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FOODAND

AGRICULTUREORGANIZATION

OF THEUNITED NATIONS

Rome, 1987

FAOFORESTRY

PAPER

80

Forestry extension methods

by D. Sim and H.A. Hilmi

FAO FORESTRY

PAPER

80

FOOD AND

AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION

OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome, 1987

The designations employed and the presentation ofmaterial in this publication do not imply the expression ofany opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nationsconcerning the legal status of any country, territory, cityor area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitationof its frontiers or boundaries.

M-36

ISBN 92-5-102602-5

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, withoutthe prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statementof the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, PublicationsDivision, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla,00100 Rome, Italy.

© FAO 1987

r

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Ag riculture Organization of the United Natiors concerning the legal status of any country. territory, cIty or area or of its authorities. or concerning the delimitat ion of its fron tiers or boundaries.

M,36

ISBN 92-5-102602-5

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retr ieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or o therwise, witho ut the prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction , shpuld be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Ag riculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome. Italy.

© FAO 1987

FOREWORD

This publication is the second in a series of three dealing withforestry extension in its current context. The initial publication, ForestryExtension Organisation, FAO Forestry Paper 66, FAO Rome 1986, dealt with theestablishment and organisation of forestry extension activities. This volumecovers the design and implementation of forestry extension activities in thefield. Throughout these publications, extension is regarded in its widestsense as any process of integrating indigenous and derived knowledge,attitudes and skills to determine what is needed, how it can be done, whatlocal co-operation and resources can be mobilised and what additionalassistance may be necessary to overcome particular obstacles. It impliesaction by the people to solve local problems, not action for them, though itdoes not preclude assistance where local resources are inadequate to meetotherwise realistic and necessary targets. It places particular emphasis ondetermining appropriate targets for extension work by the people themselveswho must be involved in achieving these, and in the identification andmobilisation of local resources.

It was based initially on a report submitted by Vicente Magno (ForestryExtension Methods, V.C. Magno Lesotho: GCP/LES/026/SWE-Forestry Training andDevelopment, 1982), following a programme of training of staff in forestryextension methods in Lesotho. This present publication, however,incorporates much new material and ideas developed since that time and drawson recent experience of FAO staff in these fields. It sets out to provide aminimum of basic theoretical information of the topic of extension andsuggestions on activities which should be adapted to meet the situationwithin which a reader is working. It is written for persons directly engagedin carrying out extension activities in the field. It will be followed by apublication on Forestry Extension Curricula which suggests the scope andnature of training desirable for staff undertaking such activities.

Director-GeneralForestry Department

FOREWORD

This publication is the second in a series of three dealing with forestry extension in its current context. The initial publication, Forestry Extension Organisation, FAO Forestry Paper 66, FAO Rome 1986, dealt with the establishment and organisation of forestry extension activities. This volume covers the design and implementation of forestry extension activities in the field. Throughout these publications, extension is regarded in its widest sense as any process of integrating indigenous and derived knowledge, attitudes and skills to determine what is needed, how it can be done, what local co-operation and resources can be mobilised and what additional assistance may be necessary to overcome particular obstacles. It implies action by the people to solve local problems, not action for them, though it does not preclude assistance where local resources are inadequate to meet otherwise realistic and necessary targets. It places particular emphasis on determining appropriate targets for extension work by the people themselves who must be involved in achieving these, and in the identification and mobilisation of local resources.

It was based initially on a report submitted by Vicente Magno (Forestry Extension Methods, V.C. Magno Lesotho: GCP/LES/026/SWE-Forestry Training and Development, 1982), following a programme of training of staff in forestry extension methods in Lesotho. This present publication, however, incorporates much new material and ideas developed since that time and draws on recent experience of FAO staff in these fields. It sets out to provide a minimum of basic theoretical information of the topic of extension and suggestions on activities which should be adapted to meet the situation within which a reader is working. It is written for persons directly engaged in carrying out extension activities in the field. It will be followed by a publication on Forestry Extension Curricula which suggests the scope and nature of training desirable for staff undertaking such activities.

- iii -

M.A. Flore Director-General

Forestry Department

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION TO FORESTRY EXTENSION

Page

1

1.1 Definition of forestry extension in this context 1

1.2 Purpose of forestry extension ......... ..... 2

1.3 Function of forestry extension 2

1.4 Steps in developing a forestry extension programme 3

1.5 Procedures for change 41.6 Need for properly trained staff .......... ..... 5

1.7 Extension research 7

1.8 Factors limiting forestry extension 71.9 Benefits of forestry extension programmes 8

2. FORESTRY PRACTICES FOR EXTENSION 10

2.1 Agroforestry systems 102.1.1 Distribution of crops by area 102.1.2 Silvipasture 122.1.3 Strip plantations 12

2.1.4 Tree farming 132.2 Taungya 142.3 Community woodlots 142.4 Management of natural vegetation ............. 152.5 Erosion control or improvement of water supplies 162.6 Amenity planting 172.7 Small scale forest based enterprises 17

3. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY EXTENSION 18

3.1 The process of forestry extension 183.2 Some basic principles of forestry extension 203.3 The nature of forestry extension ....... 223.4 The spread of extension activities 233.5 Methods of extension 243.6 Some features and strategy of forestry extension 24

4. PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION EDUCATION 26

4.1 General approach ................. .......... 264.2 Extension teaching .............. ............. 264.3 Some features of learning .......... ........... 274.4 Some important principles of learning relevant to

extension 274.5 Motivation for change 409*0 ..... 0O00.000000O0 304.6 Some characteristics of learning situations ...... 304.7 Two-way flow ............. ............ ........ 31

1.

2.

3.

