forsyth public concern about transboundary haze 2014

7/25/2019 forsyth Public Concern About Transboundary Haze 2014

1/79

Tim Fo rs y th

Public concerns about transboundary haze:

a comparison of Indonesia, Singapore, andMalaysia

Article (Accepted ersion!("efereed!

#riginal citation:Forsyth, Tim (2014) Public concerns about transboundary haze: a comparison of Indonesia,Singapore, and Malaysia, G lobal E n v ir on m en t al C han g e , 25, pp.!"#!. $%%& 0'5'"#0*$+10. 101!- .g loenvha. 2014. 01. 01

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Public concerns about transboundary haze: a

1

Singapore, and Malaysia

Tim Forsyth

Department of International Development, London School ofEconomics and Political

Science, Lonfon WC2A 2AE !"

t # f o r s y t h $ l s e a c % &

Published in: Global Environmental Change '2()*+
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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Singapore, andMalaysia

Abstract

P%lic concerns ao%t environmental prolems create narrative

str%ct%res that infl%ence policy y allocatin- roles of lame,

responsiility, and appropriate ehavior This paper presents an

analysis of p%lic concerns ao%t transo%ndary ha.e res%ltin- from

forest fires in Indonesia, Sin-apore, and /alaysia for crises e0perienced

in )11, 2((3 and 2()4 The so%rce of the information is content

analysis of 2,24) articles from representative ne5spapers in each

co%ntry The st%dy sho5s that ne5spaper reportin- ao%t ha.e has

chan-ed from a disc%ssion of the potential health and economic impacts

of fires res%ltin- partly nat%rally from El 6i7o8ind%ced dro%-hts,

to5ards an increasin- vilification of Indonesia for not ratifyin- the

2((2 Association of So%th East Asian 6ations 'ASEA6+ A-reement on

Transo%ndary 9a.e Poll%tion: pl%s criticism of Sin-aporean and

/alaysian companies investin- in palm oil plantations, and ASEA6

Attention to climate chan-e and potential iodiversity loss lin&ed to

ha.e, ho5ever, remains lo5 The paper ar-%es that ne5spaper

analysis of p%lic concerns, despite political infl%ences on the

press, offers insi-hts into ho5 p%lic criticism is voiced in these

co%ntries, and ho5 perceived responsiility for action is chan-in-

"E;W ha.e, forest fires, palm oil, p%lic %nderstandin-s of ris&,ASEA6, So%theast Asia


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Public concerns about transboundary haze: a comparison ofIndonesia, Singapore, and

Malaysia

1.Introduction

Transo%ndary ha.e ca%sed y forest fires in Indonesia has

affected air ?%ality in nei-horin- Sin-apore and /alaysia for a

n%mer of years While there are records of smo&e and ha.e

occ%rrin- efore the )11(s, ha.e 5as noted to e a ma#or prolem in

)11 5hen the cities of "%ala L%mp%r, Sin-apore, and to a lesser e0tent

@an-&o&, @r%nei anda&arta, 5ere affected y smo&e for some 5ee&s

5ith 5idespread concerns ao%t impacts on health and economies In

2((2, the Association of So%th East Asian 6ations'ASEA6+

a-reed to

the ASEA6 A-reement on Transo%ndary 9a.e Poll%tion 'ASEA6, 2((2+,

5hich so%-ht to implement meas%res to prevent the forest fires

leadin- to ha.e Indonesia, ho5ever, is the only memer of ASEA6 not

to ratify this a-reement 9a.e contin%es to e a prolem, 5ith

si-nificant crises arisin- in 2((3 and in 2()4, 5here s%ccessively

hi-her records of air poll%tion 5ere meas%red in /alaysia and Sin-apore

This paper contri%tes to the political analysis of the ha.e prolem y

presentin- a st%dy of p%lic concerns ao%t ha.e in Indonesia,

Sin-apore and /alaysia ased %pon content analysis of &ey

ne5spapers in each co%ntry for the crises of )11, 2((3 and 2()4 @y

so doin-, the paper serves t5o p%rposes First, it presents a record of

ho5 p%lic concerns have een reported, or have chan-ed, at ei-ht8year


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intervals since the first ma#or ha.e crisis, as 5ell as since the ASEA6

A-reement Second, this analysis offers insi-hts into ho5 p%lic

concerns create environmental narratives or storylines, 5hich are

Bdevices thro%-h 5hich actors are positioned, and thro%-h 5hich

specific ideas of lame and responsiility and

%r-ency and responsile ehavior are attri%ted '9a#er, )113, pp *83+ 6arratives and


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storylines are considered an important 5ay to %nderstand ho5 diGerent

societies identify the ca%ses and li&ely sol%tions to environmental

prolems, 5ith implications for different political actors s%ch as

-overnments and citi.ens 'Forsyth and Wal&er, 2((H: =oe, )11*+

Conse?%ently, y analy.in- p%lic perceptions of lame and

responsiility, it is possile to identify ho5 the political a-ency

attri%ted to ASEA6, individ%al -overnments, as 5ell as non8state

actors chan-e over time, and ho5 far p%lic deate 'as

represented y ne5spapers+ openly tar-ets specific actors

To %nderta&e this st%dy, the paper adopts a methodolo-y of

comparative ne5spaper content analysis in order to indicate p%lic

concerns in each co%ntry in the diGerent years of the s%rvey This

methodolo-y offers oth stren-ths and 5ea&nesses


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p%lic concerns ao%t lame, ris&, and potential sol%tions, as 5ell as the

perceived connections et5een ha.e and parallel environmental deates

s%ch as climate chan-e, iodiversity and the c%ltivation of palm oil

Lessons are then dra5n for ho5 each co%ntry has perceived

responsiility for action ao%t


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transo%ndary ha.e, and the respective roles of ASEA6 a-reement,

national -overnments, and non8state actors The paper also dra5s

concl%sions concernin- the contri%tion of ne5spaper analysis for

%nderstandin- p%lic concerns

2. he Southeast Asiahaze problem

9a.e occ%rs 5hen smo&e from forest fires and open %rnin-

comines 5ith local air poll%tion over cities /ost %rnin- has occ%rred

on the Indonesian island of S%matra 'especially the provinces of =ia%

and ami+, and on the island of @orneo, 5hich comprises the

Indonesian province of "alimantan and the /alaysia provinces of Saah

and Sara5a& Smo&e is carried y monsoonal 5inds most fre?%ently to

"%ala L%mp%r in /alaysia and Sin-apore The first occasion 5hen

transo%ndary ha.e 5as identified as a ma#or prolem 5as et5een

%ly and


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et5een nei-horin- co%ntries 'lover et al, 2((4: 6arayanan,

