formal link 1 presentation

8/11/2019 Formal Link 1 presentation

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Formal Links


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FORMAL LINKS

Formal links are formal features that operateacross sentences.

Formal links between sentences and betweenclauses are known as cohesive devices.


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Formal Links

Parallelism

Referring expressions Ellipsis and substitution Conjunction

Repetition Lexical cohesion


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Parallelism

Parallelism is a device which suggests aconnection, simply because the form of onesentence or clause repeats the form of another.

(Cook 1989, 15)


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Parallelism

Grammatical parallelism Sound parallelism

Semantic parallelism


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Grammatical Parallelism

Teach us, Good Lord, to give and not to countthe cost, to fight and not to heed the wounds,to toil and not to seek for rest, to labour andto ask for no reward, save that of knowingthat we do Thy will. (St Richards Prayer)

General de Gaulle is dead. France is a widow.


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Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening

By Robert Frost

Whose woods these are I think Iknow.His house is in the village though;He will not see me stopping hereTo watch his woods fill up withsnow.

My little horse must think it queerTo stop without a farmhouse nearBetween the woods and frozenlakeThe darkest evening of the year.

He gives his harness bells a shakeTo ask if there is some mistake.The only other sounds the sweep

Of easy wind and downy flake.

The woods are lovely, dark anddeep.But I have promises to keep,

And miles to go before I sleep,And miles to go before I sleep.
http://www.poetryfoundation.org/bio/robert-frosthttp://www.poetryfoundation.org/bio/robert-frost


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DNG CHN VEN RNG MT CHIU TUY

Rng trc mt thuc v ai ta bit. Nh ch nhn mi tn trong lng; ng u bit c ta ang dng li nhn rng ph kn tuyt ang ri.

Con nga nh cng dng nh thi Sao li dng trong chiu vng cuinm Khi pha trc khng nh khngtrang tri T khu rng n h nc ng bng.

N git nh chung cng nh munhi Phi chng y l lm ln no chng. Li hi p l gi ngn ang thi L mnh mng tuyt ph xung bnb.

Rng kh i, m u v thm thm, Nhng ta cn nhng ha hn phi i, Trc khi ng, mt hnh trnh v tn, Mt hnh trnh v tn s phi i.


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Semantic parallelism

A: The Good Lord, in his wisdom, has taken heraway from us.B: You mean the old girls snuffed it.


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Referring expressions

Referring expressions are words whosemeaning can only be discovered by referringto other words or to elements of the contextwhich are clear to both sender and receiver.


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The school master was leaving the village, andeverybody seemed sorry. The miller atCresscombe lent him the small white tiltedcart and horse to carry his goods to the city ofhis destination, about twenty miles off, such a vehicle proving of quite sufficient size for the

departing teachers effects.


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Anaphoric reference

It rained day and night for two weeks. Thebasement flooded and everything was underwater. It spoilt all our calculations.


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What does it refer to in these short extracts: anoun phrase in the text, or a situation?

A pioneering 'school-based management' programin Miami-Dade County's 260 schools has also put

some budget, salary and personnel decisions in thehands of local councils, composed Largely ofteachers. 'It's a recognition that our voices andinput are important,' says junior highschool

teacher Ann Colman.

(Newsweek, 17 October 1988: 23)


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What does it refer to in these short extracts: anoun phrase in the text, or a situation?

Like the idea of deterring burglars with-a big,ferocious hound - but can't stand dogs? For around45 you can buy an automatic dog barking unit -

Guard God, or the Boston Bulldog, both availableby mail order from catalogues like the ones you'resent with credit card statements. You plug it in nearthe front door and its built-in microphone detects

sharp noises.

(Which ? October 1988: 485)


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Exophoric Reference

The government are to blame for unemployment. She was using one of those strimmers to get rid of

the weeds.


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Look at the opening section of a childrens book


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Cataphoric Reference

She claims Leo Tolstoy as a distant cousin. Hergrandfather was Alexei Tolstoy the famous Red Count who sided with Lenins revolutionaries. Now,

Tatyana Tolstaya has put pen to paper, in her case todemonstrate that someone from the family canwrite compactly. In her stories of ten to twelvetypewritten pages, I somehow try to show thewhole life of a person from birth to death, she says.

