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TRANSCRIPT
fOrESTrY
How to Use This PamphletThe secret to successfully earning a merit badge is for you to use both the pamphlet and the suggestions of your counselor.
Your counselor can be as important to you as a coach is to an athlete. Use all of the resources your counselor can make available to you. This may be the best chance you will have to learn about this particular subject. Make it count.
If you or your counselor feels that any information in this pamphlet is incorrect, please let us know. Please state your source of information.
Merit badge pamphlets are reprinted annually and requirements updated regularly. Your suggestions for improvement are welcome.
Send comments along with a brief statement about yourself to Youth Development, S209 • Boy Scouts of America • 1325 West Walnut Hill Lane • P.O. Box 152079 • Irving, TX 75015-2079.
Who Pays for This Pamphlet?This merit badge pamphlet is one in a series of more than 100 covering all kinds of hobby and career subjects. It is made available for you to buy as a service of the national and local councils, Boy Scouts of America. The costs of the development, writing, and editing of the merit badge pamphlets are paid for by the Boy Scouts of America in order to bring you the best book at a reasonable price.
Forestry
Boy sCoUts oF AMerICAMerIt BADGe serIes
Requirements1. Prepareafieldnotebook,makeacollection,andidentify
15speciesoftrees,wildshrubs,orvinesinalocalforestedarea.Writeadescriptioninwhichyouidentifyanddiscussthefollowing:
a.Thecharacteristicsofleaf,twig,cone,orfruitingbodies
b.Thehabitatinwhichthesetrees,shrubs,orvinesarefound
c.Theimportantwayseachtree,shrub,orvineisusedbyhumansorwildlifeandwhetherthespeciesisnativeorwasintroducedtothearea.Ifitisnotnative,explainwhetheritisconsideredinvasiveorpotentiallyinvasive.
2. DoONEofthefollowing:
a.Collectandidentifywoodsamplesof10speciesoftrees.Listseveralwaysthewoodofeachspeciescanbeused.
b.Findandexaminethreestumps,logs,orcoresamplesthatshowvariationsinthegrowthrateoftheirringpatterns.Inthefieldnotebookyoupreparedforrequire-ment1,describethelocationororiginofeachexample(includingelevation,aspect,slope,andthepositionontheslope),anddiscusspossiblereasonsforthevariationsingrowthrate.Photographorsketcheachexample.
c.Findandexaminetwotypesofanimal,insect,ordamageontrees.Inthefieldnotebookyoupreparedforrequirement1,identifythedamage,explainhowthedamagewascaused,anddescribetheeffectsofthedamageonthetrees.Photographorsketcheachexample.
35901ISBN 978-0-8395-3302-3©2005 Boy Scouts of America2010 Printing
BANG/Brainerd, MN1-2010/059120
forestry 3
3. Dothefollowing:
a.Describethecontributionsforestsmaketo:
(1)Oureconomyintheformofproducts
(2)Oursocialwell-being,includingrecreation
(3)Soilprotectionandincreasedfertility
(4)Cleanwater
(5)Cleanair(carboncycling,sequestration)
(6)Wildlifehabitat
(7)Fisherieshabitat
(8)Threatenedandendangeredspeciesofplantsandanimals
b.Tellwhichwatershedorothersourceyourcommunityreliesonforitswatersupply.
4. Describewhatforestmanagementmeans,includingthefollowing:
a.Multiple-usemanagement
b.Sustainableforestmanagement
c.Even-agedanduneven-agedmanagementandthesilviculturalsystemsassociatedwitheach
d.Intermediatecuttings
e.Theroleofprescribedburningandrelatedforest-managementpractices
5. Withyourparent’sandcounselor’sapproval,doONEofthefollowing:
a.Visitamanagedpublicorprivateforestareawiththemanageroraforesterwhoisfamiliarwithit.Writeabriefreportdescribingthetypeofforest,themanagementobjectives,andtheforestrytechniquesusedtoachievetheobjectives.
b.Withaknowledgeableindividual,visitaloggingopera-tionorwood-usingmanufacturingplant.Writeabriefreportdescribingthefollowing:
(1)Thespeciesandsizeoftreesbeingharvestedorusedandthelocationoftheharvestareaormanufacturer
4 forestry
(2) Theoriginoftheforestorstandsoftreesbeingutilized(e.g.,plantedornatural)
(3)Theforest’ssuccessionalstage.Whatisitsfuture?
(4)Wherethetreesarecomingfrom(landowner-ship)orwheretheyaregoing(typeofmillorprocessingplant)
(5)Theproductsthataremadefromthetrees
(6)Howtheproductsaremadeandused
(7)Howwastematerialsfromtheloggingoperationormanufacturingplantaredisposedoforutilized
c.Takepartinaforest-firepreventioncampaignincoopera-tionwithyourlocalfirewarden,statewildfireagency,forester,orcounselor.Writeabriefreportdescribingthecampaign,howitwillhelppreventwildfires,andyourpartinit.
6. Dothefollowing:
a.DescribetheconsequencestoforeststhatresultfromFIVEofthefollowingelements:wildfire,absenceoffire,insects,treediseases,airpollution,overgrazing,deerorotherwildlifeoverpopulation,improperharvest,andurbanization.
b.Explainwhatcanbedonetoreducetheconsequencesyoudiscussedin6a.
c.Describewhatyoushoulddoifyoudiscoveraforestfireandhowaprofessionalfirefightingcrewmightcontrolit.Nameyourstateorlocalwildfirecontrolagency.
7.Visitoneormorelocalforestersandwriteabriefreportabouttheperson(orpersons).Or,writeaboutaforester’soccupationincludingtheeducation,qualifications,careeropportunities,anddutiesrelatedtoforestry.
forestry 5
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
UnderstandingForests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Trees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
IdentifyingandCollectingPlantSpecies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Animal,Insect,andDiseaseDamage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
UsingForestResourcesResponsibly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
WhyManageForests?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
VisitingaManagedForestryOperation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
CareersinForestry................................74
ForestryResources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6 forestry
Introduction.
IntroductionHumanshavealwaysdependeduponforests.Forestshaveprovidedfood,fuel,shelter,andmanyotherresources.Theyhavebeenworshipped,feared,boughtandsold,protected,destroyed,andrestored.Forestedlandsaredeeplywovenintoourmythsandlegends,music,literature,andart.Withoutforests,ourexistencewouldbefarlessrich.Infact,withoutforests,wewouldfinditdifficulttosurviveatall.
Today,theforestsoftheworldcontinuetobeamongthemostinterestingandimportantnaturalresourcesontheplanet.Nearly30percentoftheworld’slandisforested,andathirdoftheacreageofNorthAmericaiscoveredwithforests.ThesegreatstandsofvegetationshieldEarthfromtheforcesofwind,rain,andsunlight.Theyslowerosion,enrichthesoil,protectbodiesofwater,andprovideshelterforwildlife.Fromtheequatortonearthepolarregions,forestsarehometoplantandanimalspeciesthat,inmanycases,wehaveyettofullyunderstand.
Forest vegetation
helps clean the
air by absorbing
carbon dioxide and
releasing oxygen.
Perhaps you have hiked with your troop into a forest and camped under the shade of big hardwoods or in deep stands of pine and fir. You may have seen wildlife among the trees and in nearby meadows. Perhaps you have cast a line into a stream or a lake and had the thrill of catching a couple of fish. When you are in the middle of a forest having such a good time, it is easy to understand the value of the recreational opportu-nities that forests offer.
.Introduction
Youmightnotspendmuchtimethinkingabouttheprod-uctsthatcomefromforests,buttheyarevitaltoourwayoflife.Yourhomeprobablyhaslumberinitthatwasmilledfromtreesharvestedhundredsofmilesaway.Muchofthefurnitureinyourhouseismadeofwood,andsoisthepaperusedtoprintthismeritbadgepamphlet.Manyofthefoodsweputonourtablesandthedrugsinourmedicinecabinetshaveforestorigins.Infact,ifyouwrotedownalltheforestproductsyouandyourfamilyuse,thelistwouldbeverylong.
Forestsprovidejobs,too.Somepeoplemanagetimberlandsandharvesttreesandotherforestresources.Thewood-productsindustryisakeyindustryinmanystatesandtheprimaryeconomicengineinmanyruralcommunities.Theoutdoor-recreationindustrycreatestensofthousandsofpositionsaswell.
Theverylandonwhichforestsgrowisindemand,too.Forestsarestillbeingclearedtomakewayforhomes,farms,andcities.
InstudyingthispamphletandworkingthroughtheForestrymeritbadgerequirementswithyourcounselor,youwillexploretheremarkablecomplexityofaforestandidentifymanyspeciesoftreesandplantsandtherolestheyplayinaforest’slifecycle.Youwillfindthatforestschange.Youwilldiscoversomeoftheresourcesfor-estsprovidetohumansandcometounderstandthatpeoplehaveaverylargeparttoplayinsustainingthehealthofforests.
With so many pressures upon forests, we have the responsibility to be good stewards to ensure that forests are healthy today and that we can pass them on to future generations in as good or better condition than we found them. That is the goal of modern forestry. To accomplish it, we need to understand as much as we can about forests and how to use and enjoy them without causing harm.
forestry 7
8 forestry
Understanding Forests.
UnderstandingForestsAskadozenpeopletodefineaforestandmanywillprobablygiveadefini-tionalongthelinesof“abunchoftrees.”Whiletreesareimportantmem-bersofaforest,theyareonlypartofabiologicalcommunityofthousandsofspeciesofplantsandanimals,extendingfromdeepwithinthesoiltothetipsoftheloftiestbranches.
Shrub layer
underStory layer
litter layerherb layer
forestry 9
.Understanding Forests
forest strataAmatureforestconsistsoflevels,orstrata.Typicalforeststrataarethecanopy,understory,shrublayer,herblayer,andlitterlayer.Allthestrataareessentialtothehealthofaforestecosystem.
Canopy.Branchesandleavesthatformthehighestreachesofaforestarepositionedtocapturesunlightandtoprovideshelterandshadeforthestratabelow.Formedbythelargestandoldesttrees,thecanopyishometobirds,climbingmammals,andinsects.
Understory.Smallerandyoungertreesgrowinginthebrokenshadeandlowerlightlevelsbeneaththecanopylayerformtheunderstory.Ascanopytreesdieandlightlevelsincrease,someoftheunderstorytreeswillgrowtotaketheirplace.
shrub layer.Bushesandthicketsofplantswithwoodystemsformthestratumthatrisesabovethegrounduptoabout15feet.Itistheshrublayerthatcanposeaseriouschallengetocross-countrytravelerswhendensevegetationmakeshikingdifficult.
Herb layer.Aforest’sherblayeriscomposedofthegroundcoverofgrasses,flowers,ferns,andothersoft-stemmedvegeta-tion.Dependingonlightlevels,elevation,andothervariationsintheenvironment,thislayermaybesparseordense.
Litter.Whatforesterscalllitterisasimportanttoaforestasanyofitsotherlayers.Madeupoforganicmaterialincludingdecomposingleaves,needles,branches,treetrunks,andotherdeadvegetation,litterishometomicroorganismsandtobee-tles,snails,millipedes,andhundredsofotheranimalspecies.Itprotectsthesoilandprovidesamoistbedfornewplantstotakeroot.Aslitterdecays,phosphorus,potassium,magnesium,calcium,nitrogen,andothernutrientsreturntothesoilwheretheycanbeabsorbedbylivingplants.
To plant scientists,
forest generally
refers to land with
a tree canopy that
covers at least
10 percent of the
area. With some
species of trees,
this percentage
may be as low
as 5 percent.
Included in this
definition of a
forest are lands
that have been
recently planted
with trees or that
are temporarily
understocked
(recently harvested
tree farms, for
example) but are
not dedicated to
another land use.
10 forestry
Understanding Forests.
Nurse LogsLongaftertheirdeaths,fallentreesandtheirstumpscontinuetoplayanimportantroleinthelifeofaforest.Termites,beetles,worms,andothercreaturesburrowintothewood,allowingmoisturetoseepin.Fungiandmossestakehold,softeningthewoodandcreatinganinvitinggerminationbedforlargerplantspecies.Astheseoldtrees,ornurse logs,slowlydecompose,theyreturnnutrientstotheforestfloorandbecomehosttoyoungplantsthatsproutfromtheirsurface,thusensuringthehealthoffuturegenerationsofvegetation.Theyalsoprovideimportantcoverforsmallmammals,reptiles,andamphibians.
10 forestry
forestry 11
.Understanding Forests
forests as ecosystemsAforestisanecosystem,thatis,agroupoflivingorganismslivinginaparticularenvironmentthataredependentuponeachotherandtheirenvironment.Notwoforestecosystemsarealike.Many,however,sharegeneralsimilaritiesbasedontheirlocation,elevation,andotherfactors.Thosesimilaritiesprovideawayofcomparingoneareawithanother.
types of forestsBroad-leavedforestsdominatetheeasternUnitedStatesandCanada,whileconiferforestsdominatewesternNorthAmerica.ForestsintheeasternorsouthernpartoftheUnitedStatesincludeoak-hickory,oak-pine,longleafpine–slashpine,andspruce-firforests.WesternforestsincludeDouglasfir,westernhemlock,Sitkaspruce,redwood,ponderosapine,piñon-juniper,andlodgepolepineforests.Therearemanyhemlock-spruceforestsinOregonandWashington.Hemlock-spruceforestsalsoarethepredominantforesttypeinsouthernAlaska.
forestry 11
A population is a group of the same animal or plant species living together. A community consists of all the populations of plants and animals in an area. An ecosystem is made up of those communities plus their physical surroundings—the land, weather, water, amount of sunlight, and everything else that affects it.
White pine
oak
sugar maple elm
Douglas fir
Hemlock
trees.