2((2+ The Poll%tant Standards Inde0 'PSI+ of Sin-apore meas%res five

&ey air poll%tants> s%lph%r dio0ide, nitro-en dio0ide, o.one, caron

mono0ide and P/)(, 5hich is


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partic%late matter )( microns or smaller in si.e /alaysia %ses the Air

Poll%tion Inde0 'API+, 5hich meas%res the same five poll%tants %t 5ith

different scales for caliratin- poll%tants

Jario%s sol%tions have een proposed for ha.e In immediate terms,

ha.e can e miti-ated y 5earin- facemas&s, or y red%cin- the

e0pos%re faced y v%lnerale people Since 2((3, the -overnment of

Sin-apore has p%lished daily meas%rements of ha.e on 5esites

Lon-er8term sol%tions, ho5ever, re?%ire the avoidance of fires Jario%s

analysts have proposed re-%latin- and finin- individ%als startin- fires

'Chan- and =a#an, 2((): ones,

2((*+ @%t it is %s%ally diffic%lt to identify actors responsile for

fires /any fires, for e0ample, are lamed %pon companies that see& to

clear land cheaply in order to estalish palm oil or r%er plantations>

%t these companiesKperhaps predictalyKare &een to assert their

innocence and state that %rnin- land does not s%it their commercial

interests Traditional a-ric%lt%re practiced y smallholders is another

so%rce of lame, %t it is sometimes diffic%lt to identify the differences

et5een farmers actin- for their o5n commercial interests, or hired to

5or& on ehalf of lar-er companies /%ch pop%lar disc%ssion %ses the

5ords Bslash and %rn to refer to the type of land clearance that %ses

fire indiscriminately, 5hich sometimes conf%ses traditional land %se

ased on historic shiftin- c%ltivation 5ith %ncontrolled %rnin- to clear

land for plantations Indeed, research y Colfer '2(((: 2((3, p )2(+ has

indicated that companies can %se fire as a 5ay to compete for land

concessions, or even %se fire as a--ressive acts to destroy competin-

plantations or to present other companies in a ad li-ht


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The ASEA6 A-reement on Transo%ndary 9a.e Poll%tion 5as si-ned in

2((2 and commits parties to international cooperation and domestic

actions to prevent fires 'ASEA6, 2((2: 6-%itra-ool, 2())a, + /ost

memers of ASEA6 ratified this a-reement in 2((4 Indonesia,


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ho5ever, is the only party not to have ratified the a-reement 'Tay,

2((1+ /oreover, the a-reement has een characteri.ed as Bshallo5

eca%se it Bcorresponds to the e0istin- ASEA6 instit%tional c%lt%re

in terms of or-ani.ational minimalism '6-%itra-ool, 2()), p)*H+

ASEA6 as an international -ro%pin- also represents a variety of

compromises et5een co%ntries that have immense differences as 5ell

as little history in see&in- international a-reements 'Cotton, )111+

Implementation is also diffic%lt eca%se of close relationships et5een

investin- companies and local -overnments 'A--ar5al and Cho5,

2()(+ In 2()4, for e0ample, the Indonesian Corr%ption Eradication

Commission detained the -overnor of =ia% province in S%matra on

s%spicion of receivin- corr%pt payments from lo--in- companies 'oh,

2()4+ 6e5spapers disc%ssed alle-ations that Sin-aporean and

/alaysian companies 5ere most responsile for the deforestation

and fires in S%matra /oreover, one of these Sin-aporean companies,

Temase& 9oldin-s, 5as partic%larly controversial eca%se it is an

official overnment Lin&ed Corporation 'LC+, 5ith stron- investment

and advisory lin&s to the Sin-aporean -overnment 'see section 3+

'Jar&&ey,

2()2,2()4+

9a.e is therefore diffic%lt to control eca%se it res%lts from a comple0

set of climatic and monsoonal conditions: the rise of ne5 e0port

crops: and a set of challen-in- re-%latory fail%res involvin-

international, national, and s%national #%risdictions An international

a-reement to address ha.e has apparently failed This paper aims to

contri%te to ne5 approaches to -overnin- the ha.e prolem y

assessin- p%lic concerns ao%t ha.e over time and in different


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co%ntries This st%dy can help %nderstand ho5 different co%ntries see

ca%ses and potential sol%tions, incl%din- the potential roles for

-overnments, companies, and citi.ens


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!. he study andmethods

The st%dy so%-ht to identify ho5 p%lic concerns ao%t

transo%ndary ha.e had een e0pressed in ne5spapers in Indonesia,

Sin-apore and /alaysia since the start of the ha.e crisis in )11 This

information 5as then %sed to inform deates ao%t the emer-ence of

narratives ha.e 'or the str%ct%rin- of lame and responses in social

disco%rse+ It 5as hoped that these insi-hts 5o%ld then enhance

%nderstandin-s of p%lic policy deates ao%t diGerent policy

initiatives s%ch as the ASEA6 A-reement on Transo%ndary 9a.e

Poll%tion, or the connections et5een ha.e and concerns ao%t climate

chan-e, iodiversity, forests, and palm oil 6e5spapers have een %sed

to st%dy ha.e efore '/assey, 2(((: /cLellan,

2(()+, altho%-h this papers %ses a more?%antified techni?%e

!.1 Selection ofne"spapers

First, it 5as necessary to choose representative ne5spapers for analysis

6e5spaper analysis in these co%ntries, ho5ever, is challen-in- eca%se

of concerns ao%t press censorship and the choice of printed

lan-%a-e


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In Indonesia, Sin-apore, and /alaysia, there are vario%s formal and

informal practices that restrict ne5spaper criticism of -overnments,

p%lic fi-%res 'At&ins, 2((): Woodier, 2((H+ The )1HH /alaysian

@roadcast Act allo5s ministers to determine s%#ects that can e

reported on y ne5spapers 'En-, )11, p **)+ In Sin-apore, the

6e5spaper and Printin-


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Presses Act of )1* states that mana-ement shareholders have to

