Institute of Professional Studies

School of Research and Graduate Studies

Formulating the Research Design

Lecture Seven

Outline of Presentation

Introduction

What is Research Design

The Need for Research Design

Types of Research Design

Components Involved in a Design

Time Horizon

Credibility of Research findings

Criteria for Selecting a Research Design

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Introduction

Hakim (2000) compares a researcher designing a research

project with an architect designing a building and argues that

your research design needs to fulfill a particular purpose

within the practical constraints of time and money.

Furthermore, he argues that the way in which you design

your research will depend on your own preferences, your

research philosophy, and your own ideas as to the most

appropriate strategies, choices of methods for conducting

your research and sometimes the preferences of the

orgnisation for which you are conducting the research

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What is Research Design?Research Designs are the plans and procedures for research that

span the decisions from broad assumptions to detailed methods

of data collection and analysis

Your research design should be the general plan of how you will

go about answering your research question(s).

It should contain clear objectives, derived from your research

question(s), specify the sources from which you intend to collect

data and consider the constraints that you will inevitably have as

well as the justification for your choices

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Importance of Research DesignInvariably the way you choose to design your research may

determine somehow the outcome or findings of your research.

Thus, it is important to spend quality time in designing a good

research so that you avoid what Robson (2000, p.80) describes as

“the research equivalent of the many awful houses put up by

speculative builders without the benefit of architectural

experience”.

A good research design should help the researcher anticipate

what it will take to complete the research justifiably and credibly.

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Types of Research Designs

Three types of Designs are advanced by Creswell (2009)

1. Qualitative

2. Quantitative

3. Mixed methods

Often times the distinction between the qualitative and

quantitative research is framed in terms of using words

(quali) rather than number (quanti), or using close-ended

questions (quanti) rather than open-ended questions

(quali), but Creswell (2009) argues that there is more to

the difference than what has been outlined.

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Types of Research Designs Cont’d

Creswell (Ibid) argues that a more complete view of

the difference between quali and quanti methods lies in

the basic philosophical assumptions researchers bring

to the study, the types of research strategies used (e.g.

quantitative experiments or qualitative case studies),

the specific methods employed in conducting these

strategies (e.g. collecting data quantitatively on

instruments versus collecting qualitative data through

observing a setting).

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Qualitative Research DesignQualitative research is a means for exploring and understanding the

meaning individuals or groups ascribe to social or human problem.

The process of qualitative research involves developing questions and

procedures, data typically collected in the participant’s setting, data

analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes and

the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data.

Typically, qualitative is used as a synonym for any data collection

technique (such as observation, monitoring, focus group discussion

or interview) or data analysis procedure (such as categorising) that

generates or use non-numerical data such as words, pictures and

video clips. Qualitative research has a flexible structure.8

Quantitative Research Design

Quantitative research is a means for testing objective theories

by examining the relationship among variables. These

variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments,

so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical

procedures.

Unlike qualitative research, those who are engage in this form

of inquiry have assumptions about testing theories

deductively, building in protections against bias, controlling

for alternative explanations, and being able to generalize and

replicate the findings.

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Mixed methods Research Design

Mixed methods research is an approach to review that

combines or associates both qualitative and quantitative forms.

It involves the use of quantitative and qualitative approaches.

However, it is more than simply collecting and analyzing both

kinds of data; it also involves the use of both approaches in

cycle so that the overall strength of a study is greater than

either quantitative or qualitative research.

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Components involved in a Design

In planning a study, researchers need to think through the

philosophical worldview assumptions, the strategy of

inquiry that is related to this worldview, and the specific

methods or procedures of research that translate the

approach into practice.

Refer to lecture six for philosophical ideas.