(Newsweek, 21 September 1987:12)


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Identify the cataphoric reference itemand its referent in this extract:

It has often been compared to New Orleans'sMardi Gras as an outdoor celebration. CertainlyNew York's Mulberry Street and surroundingblocks have been as crowded over the last few daysas Royal and Bourbon Streets in the French Quarterare for the Mardi Gras. More than three millionpeople are estimated to have celebrated the 61stannual Feast of the San Gennaro down in

Greenwich Village since it began on Thursday.

(The Guardian, 15 September 1987: 23)


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Ellipsis and Substitution

Ellipsis is the omission of elements normallyrequired by the grammar which the speaker /writer assumes are obvious from the context and

therefore need not be raised.

The children will carry the small boxes, theadults the large ones.


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Ellipsis

English has broadly three types of ellipsis: nominal, verbaland clausal.

a) Nelly liked the green tiles; myself I preferred the blue.

b) A: Will anyone be waiting?B: Jim will , I should think

c) A: Has she married?

B: No, but she will one day, Im sure.

d) He said he would take early retirement as soon as he could andhe has.


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I hope no bones are broken? None to speakof.

His sons went into business. Neithersucceeded.

The flat has a sitting-room, a dining-room andone bedroom. Each has a window overlookingthe park. `1


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Im staying at home this weekend. I haventfor some time.

What should she have done? Told the police. What is he going to do with all that

paraphernalia? Catch fish.


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The cheque is still valid. The Bank can tell them. The opportunity has now been lost. I sincerely

regret.

I think the cheque is still valid. The bank can tellthem.

So you knew the lawyer was responsible. I hadntrealized. I finished writing that story and its going to bepublished. when?


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Identify examples of ellipsis in these extracts:

Most students start each term with an awardcheque. But by the time accommodation andfood are paid for, books are bought, trips takenhome and a bit of social life lived, it usuallylooks pretty emaciated.

(Advertisement for Barclays Bank, University of Birmingham Bulletin, 5December 1988: 5)


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Identify examples of ellipsis

'You like watching children . . . ?' her tone seemed to say:'You're like a child yourself.''Yes. Don't you?' His cheek was full of cheese sandwich. Shedidn't answer; only looked at the swings with anxiety.

'I sometimes wish,' he said, trying hard to empty his mouth, 'Icould join in myself.''But you wouldn't?'Why not?He saw the sudden challenge in her eyes. And was that a smilesomewhere in that held-aloft face?'Well, if you feel that way . . . ?'' - why don't you?''Why don't I?'


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Substitution

Substitution is similar to ellipsis, in that, in English, itoperates either at nominal, verbal or clausal level.

One(s): I offered him a seat. He said he didn't wantone. Do: Did Mary take that letter? She might have done. So/ not: Do you need a lift? If so, wait for me; if not,

I'll see you there. Same: She chose the roast duck; I chose the same.


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John thought it was impossible. yes, Ithought ___________.

We can trust Smith. I wish I could say ________ of his partner.

Winter is always so damp. _________ isoften true of summer.

A: His speech didnt say anything new, did it? B: ______ applies to most political speeches.


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Identify substitution

He never really succeeded in his ambition. Hemight have done, one felt, had it not been forthe restlessness of his nature.


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What mistake has the writer made, and whatexplanation might a language teacher offer to help

the writer avoid the error in future?

If you require further information on theapplicant, I would be pleased to do so.


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CONJUNCTION

Additive

Adversative

Causal Temporal


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TYPES OF CONJUNCTION

EX: For the whole day he climbed up the steepmountainside, almost without stopping.

a. And in all this time he met no one. (additive)

b. Yet he was hardly aware of being tired(adversative)

c. So by night time the valley was far below him.(causal)

d) Then, as dusk fell, he sat down to rest. (temporal)


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CONJUNCTIVE ADJUNCTS

Adverbs , including:+ simple adverbs: but, so, then, next, + compound adverbs in ly : accordingly,

subsequently, actually+ compound adverbs in there- and where- :

therefore, whereas Other compound adverbs : furthermore,

nevertheless, anyway, instead, besides Prepositional expressions : as a result of that,

instead of that, in addition to that, in spite of

that, because of that


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Find conjunctions linking sentences to one another. what typeof conjunctive relation is being signalled in each case?