e approved y the /inistry of Information, Comm%nications and the

Arts /any media o%tlets in Sin-apore are also o5ned y one company,

Sin-apore Press 9oldin-s In recent years, there has een an increase in

internet8ased ne5s and political disc%ssion sites s%ch as Sin-apores

The Online Citizen or The Real Singapore @%t in 2()4, the Sin-apore

-overnment proposed ne5 re-%lations and licenses for ne5s 5esites,

leadin- to a p%lic protest y some 2,3(( people '6-, 2()4+

Despite these mis-ivin-s, the st%dy ass%med that ne5spapers still

indicate p%lic concerns in vario%s 5ays As this paper disc%sses

'section 3+ #o%rnalists apparently %se lan-%a-e caref%lly to e0press

criticism, or descrie controversial s%#ects, 5itho%t acc%sin- anyone or

ecomin- critics themselves 6e5spapers also allo5 a form of criticism

y printin- readers letters and opinion pieces 9a.e has never een a

s%#ect for press censorship in itself @%t ne5s reports co%ld e seen to

e critical of the -overnment if they lin& ha.e to the activities of

-overnment8lin&ed corporations in investments in Indonesia This

criticism 5o%ld add 5ei-ht to e0istin- 5idespread dissatisfaction ao%t

alle-ed corr%ption and %siness connections 5ithin the Sin-apore and

/alaysian -overnments 'Jar&&ey, 2()4+

6e5spapers also offer advanta-es for lon-8term analysis over social

media 5esites eca%se their archives e0ist for years /oreover,

local advisers from /alaysia and Sin-apore s%--ested that, at

present, online ne5s sites are less a%thoritative than ne5spapers

eca%se online articles can e easily 5ithdra5n after p%lication, and

many articles are anonymo%s


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ne5> The Online Citizen in Sin-apore, for e0ample, e-an in 2((, and

therefore co%ld not e %sed for comparison 5ith )11


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The three ne5spapers chosen 5ere the Jakarta Post for Indonesia:

Straits Times for Sin-apore: and the New Straits Times for /alaysia

These ne5spapers 5ere selected 5ith the help of local advisers eca%se

they are 5idely considered to e a%thoritative roadsheet p%lications

that report on matters of p%lic concern, and 5hich have een

p%lished consistently thro%-ho%t the period of the st%dy These

are also En-lish lan-%a-e ne5spapers, 5hich allo5ed a relatively

strai-htfor5ard comparison 'Indeed, Sin-apore %ses En-lish as its official

media lan-%a-e+ While it is clear that local lan-%a-e ne5spapers mi-ht

present alternative visions of p%lic concerns, it 5as decided that

these leadin- national ne5spapers 5ere li&ely to p%lish more

a%thoritatively and 5idely on the s%#ect of ha.e It is also ac&no5led-ed

that En-lish8lan-%a-e ne5spapers in So%theast Asia are not tar-eted at

forei-ners alone, %t at sections of their o5n pop%lations 5ho 5ish to

read in En-lish 'Forsyth, 2((: /assey, 2(((+

The three ne5spapers are also independent of each other The Straits

Times 'Sin-apore+ and New Straits Times '/alaysia+ 5ere ori-inally

ased on a ne5spaper la%nched in )H*3, %t ecame separate 5hen

tensions rose et5een Sin-apore and /alaysia in the )13(s In )13 it

5as a-reed that neither ne5spaper 5o%ld e for sale in the other co%ntry

or %se the same articles In )13, 5hen /alaysia split from Sin-apore,

the /alaysian #o%rnal adopted the moni&er Bne5 The New Straits

Times 5as chosen aove the rival daily /alaysia ne5spaper, The

Star, on the advice of /alaysian advisers 5ho s%--ested that the

New Straits Times 5as a non8taloid style of ne5spaper that co%ld e

compared 5ith The Straits Times andJakarta Post.


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The Jakarta Post 5as estalished in )1H4, and has since -ained a

rep%tation for -ivin- p%licity to deates ao%t democrati.ation 'Tarrant,

2((H+


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!.2 Selection of ne"sarticles

The ne0t sta-e 5as to identify time periods of research These 5ere

identified y cond%ctin- online searches for periods 5hen ha.e 5as

5idely reported The online8dataase, Factiva, is a 5idely8%sed

dataase of international ne5spapers and 5as considered s%fficient

and reliale to access historic ne5spapers Jario%s 5ords 5ere %sed to

identify 5hen ha.e 5as reported most fre?%ently Words s%ch as

Bha.e, Bforest fires, and Bsmo- 5ere %sed initially to identify the

search term It 5as decided to %se the 5ord Bha.e alone, as research

sho5ed it offered the ma0im%m ran-e of articles It 5as, ho5ever,

important to re#ect articles that %sed the term Bha.e in irrelevant

5ays 'for e0ample, a pop%lar Sin-aporean film 5as called Haze+ The

search also e0cl%ded reports from international ne5s a-encies s%ch as

=e%ters or Associated Press in order to foc%s on local ne5s

so%rces 'Indeed, international ne5s a-encies tended to s%mmari.e

local ne5s for international a%diences+ The res%ltin- articles %sed

incl%ded a variety of ne5s reports, letters, and opinion pieces

The res%lts of this initial s%rvey are sho5n in Fi-%re ) It 5as decided to

ase the s%rvey on three periods> %ly8Decemer 2(( 'si0 months+,

A%-%st 2((3 'one month+, and %ne 2()4 'one month+ The initial

assessment for )11 5as lon-er than the s%se?%ent years eca%se the

earlier period 5as 5hen the Bstoryline ao%t ha.e 5as initially

estalished, and eca%se ne5s reportin- ao%t this episode of ha.e

contin%ed for a m%ch lon-er asis than in later years 5hen reportin-

tended to pea& 5ithin the period of #%st one month The research

therefore aimed to estalish the aseline of p%lic perceptions in )11


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5hen transo%ndary ha.e ecame a theme of si-nificant p%lic concern,

and then assess ho5 these perceptions had chan-ed in 2((3 and 2()4,

%sin- #%st one month each for these later years


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perceptions chan-ed over time These decisions meant that the st%dy

5as ased on ),31 articles in )11, )2 in 2((3, and *(( in 2()4 'or

2,24) in total+ Tale ) lists the n%mers of ne5s articles %sed

Figure 1 around here #re$uency of ne"s reports abouthaze, %uly 1&&' ( %une 2)1!*

Table 1 around here able 1: +umbers of ne"s articles analyzed*

!.! Analysis of ne"sarticles

The third sta-e 5as to analy.e selected articles This process adopted a

standardi.ed proced%re for each ne5spaper, %t there 5as also

fle0iility to ac&no5led-e different means of e0pressin- lame or

criticism in different c%lt%res The n%ances of p%lic criticism, especially

in co%ntries 5here there are media controls, are disc%ssed in section 3

6e5s stories 5ere analy.ed in order to indicate %nderlyin- frames,

or the %nderlyin- meanin- and ass%mptions 5ithin stories, 5hich

indicate the si-nificance attri%ted to ha.e at the time of reportin-

'@a%er, 2(((: Pan and "osic&i, )114+ The method adopted orro5ed

stron-ly from an earlier analysis of environmental ne5s in Thailand

'Forsyth,

2((+, and a st%dy of reportin- ao%t ha.e in So%theast Asia from )11

'/assey, 2(((+ The point of frame analysis is to loo& eyond the

immediate s%#ect matter of an article 'for e0ample, the iss%in- of a


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statement y a -overnment minister+ and instead foc%s on the implied