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Strategies of InquiryStrategies of inquiry are types of qualitative, quantitative and mixed

methods designs or models that provide specific direction for procedures in

a research design.An overview of the strategies are as follows:

Quantitative strategies

• Experimental designs

• Non-experimental designs such as surveys

Qualitative strategies

• Narrative research

• Phenomenology

• Grounded theory studies

• Case study

Mixed method strategies

• Sequential

• Concurrent

• transformative12

Quantitative strategies

Quantitative research designs generally invoke the positivist

world view. Traditionally they have included true experiments

and less rigorous experiments called quasi-experiments and

correlational studies. In recent times quantitative strategies

have also included elaborate structural equation models that

incorporate causal paths and strength of associations among

multiple variables. Two quantitative strategies worthy of

discussion are

1. Survey research:

2. Experimental research

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Quantitative strategies: Survey

DesignSurvey Research: provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends,

attitudes, or opinions or a population by studying a sample of that population.

The components of a Survey research should include:

1. The Survey Design which should provide readers with the basic

purpose and rational for the survey research. This discussion should

include:

i. Identify the purpose of survey research which could be to generalize from a sample to a

population

ii. Indicate why survey is the preferred type of data collection procedure for the study

iii. Indicate whether the survey will be cross-sectional/snapshot (with data collected at one

point in time) or whether it will be longitudinal ( with data collected overtime) or a

panel (with data collected across different units over overtime)

iv. Specify the form of data collection. Fink (2002) identifies four types: self-administered

questionnaires; interviews; structured record reviews; and structured observations.

Nesbary (2000) ad Sue and Ritter (2007) also added web-based or internet or online

survey.14

Quantitative strategies: Survey

Design Cont’d

2. The population and Sample which should specify the

characteristics of the population, the sampling frame, sample size

and the sampling procedures. Describe these aspectsi. Identify the population of the study, state the size if known and means of identifying

individuals in the population

ii. Define the sample units which is elements or objects available for selection during the

sampling process are known as the sampling unit.

iii. Define the sampling frame: a complete a list of all possible elements in the population from

which the sample is drawn.

iv. Determine the sample size, the procedure used to compute this number and justify its

adequacy

v. Identify whether the sampling design is single stage or multistage

vi. Identify the selection process for individuals: probability or non probability

vii. Discuss the procedure for selecting the sample from the sampling frame

viii. Identify whether the sampling will involve stratification or not15

Quantitative strategies: Survey

Design Cont’d3. Instrumentation provides detailed information about the actual survey

instrument used in the study. Include the following:

i. Name the survey instrument used to collect the data. Discuss if the instrument is:

a. Self-developed

b. Adapted/modified

c. Adopted intact

ii. Describe the validity and reliability of scores obtained from the past use of the

instrument (for adopted instrument) or current use (for self-developed and modified

instrument)

iii. Indicate the major content sections in the instrument such as: the cover letter; the

items (demographics, attitudinal items, behavioural items, factual items) and the

closing instructions. In addition, mention the type of scales used

iv. Include the sample instrument in the appendix

v. Discuss the pretesting or pilot testing of the instrument and provide justification for

this process and how ensued comments were taken into account

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Quantitative strategies: Survey

Design Cont’d

4. Variables in the study: state all the variables

(dependent, and independent) and indicate how they are

measured. Where possible, provide a table which cross-

reference the variables, how the variables relate to the

questions or hypotheses and specific survey items

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Quantitative strategies: Survey

Design Cont’d

5. Analytical techniques and Interpretation: present the

statistical techniques that most appropriately address the

research objectives.This could be:

a. Z-test, t-test, chi-square among others (for test of difference

such as “Gender differences in employee performance in the

formal sector in Ghana”

b. Paired test (sometimes for impact studies such as “The impact

of training on employee performance in GCB”

c. Correlation (for relational studies such as “Relationship

between Interest rate and Inflation in Ghana”

d. Regression (for causal studies such as “The Effect of Interest

rate on Inflation in Ghana”

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Quantitative strategies:

Experimental DesignExperimental Research: seeks to determine if a specific

treatment influences an outcome. This impact is assessed by

providing a specific treatment to one group and withholding it

from another and then determining how both groups scored on

an outcome.

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Qualitative strategies

Several strategies can be used. Indeed, Wolcott, 2001 identified

19 strategies but we limit our discussion to the following

popular ones.

