

✈✈

✈

✈✈

✈

✈

✈

✈✈

✈

✈

✈

Hosa'ina

Adan (Aden)

Mek'ele

Dese

Weldiya

Debre Birhan

Harer

Debre Mark'os

GonderMetema

Sinnar

Wad Medani

BarentuSebderat

Atbara

Idi

Inghel

Tio

Himora

Adi Quala

Ed Damazin

Assab

Serdo

MersaFatuma

Teseney

Nakfa

Af'abet

AlghienaSala

Mersa Gulbub

Kassala

Gedaref

Goba

KibreMenguist

Awasa

Moyale

Kusa Dolo Bay

Galadi

Gore Agaro

Arba Minch'

Nek'emte

Yirga 'Alem

Asela

HargeysaBurco

Ceerigaabo

Caluula

Qardho

Karin

GarooweLaascaanood

Boosaaso

Gaalkacyo

Hobyo

Dhuusamarreeb

Beledweyne

BuulobardeXuddur

Baydhabo

Mombasa

Malindi

Lamu

Embu

Eldoret

Lokichar

TororoJinja

Tilka

MachakosMosoma

Mwanza

Shinyanga

Tanga

Wajir

Habaswein

Meru

Ramu

Laisamis

Voi

Loiyangalani

Maralal

Lodwar

Moroto

Garissa

Banya

Kisumu

Kericho

Kakamega

Nyeri

Nanyuki

Nakuru

Jawhar

Ceeldheere

Garbahaarrey

Marka

Baraawe

Kismaayo

BilisQooqaani

Buur Gaabo

Bu'aale

Baardheere

Jilib

Jamaame

Xaafuun

Bandarbeyla

Al GhaydahMa'rib

Sa'dah

Ta'izz

'Ataq-Dhamar-

Al Bayda'-

-Shaykh 'Uthman

Ibb

-Abha

-Jizan-

SaylacDikhil

Berbera

ObockTadjoura

Bati

AksumAdigrat

Bahir Dar

Jijiga

Boorama

Degeh Bur

Dire Dawa

Mega

Buna

Takaba

Murle

Akobo

Gambela

Gidami

Kigille

Kapoeta

Bure

Fiche

Dembi Dolo

Imi

Ferfer

Shewa Gimira

Arusha

Moshi

'Ali Sabih

K'ebri Dehar

Jima

Negele

Nazret

-Najran

Mitsiwa'e

HagereHiywet

Sodo

Mojo

Omhajer

Guba

Goha

Sek'ot'a

Gewané

Ginir

Adwa

Werder

Shilabo

FiltuGaradase

Sogata

Yeki

Debark'

Butyaalo

Eyl

Xamure

War Galoh

Luug

Shendi

Singar

Kurmuk

Mendi

Gimbi

TowotPibor Post

Pibor Post

Todenyang

LokwaKangole

North Horr

Nyahururu

Namanga

Kilifi

Garsen

Archer's Post

El Wak

Al Mukalla-

Al Qunfudhah

Al HudaydahAsh Shihr

Ahwar

Balhaf-

Saywun-Shabwah

Thamud-

HajjahKhartoumAsmara

Djibouti

Muqdisho(Mogadishu)

Nairobi

Addis Ababa

- San'a' (Sanaa)

ETHIOPIA

DJIBOUTI

ERITREA

KENYA

SOMALIA

SAUDI ARABIA

YEMEN

UNITED REPUBLIC OF

TANZANIA

SUDAN

UGANDA

DahlakArchipelago

Jaza'ir' Farasan

--

Gwardafuy

Gees

Pemba I.