TreesAlthoughaforestisanecosystemcomposedofmanyspecies,treesarethedominantformofforestlife.Treesarecharacterizedbytheirsize(usuallytallerthanaperson)andbythefactthateachusuallyhasasinglewoodystem,ortrunk.Shrubs,ontheotherhand,havemultiplewoodystemsandseldomgrowmuchbeyond8to15feethigh.
rootsMuchofatreeliesbeneaththeground’ssurface.Tinyroothairsabsorbmoistureandsenditupintothetree.Arootsystemisalsotheanchorthatholdsatreeupright,eveninhighwinds.Sometreeshavetaprootsthatextenddeepinto
theground.Others,especiallythosegrow-inginthinorrockysoils,mayhaveroots
thatspreadoutjustbelowthesurface,sometimesachievingaradiusaswideasthetreeistall.
trunk and BarkBarkisthenonlivingouterarmorofatree’strunkandbranches.Underthebarkisathinlayeroftissuecalledthecambiumlayer,whichismadeupoftwodistincttypesofcells—thephloemandxylem.Thephloemchannelsfoodproducedbytheleavesintothetrunk,branches,twigs,androots.Thesecellsalsoformthebarkofthetree.Thexylemcellsmakeupthesapwoodthat
rootS
trunk Sapwoodphloeminner barkouter bark
leaveS
Anatomy of a tree
annual ringS
medullary raySheartwood
Cross-section of the trunk
Crown
More than 1,000
species of trees
grow in North
America, and
thousands more
flourish in other
parts of the world.
forestry 13
.trees
transportsthemoistureandnutrientsfromtherootstothecrownofthetree.Sapwoodeventuallyformstheheartwoodinthecenterofthetrunkthatgivesthetreemuchofitsstructuralstrength.Theyearlygrowthofxylemcellsformsthe“annualrings”thattellthetree’sage.
LeavesChlorophyll,achemicalcompoundinleaves,absorbsenergyfromsunlighttoconvertcarbondioxide,water,andsoilnutri-entsintoplantfood.Thisprocess,calledphotosynthesis,alsoreturnsoxygentotheatmosphere.GreenplantsproducetheoxygenthatsupportsallofEarth’sanimallife,humansincluded.
Eachfall,thefoliageofmanybroad-leavedtreesturnsfromgreentobrilliantred,orange,andbrown.Infact,thosebrighthueswereintheleavesallsummer,hiddenbeneaththegreenofthechloro-phyll.Asthegrowingseasoncomestoanend,atree’sfoodproductiondropsandsodoestheamountofchlorophyllintheleaves.Thegreenfades,allowingthefierycolorstoshowthrough.
Alltreesareeitherconifertreesorbroad-leavedtrees.Conifers,alsoknownasevergreens,arecone-bearingtreeswithneedlelikeorscalelikeleavesthatmaystayonthetreesforseveralyears.Broad-leavedtreesarefloweringtrees.Theyalsoaredeciduous—theygenerallylosetheirleavesinthefall.
ConifersConifersaregymnosperms,thatis,plantswithnaked(uncov-ered)seedstuckedinsideofcones.Exposedtotheelements,coniferseedsarefertilizeddirectlybywindblownpollenwhentheirconesopenslightlyinthespring.Ratherthanrelyingoninsectstoaidinfertilization,conifersreleasepollenthatiscarriedbythewindfromtreetotree.Thismakesanidealmeansoftransportationinalpineregionsandotherenviron-mentswherethereareplentyofbreezesbutperhapsnotmanyinsects.Thepyramidshapeofpines,firs,spruces,andotherconifershelpsthemshedrain,snow,andwind.
The cambium
grows a new layer
of sapwood and
bark around the
trunk each year.
Another change causes a layer of cells at the base of the leafstalk to cut tissues holding the leaf on the tree. the leaf falls to the ground where it will decompose, returning nutrients to the soil.
14 forestry
trees.
Theneedlelikeleavesofmostconifersdonotfalloffattheendofsummer,allowingthosetreestospurgrowthassoonasthedaysbegintowarminthespring.Althoughconifersarewell-suitedtohighelevationsandnorthernlatitudeswheregrowingseasonsareshort,thereareexceptions.Forexample,manyspeciesofpines—loblolly,longleaf,slash,shortleaf,andVirginiapines—growwellintheSouth.Also,thecoastred-woodgrowsatlowelevationsnearthePacificOcean.Thefactthatredwoodscanthrivemostoftheyearhelpsthemattaintheirgreatheight.
PinesThewhitepineisfoundthroughouttheNortheastandisthetreeshownonthestateflagofMaine.Ithassmooth,tightbarkandleafclustersoffiveneedleseach.Otherpinescommonintheeasternstatesincludethepitchpinewiththreeneedlesperclusterandthejackandredpineswithtwoneedles.IntheSoutheast,thelongleafandloblollypineshavethreeneedlestoacluster,whileslashandshortleafpinesdisplaytwo.
ThelargestpinesgrowinthemountainsoftheWest.Sugarpinescanreachaheightof200feet.Lookforfiveneedlesineachofitsleafclusters.Theheavyconesofsugarpinescanbeupto18incheslong.
Ponderosapineshavelongneedlesingroupsofthree.Getclosetothebarkofaponderosaandyoumaysmellapleasantvanillalikearoma.Jefferyandknobconeareotherwesternpineswiththree-needleclusters.Lodgepolepines,namedforthestraight,cleantrunksonceusedbysomeAmericanIndiantribesforconstructingtepeesandlodges,featurepairsoftwoneedleseach.
Several deciduous
conifers, including
cypress, dawn
redwood, and
larch, do lose
their leaves in
the fall.
Ponderosa pine
Colorado blue spruce
Lodgepole pine
forestry 15
.trees
sprucesTheneedlesofsprucetreesarefour-sided.TheEngelmannspruceoftheCascadeMountainsandRockyMountainshassoftneedleswithablue-greenhue.Thebluespruce,whosenaturalhomeistheRockyMountainregion,hasstiffneedlesandiswidelyplantedasanornamental.ThetallestAmericanspruceistheSitkaspruceoftherain-drenchedPacificNorthwestcoastalforests.
firsFirneedlesareflat,flexible,andappeartobearrangedinorderlyrowsalongthesidesofbranches.Theneedlesaredarkgreenontop,whiletheundersidesshowtwowhitelines.Firconesgrowuprightontheupperbranchesofthetrees.ThebalsamfiroftheEastandthewhitefiroftheWestarestately,fragrantrepresentativesoftheseevergreens.
Larches and tamaracksThesoftneedlesofthelarchandtamarackgrowintuftsoutofbumpsonthebranches.Unlikethoseofmostotherconifers,theleavesfalloffinthewinter.Larchesandtamaracksaretall,slendertreeswithsmallcones.
HemlocksHemlocksarelargeevergreensdistinguishedbyshort,flatneedleswithdarkgreentopsandsilveryundersides.Thesmallconeshangfrombranchesthatcandroopintheshapeofagracefulpyramid.
Douglas firsAcloserelativeofthehemlockistheDouglasfir,atreefoundprimarilyinthewesternUnitedStates.AlsoknownastheDouglasspruce,redfir,andOregonpine,itisactuallynotaspruce,fir,orpinebutratherapseudotsuga,orfalsehemlock.Itsflatneedlelikeleavesspiralaroundthebranches,givingbranchendstheappearanceofbottlebrushesorsquirrels’tails.
sequoias and redwoodsTheworld’slargesttreesaretheredwoodsandgiantsequoiasofCalifornia.Redwoodscangrowtomorethan300feetinheight,andsequoiascanreachadiameterofmorethan25feet.Someofthesetreesareseveralthousandyearsold.
Balsam fir
Larch
tamarack
eastern hemlock
Douglas fir
16 forestry
trees.
Cedars, Junipers, and CypressesTheleavesofcedarsaretiny,bright-greenscalesarrangedlikesmallshinglesonflattenedtwigs.Easternredcedaris,infact,ajuniper.Junipershavetwokindsofleaves.Somearescalyandflatlikeacedar,whileothersareprickly.Juniperconeslooklikemoldyblueberries.ThebaldcypressoftheSouthdropsitsneedleseachwinter.
Broad-Leaved treesBroad-leavedtreesareangiosperms,orfloweringplants.Theymakeovules,oreggs,thatdevelopintoseedsafterfertilization.Unliketheconesprotectingtheseedsofconifers,seedsofbroad-leavedtreesareenclosedinnuts,fruits,orsomeotherformofseedcase.
Identifying Firs, Spruces, and Pines As a quick rule of thumb to determine some of the larger families of evergreen trees, examine their needles and note their shape.
Flat = Fir Needles in pairs = PineSquare = Spruce Shingled, scaly needles = Cedar
some species of cypress grow in swamps. the portions of their roots exposed above the water are called knees.
forestry 17
.trees
Asyoumayhaveguessed,mostbroad-leavedtreeshavewide,flatleaves.Thetrunksofmanybroad-leavedtreesbranchoutintoround,airyshapes.Broad-leavedtreesdowellwhereconditionsduringthegrowingseasonarenotharsh,buttheyalsoarefoundinareaswithcoldwintersanddeepsnows.
Everythingaboutbroad-leavedtrees,fromleafshapetotheorientationofbranches,influencestheirsurvivalandtheirabilitytoadapttotheirenvironments.Losingtheirleavesinthefall,forexample,protectsbranchesfrombreakingundertheweightofwintersnows.
Willows and AspensThepussywillowtakesitsnamefromitsfurryflowerclustersthatresembletinykittenscling-ingtothewillow’slong,straightbranches.Thesandbarwillowisoftenoneofthefirstplantstogrowonnewlyexposedgroundwhenariverchangescourse.
Aspensthriveonsunlight.Theytakerootquicklyonmountainslopesburnedbyfire,protectingthesoilfromerosionandprovidingbrowsefordeer,elk,moose,andotheranimals.Asslower-growingconifersmature,theytowerabovetheaspensandeventuallycreatesomuchshadethattheyreplacetheaspens.
Nut treesWalnutsandhickorieshavecom-poundleaves,eachmadeupwithanumberofleaflets.Ahickoryleafhasthreetonineleaflets,whiletheleafofawalnuttreemayhavemorethanadozen.Walnutsandhickorynutsaretheseedsoftheirtrees.Botharegoodtoeat,asarethenutsofthepecantree,whichisatypeofhickory.Mockernut,bitternut,andpignuthavesmall,bitterkernels.Woodfromthewalnutisprizedforfurnitureandgunstocks,whilehickorywoodisusedforshort-handledtoolssuchashammersandhatchets.
Pussy willows
Bitternut hickory
Walnut
18 forestry
trees.
the Birch familyThisfamilyofbroad-leavedtreesincludesbirches,hornbeams,andalders,whicharecommonlyfoundintheEastandNortheast,whilethewesternredalderisaprominentbroad-leavedtreefoundintheWest.Theovalleaveshavejaggededgesandshinysurfaces.
AmericanIndiansusedsheetsofwhitebarkfromthepaperbirchtobuildtheircanoes.Thebarkofyellowbirchpeelsawayfromthetrunkincurls.Grayandblackbircheshavemuchtighterbark.
Thewoodofthesmooth-barkedAmericanhornbeamissotoughthatthetreeissometimescalledanironwood.Theappearanceofthetrunkandbarkofanironwoodtreeremindsomepeopleofaperson’smusculararm.
Aldersgrowinmoistgroundthroughoutthecountry.Theyhavebroadleaves,stalkedbuds,andsmall,conelikefruits.FoundalongthePacificCoast,redalderisatremendoussourceoflumberandotherwoodproducts.
Beeches and ChestnutsYoucanidentifyabeechtreebyitssmooth,palegraybark.Beechleaveshaveastrongmidveinandparallelsideveins.Thebeech’sburrlikefruitcontainstwotriangularnuts.
ThechestnutwasoncecommoninforestsoftheeasternUnitedStatesuntiltheappearanceofchestnutblight,afungusthatkilledsomanyofthetreesthatyouwillprobablyhaveahardtimelocatingachestnuttoday.
oaksCarpentersandcabinetmakershavelongprizedwoodfromAmericanoaktrees.Oaktimbersareslowtorot,eveniftheygetwet.TheRevolutionaryWarshipUSSConstitution(nicknamed“OldIronsides”)wasmadeofliveoak,aspeciescommontothecoastalSouth,andhand-hewnoakbeamswereusedinmanyColonialhomes.
Birch
American beech
forestry 19
.trees
Theacornisthefruitofanoak.Mostoakshavenotchedleaves.Thelobesontheleavesofsomeoaksarerounded,whilethoseofotherscometosharppoints.Theliveoakisanexcep-tion.Itsevergreenleaveshavesmoothedgesandnolobesatall,butitsacornshelpidentifyitasanoak.
elmsElmsarelarge,gracefulshadetreesoncefoundintownsandcitiesthroughoutthenation.DutchelmdiseasehaskilledmostlargeelmsintheeasternUnitedStates.TheleavesofAmericanelmsandslipperyelmsareegg-shapedandlopsidedwithsawtoothededges.LeavesofAmericanelmsareshinyandsmooth.Despitethename,theleavesoftheslipperyelmhavedull,roughsurfaces.
Papaws and sassafrasThecommonpapawbelongstothecustardapplefamily.ItisfoundinforestsoftheEastandMidwest.Thefruitofthepapawlooksandtasteslikeachubby,overripebanana.Onasinglesassafrastreeyoucanfindleavesofmanyshapes—someoval,somelikethree-fingeredmittens.