Wind power. Wave power. Solarpower. Tidal power.

Whilst their use will increase they

are unlikely to be able to provide largeamounts of economic electricity.

Generally, the cost of harnessing theirpower is huge.

However, there is a morepractical,

reliable and economical way of

ensuring electricity for the future.And that is through nuclear

energy.

It's not a new idea, of course.We've been using nuclear electricity

for the last 30 years.

In fie it now accounts for around20% of Britain's electricityproduction. And it's one of thecheapest and safest ways toproduce electricity we know for the

future.What's more, world supplies of

uranium are estimated to last forhundreds of years, which will giveus more than enough time to

develop alternatives if we need to.So, while some people might

not care about their children'sfuture.

We do.


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A: Once you start infringing upon the benefits ofthe other people, that's when your personal right islost . . . just like , y'know, you have rights but yety'know you can't kill anybody . . . because obviouslyit's infringing upon somebody else's rights . . . youdon't need a majority for something to go wrong,you only need a small minority . . . see , that's where

I mean that's just not right . . . ' cos smoke justfills the room.(Firth 1988)


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Complete the description with theconnectors and classify them.

The Titanic was considered to be the fastest andmost modern passenger ship of its day. It was (1)also believed to be unsinkable. During its firstvoyage in 1912, (2) _________, the ship hit aniceberg (3) _________ sank. While the ship wasslowly sinking, there was time for the passengers toescape, (4) ___________ there were not enough

lifeboats, (5) ________ hundreds of peopledrowned in the disaster. (6) _________, tough newlaws were introduced to make ships much safer.


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LEXICAL COHESION

Lexical reiteration means either restating anitem in a later part of the discourse by directrepetition or reasserting its meaning byexploiting lexical relations .

Lexical relations are the stable semanticrelationships that exist between words

(hyponymy, synonymy, )


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REITERATION

Reiteration is a form of lexical cohesion whichinvolves the repetition of a lexical item, at oneend of the scale; the use of a general word torefer back to a lexical item, at the other end ofthe scale; and a number of things in between

the use of a synonym, near-synonym, or

superordinate.


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Instances of reiteration

a) The same word (repetition)b) A synonym or near-synonymc) A superordinated) A general word


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Class of general noun

people, person, man, woman, child, boy, girl[human]

creature [non-human animate] thing, object [ inanimate concrete count] stuff [inanimate concrete mass] business, affair, matter [inanimate abstract] question, idea [fact] move [move]


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EXAMPLES

Timotei is both mild to your hair and to yourscalp so mild you can wash your hair as oftenas you like. Timotei cleans your hair gently,leaving it soft and shiny, with a fresh smell ofsummer meadows.


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EXAMPLES

The meeting commenced at six thirty. Butfrom the moment it began, it was clear that allwas not well.

There was a fine old rocking-chair that hisfather used to sit in, a desk where he wroteletters, a nest of small tables and a dark,imposing bookcase. Now all this furniture wasto be sold, and with it his own past.


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EXAMPLES

Accordingly I took leave, and turned to theascent of the peak. The climb is perfectly easy.

Henrys bought himself a new Jaguar. Hepractically lives in the car.


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EXAMPLES

What shall I do with all this crockery? Leavethe stuff there; someonell come and put itaway.

We all kept quiet. That seemed the best move. Can you tell me where to stay in Geneva? Ivenever been to the place.

Henry seems convinced theres money in dailyfarming. I dont know what gave him thatidea.


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EXAMPLES

HOWto get a

contract

THE NORMAL route isto build up a followingthrough live shows,

send in tapes to recordcompanies and thenwait until someone'discovers" you. But

there are other ways ...


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Identify and categorize all the formal links whichconnect the three sentences in the following inventeddialogue.

A: Its a mystery to me, how the conjurorsawed that woman in half.

B: Well, Jane was the woman he did it to. Sopresumably she must know.

formal link 1 presentation

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