foucault in the school setting (revised)
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On the Implications ofFoucaults Theory ofDiscipline andPunishment in theEducational Setting
November 17
2009In this paper I will attempt to reveal the role of
power and knowledge in the educationalsetting and how its role has transformed overthe course of the past century. I will explainhow the human sciences have played a largerole on how we view ourselves as well as ourstudents. Finally, the reader will have theopportunity to ascertain and reflect on
Foucaults concepts of normalization andexamination issues, profound as they may be.
The Effect ofPower in theEducationalSetting
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This paper will attempt to show and in the process I hope achieve two fundamental
objectives:
1. A proper treatment and illumination of Foucaults views on power, knowledgeand discipline in institutional settings.
2. Apply Foucaults discourse on Discipline and Punishment to institutionalstructures such as mine (traditional schools and institutions of higher learning).
In Foucaults ground breaking study Discipline and Punishment, the birth of the prison,
Foucault points out key observations on relationships between power and knowledge,
power and discipline, power and truth. The central thread that runs through these
multifaceted relationships is his critique of examination which he noted was cloaked
under the veil of normalization techniques.
Foucaults discourse on power and discipline offers the reader fundamental insights
into the dynamic nature of power. His discourse on this topic offers a translatable
ideology that upon further reflection lends itself to practical applications in the
classroom.
At the very core of this study is Foucaults keen observation that knowledge and truth
are transmitted through a power scheme. This scheme is in turn composed of a bundle
of what I would like to call sub-components. These sub-components are: surveillance,
examination, normalization, discipline, observation and technology.
They are in a Foucauldian sense the essential substituents that course through power
and as a result allocate to power the distinction as being the great distributor and in
effect Foucault will implicate the human sciences as being the origin of this power
transmission by way of these sub-components: (surveillance, examination, etc).
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According to my interpretation of Foucault the human sciences can be viewed as the
sheath or coil that generates and transmits power in this multiphase state. In Discipline
and Punishment Foucault points out a few of these key tenants used to generate
hierarchal power used by 18th and 19th century carceral systems: surveillance,
normalization and examination.
The focus of my second objective deals with translatable issues as they regard to
Foucaults main objective: The awareness that educational institutions such as ours can
be seen as structures cloaked under the veil of normalization conditions and an inherent
multi-phase power structure that has modernized itself from a setting of torture
(originated in 19th century prisons) to an Orwellian setting of control and examination.
In this treatment and analysis of institutions Foucault is trying to make us see that
educational settings such as ours are inherently controlled by multi-phase check and
balance structures that have for the past century institutionally normalized the mass of
students (individualization), thereby creating a controlled and structured environment
where the non-normative (deviant) student is more easily grouped and classified. So
how should the teacher of today perceive Foucaults treatment of this subject? How
should one look at the curriculum of today in the context of Foucault?
As for curriculum and instruction, Foucaults treatment of the individual self indirectly
leads us to try different methods of classroom methodologies.
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Some differentiated methods might entail: Moving from formal distribution in space to
cooperative learning environments, from control of activity to differentiated learning,
from hierarchical observation to active learning and from normalizing judgment and
examination to authentic assessment strategies.
In Discipline and Punishment, Foucault makes note of relationships between power
and knowledge, power and discipline, power and truth and critical insights into
normalization discourse. Foucaults discourse on power and discipline offers the reader
fundamental insights into the dynamic nature of power. His discourse on this topic
offers a translatable ideology that upon further reflection lends itself to practical
applications in the classroom.
In Discipline and Punishment Foucault makes reference to Benthams Panoptican as a
method of using then state of the art surveillance and demonstrates through his
discourse how these surveillance practices took shape over the course of time. Another
important point is the creation of the knowledge by the human sciences. According to
Foucault the human sciences are primarily comprised of: anthropology, psychology,
sociology and psychiatry.
Over the course of the century these disciplines known as the human sciences have
taken control of power by creating a form of knowledge through a process of discourse
that came to invent the word Norm.
Norms are typically defined by people in position of power as the modeling of
authoritative standards. The concept of Norm has had a way of categorizing and
bracketing individuals who dont fit the stereotypical normal type.