MagnoliasMagnoliatreesarefoundinthesoutheasternUnitedStates.Theirlarge,distinctiveleavesareshinydarkgreenontopandpaleunderneath,andthebloomscanfillsummereveningswithwonderfularomas.Onemagnolia,thecucumbertree,bearsamassofmanysmall,elongatedpods.
Anothermemberofthemagnoliafamilyisthetuliptree,namedforthetuliplikeappearanceofitsflowers.Averytalltree,itthrivesinSouthernstatesbutisseldomfoundwherewintersaresevere.
Although the edible acorns of American oaks have a bitter taste to humans, squirrels and a number of other animals find them irresistible.
American elm
the magnolia is known for its large blooms, which have a pleasantly sweet fragrance.
20 forestry
trees.
Gums and sycamoresThesweetgumtreehasstar-shapedleavesthatturnbril-liantcolorsinfall.Itsfruitslooklikespinyballs.
Thefruitofthesyca-morehasasimilarshapebutiswithoutthespines.Thebarkofasycamoregivesthetrunkadistinctivepatchworkoflargewhite,green,andyellowblotches.
Plums and CherriesAdozenvarietiesofwildplumtreegrowintheeasternUnitedStates.Theyaresmalltreeswithshinyovalleavesandpurpleorreddishfruits.Thehardpitinsideeachfruitcontainstheseedofanewtree.
Wildbirdcherriesorpincherriesaresmalltreeswithtinyredfruitsinclustersoftwoorthree.Otherwildcherrieshavefruitsarrangedinbuncheslikegrapes.ThewoodoftheblackcherryisoneofthemostvaluableintheUnitedStates,prizedforitsbeautifulcolorandgraininfinefurniture.
American sycamore
fruit of the plum tree Wild cherries
forestry 21
.trees
AshesAxhandlesandbaseballbatsareoftenmadefromthehard,smoothwoodoftheashtree.Eachashleafismadeupofmanyleafletsthatgrowinpairsoneithersideofthestalk.Theleavesareinpairs,asarethebranchesofthetree.
MaplesTheleavesofmaplesarearrangedinpairsoppositeeachotheronthebranch.Theirmainveinsjutoutlikefingersfromthebaseoftheleaf.Fruitsofmapletrees,calledkeys,eachhavea“wing”attachedthatcausesthemtotwirlthroughtheair.Maplewoodisusedforfurniture.Especiallyvaluedisbird’s-eyemaple,namedforthecircularanddottedpatternsofitsgrain.
BuckeyesInsideatough,spinyburristhefruitofthebuckeye.Itssizeandshinybrownsurfacemakeitlooksomethingliketheeyeofadeer,andthusitsname.Leavesofthebuckeyehavefivelongleaflets.
BuckeyeMaple syrup is made from sugar maple sap.
Ash tree leaves
A plant key can guide you step-by-step to the identity of a plant species.
forestry 23
.Identifying and Collecting Plant species
Scientific
nomenclature, or
naming, uses Latin
terms to describe
each tree species.
This system
allows botanists
and others who
study plants to
share accurate
information with
one another
about particular
plant species.
IdentifyingandCollectingPlantSpeciesIdentifyingtrees,shrubs,andvinescanbeagreatdealoffun.Itisatremendoustoolforlearningaboutaforest.
Themostusefultoolsfordiscoveringthescientificnamesofplantsandlearningsomethingabouttheirrange,uses,andgrowinghabitsareplant keys,availablebothasbooksandasinteractiveInternetWebsites.Eachplantkeymayaddressspecifickindsofvegetation(trees,forexample,ormushroomsorwildflowers),andfocusonaspecificregion(thetreesofNorthAmerica,forinstance).
Using a Plant KeyMost plant keys are constructed with an either/or format, asking you to make a series of yes-or-no decisions that will steadily narrow your choices until you come upon the specific description of the plant you want to identify. A typical sequence might lead you this way:
• Needlelike leaves or broad-leaf leaves? If broad-leaf, then . . .
• Compound leaves or simple leaves? If compound, then . . .
• Thorns or spines present or absent? If without thorns or spines, then . . .
• Leaves smooth, toothed, or lobed? If lobed, then . . .
• Are the leaves arranged opposite each other on the twigs, or do they alternate? If opposite, then . . .
• Are leaves heart-shaped or oval? If oval, then . . .
24 forestry
Identifying and Collecting Plant species.
Plantidentificationismosteffectivewhenitisdoneinaplant’snaturalsetting.Thereyoumayhaveawiderangeofcluespresentsuchasappearance,aromas,andevidenceoftheinteractionaparticularplanthaswithotherspeciesofplantsandanimals.Youcanalsoobservethefullarrayofleavesandnoticewhethertheyareinclusters,opposed,orstaggered.
Leavesareonlyonepartofaplant.Thecontextoftheplant—thesurroundingsinwhichyoufindit—isvitaltounderstandingit,too.Thefollowingquestionscanhelpyoubeginyourexplorationofatree,shrub,orvineanditsroleinitsecosystem.
• Howisitsimilartoanddifferentfromnearbyplants?
• Howaretheleavesorneedlesshaped?
• Doesitbearflowersorfruitingbodies?
• Whatkindofsoilisitgrowingin?Forexample,isitsandy,wet,dry,orrocky?
• Whatanimalsvisittheplant?Doanycreaturesuseitforfoodorasshelter?
• Howdoesitsenvironmentinfluencetheplant?Forexample,doesitgrowinsunshineorshade?
• Howdoestheplantaffecttheenvironmentaroundit?
Native, exotic, and Invasive speciesNative speciesofplantsarethosethatarethenaturalinhabit-antsofanarea.Thefactthattheyhaveevolvedovermanygenerationsinaforestmeansthateachspecieshasaclearnicheintheecosystem.Anativeplantspeciesinteractswithothernativespeciesofplantsandanimalsinbalancedwaysthathelpanecosystemmaintainahighdegreeofstability.
Anonnative species,alsoknownasanexotic,isaspeciesthathasbeenintroducedtoaforestfromsomewhereelse.Someexoticspecieshavelittleimpactonotherspecies.Theginkgotree,forexample,isanativeofChina.ImportedintotheUnitedStatesmorethan100yearsago,itgrowswellwithoutseri-ouslychallengingnativeplants.Somenonnativespeciesspreadaggressively,though.Nonnativesthatpushoutorkillnativespeciesareknownasinvasive species.
Noxious weedsareinvasivespeciesdesignatedbylawasundesirableandrequiringcontrol.Theseplantsareusuallyexotics.Invasivespeciesincludethepassionflower,Scotch
Weeds that
crowd out native
vegetation can
create a
monoculture, an
area dominated
by a single
species. When
that happens,
plant diversity
is lost.
forestry 25
.
broom,purplefringe,yellowstarthistle,andspot-tedknapweed.TheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculturemaintainstheFederalListofNoxiousWeeds.
Manynativeplantshavefibrousrootsystemsthatprovidesoilcover,stability,andwaterinfiltration,whilemanyexoticshavenarrowtaprootsthatleavebaresoilexposedtoerosion.Otherweedshaverootsmoreaggressivethanthoseofnativeplants,allowingthemtoaccessmorewaterandthuscrowdoutnativevegetation.
Making CollectionsAfunwaytoincreaseyourabilitytoidentifytrees,shrubs,vines,andotherforestvegetationisbymakingcollectionsofleavesandwoodsamples.Foraleafcollection,selectsmallbranchesthatshowleafarrangementandtwigtraits.Youmightalsogatherflowers,fruits,andwintertwigsforeachtree,shrub,orvine.
Wind, water, livestock, wildlife, vehicles, and people and their pets can spread weed seeds. Backcountry users traveling with horses, mules, or other livestock often carry hay that is specially treated to prevent the weed seeds it may contain from taking root and competing with native vegetation.
yellow star thistle
26 forestry
Identifying and Collecting Plant species.
Inthefield,youcanstorecollectedleavesandsmallbranchesbetweenthepagesofaphonebookandmakenotesonthetree’sname(ifyouknowit),thedate,whereyoufoundit,andotherinformationabouttheplant.Useabeltorstraptokeepthebookpressedshutsotheleavesstayflatanddonotfalloutasyoucarryit.
Whenyougethome,puteachleafbetweentwosheetsofpaper,laythesheetsonaboardorotherflatsurface,andthenplaceheavybooksorsomeotherweightontop.Allowseveraldaysfortheleavestoflattenanddry,thenmounttheminanotebookalongwiththedetailsofwhereandwhenyoufoundthem,theidentityofeachplant,andinformationyouhavelearnedaboutitsnaturalhistoryanduses.
Leave what you find is among the principles of Leave No Trace, adopted by the BSA as a means for enjoying the outdoors in a responsible manner.
• Allow others a sense of discovery, and preserve what you find.
• Leave rocks, plants, animals, archaeological artifacts, and other objects as you find them.
• Observe, but do not touch, cultural or historical structures and artifacts.
Before you
begin, get
permission from
the landowners
or land managers
of the area where
you want to do
your collecting.
.Identifying and Collecting Plant species
Wood samplesPiecesofwoodarevaluableinidentifyingandunderstandingthetreesfromwhichtheycame.Appearance,color,grain,texture,weight,generalfeel,andsometimeseventhearomaofawoodallarecluestoitsgrowingpatterns,strengths,weaknesses,anduses.
Learning About a tree’s HistoryEachyearduringthespringandsummer,mosttreesincreasetheirdiameterbyaddingtwonewlayersofwood.Thelayerformedbythecambiuminthespringgrowsquickly.Becausethecellsarelarge,thisspringwoodlookslightincolor.Duringthesummer,thewoodgrowsmoreslowly.Becausethecellsaresmaller,thissummerwoodappearsdarker.
Whenatreeiscutoracoresampletaken,thelightanddarklayersshowasalternatingringsoflightanddarkwood.Counttheringsofdarkwoodandyoucanestimatetheageofthetree.Aspectssuchassoilmoistureandfertility,weather,fire,overcrowding,insectattacks,andtheabilityofthetree’sleavestocapturesunlightinfluencethesizeandshapeoftherings.
Astheinfluencingfactorschangefromyeartoyear,theshape,thickness,color,andevennessoftheannualringsalsowillchange.Dendrochronologists(scientistswhostudytreerings)usetreeringstodeterminepastpatternsofdroughtandgatherdatatopredictfutureperiodsofdryandwetweather.
Your merit badge counselor can provide guidance on where and how you can collect wood samples, leaves, and other items from a forest in ways that will leave no trace and do no harm. For example, your counselor may suggest that, rather than cutting branches in a forest for wood samples, you gather samples of different species of wood from lumber-yards and home improvement stores.
28 forestry
Identifying and Collecting Plant species.
Core samplesCountingtheannualringsonastumpofatreethathasbeencutdownisrelativelyeasy.Inordertostudytheringsofalivingtree,forestersrelyonamethodcalledcoring.Theybeginbyusinganincrement borertodrillaholeintothecenterofthetreetrunk.Theborerisahollowtubethat,whendrawnoutofthehole,takeswithitacore sample.Thelightanddarkbandsinthecoresampleshowhowmanyringsthetreehasgrown.Theirdistancefromoneanothercanindicateyearsofrapidgrowthandseasonswhengrowthwassluggish.
the hole made by an increment borer will heal over with next year’s growth, but the small (1⁄4 inch) hole in the heartwood remains. foresters usually core a tree no more than once, thus minimizing injury to the tree.
for requirement 2b, you are asked to sketch or photograph three stumps, logs, or core samples.
th
e tr
ee—
a lo
blo
lly p
ine—
is b
orn
.
1904
th
e tr
ee g
row
s ra
pid
ly, w
ith
no
dis
turb
ance
. t
her
e is
ab
un
dan
t ra
infa
ll an
d s
un
shin
e in
sp
rin
g a
nd
su
mm
er. t
he
rin
gs
are
rela
tive
ly
bro
ad a
nd
are
eve
nly
sp
aced
.
1909
th
e su
rro
un
din
g t
rees
are
har
vest
ed. t
he
larg
er
tree
s ar
e re
mov
ed a
nd
th
ere
is o
nce
aga
in
amp
le n
ou
rish
men
t an
d s
un
ligh
t. t
he
tree
can
n
ow g
row
rap
idly
aga
in.
1927
A fi
re s
wee
ps
thro
ug
h t
he
fore
st. f
ort
un
atel
y,
the
tree
is o
nly
sca
rred
, an
d y
ear
by y
ear
mo
re
and
mo
re o
f th
e sc
ar is
cov
ered
ove
r by
new
ly
form
ed w
oo
d.
1930
th
ese
nar
row
rin
gs
may
hav
e b
een
cau
sed
by
a p
rolo
nge
d d
ry s
pel
l. o
ne
or
two
su
mm
ers
wo
uld
no
t h
ave
dri
ed t
he
gro
un
d e
no
ug
h t
o
slow
th
e tr
ee’s
gro
wth
th
is m
uch
.
1942
An
oth
er s
erie
s o
f n
arro
w r
ing
s m
ay h
ave
bee
n
cau
sed
by
an in
sect
like
th
e la
rva
of
the
sa
wfl
y. It
eat
s th
e le
aves
an
d le
afb
ud
s o
f m
any
kin
ds
of
con
ifero
us
tree
s.
1957
th
e tr
ee is
gro
win
g s
trai
gh
t ag
ain
, bu
t it
s n
eig
hb
ors
are
gro
win
g, t
oo.
th
eir
crow
ns
and
ro
ot
syst
ems
take
mu
ch o
f th
e w
ater
an
d s
un
shin
e th
e tr
ee n
eed
s.
1924
Wh
en t
he
tree
was
6 y
ears
old
, so
met
hin
g
pu
shed
aga
inst
it, m
akin
g it
lean
. th
e ri
ng
s ar
e n
ow w
ider
on
th
e lo
wer
sid
e as
th
e tr
ee
bu
ilds
“rea
ctio
n w
oo
d”
to h
elp
su
pp
ort
it.