4.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION TO FORESTRY EXTENSION ••••••••••••.•••••••••••

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Definition of forestry extension in this context •••. Purpose of forestry extension •••..•••.•.•...•...•••. Function of forestry extension •••••••••••••••••••••• Steps in developing a forestry extension programme •• Procedures for change ••••.••••.••••••••••••.•••••••• Need for properly trained staff ••••••••••••••••••••• EXtension research ................................. . Factors limiting forestry extension ••••••••••••••••• Benefits of forestry extension programmes •••••••••••

FORESTRY PRACTICES FOR EXTENSION •••••••.•••••••••••.••••••

2.1

2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7

Agroforestry systems ............................... . 2.1.1 Distribution of crops by area •••••.•.•••.•• 2.1.2 Silvipasture •••••••••••••••••• ; •••••••••••• 2.1.3 Strip plantations •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2.1.4 Tree farming ••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••• Taungya •.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••••• Communi ty woodlots ••••.•••••••••••.•••••••.••.••••.• Management of natural vegetation .•••••••••••.••••••• Erosion control or improvement of water supplies •••• Amenity planting •••••••••••••••••••••••••• .•••••••••• Small scale forest based enterprises •••••••••••.•.••

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY EXTENSION ••.••••••.••••••••

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

The process of forestry extension ••••••.•••••••.•••• Some basic principles of forestry extension ••.••.••• The nature of forestry extension ••.•••••.•••••••••.• The spread of extension activities ••••••.•••.•••.••• Methods of extension .•••••••.••••••••.••.••.•••••••• Some features and strategy of forestry extension •••.

PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION EDUCATION ..••••••••.••••••••••••••

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

4.5 4.6 4.7

General approach ................................... . Extension teaching .................................. . Some features of learning ...•.•..•.•••....•..•.....• Some important principles of learning relevant to extension ..... "0 ~ •••••••• • 0" ••••••••••••••••••••••••••

Moti vatian for change .............................. . Some characteristics of learning situations ••••••••• Two-way flow ..•...•....•.......•....................

- v -

1

1 2 2 3 4 5 7 7 8

10

10 10 12 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 17

18

18 20 22 23 24 24

26

26 26 27

27 30 30 31

- vi -

5. COMMUNICATION ......... .......

Page

32

5.1 Communication in forestry extension ........ ..... 325.2 The communication process 33

5.2.1 The communicator 345.2.2 The message 35

5.2.3 The channels of communication 35

5.2.4 The receiver or the audience ....... 385.3 The adoption process ...... 405.4 Motivation of rural people 41

5.4.1 Perception and satisfaction of needs 425.4.2 Motivating factors 43

5.5 The diffusion process 445.6 Categories of adopters 44

5.6.1 The innovators 455.6.2 The early adopters ........ 455.6.3 The early majority ................. 455.6.4 The late majority 46

5.6.5 The late adopters 46

6. AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS ........... ....... ........ ..... 48

6.1 Non-projected aids 486.1.1 Advantages of non-projected aids 48

6.1.2 Examples of non-projected aids ....... 496.2 Projected visual aids 53

6.2.1 Classification of projected visual aids 536.2.2 Some advantages and disadvantages of

projected aids 546.2.3 Examples of projected visual aids 54

6.3 Tape recorders 606.4 Video recorders ........ ....... ...... 616.5 Puppets ............ 00000 ........ 00000040000 626.6 Music and plays 636.7 Mobile units 63

6.7.1 Normal facilities of a mobile unit 636.7.2 Purposes of mobile units 636.7.3 Advantages and disadvantages of mobile units 64

6.8 Display visuals 656.9 Extension literature ............. 67

7. WORKING WITH PEOPLE ......... ........... 69

7.1 Personal characteristics required 69

7.2 Public speaking ...... 000000000000000000000000 ...... 0 70

7.3 Working with local leaders ...... ........ ..... 747.3.1 Formal leaders ...... ......... ..... 74

7.3.2 Informal leaders ........ 0000000000000000000 747.3.3 Training local leaders 75

8. INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP EXTENSION METHODS 77

8.1 Individual methods .0..001.00 000000000060000000 77

8.2 Home visits co ......... ........ oceoeopepoposop0000ao 788.2.1 Some features of home visits- 78

8.2.2 Checklist for planning a home visit 79

5.

6.

7.

8.

CO~ICATION ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 32

5.1 Communication in forestry extension ••••••••••••••••• 32 5.2 The communication process •.••..•.....••....•........ 33

5.2.1 TIle connnunicator . ..•. .......•.... ....... ... 34 5.2.2 Tile message •••••••.....••...••••••••..•.••. 35 5.2.3 The channels of communication •••••••••••••• 35 5.2.4 The receiver or the audience ••••••••••••••• 38

5. 3 The adoption proces s ................................ 40 5.4 Motivation of rural people •••••••• ,................. 41

5.4.1 Perception and satisfaction of needs ••••••• 42 5.4.2 Motivating factors ......................... 43

5.5 The diffusion process ............................... 44 5.6 Categories of adopters............................... 44

5.6.1 The innovators............................. 45 5.6.2 The early adopters ......................... 45 5.6.3 The early majority......................... 45 5.6.4 The late majority...... ••••• •••• ••• •••••••• 46 5.6.5 The la te adopters .......................... 46

AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS •.•••.••.•.•.......••••••••••••.•..••.••. 48

6.1

6.2

Non-pro jected aids ................................. . 6.1.1 Advantages of non-projected aids •••.••••••• 6.1.2 Examples of non-projected aids ••••••••••••• Pro jected visual aids •••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••• 6.2.1 Classification of projected visual aids •••• 6.2.2 Some advantages and disadvantages of

pro jected aids ••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••• 6.2.3 Examples of projected visual aids .••••••••• Tape recorders ..................................... . Video recorders .................................... . Puppets ............................................ . Music and plays .................................... .

uni ts ....................................... . Mobile 6.7.1 6.7.2 6.7.3 Display

Normal facilities of a mobile unit ••••••••• Purposes of mobile units ••••••••••••••••••• Advantages and disadvantages of mobile units

visuals .................................... . Extension literature ............................... .