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As a result, words such as abnormal and deviant, which had never existed prior to
the human sciences now came into play. In his study, Foucault points out that norms
were used extensively in labeling delinquents and prisoners in the carceral system.
His point is that power and knowledge are interconnected and that instances involving
norms are used by the human sciences to exert power over the population in order to
control them. As a result, norms have come to play a pivotal role in controlling and
categorizing the masses.
Prisoners according to Foucault were also punished through the control of time and
space. If we make careful note, school systems are similar in many aspects. The
control through space and movement is integral in a typical school and is inherently
built into the architecture of the school.
The front offices (principals office, APs office) are typically centrally located for
surveillance purposes. In this sense Foucault (1976) claims that surveillance was
integrated into the teaching relationship (p. 175). As a result of such hierarchical
observation, Foucault (1976) states it is a mechanism that is inherent to it and which
increases its efficacy (p. 176).
Individualization occurred as the masses were filtered in the penitentiary to become the
subject of individualization. According to Foucault, individualization is not necessarily
a good thing because the subject is being controlled through time and space. Foucault
reasoned that ultimately power and truth were somehow interconnected. So, through
the use of knowledge, those in control of power will also lay claim to truth.
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Foucault wants us to realize that ultimately that truth is not only manipulated through
power it is a direct derivative of power. How is this accomplished? To begin with if
knowledge is held sacred by a few and then distributed spatially through structural
mechanisms then power comes into play and conveys to the subject that the knowledge
in question is ultimately the truth.
He notes that power is not always necessarily in the form that we have come to
recognize it as. Foucault once said Where freedom exists, power takes shape. Power
is always present and needs freedom to exist in order for it to exist, essentially we all
come free and by doing so through necessity create a power grabbing constructed
reality by its own definition. A group or individual assigns himself or presumes
power while the other(s) relinquish their freedom in return. Foucault (1983)
emphasizes: power is exercised only over free subjects, and only insofar as they are
free (p. 221).
Now, I believe that using the word freedom does not necessarily describe someone as
being stripped of all choices (e.g. Prisoners). However, I believe that Foucault may not
have necessarily implied it in that manner, instead I believe that as a result freedom is
somehow marginalized in a reciprocal manner.
In order to see this more clearly I will call into play a more relevant analogy that I will
call the Sliding Scale of Power (SSP). On the one hand, those that acquire power
have the opportunity to relinquish some power in exchange with the oppressed
through the SSP scenario.
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Foucault uses the term agonism to express the reciprocal nature of this power
scenario. According to Foucault agonism implies a relationship which is at the same
time reciprocal incitation and struggle (p. 222).
In order for this to occur we must take a closer look at the concept called power and
how it relates to this scale (SSP). In order to understand the true nature of power one
must realize that power isnt static or uni-directional in nature, instead it appears to be
polymorphic and somewhat analogous to the circulatory system in ones body. In The
History of Sexuality Foucault (1976) is interested in the polymorphous techniques of
power (pg. 11). Power appears to somehow be exercised through various strategies
and tactics. Power is everywhere all the time and moving in a freely chosen state. The
point according to Foucault is that the practitioner of power becomes aware of its
systemic effect and how it is focused and used on the subject or body.
In Discipline and Punishment there appears to be three central tenants in Foucaults
theory of knowledge and power: Observation, Normalization and Examination.
What is key here is how the teacher internalizes these key concepts in order to
investigate his/her philosophy of education. How can an educator best utilize the basic
points made by Foucault in order to run a more fair and equitable classroom.
In this paper I will approach Foucaults philosophy with a two-pronged perspective.
First, Id like to demonstrate the connection between Foucaults philosophies
concerning Power, knowledge and truth and its un-seeming connection with the
teachers perspective in todays world.
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Secondly, I will demonstrate the possibilities available to the educator once he/she has
made the initial connection with Foucault. Once this connection is made he/she must
ask oneself: What are the best practices that an educator can achieve in context with
Foucaults basic teachings.
First, the most relevant connection made between the educator and Foucaults discourse
on discipline and punishment is his topic on power. Schools have an uncanny
resemblance to other power structures in place; chiefly prisons, hospitals and factories.