1914
A T
ree’
s Li
fe
30 forestry
Animal, Insect, and Disease Damage.
Animal,Insect,andDiseaseDamageTherelationshipsofspeciesinaforestecosystemareverycomplex.Variousspeciesdependupononeanotherforshelterandfood.Mostinteractionsareharmlessorbeneficial.Insectsthattakenourishmentfromtheflowersandfruitsoftreesmayhelpthetreespollinate.Birdsbuildingnestsinthebranchesoftreesmayeatinsectsthatmightotherwisebeathreattoforests.Organismsthatliveinthesoilbreakdowndeadvegetationsothatitcanenrichthesoil.
AnimalsTheactionsofsomespeciescanbedamagingtoaforest,atleastfromhuman’spointofview.Duringahardwinter,forexample,deerandrabbitsmightsurvivebystrippingandeatingthebarkofyoungtrees.Thatcankeeptheani-malsaliveuntilspring,butitcankillthetreesaforesterhadhopedwouldgrowlargeenoughtoharvest.
As you identify trees, vines, and shrubs in the field, make it a point to look for any damage caused by wildlife, insects, or disease. then, to fulfill requirement 2c, sketch what you have found.
forestry 31
.Animal, Insect, and Disease Damage
InsectsForestinsectsanddiseasesdestroymoretreeseveryyearthanareconsumedbywildfires.Mostinsectsattackonlycertaintreespeciesoronlytreesofacertainage.Whitegrubs,forexample,eattherootsofyoungnurseryandforestseedlings,makinggrowingtreesinnurseriescostly.ThewhitepineweevilattacksyoungwhitepinesintheNortheast,causingthemtogrowcrookedandreducingtheamountoflumberthatcanbemadefromthem.
Insectssuchasthesprucebudwormandlarvaeofthegypsymothdefoliatetreesbyeatingmanyoftheleaves.ThesprucebudwormdamagesspruceandfirforeststhroughoutNewEngland,easternCanada,andMinnesota.IntheWest,theyhaveweakenedsomeforestsandleftthemopentocata-strophicwildfires.Thegypsymothlarvaeattackhardwoodsintheeasternstates.Fortunately,forestersthattakequickactionoftenaresuccessfulinstoppingthespreadofgypsymoths.
Thepineconebeetlecandestroyalmosttheentireyearlyseedcropofsomewesternpines.Emeraldashborers,intro-ducedtotheUnitedStatesinshippingpalletscomingfromChina,attackashtreesthathavenonaturaldefensesagainstthem.
epidemics of bark beetles periodically kill tens of thousands of acres of pine in the southern, southwestern, and rocky Mountain regions of the United states. these pests generally attack mature trees.
32 forestry
Animal, Insect, and Disease Damage.
one of the reasons the gypsy moth has spread is that gypsy moths often lay their eggs on cars and other vehicles, which are then transported across the country by unsuspecting motorists.
the emerald ash borer causes extensive damage to ash trees by destroying their water-supply system.
forestry 33
.Animal, Insect, and Disease Damage
DiseasesTreesarealsosubjecttomanydiseases.Leaf spots, rusts, wilts, blights,andcankerscanweakenorkillforesttrees.Sometreediseasesaffecttheleaves;othersattackthemainwoodyparts(trunk,branches,twigs).Stillothersdamageonlytheroots.Herearesomeexamplesofcommontreediseases.
Dutch elm diseaseiscausedbyafunguscarriedfromtreetotreebytheelmbarkbeetle.ItisoneofthemostdevastatingdiseasesevertoattacktreesandledtothedisappearanceofmostoftheelmsthatoncegracedstreetsofU.S.citiesandtowns.
White pine blister rustkillswhitepines.DiscoveredinNewYorkstatein1903,itspreadwidelyamongtheeasternwhitepines,andby1921wasaffectingwhitepinesinwesternstates.Whitepineblisterrustcannotspreadfrompinetopinebutmustspendpartofitslifeoncurrantorgooseberrybushes.
Chestnut blightwasbroughtintotheUnitedStatesfromAsiaabout1900.TheblightdestroyednearlyallthenativechestnuttreesintheUnitedStates.
Wilting in the upper branches of this tree is a telltale sign of Dutch elm disease.
this tree is infected with white pine blister rust.
34 forestry
Animal, Insect, and Disease Damage.
oak wiltattacksoaks,developingmostrapidlyinredoaksandblackoaks.Manyinfectedtreesdiewithinafewweeksormonths.
ManyinsectsanddiseaseswiththepotentialofdamagingtreesintheUnitedStatesandCanadaarenativetotheforeststheyinhabit.Becausetheyareapartoftheforestecologyandhaveaniche,theyoftencanbecontrolledthroughadjustmentsoftheirhabitat.InsectsanddiseasesbroughttoNorthAmericafromotherpartsoftheworld,suchasthegypsymoth,theemeraldashborer,andDutchelmdisease,canposemoreseriousproblemsbecausetheyhavenonaturalcontrols.
A healthy forest with many species of plants and animals can withstand attacks of insects and diseases better than one already under stress. A vigorous forest has the greatest variety of natural defenses. For example, birds, rodents, and other small animals attracted to the lower strata of a forest can control insect populations that could otherwise pose problems for trees.
tree infected with oak wilt Commercial orchard
forestry 35
.Animal, Insect, and Disease Damage
Incommercialforestswheretreesareraisedasacrop,insectinfestationsaresometimessuppressedwithpesticides(chemicalsforcontrollinginsectsanddisease).Pesticidesalsoareusedinotherforeststostopthespreadofundesirableinsectssuchasthegypsymoth,whichisprevalentintheEastbut,becauseofeffectivecontrol,hasnotbecomeestablishedintheWest.Theexpenseofchemicalagentsdependslargelyonthesizeoftheareatreated,thecostofthepesticide,thetypeofequipmentused,andtheaccessibilityofthearea.
Forestresearcherscontinuetosearchforalternativemeth-odsofminimizinginsectsanddiseaseoutbreaks.Forexample,artificialscentscanbeusedtoconfusethematinghabitsofcertaininsectsandthusreducetheirnumbers.Insomeforests,scientistspromotethepopulationsofinsectsthatfeedondisease-bearinginsects.
Protecting forests from threatsWhateveritsorigins,damagefromcertaininsects,diseases,fires,andinvasivespeciesoftencanbereducediftheforestishealthy.Someadditionalpreventiveactionsthatencouragehealthyforestsmightincludethefollowing.
• Protectingagainstwildfire
• Fencingwoodlandstokeepoutexcessivenumbersofcattle,sheep,andotherdomesticanimals
• Makingcuttingstopromotestandswithmixedspeciesofrobusttrees
• ThinningtreestopreventovercrowdingOther Dangers to ForestsTrees may be sick because of one of the following reasons.
• Insufficient light, inadequate drainage, or poor soil.
• The trees are not the right species for the site.
• The habitat has been changed by the raising or the lowering of the water table or by a change in exposure to light.
• The trees have been damaged by drought, flooding, frost, or ice.
• Damage from fire, excessive grazing, or pesticides.
• Damage from automobile exhaust, acid rain, or other pollutants.
• The trees are too crowded.
forestry 37
.Using Forest resources responsibly
UsingForestResourcesResponsiblyForest resourcesarematerialspeopleuse.Peopleuseforestsformanythings,suchaswood,water,food,andrecreation.Asprovidersofrawmaterials,forestsarevitaltooureconomy.
treesTheforestresourcesyouprobablyknowthebestaretreesandtheproductsmadefromthem.Weusewoodfromtreestomakefurnitureandtobuildhomes.Woodalsocanbeusedasafuel.Otherprod-uctsmadefromwoodincludepaper,pencils,bats,telephonepoles,andbowlingpins.
Manybuildingmaterials,includingdimensionallumber,plywood,laminatedveneerlumber,andI-joists,comefromsoftwoodtrees.Softwoodtreesalsoareusedformakingpaper.SoftwoodtreesincludeDouglasfir,fir,redwood,whitepine,ponderosapine,hemlock,cedar,andsouthernpinessuchasshortleaf,loblolly,andslash.Chipsandsawdustleftoverfromthemanufactureofwoodproductsareusedformakingpaper,particleboard,andmedium-densityfiberboard.
38 forestry
Using Forest resources responsibly.
Hardwoodsareusedtomakefurniture,flooring,paneling,andmanyotherconstructionmaterialsandcertainengineeredwoodproducts.Someofthemoreeconomicallyimportanthard-woodspeciesareoak,maple,ash,walnut,cherry,gum,andyellowpoplar.
recreationPeoplehavelongenjoyedvisitingforests.Camping,hiking,picnicking,swimming,boating,andwintersportsgrowinpopularityeveryyear.Forestrecreationisalsoanimportantsourceofjobs.Businessesnearforestscanprovidefood,lodging,andsuppliestovisitors.
Companiesofferinginstructioninoutdoorskillsandorga-nizedopportunitiestoenjoyforestshiremanyseasonalandfull-timeemployeestomeettheirdemands.Themanufactureandmarketingofoutdoorequipment—everythingfrombird-watchingbinocularstocampinggear—isamultimillion-dollarbusiness.Allthiscouldnotexistwithouthealthyforestsaccessibletothepublic.
Forest products are essential for tires, aspirin, tooth-paste, and the manufacture of clothing, fuels, paints, and many other products.
forestry 39
.Using Forest resources responsibly
Thosewhomanagepublicandprivatelandsmustbalancetheneedsoftheenvironmentwiththewishesofitsusers.Tothatend,agenciesandlandownersdevelopmanagementplansthatidentifyhowandwhenvariousareasmaybeused.Theirgoalistoencouragepeopletohavefunintheoutdoorsinwaysthathavelittlenegativeimpactupontheland.
Protectingforestecosystemsusedforrecreationisacooperativeeffortinvolvingthosewhoenjoytheoutdoorsandthosewhomanageit.Mostforestvisitorswanttotakegoodcareoftheareaswheretheytravelandcampandwillgladlydosoiftheyknowhowthatcanbedone.
LeaveNoTrace,asetofprinciplesfamiliartooutdoorenthusiastsandtothemanagersofforestedareas,providesunderstandable,effectivewaysforeveryonetobegoodstewardsofforestswhileenjoyingthem.Therewardforeveryoneisahealthyenvironmentthatcanbeusedforrecreationtodayandbygenerationstocome.
Leave No trace outdoor ethics
Plan Ahead and Prepare
Travel and Camp on Durable Surfaces
Dispose of Waste Properly
Leave What You Find
Minimize Campfire Impacts
Respect Wildlife
Be Considerate of Other Visitors
40 forestry
forests Are ImportantMost of the products shown on this chart come from trees that grow on commercial forest land. This land—749 million acres in the United States—is the land we depend on for our timber supplies. Nearly three-quarters of all commercial forest land is privately owned. The remaining 27 percent is owned by the federal government, states, counties, cities, and towns.
If forest land (both private and public) is well-managed, it can provide continuous crops of raw materials for industries and steady jobs for our increasing population. However, forests are needed for other purposes, too—to protect watersheds, to supply forage for livestock, to furnish a home for fish and wildlife, to provide sites for recreation. Forests are important to us all.
What We Get From Trees
forestry 41
42 forestry
Using Forest resources responsibly.
the Water CycleAsimportantasforestsareinprovidinguswithrawmaterialsandopportunitiesforrecreation,theyalsoarevitalaswater-sheds.Forestlandsareprimarysourcesofwaterformostpeopleinthiscountry.Insomeareas,theamountofwatercomingfromtheforestfordrinking,irrigation,power,recreation,andnavigationisfarmoreimportantthananyotherforestresource.
Watercirculatesthroughtheenvironmentinacyclethatisenergizedbythesun.Heatfromthesunevaporateswaterfromforests,oceans,lakes,andstreams.Thevaporsformcloudsthatcanbecarriedlongdistancesbythewind.Whentheaircoolsorbecomesloadedwithmoisture,thevaporcanfallasrain,snow,sleet,orhail.
Muchoftheprecipitationpercolatesintothesoil,whereitcanbeabsorbedbytherootsofplants.Someofthatpreci-pitationfindsitswayintoundergroundaquifersandothernaturalreservoirs,thenrisesagaintoflowfromspringsorwells.Smallstreamsjointogethertoformriversthatreturnwatertolakesandoceansand,throughevaporation,onceagaintotheatmosphere.
Cloud Formation
transpiration
Evaporation
strEam to oCEan
prECipitation (rain)
surFaCE runoFF
pErColation (soak-in)
Ground WatEr
the water cycle
forestry 43
.Using Forest resources responsibly
Forestcoverisimportant,too,indetermininghowmuchwaterinfiltratestheforestsoilandhowmuchrunsoffthesurfacetonearbystreams.Wisewatershedmanagementcanhelpensureadequatequantitiesofwaterattherighttimesandguaranteethatwaterqualityisgood.
finding your WatershedTofindyourwatershed,locatethestreamnearestyourhome.Followituphill(againstthecurrent).Noticetheotherstreamsjoiningit.Allofthosestreamsandthelandfeedingwaterintothemformyourwatershed.
Insomecases,watercomestoacommunitythroughpipelines,aqueducts,orcanals.Ifyouconsiderthosetobeartificialstreamsandfollowthemagainsttheirflows,youwilleventuallyfindtheopencountrywhereterrain,moisture,andvegetationmeettocreatethewatersheduponwhichyouandyourneighborsdepend.
Trees extract water from the soil and transpire, or give off water vapor, through their leaves. This water becomes part of our atmosphere and may later fall as rain or snow. The amount of water released into the air through transpiration depends on factors including soil moisture, air temperature, and the speed and direction of the wind.