ca%se, lame, or responsiility 'e- that Indonesia is actin-

irresponsily+ Each article 5as a5arded a score for each frame it

contained, allo5in- c%m%lative frames to e


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compared et5een co%ntries, and et5een different time periods For

e0ample, a report ao%t an 6


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These frames incl%ded 5ider environmental prolems s%ch as climate

chan-e, iodiversity, and the -overnance of deforestation in -eneral, or

specific concerns s%ch as the rise of palm oil c%ltivation These themes

offered %sef%l information ao%t ho5 ha.e 5as connected to

related policy initiatives


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To ma&e the presentation of res%lts clearer, the fi-%res in this paper

present information as a percenta-e of each set of frames relatin- to

lame, ris&, and potential sol%tions The second set of frames is

presented in terms of avera-e fre?%ency per ne5s story eca%se these

5ere not al5ays connected to a str%ct%re of lame, ris&, or sol%tions As

this paper foc%ses on narratives of lame and responsiility for

transo%ndary ha.e, most attention is -iven to the first set of frames

The second set of frames 5as also less fre?%ent in ne5s reportin-, and

so 5arranted less analysis

.-esults

4.1 Conceptionsof blame

The res%lts for perceptions of lame and responsiility et5een the

nation states of Indonesia, Sin-apore and /alaysia are sho5n in Fi-%re

2 Fi-%re 4 sho5s the incidence of secondary lame cate-ories of

companies, smallholders and El 6i7o These fi-%res sho5 some

important chan-es in ho5 lame has een allocated

In an earlier st%dy of ne5s reportin- of ha.e in /alaysia '/cLellan,

2(()> 233+, res%lts s%--ested that the -overnment of /alaysia 5as &een

to maintain the co%ntrys -ood ima-e: avoid disco%ra-in- to%rism: and

maintain -ood relations 5ith Indonesia and ASEA6 as a 5hole There

5as also a tendency to portray ha.e as a specific prolem for East

/alaysia 'ie the provinces of Saah and Sara5a&+ rather than


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penins%lar /alaysia The res%lts of this c%rrent st%dy s%pported, and

added, to these initial findin-s

First, the proportion of all stories has sho5n a rapid increase in

Blame in all three co%ntries since )11 In )11, the

percenta-e of articles e0pressin- ma&in- critical


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statements or assertin- direct responsiility for ha.e for Indonesia,

Sin-apore and /alaysia respectively 5ere 2H percent, 231 percent, and

)H percent @y 2()4, these had risen to

*4 percent, 4)* percent, and 4(H percent These statistics sho5 that

the initial reportin- of ha.e in )11 more or less disc%ssed lame,

threats, and potential sol%tions in e?%al meas%re @y the 2(((s,

ho5ever, this distri%tion had shifted si-nificantly to5ards

identifyin- ha.e as an iss%e of failed responsiility In all cases, Indonesia

is clearly seen to e a s%#ect for lame Indeed, the Indonesian

presidents S%harto and S%silo @aman- ;%dhoyono iss%ed formal

apolo-ies for the ha.e to their nei-horin- co%ntries respectively in

)11 and 2()4

Figure 2 around here here is blameallocated for haze/*

Figure 3 around here 0ther attributed causes of haze*

@%t there are also other trends in the allocation of lame First, national

ne5spapers have, perhaps s%rprisin-ly, sho5n a 5illin-ness to lame

their o5n -overnments 9ence, theJakarta Post has overtly e0pressed

the fail%res of its o5n -overnment to address ha.e The Sin-apore

Straits Times, and /alaysian New Straits Times have also e0pressed

concern that their o5n -overnments have not re-%lated their o5n

companies that invest in Indonesian plantations In /alaysia, the ori-inal

reportin- ao%t ha.e in )11 and 2((3 even presented /alaysia as

e?%ally to lame 'if not more so+ than Indonesia 'see Fi-%re 2c+ This

trend 5as partly eca%se ha.e 5as ori-inally partly lamed on open

%rnin- of a-ric%lt%ral or m%nicipal 5aste in /alaysian cities, %t also


29/79

16

eca%se of a n%mer of speeches y political leaders at this time

so%-ht to demonstrate diplomacy to5ards Indonesia y disc%ssin-

m%t%al responsiility In )11, for e0ample, the /alaysian Prime

/inister, /ahathir /ohamad, 5as ?%oted as sayin-> BIt is not

Indonesias fa%lt eca%se 5e never informed


30/79

16

them that 5e need to 5or& 'to-ether+ on this partic%lar case 'NewStraits Times, )11a+ @y

2()4, ho5ever, most notions of lame in the /alaysian ne5spaper 5ere

e0pressed a-ainst Indonesia For e0ample, a 2()4 opinion piece in the

New Straits Times %r-ed, Bit is ca%sed y a nei-hor 5ho ref%ses to

accept responsiility for it is a test of a patience that is not infinite

'New Straits Times, 2()4a+ /alaysia is also notale for lamin- ASEA6

'see section

3+

@esides the -overnment of Indonesia, all ne5spapers identified

companies as a &ey so%rce of lame, and of failed re-%lation 'see

Fi-%re 4+ The proportion of lame allocated to companies, ho5ever,

has declined et5een )11 and 2()4 as the proportion allocated to

Indonesia, the co%ntry, has increased '5ith the e0ception of Sin-apore+

SmallholdersKor poorer a-ric%lt%ralists livin- on the ed-e of forest

mar-insK5ere also implicated in p%lic disc%ssions in ne5spapers, and

especially in /alaysia 'Fi-%re 4c+ Some #o%rnalists 5ere &een to

e0press that smallholders are not to lame 'Stefan%s, 2()4+ @%t more

commonly, smallholders and companies 5ere incl%ded in the same

disc%ssion of Bslash8and8%rn land8 clearance methods, 5hich can e

%sed to indicate traditional land clearance as 5ell as open %rnin- y

plantation 5or&ers


31/79

17

Some lame for smallholders occ%rred 5hen companies 5ereintervie5ed in ne5spapers In

)11, for e0ample, the /alaysian company, Trade5inds Plantations

lamed %rnin- on its Indonesian #oint8vent%re partner or smallholders A

company representative said, BThe prolem of slash8and8%rn 5hich

has ca%sed the forest fires are mainly ca%sed y the smallholders as

they do not have the correct method to control the fire 'New Straits

Times,

)11+ In 2()4, the Straits Times 'Sin-apore+ reported, BtheAssociation of Plantation