In Discipline and Punishment Foucault makes note of the Panoptical concept, it s
connective relevancy is quite remarkable when one notes that a schools have the same
basic structure as any of the other entities noted above. In my experience many
teachers appear to be unconsciously aware of the power structure inherent in their
school layout. The power Im referring to is inherently circulated throughout the school
with oversight and observation conducted at every individual point of the structure.
If power is dynamic and in a polymorphous state then its accurately described in a
setting such as mine where principals, counselors and teachers all share in the transfer
of power as it relates to the students and amongst themselves.
Whats of interest here is that once individuals set foot in the school institutions the
roles of power are immediately assigned to them in a true Foucauldian fashion.
According to Foucault freedom is inextricably linked to power, freedom exists until
roles are filled with respect to positions of power, one cannot exist without the other.
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Teachers observe the students carefully, observation is immediately conducted upon
entry into the institution which brings me to Foucaults first tenant: Hierarchical
Observation and surveillance.
Not only are students being watched, but so are the teachers. To make a point, when I
enter my principals office she has four small TV monitors behind her desk for continual
observation and surveillance. Each set carefully monitors activities at key points
around the school. Security officers also act as a portal of power by also scrutinizing
activities in the courtyard and in the hallways with security cameras.
Surveillance is a key aspect of Foucaults observance and application of power.
As posited earlier, power therefore appears to be dynamic and systemic throughout an
institution such as my school. As a result of Foucaults discourse related to Power and
Knowledge, I myself have become more aware of a phenomenon that I would like to
describe as either being latent or impulsive power suppression.
In the case of latent power, suppression of the educator occurs through scenarios such
as mandated teacher meetings, required pedagogical paperwork, and other such
activities that are subliminally felt through an all pervasive power of which I will call
latent power. Consequences can arise as a result of repeated attempts to get the subject
(in this case the teacher) to acquiesce to required constraints or demands imposed on
them. Repeated failure to acquiesce results in a write-up and trips to the principals
office. No one is immune to this phenomenon of latent power.
Teachers, counselors, assistant principals, officers, even the principal are all answerable
to latent forms of power, all manifested in different forms.
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The second form, impulsive suppressive power occurs instantaneously in situations
where its immediately needed to suppress the subject and turn him or her into a docile
body. Foucault speaks of this phenomenon through use of the term docile bodies.
Examples of this form of disciplinary power occur in departmental meetings and
faculty meetings. In these meetings I have witnessed teachers abruptly stopped in mid-
sentence and submit themselves as docile bodies if they are a.) late to meetings b.)
talking out of line at meetings or c.) coerced to sign documents at meetings.
This type of impulsive power is quick and immediate and a teacher must decide on the
spot if they are going to submit to this form of power or else be prepared to pay a
consequence as a result of not acquiescing.
As for the classroom, power is manifested through and around the students (due to its
polymorphous nature) and obviously more so then it is for teachers and administrators.
Like educators, students immediately assume roles upon entering the school ground.
They become subjected through the use of controlled power which implements itself in
three forms: 1.) Hierarchical Observation, 2.) Normalizing Judgments and 3.)
Examination. Students, whether in class or anywhere in the school system are
constantly under the guise of hierarchical observation and surveillance. Student IDs
are a form of observation and control.
In an analogous manner students are traced by ID card and categorized from their
freshman year to their senior year as in Foucaults example of the carceral system.
Counselors, APs and teachers track and categorize students by name, race, sex,
ethnicity and ability.
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Students many times (at this age at least) are totally unaware of this form of power and
control. This is a classic example of power running through and around the student
population, manifesting itself acutely and latently as mentioned in the previous
paragraphs.
Cameras and security are other forms of control that exert themselves discretely and
pervasively throughout the school institution. Just think of the number of cameras and
security officers who monitor school rooms, hallways, cafeterias, principals offices,
restrooms and outside perimeters. The technology used for this type of surveillance
and ultimately examination is evolving and integrating seamlessly with other
authorities like those of the police force and other jurisdictional officials.
It is also a known fact that discipline implemented through the mechanism of power
has become thoroughly modernized by way of technology and the school personnel
who use it. Teachers like counselors and principals use computer technology to track
and examine students.