Watershed dam surrounded by homes
44 forestry
Using Forest resources responsibly.
Clean AirForestsareamongEarth’sgreatfiltersforcleansingtheatmo-sphereandreplenishingitwithoxygen.Animalsabsorboxygenandexhalecarbondioxide.Carbondioxideisalsoproducedwhenplantsandanimalsdecayandwhenwood,coal,gasoline,andothercarbon-basedmaterialsburn.
Plantsmustabsorbcarbondioxideinordertosurvive.Inachemicalreactionchargedwithsunlight,chlorophyllallowsplantstocombinewaterwithcarbondioxidetoproducethesimplesugarsplantsuseforfood.Theprocessiscalledphoto-synthesis—makingsomethingwiththeaidoflight.Aby-productofphotosynthesisistheoxygenanimalsneedforsurvival.
Wildlife HabitatForestsarehometoatremendousrangeofanimals,includinglargeforestanimalssuchasbear,deer,andelkandsmallercreaturesincludingbirds,squirrels,salaman-ders,frogs,andfish.Theseanimalsinhabittheforest;thatis,theyuseitasahome.Thefouressentialsforananimal’shabitat—theareawhereaparticularspeciespreferstolive—arefood,water,space,andshelter.Throughcarefulmanagement,for-esterscanhelpthewoodsprovidehabitatforalargenumberofwild-lifespeciesinthesameforest.
Plants absorbing carbon dioxide can store it—a process called sequestration—and slow its return to the atmosphere. Carbon is stored in a tree’s trunk, its roots, and in the soil of a forest. Wood eventually will decay and release the carbon back into the atmosphere, but it can be stored in wood products and the forest floor for long periods of time. Many scientists believe sequestration might play a role in reducing the effects of carbon dioxide as a factor in changing the climate of the planet.
forestry 45
.Using Forest resources responsibly
fisheries HabitatForestscanbecriticaltothesurvivaloffish.Treesandshrubsshadestreams,keepingwateratatemperatureinvitingtofish.Insectsthatmaketheirhomesinstreamsidevegetationprovidefoodforfish.Leaves,branches,andothervegetationthatdropintothewaterformpoolsandotherplacesforaquaticlifetorest,feed,hide,andspawn.Forestmanagersmakeprovisionstopro-tectwaterqualityandfisherieshabitatinforests.
threatened and endangered speciesChangesthataffectforestecosystemscauseanimalsandplantstoadapttonewconditions,migratetomorehospitablelocations,orsufferreductionsinpopulation.Forexample,firesmovingacrosswoodlandsandprairiesalterthehabitatsofmanycreatures.Anearlywinterstormmightcatchmanyanimalsunpreparedformigrationorhibernation.Floodscanwashawaythehomesofbeaversandalterthespawninggroundsoffish.Droughtcanreducesourcesofnutritionforgrazinganimalsand,inturn,forspeciesthatdependonthoseanimalsforfood.
Whilenaturallyoccurringchangesaffectmanyplantsandanimals,thosechangesoftenplayimportantrolesinmaintain-ingahealthybalanceofspeciespopulations.Unfortunately,thesamecannotalwaysbesaidforthedisruptionscausedbyhumans.Peoplehavenotalwaysbeenawareoftheconse-quencesoftheirdecisionsthatinvolvetheusesofforests.Asaresult,someanimalsandplantshavebecomesoreducedinnumberthattheirverysurvivalisendangered.
Lawstodayhelpprotectmanyofthesethreatenedspecies.GenerationsofAmericanshavealsohadthewisdomtosetasidetractsofunspoiledforest,protectingthemintheformsofparks,wildernessareas,andwildliferefuges.Managedforestsalsoplayanimportantroleinprovidinghabitatforthreatenedspecies.Somethreatenedandendangeredspecies,includingthenorthernspottedowl,grizzlybear,andCaliforniacondorarewell-knowntomuchofthepublic.Therearehundredsofotherendangeredspeciesthatdependuponforestsforsurvival,andalthoughpeopleseldomseethem,theirprotectionisimportantformaintainingarichecosystemdiversity.
Once a species
dies out, it is
gone forever.
46 forestry
Why Manage Forests?.
WhyManageForests?Aforestleftentirelytoitselfwould,overthecenturies,remaininbalance.Therewouldbechanges,certainly,butonthewholeitwouldremaindiverseandvibrant.Whenhumansmakechangesinforests,though,thatmightnotalwaysbethecase.Everythingisconnectedtoeverythingelse.Forestmanagersneedtomakewisechoicesabouthowweuseandchangeforestssothatwedonotdamagethem.
A Brief History of Humans’ relationships With North American forestsAmericanIndiansusedforestsforcenturiesbeforeEuropeansettlersarrivedonthecontinent.Manytribesusedforestmaterials.InthePacificNorthwest,tribesusedforestmaterialstobuildcedarhousesandboats,andtomakeclothing.Forestsalsoweretremendoussourcesoffood,bothfromplantsandfromwildlife.
Attimes,tribesoverusedcertainforestedareas.Sometimestheyintentionallyburnedforeststoclearlandforcultivationortomakeiteasiertopursuegame.Ifaforestbecameoverusedortooheavilydamagedtosupportatribe,thegroupwouldmoveonandtheforest,leftalone,wouldrecover.
EuropeansettlersthatcametoNorthAmericarealizedfromthebeginningthevalueofforestsassourcesofrawmaterials.ShipsthatbroughtsettlerstotheAmericasoftenreturnedtoEuropewithacargoofNorthAmericanlumber.Forexample,whentheMayflowerreturnedtoEurope,itcarriedbackclap-boardsandotherforestproducts.Manysettlerssawtheforestsasaforcetobepushedback.ForestedlandintheMidwestandWestcouldbeobtainedfromthegovernmenttohomestead.Railroadcompaniesweregivenmillionsofacresofforestedlandasincentivestoconstructtheraillinesthatwouldspanthecontinent.
Long ago, American Indians of the Northeast and Upper Midwest built canoes using the birch bark tree.
forestry 47
.Why Manage Forests?
Forestedlandseemedsoplentifulthatitwastoooftenharvestedwithoutconcernforitsfuture.Duringthelate1800sandearly1900s,poorharvestingpracticesinmanyareasofthecountryledthegovernmenttoestablishagenciestomanagethepubliclands.Theseagenciesbroughtmorebalancetotheuseandprotectionofforests.
Governmentmanagementofspecialareascanbetracedbacktothecreationofthefirstnationalpark—Yellowstone—setasidein1872.In1916,CongressestablishedtheNationalParkService.Itsmissionistopreservenaturalandculturalresourcesfortheenjoyment,education,andinspirationofcurrentandfuturegenerations.
CongresspassedtheCreativeActin1891,designatingmuchofthenation’spubliclyownedforestsasprotectedforestreserves.TheForestReservesActfollowedin1897,changingtheforestreservestonationalforestsandchargingtheirmanagerswithimprovingandprotectingthenation’slong-termsupplyofwoodandwater.TheBureauofForestrybecametheForestServicein1905whencontroloftheforestreserveswastrans-ferredtotheDepartmentofAgriculture.
Nonindustrial
private
landowners in
the United States
own 58 percent
of the forests;
governments
own 29 percent
of the forests;
and the forest
industry owns
the remaining
13 percent.
48 forestry
Why Manage Forests?.
Inthedecadesthatfollowed,forward-thinkingagencypersonnelandaconservationmovementmadeupofdedi-catedcitizensestablishedtheideaofbalancingtheneedsofAmericanseagertousepubliclandsforrecreation,andasasourceoflumber,arepositoryofbiologicalresources,andprotectedremindersoftheforestsastheywerebeforehumansintervened.TheMultiple-UseSustained-YieldActof1960officiallyestablishedmultiple-usemanagementoftheforests.
TheBureauofLandManagement,theU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,theFishandWildlifeService,theNaturalResourcesConservationService,andotherpublicagenciesalsostrivetomanageforestedpubliclandsthatfallwithintheiradministrativeboundaries.Stateandlocalagenciesoverseesmalleracreagesofpubliclands.Privatelandownerswithforestedproperties—fromlargeforest-productcompaniestofamilieswithafewacresoftreesaroundtheirhomes—haveastakeinthepropermanagementofforestresources,too.Theirinvolvementinwise,sustainablemanagementisextremelyimportant,sinceprivatelyownedforestsaccountformanymoreacresintheUnitedStatesthandopubliclyheldforests.
The goals of private forest owners vary widely. Small tracts may be owned for many reasons, including timber production, family recreation, and the protection of wildlife habitat. While public forests are usually managed for a variety of reasons and uses, many large private tracts are owned primarily for timber production. However, forests can be managed for timber production while at the same time protecting other important forest features.
forestry 49
.Why Manage Forests?
How forests Change Afactoflife(anddeath)ineveryecosystemisthatchangehappens.Nothingeverstaysthesame.Plantsandanimalsmustadapttomeetchangesintheenvironmentortheywillnotsurvive.Take,forexample,aforestthathasrecentlyburnedinawildfire.Overseveralgrowingseasons,grasses,shrubs,vines,andsmalltreeswilltakerootinthesoilmadefertilebytheashoftheburnedforest.Thesesun-lovingpioneerplantswillthriveforafewyears,whileslower-growingtreesestablishthemselvesintheshadeoffastergrowingtrees.Gradually,slower-growingtreesriseabovethefirstgenerationofvegetation.Shadedout,thepioneertreeswilldieandagainrenewthesoil.Thelargertreesandtheotherstratawillcon-tinuetogrowandchangeuntilthereisastable,diversestandofmanyspeciescalledaclimax forest.
Theclimaxforestmightstandformanyyears,butchangewillcontinuetohappen.Firemightagainsweepthroughthetrees,aninsectepidemiccoulddramaticallyaltertheforest’scompositionandappearance,oranumberofthetreesmightbeharvested.Whateverhappens,anewphaseofthecycleofchangewillbegin.
Change and DiversityFrommicroscopicbacteriatoeagles,wolves,andotherpredatorsatthetopofafoodweb,anecosystemishealthiestwhenrichinthevarietyandnumbersofspeciesthrivingwithinit.Thisenvironmentprovidesflexibilityfortheecosystemasawhole.Plantsandanimalswillbemoreadaptivetochange.Thisdiversityofspecies(thatis,manyplantsandanimalsthatareunlikeoneanother)offersastorehouseofenvironmentalpossibilities,therawmaterialforadaptationandsurvival.
50 forestry
Why Manage Forests?.
Forinstance,whenbeesharvestnectarfromtreeblossomstomakehoney,pollenstickstotheirlegsandtheycarryitfromonetreetoanother.Thisrelationshipbenefitsbothspecies;thetreesprovidenourishmentforthebees,andthebeesplayavitalroleinthepollinationofthetrees.Ifbeepopulationsdonotsurviveaharshwinter,though,ordiefrompesticidessprayedtooneartheirnests,thetreeswillhavelostareliablemeansofspreadingpollenandmightnotbeabletoreproduce.
Ontheotherhand,adiverseecosystemmightincludehummingbirdsandinsectsthatpollinateplants.Adiversityofvegetationcanensurethatplantspeciesthatdonotrelyonbeesforpollinationwillmoveintotheecosystemnichethathadbeenoccupiedbythebee-dependenttrees.
Human-Caused ChangeHealthy,diverseecosystemstendtobestableandtochangeslowly.Normally,theforcesofnaturetakedecadesorcenturiestocreateperceivablechangeinforestsandotherecosystems.However,naturaleventssuchashurricanes,wildfires,orvolca-noescanaffecttensofthousandsofacresinamatterofdaysorevenminutes.
Humansalsocancauserapidecosystemchange.Peoplepaveopenlandforhighways,parkinglots,anddevelopmentsandcleartimberedareastomakewayforagriculturalcropsandcities.Carsandtrucks,factories,andpowerplantscanpumpexhaustintotheatmospherethatcanhaveadirectimpactonforestsnearandfar.
forestry 51
.Why Manage Forests?
Ourabilitytocausedramaticchangeinforestscarrieswithittheresponsibilitytomakewisedecisionsonissuesthatcanaffectforesthealth.Whilehumansarecapableofactivitiesthataredestructivetoecosystems,wealsocandomuchtoprotectandhealtheenvironment.
Proper forestry techniques can be applied when forests are harvested for lumber and other products. Doing so will result in a new forest being established more quickly than in the aftermath of natural events.
Small actions matter, and personal choices are important. As a group, everyone can work toward creating communities that exist in harmony with the environment. As concerned citizens, each person can learn about environmental issues and the roles that forests play in environmental, economic, and social well-being.
52 forestry
Why Manage Forests?.
sustainable forest ManagementOurforestsfacetremendouschallenges.Thelossofopenspace,thepotentialforwildfirefromthebuildupoffuels,thedevastat-ingeffectsofinvasivespecies,andtheimpactsofunregulatedrecreationalchoicessuchasusingoff-roadvehiclesinfragileareasaresignificantthreatstoourforests.Inaddition,demandsforforestproductsgroweveryyear.
Sustainableforestmanagementtakesforestplanningastepfurtherbyemphasizingtheimportanceofconsideringtheneedsoftoday’sforestuserswhilealsoensuringthatfuturegenerationswillbeabletoenjoyhealthyforests.Accomplishingthatgoalrequiresamanagementapproachthatlooksatforestsasecosystems,notjustasstandsoftrees.Whilesustainablemanagementviewsforestsassourcesofrawmaterialsandrecreation,italsoinvolvesstewardshipthatgivesfullattentiontocaringforwildlifehabitat,increasingthediversityofspecies,andprotectingthequalityoftheair,water,andsoil.