48 48 49 53 53

54 54 60 61 62 63 63 63 63 64 65 67

WORKING WITH PEOPLE ••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••• 69

7.1 Personal characteristics required ••••••••••••••••••• 69 7.2 Pllblic speaking ..................................... 70 7.3 Working with local leaders .......................... 74

7.3.1 Formal leaders ............................. 74 7.3.2 Informal leaders ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 74 7.3.3 Training local leaders ..................... 75

INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP EXTENSION METHODS •••••••••••••••••••• 77

8.1 8.2

Individual methods ................................. . Home visits ........................................ . 8.2.1 8.2.2

Some features of home visits· ••••••••••••••• Checklist for planning a home visit ••••••••

-vi-

77 78 78 79

3 Office calls and enquiries ........ ...... 808.4 Personal letters 81

8.4.1 Some features of official letters ..... 81

8.5 Telephone calls 828.5.1 Some features of telephone calls 82

8.6 Informal contacts 83

8.7 Group methods 848.7.1 Features of group methods 84

8.8 Group meetings 858.8.1 Purposes of group meetings ....o. ........ 85

8.8.2 Types of group meetings 85

8.8.3 Checklist and guidelines for improving theeffectiveness of meetings 85

8.9 Training and visit system 88

8.9.1 Organisation of the T&V system 88

8.10 Demonstrations 898.10.1 Result demonstrations 89

8.10.2 Method demonstrations 938.11 Field days ...,.............. ..... ............... 95

8.11.1 Purposes of field days 958.11.2 Some considerations in planning field days 95

8.12 Field trips and tours 968.12.1 Purposes of field trips and tours 968.12.2 Advantages of field trips and tours 968.12.3 Guidelines in arranging field trips and tours 968.12.4 Factors in planning field trips and tours 97

8.13 Panel discussions 97

8.14 Extension schools .................. .............. 988.15 Farmers' training centres 98

9. MASS EXTENSION METHODS 100

9.1 Functions of mass methods ........ 1009.1.1 Features of mass media ............ 100

9.2 Circular letters 100

9.2.1 Features of circular letters 1019.2.2 Checklist and guidelines for using circular

letters 101

9.3 Newspaper stories ............ .......... ......... 102

9.3.1 Use of newspaper stories 102

9.3.2 Planning newspaper stories 1039.3.3 Principles of writing newspaper stories 103

9.3.4 Follow-up ............... 00000.0"0008e 103

9.4 Posters .......... o ............ 104

9.4.1 Functions of posters 1049.4.2 Design of posters .......... ...... 104

9.4.3 Suggestions for poster design 1049.4.4 Some considerations on the use of posters . 105

9.5 Wall newspapers 105

9.5.1 Some considerations on the use of wallnewspapers ........ 0000000000000006000000004 105

9.6 Pamphlets and leaflets 1069.6.1 Functions of pamphlets and leaflets 106

9.6.2 Advantages of using pamphlets and leaflets 107

9.6.3 Guidelines for producing pamphlets andleaflets 107

- vii -

9.

8.3 8.4

8.5

8.6 8.7

8.8

8.9

8.10

8.11

8.12

8.13 8.14 8.15

MASS

9.1

9.2

9.3

9.4

9.5

Office calls and enquiries •••••••••••••••••••••••••• Personal letters ...................................................................... .. 8.4.1 Some features of official letters ••••••••••

Telephone calls ........................................................................ .. 8.5.1 Some features of telephone calls ••••••••••• Informal contacts .................................................................... .. Group methods ............................................................................ .. 8.7.1 Features of group methods ..•............... Group meetings ........................................ ~ ................................ .. 8.8.1 8.8.2 8.8.3

Training 8.9.1

Purposes of group meetings ........................ ........ .. Types of group meetings •••••••••••••••••••• Checklist and guidelines for improving the effectiveness of meetings •••••••••••••••••• and visit system .................................................... .. Organisation of the T&V system •••••••••••••

Demonstrations .......................................................................... .. 8.10.1 Result demonstrations .•......•.•..•.....•.. 8.10.2 Method demonstrations ••••••••••••••••••••••• Field days .................................................................................. .. 8.11.1 Purposes of field days ••••••••••••••••••••• 8.11.2 Some considerations in planning field days. Field trips and tours ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8.12.1 Purposes of field trips and tours •••••••••• 8.12.2 Advantages of field trips and tours •••••••• 8.12.3 Guidelines in arranging field trips and tours 8.12.4 Factors in planning field trips and tours •• Panel discussions .................................. . Extension schools Farmers' training centres .......................... .

80 81 81

82 82 83 84 84 85 85 85

85 88 88 89 89 93 95 95 95 96 96 96 96 97 97 98 98

EXTENSION METHODS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 100

Functions of mass methods .......................... . 9.1.1 Circular 9.2.1 9.2.2

Features of mass media •.••••••••••••••••••• letters ................................... . Features of circular letters ••••••••••••••• Checklist and guidelines for using circular letters ................................... .