Teachers use computers to input scores through examination and transmit attendance
to office officials. Truancy is as a result of the teachers actions, systematically punished.
This is only accomplished through the use of registrar and attendance officials who pass
along a form of polymorphous power through their use of data on students.
Secondly, normalizing judgments are far deeper and complex issues that were
investigated in extensive detail in Foucaults workArchaeology of Knowledge.
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From this perspective students are systematically placed in categories based on
normalization techniques developed over the past few centuries by the discourses now
known to us as the human sciences.
As example, Special Ed and 504 students are labeled as such due to historical data
based on what normal wasconsidered to be. As previously mentioned the objectified
use of the term norm was created by the fields of medicine, psychiatry, and
psychology. Its not that these practices are unethical or incorrect, we must try to see
and penetrate through broken discourses from the past that ultimately norms have long
been established in the past have evolved in order to systematically subject the body to
a form of power derived thru knowledge. In Discipline and Punishment, Foucault
discusses these practices by way of radical discourse on the insurrection of subjugated
knowledges. Instead of writing a history of the past in terms of the present day,
Foucault (1976) aims at writing the history of the present (p. 31).
I would like to say that the proper perspective could take on these salient points is that
we are all victims of these forms of power. Norms rule our lives in a pervasive and
fluid like manner that we as teachers often fail to question even when they are part of
our day to day objectives. Instead, we should question the history of knowledge that
is so often associated with normalizing judgment. As Foucault (1983) puts it the
political, ethical, social, philosophical problem of our days is not to try to liberate us
both from the state and from the type of individualization which is linked to the state.
We have to promote new forms of subjectivity through the refusal of this kind of
individuality which has been imposed on us for several centuries (p. 216).
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In the classroom students are quite often the most victimized when it comes to
judgmental normalization and counselors as well as teachers often contribute to such
questionable practices that often have far reaching implications for the subjected
student. Teachers who have become cognizant of such discursive practices can better
empathize with the plight of the subjugated or oppressed.
The teacher in classes such as mine should question the validity of such normalization
techniques. Its through profound reflection and close examination of competing
theories that a teacher will be better prepared for a more rewarding and enriching
career in education.
Third, we as educator often fail to realize the extent examination plays in our
institutional setting. Students are subjected to many forms of examination and
academic testing albeit an important one is not what I believe Foucault was alluding to.
The docile body or individual is a participant in examination the minute he or she starts
at the elementary level and it continues until the pupil has left the school system of his
locality. Examination embodies the first and second tenants Foucault has made use of:
observation and normalization. But it also is part of the bigger umbrella in which the
student not only is part and parcel to these two disciplinary techniques but also the
scrutiny that the academic institutions impose on the individual by various
examination techniques.
There are many forms of examination that are polymorphous and yet also obvious at
times.
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Examination by observation and surveillance, examination of the individual that leads
at times to unnecessary categorization, examination by testing, examination of a
students background, examination of students placed in isolation are all techniques that
are Foucauldian by nature.
When a teacher reflects and perceives the meaning of Foucaults quest through
examination of discursive practices without falling prey to inductively tainted
normalization stereotypes will he gain a much fuller and better understanding of his
educational surroundings and what it really is like to work in an institutional setting.
As for curriculum policy and the plight of the student in the classroom the teachers
best hope is to gain enough experience in order to bend the arc of discursive practices
back and to tie the past to the present in order to see how certain types of knowledge
shaped over the course of the past few centuries have left an indelible foot print on our
current state of education today.
The role of the teacher should be to free the student and curriculum from such
discursive practices of knowledge and normative subjugation.
These concepts may at first appear difficult or for all intensive purposes impossible to
implement. However, for the cognizant teacher.they will always be open to examination
and reflection.
It is up to the educator to decide
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REFERENCES
Foucault, M. (1983). The Subject and Power. In H.L. Dreyfus & P. Rainbow,MichelFoucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics (2nd ed.) (pp. 208 226). Chicago:The University of Chicago.
Foucault, M. (1990/1976). The History of Sexuality: An Introduction. Vol. 1. Trans. R.
Hurley. New York: Vintage.
Foucault, M. (1991/1975). Discipline and Punishment: The Birth of the Prison. Trans.A. Sheridan. London: Penguin.