Multiple-use management addresses the desires of a broad range of forest users. Harvesting, recreation, wildlife, and other interests are all considered in multiple-use forest plans.
forestry 53
.Why Manage Forests?
silvicultural systemsAmongthemanytoolsofforestmanagementaresilvicultural systems.(Silvameans“forest”inLatin.)Silvicultureisthescienceofplanting,growing,andharvestingstandsoftreestomeettheobjectivesofthelandmanagerorforestowner.Foresterscanusesilviculturalsystemstoimprovethehealthofforestsandtoacceleratetheproductionoftimberforharvest.Thechoiceofamanagementsystemfurtherdependsonthecharacteristicsofthetreespeciesthatmakeuptheforesttypeandthefeaturesoftheterrainwherethetreesaregrowing.
Trained foresters
can determine
how best
to develop
a silvicultural
system that
provides for
the best mix
of benefits to
humans and
protection of
the ecosystem.
The value of a stand of trees as wildlife habitat is influenced not only by the tree species but also by their age, size, form, and health. Old trees have stout limbs on which heavy birds can nest. Bare branches provide roosts. Rotten spots can be hollowed into nests. Large dead trees are particularly important. These snags should be left standing whenever possible to provide habitat for hole-nesting wildlife and insect-eating wildlife.
Studies by the Department of Agriculture’s U.S. Forest Service indicate that at the time of European settlement, forests covered a billion acres of what was to become the United States. Today, there are 749 million forested acres. Most of the loss came in the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country during the years between 1850 and 1900. The total forest area of the nation has been relatively stable for more than a hundred years even as the population of the United States has more than doubled.
54 forestry
Why Manage Forests?.
Themaintreatmentsmakingupsilviculturalsystemsinvolvethefellingoftreesandtheregenerationofanewforestforthefuture.Systemsthatresultintreesofapproximatelythesameagearecalledeven-agedsystems.Thetreesmayormaynotbeequalinsize.Systemsthatresultintreesofmanyagesaretermeduneven-agedsystems.Eachsystemincludesstepstoestablishseedlingsandactionstoencouragethehealthandproductivityofadevelopingstand.Sometreespeciesgrowbestinaneven-agedforest,whileothersgrowbestinuneven-agedstands.Cuttingsinforestsarefurtherclassedasregeneration harvest cuttingsthathelpreproduceorcreatenewforeststandsandintermediate cuttingsintendedtoimprovethehealthandqualityofanexistingstand.
regeneration Cutting systemsDependingonthelargermanagementplansofforesters,standsoftreesmaybecutusingsystemsthatleadtoappropriateharvestingoftimberandtothereproductionoftreestands.
Clear-Cut systems.Clear-cuttingistheharvestingofalltreesinanareaexceptthosethatarenecessarytomaintainwaterquality,fishhabitat,andotherhealthyecosystemconsiderations.Theclear-cutcanthenberegeneratedbybroadcastingseeds,fromsprouts,orbyplantingseedlings.Thenewstandmayalsobeallowedtodevelopnaturallyfromseedsdroppedbytreesborderingtheclear-cut,fromseedsalreadyontheforestfloor,orfromstumpsproutsandrootsproutsofcuttrees.Thenewtreeswillhaveequalaccesstosunlight.Thestrongestwillgrowrelativelyquicklyandwillbestraightandtall.
Clear-cutting system
forestry 55
.Why Manage Forests?
Clear-cuttingcanbecontroversial,inlargepartbecauseofthechangesinappearanceitcreatesonthelandbutalsobecauseclear-cuttingcanhavealargeimpactonmanyspecies.Animalssuchasrabbits,moles,andgophersthatdependonshadeanddensevegetationwillbeforcedtomigratetootherareasinordertosurvive.Ontheotherhand,forestopeningscreatedbyclear-cuttingcanincreasethehabitatfordeer,bears,certainbirds,andotherspeciesthatgetpartoralloftheirfoodandshelterfromlowvegetationandbrushwithlittleornooverheadshade.Additionally,certainspeciesoftreesrequirefullsunlighttothriveandwillnotgrowwellundertheshadeofothertrees.
Incertainsituations,clear-cuttingisthebestsilviculturaltoolavailabletoaforestmanager.Clear-cuttingisoftenusedinforeststhathavebeendamagedbyfireorthathavebeenpoorlyharvestedoverthedecades.Clear-cuttingalsocanbeusedeffectivelytomaximizetheproductionoftreesgrownforpulpwoodandofothersun-lovingspeciesthatwillnotgrowwellintheshadeofothertrees.
Clear-cuttingshouldbedoneonlywhencarefullyplannedbyprofessionalforestersandcarriedoutusingproperharvestingtechniques.Forestersmustconsidertheeffectsclear-cuttingwillhaveonwildlife,theland,andthesurroundingforest.Forexample,streamscanbepollutedbysiltordirtifforestroadsandloggingtrailsarenotproperlydesigned.Bufferzonescom-posedoftreesthatareleftuncutmustbeestablishedalongstreamstoprovidecontinuedshadeandnourishmentforfish.
seed-tree system.Forestersusingtheseed-tree systemtoharvestamaturestandoftreesleaveafewhealthyseed-producingtreesoneachacre.Thesetreesprovidetheseedsneededtoregenerateaneweven-agedstand.Afterthefreshcropofyoungtreeshasbecomeestablished,theseedtreesthemselvesmaybeharvested.Thissystemismoreeffectivewhenusedwithevergreensthanwithhardwoods.
Even-aged
management:
Clear-cutting,
seed-tree,
shelterwood
Uneven-aged
management:
Single-tree
selection,
group selection
seed-tree system
56 forestry
Why Manage Forests?.
shelterwood system.Theshelterwood systeminvolvesaseriesofpartialcuttingsinthematurestandoveraperiodofyears.Earlycuttingsimprovethevigorandseedproductionoftheremainingtreesandhelppreparethesitefornewseedlingstotakeroot.Thetreesthatareretainedproduceshade—theshelterwood—forseedlingsandyoungtrees.Asthenewtreesgainviability,theshelterwoodtreescanbeharvestedandthenewcropoftreesallowedtodevelopasaneven-agedstand.
single-tree selection system.Thesingle-tree selection systemdiffersfromothersystemsinthatitcreatesandmaintainsanuneven-agedstand.Forestersexamineastandandjudgeeachtreeonitsindividualmerits,harvestingatreeasitmatures.Seedlingsorsproutscanthengrowinthespacescreatedbytreeremovals.Periodicthinning,harvesting,andregenerationresultinastandmadeupoftreesofmanyagesandsizes.Becauserelativelyfewtreesareharvestedatonetimeandbecausetheforestfloorisgenerallyshaded,thissystemfavorsspeciesthatthriveinlowlight.
shelterwood system
single-tree selection system
forestry 57
.Why Manage Forests?
Group selection system.Thegroup selection systemrequirestheharvestingofsmallgroupsoftrees.Theopeningscreatedbythismethodresembleminiatureclear-cuts,althoughtheresultingregenerationoccupiestoosmallanareatobeconsideredaneven-agedstand.Asinthesingle-treesystem,thinningandharvestcuttingsaredoneatthesametime.Thenewtreesthatgrowinthesesmallopeningsareregardedaspartofalargerstandthatcontainstreesofmanyages.Ineitherselectionsystem,frequentharvestswillmaintainabalanceoftreeagesandsizes.
Intermediate CuttingsIntermediatecuttings,suchasimprovementcuttings,salvagecuttings,andsanitationcuttings,canbedistinguishedfromregenerationcuttingsbytheirpurpose.Regenerationcuttingscreateanewstandoftrees;intermediatecuttingsimproveanexistingstandormaintainthevigor,thedesiredcomposition,andthestructureofthestandsintermsoftreespecies,ages,andsizeclasses.
Atreeneedsaplaceinthesun,soilofitsown,androomtoexpandifitistothrive.Whenastandoftreesistoodense,aprofessionalforestermayprescribethinningtoeasethecompeti-tionandtoaccelerategrowthofthetreesthatremain.Thetreesthatareremovedmightbesoldasposts,poles,orpulpwood(foruseinmakingpaper).Iftheyaretoosmalltohavemarketvalue,thethinningiscalledprecommercial.Thesetreesarecutandlefttodecay,returningnutrientstothesoil.
All silvicultural systems require loggers to go into forests. Whether it is a large operation involving trucks and heavy machinery or a selective cut made using draft horses or helicopters, there will be some impact on small trees and other vegetation and on the soil. In choosing a forest-management system, silviculturalists must consider the full impact on the land, not just a system’s effect on trees.
Group selection system
58 forestry
Why Manage Forests?.
Improvement Cuttings.Inastandcontainingamixtureofdesirableandundesirabletrees,animprovement cuttingmaybemadetofavorthedesirableones.Undesirabletreescanincludeundersizedtreesoronesthatarecrowdinglargertrees.Determiningwhichtreestoremovedependsonalargersustainableforestmanagementplantobalancethedesirefortimberwiththeneedforwildlifehabitat,aestheticappeal,orrecreation.
salvage Cuttings.Naturalcatastrophes,suchaswindstorms,icestorms,andfires,sometimescausegreatdestructioninforeststands.Salvage cuttingsareprescribedtomanageeconomiclossbyharvestingdamagedtrees,toreducetheriskoffirebyremovingdeadmaterialbeforeitfallstotheforestfloorandbecomespotentialfuel,andtoclearthewayfornewgrowththatwillkeepaforesthealthy.
sanitation Cuttings.Ifsometreesinastandareharmedbyinsectsordisease,theforestermayrecommendasanitation cuttingtoremoveinfestedorinfectedtreesthatposeathreattoneighboringhealthytrees.
Intermediate cutting
forestry 59
.Why Manage Forests?
replanting a forestAfterawildfireortheharvestofastandoftrees,reseedingwilloccurnaturally,butitcantakeseveralyears.Forestersmaydecidetocontrolandhastentheprocessbyplantingseedlingsorbysowingseeds.
Seedinghasseveraladvantagesoverplanting.Itisfasterandlessexpensive,anditcanbedoneinplaceswhereplantingisdifficultorimpossible.Aircraftcansometimesbeusedtosowseed.Seedinghassomedisadvantagesbecausespacingisuncontrolled,andbirdsorrodentsmayeattheseedbeforeitgerminates.Ingeneral,itislesscertainthatagoodstandwillbeestablished.
Timber-Stand ImprovementImprovement, salvage, and sanitation cuttings are methods used for timber-stand improvement. As with all approaches to managing forests, the goal of timber-stand improvement is to encourage stands of trees to thrive, to resist disease, and to fulfill the goals of an overall forest plan that protects ecosystem viability.
60 forestry
Why Manage Forests?.
Becausecertainspeciesoftreesareadaptedtocertainsoils,forestersselectandplantthosethatwillgrowbestonaparticularsite.Theyconsiderwhichspecieswillmakethebesttimberorpulpwood,protectwatersheds,favorrecreation,improvewildlifehabitat,ormeetthelandmanager’slong-termsustain-ableforestobjectives.
Anareatobeplantedmaybepreparedinadvancebyprescribedburningorbyothermeansofbaringthesoilsuchasusingabulldozeroracultivatingmachine.Plantingmachinescanbeusedwherelargeareasaretobereforestedandthesiteislevelandfreeoflargestones.Inmoreruggedterrain,plantingmustbedonebyhand.
Planting seedlingsByplantingseedlings,foresterscanspacetheplantsforgoodgrowthandvigor.Seedlingsmustbecarefullyhandledandtherootskeptmoistatalltimes.Plantersuseamattockoraspecialplantinghoecalledahoedadtocreateaholeofproperdepth.Theythensetaseedlingataboutthedepthitwasgrowinginthenursery.Aslight“collar”onitsstemusuallymarksthisdepth.Theplanterspreadstherootstoasnaturalapositionaspossibleandthentampsthesoilfirmlyaroundtherootsandthestemtogetridofairpocketsthatmightallowtheplanttodryoutanddie.
right
right and wrong methods for side-hole planting
wrong
forestry 61
.Why Manage Forests?
Center-Hole Method
step 1—Drive the mattock blade straight down.
step 3—Open the top of the slit by pulling back on the mattock. Insert the tree.
step 4—Close the slit using the mattock blade.
step 5—Tamp the soil with your heel.
step 2—Open a slit by raising the handle.
62 forestry
Why Manage Forests?.
The full-page illustration shown here reviews some of the factors that must be considered in forest management and some of the practices used in managing a forest in Montana.
1. The slope and aspect (the direction the slope faces) help determine what to grow. On a north-facing slope, Douglas fir or larch will grow well. On a south slope, ponderosa pine is a good choice.
2. Elevation is just as important as slope and aspect. Seeds from trees that grow at 5,000 feet often will not grow well at 1,000 feet, and vice versa.
3. Seeds sown from a helicopter must have their “wings” removed first. Otherwise the seeds float to the wrong area.
4. Seeds should be dyed an unappetizing color, such as blue-green or silver, to keep birds from eating them.
5. Nature itself often will seed the forest if the very best trees are left standing about 50 feet apart.
6. Hand-planted seedlings need shade to help them survive better. Rocks situated on the south side of the seedlings will provide shade.
7. Rodent populations should be assessed before seeding. Rodents might eat the seeds.
8. Seeds should be coated with a fungicide to prevent fungi from attacking the seedlings.
9. Seeds scattered on snow will be carried into the soil and kept moist as the snow melts.
10. The ground cover should be burned or scarified to create bare soil where seeds can germinate.
11. Seeds from trees that have straight trunks, dense crowns, and few low branches will produce the best seedlings. Seed from superior trees can grow into superior forests.
12. Thin the trees when they are about 10 years old to give those that remain plenty of room to grow.
13. To get seeds from cones, wait until the cones ripen and brown on the trees, but not so ripe that they open themselves. Gather the cones and place them in a room heated to 90 degrees for four or five days. The cones will open and the seeds will drop out.