32/79

17

Investors of /alaysia in Indonesia said /alaysian firms are not

involved in clearin- Indonesian land %sin- fire Its e0ec%tive secretary

saidMN BPlantation o5ners have to set aside 2( per cent of land to

n%rt%re smallholders in oil palm plantin- It is a common practice for

the smallholders to clear the land y fire 'Foo, 2()4a+

=eferences to smallholders ein- to lame, therefore, seems to reflect

?%otations from other actors 5ho mi-ht 5ish to lame them

Smallholders 5ere not ?%oted lamin- themselves

In addition, fires and ha.e 5ere attri%ted to the eGects of El 6i7o in all

co%ntries in )11This trend 5as especially mar&ed in Indonesia, 5here

El 6i7o 5as cited as a ca%se in 2) percent of references to lame and

responsiility in )11 @y 2()4, ho5ever, there 5as only limited

disc%ssion of El 6i7o in /alaysia and Indonesia 'Fi-%re 4+, possily

eca%se 2((3 and

2()4 5ere not notale El6i7o years

It is also 5orth notin- that some articles overtly proclaimed that no

one co%ntry 5as to lame, or, most fre?%ently, that Indonesia 5as

lameless In 2()4, for e0ample, the Jakarta Post feat%red articles

ar-%in- that Indonesian President S%silo @aman- ;%dhoyono sho%ld

not have apolo-i.ed for the ha.e, on the -ro%nds that the ha.e 5as

ca%sed eca%se Sin-aporean and /alaysian companies 5ere not

re-%lated, and eca%se Indonesian ministers themselves 5ere critical

of this apolo-y 'Jakarta Post, 2()4+ At times, the Jakarta Post has

critici.ed /alaysia For e0ample, in 2((3, an anonymo%s opinion

piece stated> B/alaysian ha.e haters disappointment is

%nderstandale They vent their an-er


33/79

18

Ndemandin- that Indonesians stop cho&in- them every sin-le year NThe

/alaysian -overnments offer to help to e0tin-%ish the forest fires is

also %nderstandale as their minister of forestry admitted that many

/alaysian estate and 5ood companies operatin- in Indonesia 5ere

amon- the perpetrators of the fires 'Jakarta Post, 2((3+


34/79

18

In 2()4, the Indonesian minister coordinatin- the ha.e response stated

that the fires and ha.e 5ere nat%ral phenomena and not related to poor

land mana-ement or lac& of re-%lation, sayin-> BSin-apore sho%ld not

e ehavin- li&e a child and ma&in- all this noiseThis is not 5hat the

Indonesian nation 5ants, it is eca%se of nat%re 'Ch%a, 2()4+

4.2 Conceptionsof risk

Fi-%re * sho5s the top three ris&s arisin- from ha.e for each of thethree co%ntries in )11,

2((3 and 2()4 The most consistent ris&s 5ere, %ns%rprisin-ly,

health, economy, and lifestyle There 5as also concern that ha.e 5o%ld

rin- additional ris&s to nat%re 'or environment in -eneral+: diplomatic

relations et5een co%ntries: and the ris& that reportin- on ha.e 5o%ld

-ive a false impression to other co%ntries For e0ample, in )11, the

Straits Times 'Sin-apore+ reported that a @ritish ne5s team had as&ed a

to%rist to pose for photo-raphs 5earin- a -as mas& eside a

s5immin- pool The ne5spaper stated> BThis ima-e 5o%ld have

seemed comical if it 5ere not so dama-in- in its inacc%racy and

dishonesty 'Straits Times, )11a+ /cLellans st%dy '2(()> 22+ also

s%--ests that the /alaysian -overnment en-a-ed in a campai-n of

coordinated Bdenial partic%larly tar-eted the @ritish, !nited8States,

and A%stralian media for alle-ed misrepresentation of ha.e in

)11 and 2((( This c%rrent st%dy, ho5ever, sho5ed that ne5spapers

did not report any attac&s on forei-n media in 2((3 and 2()4

Some of the lar-est fears ao%t ha.e 5ere that it 5o%ld ca%se a

fall in to%rism, or in ind%strial investment and prod%ction In )11,


35/79

19

-overnment statistics estimated that ha.e cost the Sin-aporean

economy of et5een !SO18)( illion, 5ith an additional !SO)3 million

for assistin- 5ith fire fi-htin- in S%matra 'Straits Times, )11+ In

/alaysia, ho5ever, the main threat after health 5as identified as

lifestyle, referrin- to the prolems of day8to8day


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19

life d%rin- ha.e These articles 5o%ld represent ha.e as a ha.ard to

5ee&end sportin- events, open8air concerts, or as opport%nities to

coo& special meals Indeed, there 5as evidence of some commercial

actors tryin- to ma&e li-ht of ha.e For e0ample, the food chain,

/cDonalds apolo-i.ed in %ne 2()4 for #o&in-ly iss%in- adverts

relaelin- Sin-apores Poll%tion Standards Inde0 as the BPea& Sa%ce

Inde0> 'Straits Times, 2()4a+

A relatively less important ris& 5as the threat to international relations

et5een co%ntries receivin- ha.e and Indonesia This 5as noted

especially in Sin-apore, 5here it received *4 percent of reports ao%t

potential threats from ha.e in 2((3

Figure 4 around here Perceied threatsposed by haze*

The impact on Benvironment 5as diffic%lt to assess In one sense, all

impacts reported 5ere environmental @%t only a relatively fe5

ne5spaper articles disc%ssed ha.e in terms of its impacts on

ecosystems or as a symptom of 5idespread environmental

de-radation In Indonesia and Sin-apore, ne5spapers referred to the

perceived ris& to Bnat%re prominently in 2((3 and 2()4 /any articles,

ho5ever, referred to the impacts on forests, or the areas of land aGected

y fires, 5itho%t disc%ssin- these impacts as a f%nction of ecolo-y or

environmentalism


37/79

20

the si-nificance of civil society as a potential sol%tion 'section *4+ It

is also 5orth notin- that this apparent rel%ctance to intervie5

environmental 6


38/79

20

@%t despite the relatively hi-her environmental foc%s in the Jakarta Post,

the attention -iven to roader environmental prolems 5as

-enerally slim Perhaps s%rprisin-ly, the relationship of ha.e to

climate chan-eKs%ch as thro%-h the release of -reenho%se -ases or

the lon-8term implications of peat firesK5as rarely mentioned In

Indonesia, the references to climate chan-e per story chan-ed from

((2 in )11, to ( in 2((3, and ((1 in 2()4 In Sin-apore, these fi-%res

5ere ((), ((* and ((2: in /alaysia, references remained at (() per

story in all years These fi-%res mi-ht e s%rprisin- -iven the pro0imity

of the initial ha.e crisis in )11 to the ne-otiations for the "yoto

Protocol, or eca%se of the campai-nin- of international environmental

6


39/79

21

re-%lation of companies or smallholder ehavior y -overnments:

diplomacy 'incl%din- ilateral a-reements and aid+: ne-otiations

thro%-h ASEA6 '5hich 5ere identified separately to ilateral

a-reements+: tar-etin- of assistance to specific, v%lnerale

pop%lations s%ch as schoolchildren or the


40/79

21

elderly: and -reater involvement of civil society and non8

-overnmental or-ani.ations '6


41/79

22

-overnment+ The role of civil society as a potential sol%tion, ho5ever,

fell to #%st *2 percent in 2()4

In /alaysia, this trend 5as echoed less stron-ly, 5hich sa5 the

proportion of articles proposin- civil society as a sol%tion in )11 of *

percent: risin- to H3 percent in 2((3: %t


42/79

22

fallin- ac& to *H percent in 2()4 In Sin-apore, references to civil

society -re5 steadily, %t %nspectac%larly from 44 percent ')11+ to )

percent '2((3+ and H* percent '2()4+ Some of the topics disc%ssed

%nder civil society incl%ded the 5or& of reenpeace in identifyin- fire hot

spots in S%matra: citi.en si-nin- petitions to see& action: or the

statement from some companies that sol%tions can only e achieved

y motivatin- all sta&eholders, incl%din- citi.ens and local -ro%ps

'New Straits Times, 2()4+

A f%rther trend 5as the increased reference to ASEA6 as a potential

sol%tion, rather than ilateral diplomacy In 2((3, oth Indonesia ')

percent+ and Sin-apore ')*4 percent+ referred to ASEA6, and in

/alaysia, this fi-%re has increased steadily from ) percent ')11+,

to )4 percent '2((3+, and 2) percent '2()4+ The role of ASEA6 is

disc%ssed more in section 3

. 3iscussion and implications formodels of goernance

The narrative that emer-es from ne5s reportin- ao%t ha.e in

Indonesia, Sin-apore and /alaysia is that the initial crisis in )11 5as

perceived to e a res%lt of poor forest mana-ement and El 6i7o

Disc%ssions et5een co%ntries led to the si-nin- of the 2((2

ASEA6 A-reement on Transo%ndary 9a.e Poll%tion @%t repeatedcrises, partic%larly in

2((3 and 2()4, have een interpreted in terms of a fail%re y

Indonesia to ratify and implement the A-reement, pl%s a ne5

challen-e y the -overnments of Sin-apore and /alaysia to re-%late

their o5n companies Indeed, independent academic commentators


43/79

23

also note this trend, 5ith one 5ritin-> B/alaysian investors have een

ale to %rn 5ith imp%nityN eca%se of the close patrona-e

relationships and vested interests of the /alaysian -overnment elites

in these companies @eca%se of this, the home -overnment is inclined to

protect and defend the actions of these firms in Indonesia 'Jar&&ey,

2()4> 4H)+


44/79

23

In the short term, -overnments are happy to represent pro-ress

thro%-h the allocation of facemas&s, or to offer f%nds or aircraft to

%nderta&e clo%d seedin- /ore -enerally, ho5ever, p%lic deate has

shifted from 5orry ao%t the e0istence of the prolem and its potential

impacts on health and economy, to5ards an appreciation that a more

comple0 sol%tion is needed These findin-s s%--est that ne5s reportin-

has ecome sli-htly more critical and confrontational since the analysis

of reportin- ao%t ha.e in )11 y /assey '2(((+ or /cLellan '2(((+

There are also some implications for models of environmental

-overnance


45/79

24

specific ca%ses and political and economic challen-es


46/79

24

any time Widespread corr%ption on the -ro%nd means no ne5 proes or

re-%lations y Indonesia 5ill have any effect, so all that is left is for

5eary cons%mers to oycott palm oil prod%cts '


47/79

25

5as en-a-ed in prod%cin- a different &ind of Bha.e of positive ne5s

ao%t the company in ne5spapers, in star& diGerence to the ha.e in the

air 'Leon, 2()4+


48/79

25

The Straits Times ne5spaper, ho5ever, p%lished articles that disc%ssed

the criticisms of Sin-aporean companies, rather than en-a-in- in

criticism itself /oreover, d%rin- the 2()4 ha.e crisis, the ne5spaper

p%lished an intervie5 5ith a representative of Temase& 9oldin-s

entitled, B6o fires on land co8o5ned y Temase& and 5ith a statement

that the company aided y r%les of -ood corporate -overnance and local

la5s 'Foo, 2()4+

Figure around here Perceied connections bet"een palm

oil cultiation and haze*

Figure ! around here AS4A+ as a perceied solution, "ithMalaysia5s gro"ing perception

of AS4A+ as part of the problem*

This style of reportin- co%ld e 5hat /assey '2(((> H+ descried efore

as Bne5spapers conver-ed on seemin-ly non8confrontational frames,

5hile do5nplayin- the potentially tro%lesome ones, as a res%lt of the

infl%ence of the ASEA6 core val%e of maintainin- cordial relations

et5een memer states /assey '2(((> H+ adds> Bein- sensitive

to nei-horin- nations is one occ%pational norm that distin-%ishes

Asian #o%rnalism from Western forms of ne5s reportin-, 5hich can e

noticealy lame8oriented and, ar-%aly, at times divisive @%t there is

also evidence that ne5spapers are increasin-ly critical of this

stereotypical ASEA6 form of ne-otiation This ne5 critical insi-ht is

sho5n in the p%lic criticism of ASEA6, and in the style of reportin-

despite media controls

Fi-%re sho5s the n%mer of frames in the selected ne5spapers that

5ere either critical or lamin- of ASEA6 This fi-%re sho5s that


49/79

26

ne5spapers are increasin-ly referrin- to ASEA6 as a potential sol%tion to

transo%ndary ha.e

@%t Fi-%re also sho5s that Indonesia and Sin-apores optimism forASEA6 declined after

2((3, 5hich 5as shortly after the 2((2 ASEA6 A-reement onTranso%ndary 9a.e Poll%tion