Newspaper stories .................................. . 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.3.3 9.3.4

Use of newspaper stories ••••••••••••••••••• Planning newspaper stories ••••••••••••••.•• Principles of writing newspaper stories •••• Follow-up ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

Posters ............................................ . 9.4.1 Functions of posters ••••••••••••••••••••••• 9.4.2 Design of posters •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 9.4.3 Suggestions for poster design •••••••••••••• 9.4.4 Some considerations on the use of posters. Wall newspapers ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 9.5.1 Some considerations on the use of wall

newspapers ................................ . Pamphlets and leaflets •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 9.6.1 Functions of pamphlets and leaflets •••••••• 9.6.2 Advantages of using pamphlets and leaflets. 9.6.3 Guidelines for producing pamphlets and

leaflets .................................. . - vii -

100 100 100 101

101 102 102 103 103 103 104 104 104 104 105 105

105 106 106 107

107

7 Fact sheets ......"0000000000000000000000000OoD000Oo9.8 Exhibits and displays ...................... .........

9.8.1 Functions of exhibits and displays ......

9.8.2 Guidelines in preparing and using exhibitsand displays

9.8.3 Some other suggestions on exhibits and

9.8.4 Organising and presenting the exhibit ordisplay ..... ea0000000O00,29040 .......... 109

9.9 Radio 00000410a000O0ea0O000poaaooGop0000ppolooaeaaoo. 110

9.9.1 Purposes of radio programmes ............... 110

9.9.2 Features of radio programmes .......... 110

9.9.3 Guidelines and checklist for recording a

radio broadcast 111

9.9.4 Some technical points 112

9.9.5 Some considerations and suggestions ..... 113

9.10 Television .................... Oaaa0OODOOOOOD000OO* 113

9.10.1 Use of TV in extension Oa ....... OaaO00000000 113

9.10.2 Guidelines in preparing TV material 114

EXTENSION CAMPAIGNS ....... GOOOOOOOOO000O000OOOZO000O0ocoso 115

10.1 Reasons for using the campaign approach ............. 115

10.2 Principles of extension campaigns ............... 115

10.3 Guidelines for planning extension campaigns ......... 116

10.3.1 Analysis of the current situation .......... 11610.3.2 Determining objectves ...................... 117

10.3.3 Planning phase 118

10.3.4 Timing the campaign ........................ 119

10.3.5 Preparing the material ....... .............. 119

10.3.6 Training phase ..... ..... ............... 120

10.3.7 Production phase ..... ................. 120

10.3.8 Implementation phase ...... 00000000,20600000 120

10.4 Monitoring and evaluation ...... ........... ....... 121

EXTENSION PROGRAMME MONITORING, EVALUATION AND FEEDBACK.... 123

11.1 General principles ........... ......... ......... ..... 123

11.2 Evaluation of programme formulation and planning .... 12511.3 Evaluation of progrmme implementation ............... 126

11.4 Post-programme evaluation ............. ........... 130

11.5 Organisation of evaluation activities ..... .......... 134

11.5.1 Programme formulation and planning ......... 134

11.5.2 Programme implementation ...,............... 134

11.5.3 Post-programme evaluation ............. 135

11.6 Feedback ......... 00.4booaa ........... 0000c00000000000 136

ORGANISING A TRAINING PROGRAMME .............,........ ..... 137

12.1 Staff education and training programmes ........ ..... 137

12.2 Public information and training programmes .......... 138

12.3 Nature of training activities ......... ..... ......... 138

12.4 Selection of training methods ....................... 140

12.4.1 The lecture method OODO0O0OOO000o00000000poo 140

12.4.2 Group discussion methods 142

108

108

108

108

109

10.

11.

12.

Fact sheets ........................................ . Exhibits 9.8.1 9.8.2

and displays .............................. . Functions of exhibits and displays •••.••••• Guidelines in preparing and using exhibits and displays •••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••• Some other suggestions on exhibits and

108 108 108

108

displays ................................... 109

9.10

9.8.4

Radio 9.9.1 9.9.2 9.9.3

Organising and presenting the exhibit or display ................................... .

............................................... Purposes of radio programmes ....•.•.....•.. Features of radio programmes ••••••••••••••• Guidelines and checklist for recording a radio broadcast ........................... . Some technical points ..................... . Some considerations and suggestions ••••••••

Television ......................................... . Use of TV in extension •••••.••••••••••••••• Guidelines in preparing TV material .•....••

EXTENSION CAMPAIGNS ••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••

10.1 10.2 10.3

Reasons for using the campaign approach ••••••••••••• principles of extension campaigns ......•.•.... • .•... Guidelines for planning extension campaigns •.•••• • •• 10.3.1 Analysis of the current situation •••••••••• 10.3.2 Determining objectves ........•.........•.•. 10.3.3 Planning phase ...............•.........•.•. 10.3.4 Timing the campaign ....................... . 10.3.5 Preparing the material .............. . ..... . 10.3.6 Training phase ................... . ........ . 10.3.7 Production phase ........ . ................. . 10.3.8 Implementation phase ••••••••••.•••••••••••• Monitoring and evaluation •••••••••••••••••••••••••••

EXTENSION PROGRAMME MONITORING, EVALUATION AND FEEDBACK ••••

11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5

11.6

General principles ................................. . Evaluation of programme formulation and planning •••• Evaluation of progrmme implementation ••••••••••••••• Post-programme evaluation ...................... .. .. . Organisation of evaluation activities •••••••••••• • •• 11.5.1 Programme formulation and planning ••••••••• 11.5.2 Programme implementation ••••••••••••••••••• 11.5.3 Post-programme evaluation •••.•••••••••••••• Feedback .........................................•..