1
5
68
9
10
13
11
12
7
2
3
4
64 forestry
Why Manage Forests?.
sowing seedsForestersmaysowseedratherthanplantseedlings.Thismethodismainlyusedforpine.Pineseedscangerminate,orsprout,onbaresoilsurfaceswithlittlemoisture.PinetreesgrowinmostregionsoftheUnitedStates.Pinecones,whichcontaintheseed,ripeninthefall.Theconesaregatheredwhentheyhaveturnedbrownbutarenotsoripethattheyhaveopened.Whenkeptfourtofivedaysinastorageareaheatedto90degreesFahrenheit,theconeswillopenandtheseedswilldropout.
Seedsmustgothroughaperiodofdormancy(rest)beforetheycangerminate.Winterdoesthisnaturallyforthem.Seedsgatheredforseedingusuallyarekeptcoldoverwinterandsowninthespring.Forestersruntestsontheseedstolearntheirgermination rate,thepercentageoftheseedsexpectedtogrow.Thegerminationrateforseedsthathavebeenproperlyhandledoftenexceeds90percent.
Improving treesThegrowthrate,appearance,andotherqualitiesoftreesdependgreatlyongenes,thecodesthattellcellshowtogrow.Forestersusegenetic improvementtogetbettertrees.Oneofthewaystodothisistogatherseedsfromsuperiortrees—treesthatgrowstraightatarapidrate,standfirmagainstwinds,producelargeamountsofseedsandqualitywood,andresistinsectsanddiseases.Seedsfromsuchsuperiortreesareusedtoreplantstands.Toincreasethesupplyofimprovedseeds,forestersmayartificiallypollinatetreestodevelopseedorchardsofsuperiortrees.
fertilizersForestersusefertilizerinsomestandstoimprovethegrowthoftreesandotherplants.Addedtotheforestsoil,fertilizersmaybeespeciallyhelpfultotreesgrowingonpoorgroundandmayincreasethenumberofseedlingsthatsurviveontheforestfloor.Althoughexpensive,fertilizedtreesandotherplantsmaygrowhealthierandfasterandbereadyforharvestingsooner.
Young stands
of true fir trees
in the Pacific
Northwest are
sometimes
fertilized to
encourage
development of
boughs that
can be harvested
to make
holiday wreaths.
66 forestry
Fire.
FireFirecanbeusefulinforestmanagementwhenitisprescribed(plannedaheadoftimetoattainacertaingoal),butfirethatisnotprescribed—awildfire—candamagewholeforests.
WildfireNearly9outof10forestfiresarecausedbypeoplewhohavebeencareless.Onlyonewildfireoutof10iscausedbylight-ning.Regardlessofwhatcausesthem,wildfirescanleavegreatscarsonthecountrysidebydestroyingtrees,brush,grass,andeventhefertiletoplayersofthesoil.
Onceafirestarts,therateatwhichitspreadsdependsonthetypeoffuel,
theweather,andthetopographyoftheland.Flashfuelssuchasdrygrass,leaves,andtwigsburneasilyandquickly.Greenandwetfuelsburnmoreslowly.Themoredryfuelthereisintheforest,thefaster
afirewillspread.Weatherconditionsalsoaffect
howfastandhowfarafirespreads.Sunshinedriesfuels.Ontheotherhand,
raindampensfuelsandmakesthemburnmoreslowlyiftheyburnatall.Perhapsthemostcriticalweatherfactor,though,iswind.Windcandryoutfuels,fanafiresothatitburnsfaster,blowflamestowardmorefuel,andcarrysparksthatsetnewfires.Airtemperatureandhumidityalsoareimportant.Iftheairishotandtheamountofmoistureintheairislow,fuelscandryoutandburnmorequickly.
forestry 67
.Fire
Theshapeofthelandalsoaffectsthemovementofafire.Thesteeperahill,forinstance,thefasterafirewillmoveupit.Firesburnmoreslowlydownhill,thoughburningpineconesorlogscanrolldownwardandignitenewfiresatthebottomoftheslope.Fuelsonsouth-facingslopesmightburnfasterthanthoseonnorth-facingslopes,becausetheyhavebeenexposedtomoresunlight,whichhasdriedthem.Firebreakssuchasroads,streams,rockcliffs,andbareearthcansloworstopthespreadoffire.
Theworstwildfiresusuallyoccurwhenflamesclimbintotheforestcanopy.Thesecrown firescanspreadquicklyand,ifnotcontained,mightdamagethousandsofacresofforest.Wildfirescandestroythegroundlitter,whichactsasaprotec-tivesoilcovering.
Intensefirescanchangethecompositionofsoil,causingittorepelwater.Waterrapidlyrunsoffthissoilintostreamsandreservoirsandmaycausefloods.Italsowashessediment,ashes,anddebrisfromtheburnedareasintowatersheds.Mostfishcannotliveinwatersthatbecomepollutedwithash.Woodlandfiretemporarilydestroysfoodsuppliesthatanimalsandbirdsdependon,anditoftenmakesanareaunsuitableforoutdoorrecreation.
Lessharmfularesurface firesthatstayinthelowerstrataofaforest.Movingmoreslowlyandatloweroveralltemperaturesthancrownfires,surfacefirescanclearoutbrush,smalltrees,anddeadwoodwithoutkillinglargetreesorsterilizingthesoil.Asurfacefiremightallowtheforesttorecoverandbecomeevenmorevigorousthefollowingspringorsummer.
68 forestry
Fire.
Surfacefirescausedbylightninghaveanaturalroletoplayinmanyforestsbyconsumingmuchofthebrushanddeadwoodchokingaforest’sunderstory,releasingnutrientsintothesoil,andprovidingafertilebedfornewgrowth.Maturetreescanoftenwithstandtheheatofoccasionalfires,becausetheirbarkisdenseenoughtopreventthemfrombeingseriouslydamaged.
Firedoeshavesomebeneficialaspectsforforests.Theconesofsomepinesopenonlyaftertheyhavebeenexposedtotheheatofafire.Theconesgerminateintheashesandsendupsaplingsasanewforestbegins.Inaddition,animalscanmovemorefreelythroughlandopenedbyfireandcangrazeonthenewlysproutedvegetation.Evenwhenlargetreesarecompletelyburned,thelandisleftreadyfortheprocessofforestsuccessiontobeginoncemore.
Fire sometimes can creep into the roots of a tree, where it can smolder underground for long periods of time before resurfacing and blazing again. This is more common in species of trees with high levels of pitch (a flammable secretion) such as Douglas fir and ponderosa pine.
this prescribed forest fire helped clear the forest’s understory to provide room for new growth.
forestry 69
.Fire
Muchmodernconcernaboutfiresresultsfrompastmanagementpracticesthatsoughttoeliminateallfires.Thatapproachoftenalloweddeadwoodtobuilduponforestfloors.Whenafiredoesbreakoutandburnsintothatdeadwood,itmaybehotterandmoredestructivethanifthenaturalcyclesoffireandregenerationhadbeenallowedtoplaythemselvesout.
Prescribed fireTolessenthedangerofdev-astatingfires,forestersmightintentionallysetfiretoanarea.Thisprescribed burn-ingiscarefullyplanned,andthefireissetaccordingtoaprescriptionwrittenfortheconditionsthatexistandtheobjectivestobeachieved.Thefireexposesthesoil,releasesnutrientsintothesoil,eliminatessomeinsectsanddiseases,andremovesundesirabletreesorbrush.Theheatalsocanopenupfallencones.
Prescribedburnsmadeonaregularbasis—everythreetofiveyears,forexam-ple—canreducedriedleavesandbrushthat,ifallowedtoaccumulate,couldeventuallyfeedaverydamagingwildfire.Wildfiresareuncontrolledfires,andtheycanbeavoidedormadelessseverebyprescribedburning.
Preventing WildfiresTheeasiestfiretofightistheonethatdoesnotstart.Youcanhelpeducatethepublicaboutwildfirepreventionbytakingpartinfire-preventioncampaignsconductedbywood-productscompanies,professionalforesters,firewardens,andothers.TheLeaveNoTraceprinciplesforminimizingtheimpactofcampfiresalsoareimportantguidelinesforpreventingfiresthatwouldposeathreattoaforest.
70 forestry
Fire.
InadditiontofollowingtheLeaveNoTraceprinciples,usecareinburninganything.Knowyourstatelawsaboutburningbrushanddebris.Ifyourstaterequiresapermit,youcangetonefromyourlocalfirewardenorranger.Haveplentyofhelp,tools,andwaternearthefire,andneverburnanythingoutsideonhot,dry,orwindydays.
Ifyoudiscoverafire,donotputyourselfindanger.Notifythefiredepartment,thepolice,orarangerdistrict.Firefightersknowthattocontrolanyfire,itmustbestoppedfromspreadingandthenputoutcompletely.Sincefuel,air,andheatmustbepresentbeforeafirewillburn,trainedfirefighterswillattackafireinoneorallofthefollowingways.
• Removethefuelsupply.Usingrakes,shovels,orheavyequipment,firefighterscreateatrenchofbareeartharoundthefire.Ifbushesarenearby,theyclearthemawaysotheywillnotburnorfallacrossthetrench.
• Cutofftheairtosmotherthefire.Firefightersworkingonthegroundcanthrowdirtonthefire.Aircraftcanspreadchemicalfireretardantsorwaterontheflames.
• Lowertheheat.Firesnearroadscanbefoughtusingwatersprayedfromfiretrucks.Ahelicopterslinginga200-gallonbucketfromacableissometimesbroughtintodumpwaterontheflamesofmoreremotefires.Thepilotcanrefillthebucketfromtheairbyloweringitintoalake.Firefightersonthegroundcancoolburningfuelbyscatteringshovelfulsofdirtandmixingitwellwiththeembers.
Leave No Trace: Minimize Campfire Impacts• Use a lightweight camp stove for cooking, and
enjoy a candle lantern for light.
• Where fires are permitted, use established fire rings.
• Keep fires small. Only use sticks from the ground that can be broken by hand.
• Burn all wood to ash, and make sure all campfires are cold out.
forestry 71
.Visiting a Managed Forestry operation
VisitingaManagedForestryOperationYourmeritbadgecounselorandparentscanhelpyouarrangeavisittoamanagedforest,aloggingoperation,oramanufac-turingplantthatuseswoodproducts.Youcanseeforyourselfhowtheworkofforestryiscarriedout.Youalsowillhaveopportunitiestovisitwithforestryprofessionalsandlearnmoreabouttheirbackgrounds,training,andresponsibilities.Planthetripwellinadvancesothattheforestryprofession-alswillhavetimetoprepareforyourvisit.Getpermissioninadvanceifyouwanttotakephotographsduringyourvisit.
Write down your
observations
about your visit
while they are
still fresh in your
mind. That way
you will have the
information you
need to write a
report about your
findings. Be sure
to write and send
a letter thanking
those you visited
for taking the
time to show
you around.
72 forestry
Visiting a Managed Forestry operation.
Dosomeresearchontheforest,loggingoperation,ormanufacturingplantyouplantovisit,andthinkaboutsomeofthequestionsyouwantanswered.Inamanagedforest,forexample,youcanfindoutaboutthemanagementobjectivesandtheforestrytechniquesusedtoachievethoseobjectives.Youmightalsoresearchoraskaboutthespeciesoftreesgrown,thesilviculturalsystemused,orwhetherreplantingisdonewithseedlingsorseeds.
Inamanufacturingplantyoucandiscoverwhatproductsarebeingmadethatincluderawmaterialsfromforests.Wheredidtherawmaterialsoriginate?Howarethematerialstrans-portedtotheplant?Whatistheprocessforturningthemintofinishedproducts?Whatisdonewiththeby-productsofthemanufacturingprocess?
At a logging operation, you can ask where the trees being harvested are going and how they will be used. explore the ways a harvest is being conducted and what the future holds for that portion of the forest.
74 forestry
Careers in Forestry.
CareersinForestryForestryisthescience,art,andpracticeofmanagingandusingforhumanbenefitthenaturalresourcesthatoccurinassocia-tionwithforests.Ensuringthatourforestsarenurturedandusedinsustainablewaysthatwillkeepthemhealthyrequiresknowledgeofmanydisciplines,includingeconomics,biology,chemistry,physics,engineering,andevenpsychology.
Forestersaretrainedinrecognizingtheinterrelationshipsofsoil,air,water,treesandotherplants,wildanddomesticanimals,andhumans.Theydirectlandsurveys,roadcon-struction,andtheplantingandharvestingoftrees.Theyhelppreventdamagefrominsects,wildlife,diseases,andfires.Theymightplanrecreationalusesofforestlandsorsupervisetimber-harvestingcrews,firefighters,andtreeplanters.Manyforestersareemployedbyprivatelandowners,governmentagencies,andforest-productscompanies.Othersareresearchersandeducators.
Thosewhomanagetimberlandsmustbeskilledinbalanc-ingtheneedsofhumanswiththoseofforestecosystems.Theyknowhowtoencouragethegrowthoftrees,andtheyunderstandhowharvesting,fire,urbandevelopment,andotherinfluencescanchangeaforest.Theyalsorealizetheimportanceofgoodcommunicationskills.
trainingMostforestershaveatleastabachelor’sdegreeinforestry.Manyhavemaster’sanddoctoratedegrees.Forestrystudentstakebiologyandphysicalandsocialscienceclasses.Thencomesintensivestudyofecology,foresteconomics,forestprotection,silviculture,resourcesmanagementanduse,dendrology(classificationoftrees),andforestmeasurement,policy,andadministration.
forestry 75
.Careers in Forestry
opportunitiesThousandsofprofessionalforestersworkintheUnitedStates,abouthalfofwhomworkforpublicagencies.Anotherthirdworkforindustrialconcerns.Mostoftheothersareeducators,researchers,andprivateconsultants.
federal Agencies.TheUSDAForestServiceemploysmoreforestersthantheotherfederalbranches.NaturalResourcesConservationServiceoftheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,BureauofLandManagement,NationalParkService,BureauofIndianAffairs,andtheFishandWildlifeServiceoftheU.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorallemployforesters.Thedepart-mentsofDefense,State,andCommerce,theInternalRevenueService,theEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,andothergovernmentagenciesalsorelyonforesters.