50/79

26

/alaysias New Straits Times, on the other hand, demonstrated a

-ro5in- deate ao%t the pros and cons of ASEA6 BASEA6s penchant of favorin- camaraderie

over formality and process over s%stance, is 5ell &no5n Nit #%st 5ont

5or& 'ani, 2((3+ This article ?%oted an academic from the 6ational

!niversity of Sin-apore, rather than e0pressin- this concern in its o5n

voice

The /alaysia New Straits Times has also echoed this trend In )11 it

stated, BThe ASEA6 5ay is characteri.ed y va-%eness and lon-5inded

indirectness


51/79

27

of the /alaysian S!n"a# Times in )11 'in /cLellan, 2(()> 23+

that, Bthe

ASEA6 5ay of holdin- discreet ehind8the8scenes disc%ssions, 5hile

&eepin- the ASEA6 p%lic in the dar&, may 5or& in sortin- o%t political,

trade or diplomatic &in&s @%t it does not 5or& 5hen it comes to a

disaster li&e the ha.e 'S!n"a# Times, )11+


52/79

27

@y 2((3, the /alaysia New Straits Times contin%ed this criticism> BThe

ASEA6 transo%ndary ha.e protocol remains %nratified y Indonesia, %t

in itself only calls for the sharin- of data: an instance, perhaps, of

fiddlin- 5hile =ome %rns 'New Straits Times, 2((3+. And in 2()4, BWe

have een %sin- all diplomatic channels to solve this prolem the ASEA6

5ay, %t have 5e een s%ccessf%l 'New Straits Times, 2()4d+

Evidence therefore s%--ests that p%lic opinion ao%t ha.e is ecomin-

more critical of oth national -overnments an" the international models

of disp%te resol%tion adopted y ASEA6 In addition, criticism has

ecome foc%sed on -overnment8lin&ed corporations and especially the

alle-ed role of Sin-aporean and /alaysian companies in open

%rnin- At the same time, ne5spapers are ale to voice these

criticisms 'despite controls on media+ y reportin- the 5ords of critics,

or simply descriin- deates ao%t controversial matters, even if the

ne5spapers themselves do not o5n this criticism themselves

/%ch reportin- ao%t ha.e still remains foc%sed on short8term concerns

s%ch as the disr%ption to life, or the availaility of facemas&s @%t there

is a -ro5in- trend to ?%estion the model of -overnance that ass%mes a

national -overnment 5ill implement sol%tions, and instead to loo& at the

lac& of re-%lation of companies 5ho invest in plantations, and the

aility of citi.ens to critici.e them

6.7onclusion


53/79

28

P%lic concerns ao%t environmental prolems are important eca%se

they indicate ho5 environmental chan-es are e0perienced as

prolematic, and eca%se they offer insi-hts into


54/79

28

the political processes that shape policy interventions Social scientists

have called these connections et5een p%lic concerns and policy

challen-es, Benvironmental narratives eca%se they str%ct%re concepts

of lame, ris&, and potential sol%tion

!nderstandin- p%lic concerns, ho5ever, is challen-in- eca%se

they can only ecome apparent thro%-h the %se of indicators

6e5spaper articles are a familiar so%rce of information, %t these mi-ht

e inappropriate indicators of p%lic perceptions eca%se of censorship

or political infl%ence The print media in Indonesia, Sin-apore, and

/alaysia are 5idely considered to e s%#ect to political control

6onetheless, this st%dy of p%lic concerns ao%t transo%ndary

ha.e has revealed information ao%t the p%lic deate ao%t ha.e,

and ao%t the #o%rnalistic representation of this controversy The

research presented in this paper demonstrates that ne5spaper

articlesKincl%din- ne5s reports, letters, and opinion piecesKhave

-rad%ally chan-ed from simply descriin- the feared health and

economic impacts of forest fires occ%rrin- d%rin- a prolon-ed El 6i7o

period, to5ards ein- represented in frames of policy fail%re y

Indonesia: the capacity of ASEA6 to act: and the %n5illin-ness or

inaility of Sin-apore and /alaysia to re-%late state8lin&ed companies

6e5s reportin- also indicates that most reportin- of the day8to8day

effects of ha.e in recipient co%ntries still foc%ses on the impacts on

lifestyle and short8term sol%tions s%ch as iss%in- facemas&s or

charterin- planes for clo%d seedin- @eneath this disc%ssion, ho5ever,

is a -ro5in- trend to state that the ASEA6 A-reement on Transo%ndary


55/79

29

9a.e Poll%tion is not -ood eno%-h: that state8lin&ed companies mi-ht e

connected to the prolems of land clearance for palm oil prod%ction: and

an openly critical, not very8ASEA6 5ay, of critici.in- Indonesia for

failin- to ratify the ASEA6 a-reement Indeed, ne5spaper articles

are


56/79

29

increasin-ly ?%estionin- the stereotypical ASEA6 non8confrontational

model of ne-otiation et5een nation states, and see&in- to emphasi.e

criticism of companies, and the potential role of citi.ens

These findin-s s%--est that ne5spaper analysis has an important

val%e alon-side other indicators of p%lic concerns Despite the

political infl%ences on ne5spapers in So%theast Asia, there is evidence

that the p%lic is increasin-ly critical of c%rrent policy approaches to

ha.e Citi.ens are also see&in- more comple0 forms of -overnance that

replace international commitments 5ith a more confrontational and

p%lic criticism of companies investin- in palm oil and %nre-%lated

plantations


57/79

30

=EFE=E6CES

A--ar5al, J, Cho5, '2()(+ The perils of consens%s> ho5

ASEA6s meta8re-ime %ndermines economic and environmental

cooperation =evie5 of International Political Economy ), 22821(

Ahmad, Q ')11+ 6eed to re85or& re-ionalism to s%it todays needs6e5 Straits Times,

comm%nities,

%ncertainty, and adaptive collaorative mana-ement =eso%rces for

the F%t%re, Washin-ton DC


58/79

31

Cotton, ')111+ The ha.e over So%theast Asia> challen-in- the

ASEA6 mode of re-ional en-a-ement Pacific AGairs 2, 44)843)

Eaton, P and =ado#evic, / 'eds+ '2(()+ Forest fires and re-ional ha.e

in So%theast Asia 6ova, 9%ntin-ton, 6;

En-, P ')11+ The media and democrati.ation in So%theast AsiaC%rrent 9istory 1, *48

**2


59/79

31

Foo, A '2()4a+ Sime Dary, "L" %nits amon- firms lamed for firesStraits Times, 2%ne

2()4

Foo, A '2()4+ 6o fires on land co8o5ned y Temase& Straits Times, 22%ne 2()4

Forsyth, T '2((+ Are Environmental Social /ovements SociallyE0cl%sive An 9istorical

St%dy from Thailand World Development 43, 2))(82)4(

Forsyth, T, Wal&er, A '2((H+ Forest -%ardians, forest

destroyers> The politics of environmental &no5led-e in northern

Thailand !niversity of Washin-ton Press, Seattle hani, A '2((3+ ASEA6

nations -ropin- for a sol%tion Straits Times, 2A%-%st 2((3

lover, D, ess%p, T, @an&s, '2((4+ Indonesias fires and ha.e> thecost of catastrophe