ORGANISING A TRAINING PROGRAMME •••• • ••••••••.•.•••••••••••

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4

Staff education and training programmes ••••••••••••• Public information and training programmes •••• • ••••• Nature of training activities ••••••••••••••••••••••• Selection of training methods •••••••••••••••••• • •••• 12.4.1 The lecture method ••••••••••••••.•••••••••• 12.4.2 Group discussion methods •••••••••••••••••••

- viii -

109 110 110 110

111 112 113 113 113 114

115

115 115 116 116 117 118 119 119 120 120 120 121

123

123 125 126 130 134 134 134 135 136

137

137 138 138 140 140 142

Figure 3.1

5.1

5.25.3

5.4

10.1

12.5 Steps in organising a training programme 14412.5.1 Determining training needs 14412.5.2 Determining the objectives of training 14512.5.3 Determining the training content 14512.5.4 Developing a final programme and teaching

plan 14512.5.5 Scheduling training activities 14612.5.6 Organising for work 14612.5.7 Implementing the programme ....... 14612.5.8 Evaluation and follow-up 146

12.6 Management of a training programme 14712.6.1 Planning, steering and management committee 14712.6.2 Accomodation, food and social committee 14812.6.3 Registration, evaluation and information

committee 14812.6.4 Travel arrangements, transport and tours

committee 14812.6.5 Library committee 14812.6.6 Documentation and proceedings committee 149

12.6.7 Finance committee ...... 14912.7 Estimating training costs 14912.8 Checklist for organising and conducting a training

programme 15112.8.1 Purposes of training 151

12.8.2 Selection of participants .......... 15112.8.3 Content of the training programme 152

12.8.4 Choice of instructors 15212.8.5 Training methods 152

12.8.6 Detailed arrangements 15212.8.7 Provision for evaluation during and after

training ................ ....... 15312.8.8 Post-training evaluation 15312.8.9 Feedback 153

Compton's Stuctural units and functionalmatrix 21

The Communication Process 33

Stages in the adoption process 40Maslow's Hierarchy of needs 41

Distribution of farmers amongst the fivecategories based on the time of adoption 43

Stages in the development of extensioncampaigns 122

Page

12.5 Steps in 12.5.1 12.5.2 12.5.3 12.5.4

organising a training programme •••.•••••••• Determining training needs .••••••••••••.••• Determining the objectives of training ••••• Determining the training content •••.••••••. Developing a final programme and teaching

144 144 145 145

plan .................................................................. 145 12.5.5 Scheduling training activities •••• • . • •••••• 146 12.5.6 Organising for work......... .... ........... 146 12.5.7 Implementing the programme ••••• • •.••••••••• 146 12.5.8 Evaluation and follow-up •.•••.•••••••.••••• 146

12.6 Management of a training programme ••.••••••••••••••• 147

12.7 12.8

Figure 3.1

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

10.1

12.6.1 Planning, steering and management committee 147 12.6.2 Accomodation, food and social committee •••• 148 12.6.3 Registration, evaluation and information

12.6.5 12.6.6

commi t tee .................................................................. .. Travel arrangements, transport and tours coIDlIli ttee ................................ ........ ...... .... ................ .. Library committee ••••.••••••••.••••••...••• Documentation and proceedings committee ••••

12.6.7 Finance committee •..•.••••••••• ••••• .• • •••. Estimating training costs •••••••.•.••••••••••••••••.

-Checklist for organising and conducting a training

148

148 148 149

149 149

programme ••••••••••.•.•••••••••••••••••••••...•••••• 151 12.8.1 Purposes of training ••• •••••• ••••••• ••••••• 151 12.8.2 Selection of participants ••••• •• .•••••••••• 151 12.8.3 Content of the training programme ••.••••••• 152 12.8.4 Choice of instructors ••••••••••••••.••.•••• 152 12.8.5 Training methods.......................... . 152 12.8.6 Detailed arrangements ••••••••••••••• • .•••••• 152 12.8.7 Provision for evaluation during and after

12.8.8 12.8.9

training .................................................................... .. Post-training evaluation ••.•••.•••.•••••••• Feed back ........................................................ .. ............ ..

Compton's Stuctural units and functional nlB.trix .......... . ................................ .. The Communication Process .••••••••.•••••••• Stages in the adoption process Maslow ' s Hierarchy of needs ••.•.••••••••••• Distribution of farmers amongst the five categories based on the time of adoption ••• Stages in the development of extension

153 153 153

21 33 40 41

43

campaigns ...................................... .. .............. .... .......... 122

- ix -

L. INTRODUCTION TO FORESTRY EXTENSION

This is not a text on forestry. It assumes, on the part of the reader,some knowledge of forestry in his or her local area and describes a number ofextension methods which can be applied to bring the benefits of appropriateforestry practices to a wider section of the community. It is not logical toconsider forestry extension apart from the general pattern of agriculturalextension or rural development in an area. Agricultural changes indeveloping countries, over the past decades, have tended to favour largescale mechanised commercial production which has required less manpower andhas accelerated the movement of population to urban centres often ill-prepared to receive them or offer them suitable employment. This wasparalleled by the preoccupation of many forestry authorities with large-scalequick growing industrial tree species plantations in the 1960's and early1970's.

There is a growing recognition, however, of the need to give properattention to the remaining rural population, who are predominantly peasantfarmers, and to use appropriate skills in agriculture, forestry and relatedactivities to improve their general welfare and the quality of their lives.Too often in the past a narrow view has been taken of this process.Extension has been regarded as a means of passing down to farmers techniqueswhich, it was believed, would be beneficial to them without taking intoaccount sufficiently the particular social or environmental conditions of thearea. In particular, too often, the indigenous skills, social structure anddetailed local knowledge of the people have been ignored in trying to

transfer new skills or techniques to them.

Fortunately, extension is now being regarded as a much wider task ofintegrating indigenous and new skills or techniques, derived from study orresearch, into an overall framework of discussion and co-operation betweenthe people and the extension organiSation. This concept has led to the

development by Compton (Fig. 3.1) of his matrix of relationships betweenindigenous and institutionally organised knowledge systems and farmingsystems research, as a basis for the introduction of effective extension intoan area. This concept can equally well be applied to extension in forestrywhich should, in any case, be closely related to agricultural extensionactivities in any area.