Beginningforestersareoftenassignedtorangerdistrictsinnationalforests.Theyenforcethelaw,conducttimberinventoriesandboundarysurveys;helpcontroldamagebyfire,insects,anddiseases;conductreforestation,timbermarking,logscaling,andrange-foragesurveys;andassistwithrecreationaldevelopment.Theymayeventuallysupervisecrews,administerprograms,andoverseerangerdistrictsandentireforests.ResearchforesterscanrisetothetopofthefederalscalethroughworkinregionalForestandRangeExperimentStations.
state, County, and City Governments.Beingaforesterforstategovernmentcanincludefireprotectiononpublicandprivateforests,managementofpubliclyownedforests,man-agementandmarketingassistancetoprivatelandowners,conservationeducation,publicrelations,andimplementa-tionofstateforestpracticeacts.Urbanforestersprotectandimprovethevegetationinandaroundpopulatedareas.
Private Industry.Industrialforestersworkforcorporations.Theyplananddirecttreeplanting,determinetimber-harvestingschedules,superviseoperations,andhelpprotectthetimberfromfire,insects,disease,andtheft.Theymustbalancethegrowingoftreesforharvestwhileprotectingotherimportantforestvalues.
The professional
foresters you
meet as you earn
the Forestry merit
badge will be
excellent sources
of information
about forestry
careers. They
can help you
learn about the
education that
is needed and
the experience
you must have.
76 forestry
Careers in Forestry.
education.Forestersalsoworkaseducatorsatthenation’scollegesanduniversities.Theyfrequentlyconductresearchinconjunctionwithteaching.ExtensionforestersworkwithU.S.land-grantuniversitiestoprovideinformationandguidancetoprivateforestownersandthegeneralpublic.
Consultants.Consultingforestersadvisepublicandprivateforestownersabouttimber-managementplansandpractices.Theyappraiseandmarkettimber,andadviseonforestlandinvestments,amongotherservices.
other opportunities.Otheropportunitiesforforestersincludeworkinwildlife,range,andwatershedmanagement;insometypesofengineering;inparkplanning,development,andadministration;ineconomics,landscapearchitecture,publicrelations,andrealestatedevelopment;inequipmentsales;andinlaw.
Foresters in
industry also fill
positions indirectly
related to
technical forestry.
They may be in
sales; they may
procure wood
from landowners
and farmers;
or they may be
involved in the
manufacturing of
wood products.
You and the Future of Our ForestsAs you complete the requirements for the Forestry merit badge, you will discover that the primary goal of forestry is to ensure the sustainability of forest eco-systems. You can think of forest resources as being on loan to those who are alive today. Citizens have the responsibility of using and caring for these mag-nificent resources in ways that will sustain their vital-ity. In the decisions you make today as a hiker and camper and, perhaps, in a future career as a forester, you can have a tremendous influence on protecting and using forests wisely.
78 forestry
Forestry resources.
scouting LiteratureBoy Scout Journal; Trees pocketguide;Environmental Science, Fire Safety, Fish and Wildlife Management, Gardening, Insect Study, Mammal Study, Nature, Plant Science,andSoil and Water Conservationmeritbadgepamphlets
Books
Arno,Jon.Trees.DiscoveryBooks,2000.
Baerg,HarryJ.How to Know the Western Trees(PicturedKeyNatureSeries).W.C.Brown,1973.
Bolgiano,Chris.Living in the Appalachian Forest: True Tales of Sustainable Forestry.StackpoleBooks,2002.
Burton,LawrenceD.Introduction to Forestry Science.DelmarLearning,1998.
Cassie,Brian,andMarjorieBurns.National Audubon Society First Field Guide: Trees.ScholasticInc.,1999.
Day,Trevor.Taiga.RaintreePublishers,2003.
Edlin,HerbertL.What Wood Is That: A Manual of Wood Identification.VikingBooks,1998.
Kricher,JohnC.Peterson First Guide to Forests.HoughtonMifflinCompany,1999.
Little,ElbertLuther.National Audubon Society Field Guide to Trees: Eastern Region.Knopf,1980.
———.National Audubon Society Field Guide to Trees: Western Region.Knopf,1980.
Miller,Char,andRebeccaStaebler.The Greatest Good: 100 Years of Forestry in America.SocietyofAmericanForesters,1999.
Miller,Howard,etal.How to Know the Trees(PicturedKeyNatureSeries).McGraw-HillScience/Engineering/Math,1978.
Petrides,GeorgeA.A Field Guide to Eastern Trees.HoughtonMifflin,1998.
———.A Field Guide to Trees and Shrubs: Field Marks of All Trees, Shrubs, and Woody Vines that Grow Wild in the Northeastern and North-Central United States.HoughtonMifflin,1973.
Raphael,Ray.More Tree Talk: The People, Politics, and Economics of Timber.IslandPress,1994.
Staub,FrankJ.America’s Forests.LernerPublishingGroup,1998.
True,Alianor.Wildfire: A Reader.IslandPress.2001.
ForestryResources
Visit the Boy Scouts of America’s official retail Web site at http://www.scoutstuff.org for a complete listing of all merit badge pamphlets and other helpful Scouting materi-als and supplies.
forestry 79
.Forestry resources
organizations and Web sitesAmerican forest and Paper Association111119thSt.NW,Suite800Washington,DC20036Toll-freetelephone:800-878-8878Website:http://www.afandpa.org
American tree farm system111119thSt.NW,Suite780Washington,DC20036Telephone:202-463-2462Website:http://www.treefarmsystem.org
eNature.comWebsite:http://www.enature.com
environmental Protection AgencyArielRiosBuilding1200PennsylvaniaAve.NWWashington,DC20460Telephone:202-260-2090Website:http://www.epa.gov
forest Products LaboratoryTelephone:608-231-9200Website:http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us
Identification KeysWebsite:http://www.backyardnature.net/keys.htm
National Association of state forestersTelephone:202-624-5415Website:http://www.stateforesters.org
Natural resources Conservation serviceAttn:LegislativeandPublic
AffairsDivisionP.O.Box2890Washington,DC20013Website:http://www.nrcs.usda.gov
society of American foresters5400GrosvenorLaneBethesda,MD20814-2198Telephone:301-897-8720Website:http://www.safnet.org
treeLink68EastGirardAve.SaltLakeCity,UT84103Telephone:801-359-1933Website:http://www.treelink.org
U.s. Department of Agriculture forest service1400IndependenceAve.SWWashington,DC20250-0003Telephone:202-205-8333Website:http://www.fs.fed.us
AcknowledgmentsTheBoyScoutsofAmericathanksJimJames,directorofWeyerhaeuserCompany’sEnvironmentalAffairs,SustainableForestry,forhisassistancewiththisneweditionoftheForestrymeritbadgepamphlet.
WeappreciatetheQuicklistConsultingCommitteeoftheAssociationforLibraryServicetoChildren,adivisionoftheAmericanLibraryAssociation,foritsassistancewithupdatingtheresourcessectionofthismeritbadgepamphlet.
Photo and Illustration Credits
FredBaker,UtahStateUniversity,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page33(left)
ScottBauer,USDAAgriculturalResearchService,courtesy—page50
T.W.Bretz,USDAForestService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page34(left)
BillCook,MichiganStateUniversity,Bugwood.org,courtesy—pages15(larch, tamarack, eastern hemlock),18(bottom),and22(bark)
CarlDennis,AuburnUniversity,courtesy—page19(bottom)
HAAPMediaLtd.,courtesy—cover(acorns)
PeggyGreb,USDAAgriculturalResourceService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page25(top)
KenHammond,USDA,courtesy—page13(top)
80 forestry
Forestry resources.
©Jupiterimages.com—cover(forest fire at top left, both at top right, pine cones);pages10,18(top),37(all),44(top),45,and59
StanislawKinelski,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page31 (left)
©LiquidLibrary—page7
RonLong,SimonFraserUniversity,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page31(right)
BrianLockhart,USDAForestService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page16
LouisianaStateUniversityArchive,LouisianaStateUniversity,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page22(acorn)
PhilipMcDonald,USDAForestService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page51
MinnesotaDepartmentofNaturalResourcesArchive,MinnesotaDepartmentofNaturalResources,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page32(caterpillar, bottom right)
NationalInteragencyFireCenterArchive,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page66(left)
JosephO’Brien,USDAForestService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page33(right)
©Photos.com—cover(no campfires sign, cross-section of tree);pages8–9(all), 17(top, inset),19(top two),20(bottom two),22 (leaf, tree),27,34 (right),38,47,49,65,66(inset),and67
DavePowell,USDAForestService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page15(bottom)
RealWorldImageryInc.,courtesy—cover(trees at bottom left) and page14(all)
R.J.ReynoldsTobaccoCompanySlideSet,R.J.ReynoldsTobaccoCompany,Bugwood.org,courtesy—cover(leaves at bottom center)
HowardRussell,MichiganStateUniversity,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page32(bottom left)
USDAAPHISPPQArchive,USDAAPHISPPQ,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page32(top left)
USDAForestService/OgdenArchive,USDAForestService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page69
USDAForestService—Region8Archive,USDAForestService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page32(gypsy moth)
USDANaturalResourcesConservationService,courtesy—pages20(top)and43
U.S.FishandWildlifeService,courtesy—pages48,53,54(right),and73–74(all)
DaleWade,RxFireDoctor,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page68
Wikipedia.org,courtesy—cover(plane at top left)
PaulWray,IowaStateUniversity,Bugwood.org,courtesy—pages15(top),20(center),and21(bottom two)
AllotherphotosandillustrationsnotmentionedabovearethepropertyoforareprotectedbytheBoyScoutsofAmerica.
DanielGiles—page13 (bottom)
JohnMcDearmon—allillustrationsonpages29,40–42,54–57,60–61,and63
JohnMcDearmonandJulieMoore—page12
BrianPayne—pages6,25(bottom),28(all),and30
RandyPiland—pages26,51(bottom),and71–72(all)
Merit badge libraryThough intended as an aid to Boy Scouts, Varsity Scouts, and qualified Venturers in meeting merit badge requirements, these pamphlets are of general interest and are made available by many schools and public libraries. The latest revision date of each pamphlet might not correspond with the copyright date shown below, because this list is corrected only once a year, in January. Any number of merit badge pamphlets may be revised throughout the year; others are simply reprinted until a revision becomes necessary.
If a Scout has already started working on a merit badge when a new edition for that pamphlet is introduced, he may continue to use the same merit badge pamphlet to earn the badge and fulfill the requirements therein. In other words, the Scout need not start all over again with the new pamphlet and possibly revised requirements.
American Business 2002American Cultures 2005American Heritage 2005American Labor 2006Animal Science 2006Archaeology 2006Archery 2004Architecture 2008Art 2006Astronomy 2004Athletics 2006Automotive Maintenance 2008Aviation 2006Backpacking 2007Basketry 2003Bird Study 2005Bugling (see Music)Camping 2005Canoeing 2004Chemistry 2004Cinematography 2008Citizenship in the
Community 2005Citizenship in the Nation 2005Citizenship in the World 2005Climbing 2006Coin Collecting 2008Collections 2008Communication 2009Composite Materials 2006Computers 2009Cooking 2007Crime Prevention 2005Cycling 2003Dentistry 2006Disabilities Awareness 2005Dog Care 2003Drafting 2008Electricity 2004Electronics 2004Emergency Preparedness 2008Energy 2005
Photography 2005Pioneering 2006Plant Science 2005Plumbing 2004Pottery 2008Public Health 2005Public Speaking 2002Pulp and Paper 2006Radio 2008Railroading 2003Reading 2003Reptile and
Amphibian Study 2005Rifle Shooting 2001Rowing 2006Safety 2006Salesmanship 2003Scholarship 2004Scuba Diving 2009Sculpture 2007Shotgun Shooting 2005Skating 2005Small-Boat Sailing 2004Snow Sports 2007Soil and Water
Conservation 2004Space Exploration 2004Sports 2006Stamp Collecting 2007Surveying 2004Swimming 2008Textile 2003Theater 2005Traffic Safety 2006Truck Transportation 2005Veterinary Medicine 2005Water Sports 2007Weather 2006Whitewater 2005Wilderness Survival 2007Wood Carving 2006Woodwork 2003
Engineering 2008Entrepreneurship 2006Environmental Science 2006Family Life 2005Farm Mechanics 2008Fingerprinting 2003Fire Safety 2004First Aid 2007Fish and Wildlife
Management 2004Fishing 2009Fly-Fishing 2009Forestry 2005Gardening 2002Genealogy 2005Geology 2005Golf 2002Graphic Arts 2006Hiking 2007Home Repairs 2009Horsemanship 2003Indian Lore 2008Insect Study 2008Journalism 2006Landscape Architecture 2008Law 2003Leatherwork 2002Lifesaving 2008Mammal Study 2003Medicine 2009Metalwork 2007Model Design and Building 2003Motorboating 2008Music and Bugling 2003Nature 2003Nuclear Science 2004Oceanography 2009Orienteering 2003Painting 2008Personal Fitness 2006Personal Management 2003Pets 2003
BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA • SUPPLY GROUP
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