=evie5 of Indonesian and /alaysian AGairs 4, )3(8)32

oh En- ;eo5 '2()4+ Plantation stoc&s shr%- off ha.e lame Straits

Times, 22%ne 2()4 9a#er, / ')113+ The politics of environmental

disco%rse> Ecolo-ical moderni.ation and the policy process Clarendon,

/ea c%lpa> Sorry seems to e the hardest5ord a&arta Post,

4( %ne 2()4

ones, DS '2((*+ ASEA6 initiatives to comat ha.e poll%tion> an

assessment of re-ional cooperation in p%lic policy8ma&in- Asian

o%rnal of Political Science )2, 318


60/79

32

Leon S.e 9ian- '2()4+ Temase& 9oldin-s> )*pa-es of ads %t 5hats

missin- The 555 t h e o n lin e c i t i. e n c o m 2()4 ( t e m a s e & 8h o ld in - s 8 )* 8p a - e s 8

o f8 a d s 8 % t 8 5h a t s 8m iss in - Accessed 4an%ary 2()*
http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/


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32

/assey, @L '2(((+ 9o5 three So%theast8Asian ne5spapers framed

the ha.e of )1181H Asian o%rnal of Comm%nication )(, 281*

/cLellan, '2(((+ From denial to deate and ac& a-ainU /alaysian

press covera-e of the air poll%tion and ha.e episodes, %ly )11

%ly )111, in> Eaton, P, =ado#evic, / 'Eds+, Forest fires and re-ional

ha.e in So%theast Asia 6ova Scotia, 9%ntin-don '6;+, pp

234824

6arayanan, S '2((2+ Assessin- the economic dama-e from Indonesian

fires and the ha.e> a concept%al note Sin-apore Economic =evie5 *,

22182*)

6e5 Straits Times ')11a+ Indonesian help vital to fi-ht the ha.e, says P/6e5 Straits

Times, 3 A%-%st )11

6e5 Straits Times ')11+ /alaysian firm o5ns %p to %sin- %rnin-method 6e5 Straits

Times, 2( Septemer )11

6e5 Straits Times '2((3+ /a&e hay 5hile the s%n shines 6e5 Straits

Times, 2A%-%st 2((3 6e5 Straits Times '2()4a+ Tr%e test of

nei-ho%rliness 6e5 Straits Times, 23%ne 2()4 6e5 Straits Times

'2()4+ Wor& to-ether to tac&le ha.e prolem 6e5 Straits Times, 21

%ne 2()4

6e5 Straits Times '2()4c+ ASEA6 m%st e firm on this 6e5 Straits

Times, 23 %ne 2()4 6e5 Straits Times '2()4d+ Action m%st e ta&en to

avoid ma#or conse?%ences 6e5 StraitsTimes, 23 %ne 2()4

6- ;i Sh% '2()4+ Free /y Internet protest y lo--ers dra5s a cro5d at9on- Lim Par&The

555 t h e o n l in e c i t i. e n c o m 2()4 ( f r ee 8 m y 8i n t e r n e t8 p r o t e s t 8 y 8

l o -- ers8dra58 a8cro5d8at8 hon-8l im8par& Accessed 4an%ary 2()*
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6-%itra-ool, P '2())a+ Environmental cooperation in So%theast Asia>

ASEA6s re-ime for transo%ndary ha.e poll%tion =o%tled-e


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33

6-%itra-ool, P '2())+ 6e-otiatin- the ha.e treaty> rationality and

instit%tions in the ne-otiations for the ASEA6 A-reement on

Transo%ndary 9a.e Poll%tion '2((2+ Asian S%rvey 3), 4384H

an approach to ne5sdisco%rse Political

Comm%nication )(,3383

Pye, e n rs f o r-p ress 8

f r ee d om 8 ind e0 8 2()4, )(3* h tml Accessed 4an%ary 2()*

=oe, E ')11*+ 6arrative policy analysis> theory and practice D%&e!niversity Press, Chapel

9ill

SchaeGer, A '2()4+ Is Temase& 9oldin-s indirectly responsile for the

ha.e in Sina-poreThe =eal Sin-apore ) %ne 2()4

h t t p > t h e r e a ls in - a p o r e c o m c o n t e n t t e m a s e & 8h o ld in - s 8

i nd i r e c t l y 8r e sp o n si l e 8h a . e 8 s in - a p o r e Accessed 4an%ary, 2()*

Stefan%s, A '2()4+ Fires lamed on land tillers %nfair 6e5 Straits

Times, H


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S%nday Times '/alaysia+ ')11+ Diary of a disaster> people &ept in thedar& for too lon-The

S%nday Times, )2


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34

Tay, SSC, '2((1+ @lo5in- smo&e> re-ional cooperation, Indonesian

democracy, and the ha.e, 9ard choices> sec%rity, democracy, and

re-ionalism in So%theast Asia Instit%te of So%theast Asian St%dies

Jar&&ey, 9 '2()2+ Patrona-e politics as a driver of economicre-ionalisation> the Indonesian

oil palm sector and transo%ndary ha.e Asia Pacific Jie5point 34, 4)*8421

Jar&&ey, 9 '2()4+ /alaysian investors in the Indonesia oil palm

plantation sector> home state facilitation and transo%ndary ha.e, Asia

Pacific @%siness =evie5, )1'4+> 4H)8*() Woodier, '2((H+ The media and

political chan-e in So%theast Asia El-ar, Cheltenham


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able 1: +umbers of ne"s articles analyzed

Total n%merof

stories ao%tha.e, %ly )118%ne 2()4

Sample

period )>%ly8

Decem

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period2>A%-%st

Sample

period4> %ne2()4

Jakarta Post'Indonesia+ 1() 2) ) 4*

Straits Times'Sin-apore+ 2(H2 *1 23 2)New StraitsTimes'/alaysia+ 2*( 13 )4 13

So%rce> Factiva analysis


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400

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250

200

150

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h e r e i s b la m e a llo a te6 7or h a ? e@


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(sore+ perentage o7 all re7erenes to blame per ontry)


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FI%&"' 2A: I+#'SIA: S'0#+A"1-.AM' 0AT'%#"I'S

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FI%&"' 3A: I+#'SIA: )*AT +#'S *A4'

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F i g r e 4+ = e r e i v e6 th r ea ts p o s e6 by h a ? e(perentage o7 all re7erenes to riss, per ontry)


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FI%&"' 6A: I+#'SIA: )*AT A"' T*' S#.&TI#ST# *A4'/

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$=3*C:5 TECB&*3*G: C$$3 %*C$ET:

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(perent o7 all re7erenes to soltions or blame)

forsyth public concern about transboundary haze 2014

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