1.1 Definition of forestry extension in this context

In recent years a number of different terms have been used to describethe basic activities of forestry extension. This diversity of terms has notnecessarily clarified the issues. The important point, however, is not theparticular term used but the acceptance by those concerned of an attitude ofapproach to the matter. Extension should be regarded as a process of

integrating indigenous and derived knowledge, attitudes and skills to

determine what is needed, how it can be done, what local co-operation andresources can be mobilised and what additional assistance is available andmay be necessary to overcome particular obstacles.

In this publication, the term forestry extension is used to cover anysituation in which local people are directly and willingly involved inforestry activities from which they will derive some recognisable benefitwithin a reasonable period of time. Where necessary this may include

activities by industries or public organisations other than the forestry

1. INTRODUCTION TO FORESTRY EXTENSION

This is not a text on forestry. It assumes, on the part of the reader, some knowledge of forestry in his or her local area and describes a number of extension methods which can be applied to bring the benefits of appr opriate forestry practices to a wider section of the community. It is not logical to consider forestry extension apart from the general pattern of agricultural extension or rural development in an area. Agricul t ural changes in developing countries, over the past decades, have tended to f avour large scale mechanised commercial production which has required less manpower and has accelerated the movement of population to urban centres often i 11-prepared to receive them or offer them suitable employment. This was paralleled by the preoccupation of many forestry authorities with large- scale quick gr owing industrial tree species plantations in the 1960 ' s and early 1970's.

There is a growing recognition, however, of the need to gi ve proper attention to the remaining rural population , who are predominantly peasant farmers, and to use appropriate skills in agriculture, forestry and r elated activities to improve their general welfare and the quality of their l ives . Too often in the past a narrow view has been taken of this pr ocess. Extension has been regarded as a means of passing down to farme rs t echniques which, it was believed, would be beneficial to them without taking into account sufficiently the particular social or environmental conditions of the area. In particular, too often , the indigenous skills, social st r ucture and detailed local knowledge of the people have been ignored in tryi ng to trans fer new skills or techniques to them.

Fortunately, extension is now being regarded as a much wider task of integrating indigenous and new skills or techniques, derived from s t udy or research, into im overall framework of discussion and co-operation between the people and the extension organisation. This concept has l ed t o the development by Compton (Fig. 3 . 1) of his matrix of relationships between indigenous and institutionally organised knowledge systems and farmi ng systems research, as a basis for the introduction of effective extension into an area. This concept can -equally well be applied to extension in forestry which should, in any case , be closely related to agricultural extension activities in any area.

1 . 1 Def inition of forestry extension in this context

In recent years a number of different terms have been used to describe the basic activities of forestry extension. This diversity of terms has not nece ssarily c larified the issues. The important point, however , is not the particular term used but the acceptance by those concerned of an att itude of approach to the matter. Extension should be regarded as a process of integrating indigenous and derived knowledge, attitudes and skills to determine what is needed , how i t can be done, what local co-operation and res ources can be mobilised and what additional assistance is available and may be necess ary to overcome particular obstacles.

In this publication, the t e rm forestry extension is used t o cover any situation in which local people are directly and willingly involved in forestry activities from which they will derive some recognisable benefit withi n a reasonable period of time . Where necessary this may include activities by industries or public organisations other than the f ores try

- 1 -

authority, to promote forestry by individuals or by groups of people within alimited area. It presupposes, however, that the participation arises fromsome perceived needs or opportunities which the people have recognised asbeing sufficiently important to devote part of their time, energy andresources to accomplish. The emphasis is not on the accomplishment ofspecific national or commercial goals but on the recognition by the people ofthe part forestry can play in conjunction with other rural activities inmaintaining the environment, tmproving living standards and meeting specificneeds for forest products. Where the term "community" is used it should beinterpreted in its widest possible sense as the population of a village, oran area, or a section of a population, or any group of people having somecommon interest, as appropriate to the context.

Extension should not be regarded simply as an efficient delivery systemto "get things done" but as a catalyst to promote the establishment of anindigenous system for accomplishing widely accepted aims which, in time, willalso be able to define and secure the delivery of any external assistancerequired.

1.2 Purpose of forestry extension

The main purpose of forestry extension is to help people to examineproblems which are affecting their lives and to consider if they may besolved, or at least alleviated, by using forestry techniques within the rangeof their skills and financial resources. The views of the people should, inturn, be relayed to the officals who frame the laws and design theinfrastructure of the region so that they may promote policies whichfacilitate the achievement of the people's objectives. The emphasis must beon local people recognising a need and deciding to do something about it.The contribution of forestry extension is initially to facilitate discussionand definition of such a need and to indicate a variety of possible coursesof action from which the local people can select the one most suited to theirparticular situation. The fundamental aim is not to provide an organisationto do things for the people, however desirable these things may be, but toassist people to do things for themselves, to develop a genuinely criticalview of their own situation and a realistic assessment of their ability totake the necessary steps to correct any defects. From an initial success insolving one limited problem, people may go on to tackle more complex problemsand build up the experience and judgement necessary to improve a whole rangeof activities to enhance the quality of their lives.

1.3 Function of forestry extension

The function of forestry extension, therefore, is not to move into anarea and meet, to some extent, what appears to the extension staff to be aneed, and then hope that the people will adopt and extend the activity untilthe problem is finally solved. In such cases a token amount of involvementby the local people may be required initially but the direction and drivingforce of the activity remains outside the control of the people and is oftenof little real interest to them.