Map No. 4188 UNITED NATIONSApril 2003

The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

National capital

Town, village

Airport

International boundary

Road

Railroad

✈

0 100 200 300

0 100 200 300 mi

400 500 km

HORN OF AFRICA

AdministrativeBoundary

Gulf of Aden

Red Sea

INDIAN OCEAN

LakeVictoria

Lake Turkana(Lake Rudolf)

Ch'ew Bahir

T'anaHayk

AbayaHayk

Ch'amoHayk

Bab

al M

andab

Nile

Dinder

White

Nile

Atbara

Wabe Shebele

Wabe Gestro

GenaleDawa

Pibor

Akobo

Gilo Wenz

Tekeze

Abay

Abay (B lue Nile)

Awash

Webi S

habe

lle

Webi Jubba

Lak Dera

Tana

Laga

Bor

Galana

L. Eyasi

L. Natron

Athi

Eyl

Darro

Pangani

Omo

L. Manyara

BlueN

ile

10°

15°

45°40°

5°

0°

5°

5°

0°

40° 45° 50°

15°

10°

50°

35°

¸

RazzazaLakeWadi al Ghadawi

--

-¸

-

Euphrates

Hawr al Hammar -

Shatt al Arab

PersianGulf

Tigris

Shatt alG

harraf

Euphrates

TharthaLake

-

Nah

ral

Khab

ur

--

Gre

at

Zab

Little

Zab

Nahr al 'Uzaym

Daryacheh-yeOrumiyeh

(Lake Urmia)

--

Tigris

Nahr

Diy

alá-

HabbaniyahLake

¸ -

Qezel Owzan

Rudhhaneh-ye Simareh

--

-

Wadi al Ubayyid- -

Wadi i Hawran

- - -

Buhayrat alQadisiyah-

-

As Salman-

Makhfar al Busayyah

Rafha

-Hafar al Batin

Al Hayy

Al Faw-

Al Jahrah

Abu Sukhayr-

Khorramabad- -

Kermanshah- -

Al Hadr

'Anah-

Tawuq- -

Abu Kamal- -

'Akashat- -

Trebil

Al Walid

Ar Raqqah

Dayr az Zawr

Ar Rutbah

'Aqrah

Zakhu- -

Hakkâri

Tall 'AfarSinjar-

Makhmur-Kuysanjaq-

Al Qayyarah

Rayat- -

Ilam- -

Shaykh Sa'd

Mehran-

Dehloran-

Al Qurnah

-Qal'at SalihQaryat al Gharab

Umm Qasr

Qal'at Sukkar

Zanjan-

Ar'ar

Judayyidat 'Ar'ar

Jalibah-

Al Ahmadi-

'Ali al Gharbi- -

Hit-

Al Hadithah-Khanaqin

Qasr-e Shirin- -

Borujerd-

Bayji-

Mianeh--

Al Fallujah-

Kho

rram

shahr

Al Habbaniyah

--

Nukhayb

-A

l Qa'im

Dezful-

Ahvaz-

Hamadan-

Sanandaj

Al Qamishli-- Miandowab--

Orumiyeh(Umia)

--

Aba

da

n

--

Kirkuk-

Al Mawsil(Mosul)

Dahuk-

Samarra'Samarra'- -

An Najaf

Al Hillah Al Kut-Karbala'-

Al 'Amarah-

Al Basrah

Ba'qubah-

An Nasiriyah- -

Ad Diwaniyah- - -

Ar Ramadi- -

Arbil-

Halabjah-

AsSulaymaniyah- -

As Samawah

-

Baghdad

Kuwait

A L A N B A R-

AL MUTHANNÁ

MAYSAN-

DIYALÁ-

BAGHDAD

ARBIL-

-N I N A W Á

DAHUK-

BABIL-

AL QADISIYAH--

AN NAJAF

ATTA'MIM

-

SALAH AD DIN

--

AL BASRAH

DHI QAR- -

KARBALA'-

W A S I T-

AS

SU

LA

YM

AN

IYA

H-

-

IRAQ

National capitalGovernorate capitalTown, villageAirportInternational boundaryGovernorate boundaryExpresswayMain roadSecondary roadRailroad

Map No. 3835 Rev. 3 UNITED NATIONSDecember 2002


The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

IRAQ

0 100 15050

0 100 15015050 200

200 mi

300 km

36°

34°

32°

30°

28°

36°

34°

32°

30°

42° 44° 46° 48°

42° 44° 46° 48°

S A U D I A R A B I A

KUWAIT

T U R K E Y

JOR

DA

N

SYRIAN ARABREPUBLIC

ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF

I R A N

fractured states and u.s. foreign...

Documents