1. Narrative research by Clandinin and Connelly (2000)

2. Phenomenological method by Moustakas (1994)

3. Grounded theory by Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1998)

4. Ethnographic procedures byWolcott (1999) and

5. Case study process suggested by Stake (1995)

6. Archival research

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Qualitative strategies Cont’dNarrative Research: is a strategy of inquiry in which the

researcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one or more

individuals to provide stories about their lives. This information is

then often retold or re-storied by the researcher into a narrative

chronology. In the end, the narrative combines views from the

participant’s life with those of the researcher’s life in a collaborative

narrative (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000)

Phenomenological Research: is a strategy of inquiry in which

the researcher identifies the essence of human experience about a

phenomenon as described by participants. In this process, the

researcher sets aside his or her own experiences in order to

understand those of the participants in the study.

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Qualitative strategies Cont’d

Grounded theory: is a strategy of inquiry in which the

researcher derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action,

or interaction grounded in the view of the participants.

This process involves using multiple stages of data collection and

the refinement and interrelationships of categories of

information. Two primary characteristics of this design are the

constant comparison of data with emerging categories and

theoretical sampling of different groups to maximize the

similarities and the differences of information.

Ethnography: is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher

studies a whole cultural group in a natural setting over a prolong

period of time by collecting, primarily, observational and

interview data.22

Qualitative strategies Cont’dCase studies: are a strategy of inquiry in which the research

explores in depth a program, event, activity, process, or one or

more individuals.

Cases are bounded by time and activity and researchers collect

detailed information using a variety of data collection

procedures over a sustained period of time (triangulation)

Single case v. multiple case: a single case is used where it

presents a critical case or, alternatively, an extreme or unique

case while multiple case combines more than one case.

Holistic case v. embedded case: this refers to unit of

analysis. If your research is concerned with one unit as a whole

then you are dealing with holistic but if your research is

concerned with different aspects or sub-units then you are

dealing with embedded case.23

Qualitative strategies Cont’dArchival research: this research makes use of administrative

records and documents as the principal source of data.

Although the term archival has historical connotations, it can

refer to recent as well as historical documents.

Archival research strategy allows research questions which

focus upon the past and changes over time to be answered, be

they exploratory, descriptive or explanatory.

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Mixed method strategies

We consider three general strategies.

Sequential mixed methods: procedures are those in which

researcher seeks to elaborate on or expand on the findings of one

method with another method

Concurrent mixed methods: procedures are those in which the

researcher converges or merges quantitative and qualitative data in

order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem. In

this design, the investigator collects both forms of data simultaneously

and integrates them in the interpretation

Transformative mixed methods: procedures are those in which

the researcher uses a theoretical lens as an main perspective within a

design that contains both quantitative and qualitative data.

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Criteria for selecting a research

DesignFactors to consider:

The research problem

Purpose of the study

Personal experiences

Audience

Reliability: threats are subject or participant error, subject or

participant bias, and observer error, observer bias

Validity: threats are history, testing, instrumentation,

mortality, maturation, ambiguity about causal direction

Generalizability/external validity

Time

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Research Designs based on

purpose of ResearchFour types; namely:

1. Exploratory

2. Descriptive

3. Causal

4. Explanatory

1. Analytical

2. Predictive

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Research Designs based on

purpose of Research Cont’d

Exploratory Research is designed to generate basic

knowledge, clarify relevant issues uncover variables

associated with a problem, uncover information needs,

and/or define alternatives for addressing research

objectives.

It is undertaken when few or no previous studies exist

The aim is to look for patterns, hypotheses or ideas that

can be tested and will form the basis for further research

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Research Designs based on

purpose of Research Cont’d

Descriptive research can be used to identify and classify the

elements or characteristics of the subjects. It is generally

concerned with “who”, “what” and “where”

It Can be used for profiling, defining, segmentation,

estimating, predicting, and examining associative

relationships

Quantitative techniques are most often used to collect,

analyse and summarise data

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Research Designs based on

purpose of Research Cont’d

Explanatory Research are studies that establish causal

relationships between variables . The emphasis is on studying a

situation or a problem in order to explain the relationships

between variables.

Analytical Research often extends the descriptive approach to

suggest or explain why or how something is happening.

Predictive research aims at speculating intelligently on

future possibilities based on close analysis of available evidence

of cause and effect.30

Thank you

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