Forestry extension, as applied in this context, is to facilitate peoplediscussing, making decisions and taking action on them to meet local needs.There is nothing unusual in this. People in developing countries are mainlyfarmers or pastoralists. They are used to making decisions in their dailylives on what to grow, where and when. Nomadic pastoralists have usuallydeveloped a precise programme of movements of their animals to make the bestuse of the grazing, without any outside intervention. The role of anextension service in such cases is to help people to widen their knowledgeand experience beyond the immediate range of their crops and animals, to

-2-

authority, to promote forestry by individuals or by groups of people within a limited area. It presupposes, however, that the participation arises from some perceived needs or opportunities which the people have recognised as being sufficiently important to devote part of their time, energy and resources to accomplish. The emphasis is not on the accomplishment of specific national or commercial goals but on the recognition by the people of the part forestry can play in conjunction with other rural activities in maintaining the environment, improving living standards and meeting specific needs for forest products. Where the term "community" is used it should be interpreted in its widest possible sense as the population of a village, or an area, or a section of a population, or any group of people having some common interest, as appropriate to the context.

Extension should not be regarded simply as an efficient delivery system to "get things done" but as a catalyst to promote the establishment of an indigenous system for accomplishing widely accepted aims which, in time, will also be able to define and secure the delivery of any external assistance required .

1.2 Purpose of forestry extension

The main purpose of forestry extension is to help people to examine problems which are affecting their lives and to consider if they may be solved, or at least alleviated, by using forestry techniques within the range of their skills and financial resources. The views of the people should, in turn, be relayed to the officals who frame the laws and design the infrastructure of the region so that they may promote policies which facilitate the achievement of the people's objectives. The emphasis must be on local people recognising a need and deciding to do something about it. The contribution of forestry extension is initially to facilitate discussion and definition of such a need and to indicate a variety of possible courses of action from which the local people can select the one most suited to their particular situation. The fundamental aim is not to provide an organisation to do things for the people, however desirable these things may be, but to assist people to do things for themselves, to develop a genuinely cri tical view of their own situation and a realistic assessment of their ability to take the necessary steps to correct any defects. From an initial success in solving one limited problem, people may go on to tackle more complex problems and build up the experience and judgement necessary to improve a whole range of activities to enhance the quality of their lives.

1 . 3 Function of forestry extension

The function of forestry extension, therefore, is not to move into an area and meet, to some extent, what appears to the extension staff to be a need, and then hope that the people will adopt and extend the activity until the problem is finally solved. In such cases a token amount of involvement by the local people may be required initially but the direction and driving force of the activity remains outside the control of the people and is often of little real interest to them.

Forestry extension, as applied in this context , is to facilitate people discussing, making decisions and taking action on them to meet local needs . There is nothing unusual in this. People in developing countries are mainly farmers or pastoral i sts. They are used to making decisions in their daily lives on what to grow, where and when. Nomadic pastoralists have usually developed a precise programme of movements of their animals to make the best use of the grazing, without any outside intervention. The role of an extension service in such cases is to help people to widen their knowledge and experience beyond the immediate range of their crops and animals , to

- 2 -

understand more fully how trees or forests fit into the pattern of theirlives and whether they are being used, or cared for, as wisely as they shouldbe. Where a situation arises in which people must reverse recent trends ofdepleting forest resources, the role of an extension service is to identifyareas in which people need specific assistance in knowledge, or the provisionof such items as seeds, special tools, equipment or funds to achieve theirobjectives. They must then ensure that these supplies are available asrequired on terms fair both to the users and the suppliers. Though they may,on some occasions, depend on charitable sources to meet a particular needtheir function is not to dispense charity but to help people organise toachieve the things they desire by their own efforts.

Situations may occur, however, where the living standards of the peopleare so low or where they have a completely negative attitude to trees andforests, possibly brought about by the activities of government staffemployed to safeguard the forests, that different approaches must be used.Great care must then be taken to ensure that whatever inducements areoffered, either to enable extremely poor people to participate in forestryactivities, or to counteract a very negative attitude to forests, theemphasis is placed on the final benefits that can be derived from theactivity and not on the immediate benefits of allowances or assistance in anyform being offered to start the programe.

1.4 Steps in developing a forestry extension programe

Too often in the past extension programmes in agriculture and relatedfields have concentrated on supplying what outsiders thought local peopleneeded, with little or no consultation on how the people themselves viewedthe matter. People, out of natural politeness, or in some cases a fear ofgovernment authority, might go along with the proposal, to a limited extent,but without any sincere commitment to its success or belief that it would beof any real benefit to them. It was an activity, if not entirely alien tothem, at best of little direct concern to them. In these circumstances, manypromising schemes have failed, often when the person who promoted the schemeand was likely to have had good relations with the local people, moved fromthe area and was replaced by someone with a different approach or with newideas on what the people needed.

The degree of continuity necessary for success, in spite of changes instaff, can only be achieved if the people themselves identify and recognise aneed as a result of careful discussion. This phase should not constitute agreat problem, as in many countries where forestry extension can operatesuccessfully, public discussion of local issues has been a long-standingprocedure for establishing a consensus on matters of public interest. Thetask, initially, is one of providing sufficient accurate information to thepeople in a form they can understand to enable useful discussion to takeplace. This should, however, be done without appearing to push the peopletowards a particular conclusion.

A further step in the process is to guide people, tactfully, to adoptan objective, and form of work, which are realistic in relation to theresources of time, skill and materials they can devote to it. People maysometimes swing violently from a state of indifference to one of excessiveenthusiasm if they believe (often without justification) that they willreceive a great deal of assistance to achieve their objective and obtainlarge benefits from this.

From a generalised objective (e.g. a desire for an adequate supply ofbuilding poles or fuelwaod for the community), a more specific target whichcan be achieved within a reasonable period of time must be selected. When a

-3-

understand more fully how trees or forests fit into the pattern of their lives and whether they are being used, or cared for, as wisely as they should be. Where a situation arises in which people must reverse recent trends of depleting forest resources, the role of an extension service is to identify areas in which people need specific assistance in knowledge, or the provision of such items as seeds, special tools, equipment or funds to achieve their objecti ves. They mus t then ensure that these supplies are available as required on terms fair both to the users and the suppliers. Though they may, on some occasions, depend on charitable sources to meet a particular need their function is not to dispense charity but to help people organise to achieve the things they desire by their own efforts.

Situations may occur, however, where the living standards of the people are so low or where they have a completely negative attitude to trees and forests, possibly brought about by the activities of government staff employed to safeguard the forests, that different approaches must be used. Great care must then be taken to ensure that whatever inducements are offered, either to enable extremely poor people to participate in forestry activities, or to counteract a very negative attitude to forests, the emphasis is placed on the final benefits that can be derived from the activity and not on the immediate benefits of allowances or assistance in any form being offered to start the programme.

1.4 Steps in developing a forestry extension programme

Too often in the past extension programmes in agriculture and related fields have concentrated on supplying what outsiders thought local people needed, with little or no consultation on how the people themselves viewed the matter. People, out of natural politeness, or in some cases a fear of government authority, might go along with the proposal, to a limited extent, but without any sincere commitment to its success or belief that it would be of any real benefit to them. It was an ac tivity, if not entirely alien to them, at best of little direct concern to them. In these circumstances, many promising schemes have failed, often when the person who promoted the scheme and was likely to have had good relations with the local people, moved from the area and was replaced by someone with a different approach or with new ideas on what the people needed.

The degree of continuity necessary for success, in spite of changes in staff, can only be achieved if the people themselves identify and recognise a need as a result of careful discussion. This phase should not constitute a great problem, as in many countries where forestry extension can operate successfully, public discussion of local issues has been a long-standing procedure for establishing a consensus on matters of public interest. The task, ini.tially, is one of providing sufficient accurate information to the people in a form they can understand to enable useful discussion to take place. This should, however, be done wi thout appearing to push the people towards a particular conclusion.

A further s t ep in the process is to guide people, tactfully, to adopt an objective, and form of work, "'hich are realistic in relation to the resources of time, skill and materials they can devote to it. People may sometimes swing violently from a state of indifference to one of excessive enthusiasm if they believe (often without justification) that they will receive a great deal of assistance to achieve their objective and obtain large benefits from this.

From a generalised objective (e.g. a desire for an adequate supply of building poles or fuelwJod for the community), a more specific target which can be achieved within a reasonable period of time must be selected. When a

- 3 -

target has been selected attention must then be centred on what the communityitself can do to achieve it.

This commonly results in the presentation of a long list of thingswhich the community think the extension organisation should fund or supply.If the people are to have a proper commitment to the objective, however, theyshould first be guided to consider what they can contribute in labour orresources to achieve it. At this stage a proper balance of local commitmentand possible external assistance must be secured. Extension staff must beaware of the problems of poor and possibly undernourished people taking on aheavy additional work load and the possibility of a clash of new forestrywork with their normal farming activities for which their resources may bebarely sufficient. Extension staff must also be properly sceptical aboutoffers of assistance from leaders of a community who may well be"volunteering" the services of their wives or less enthusiastic dependantrelatives, without first consulting them. Agreement to co-operate mustinvolve the personal commitment of the individual.

In some cases the resources of an area may be so limited that they mustbe supplemented by rewards in foodstuffs or in cash if people are to be ableto undertake any additional work. Assistance in the form of improved toolsor the transport of materials may be justified but the benefits likely toresult from their use must be carefully measured against the cost. Theirprovision may in fact be counter-productive and lead to the collapse of aprogramme if the community cannot sustain these supplies from its ownresources once a period of aid comes to an end.

Defining the nature and correct level of assistance to an extensionprogramme requires as much care as the decision taken by the people on theobjectives themselves. It involves social and legal questions such as theavailability of suitable land, the traditions of individual or communal workamongst the people, their knowledge of appropriate forestry techniques andtheir willingness or ability to learn them.

Whether work is undertaken on an individual or a community basis itmust be clearly demonstrated and understood how this will benefit those whotake part in it, and the benefits must be sufficiently attractive to justifythe efforts involved. Where the programme involves community action it mustbe agreed how the actual benefits, either in goods or in cash, will beshared.

1.5 Procedures for change

Some doubt has recently been cast on the belief that if people wereshown how to do something useful they would gradually adopt the practice,i.e. a "trickle down" process would operate. This system has undoubtedlyconferred some benefits on the strata of society who were sufficientlyperceptive and financially secure to risk adopting a new practice but thespread of the new idea or technique has not always moved as far downwards asplanned. Those who were most in need of change, and would benefit most fromit, often did not have the ability or the resources to initiate the change.

The procedure, now being advocated by Compton, is to adopt a

-bottom-up" approach, i.e. to identify the range of indigenous knowledge andcurrent farming systems and, using institutionally organised knowledgesystems, to build on to them features which would make them more productiveor less harmful to the environment. This approach must give properimportance to both the social and technical aspects of any system. Someearlier extension efforts may have placed too great importance on the

provision of technical information to a few people and not enough on the

-4-

target has been selected attention must then be centred on What the community itself can do to achieve it.

This commonly results in the presentation of a long list of things which the community think the extension organisation should fund or supply. If the people are to have a proper commitment to the objective, however, they should first be guided to consider What they can contribute in labour or resources to achieve it. At this stage a proper balance of local commitment and possible external assistance must be secured. Extension staff must be aware of the problems of poor and possibly undernourished people taking on a heavy additional work load and the possibility of a clash of new forestry work with their normal farming activities for Which their resources may be barely sufficient. Extension staff must also be properly sceptical about offers of assistance from leaders of a community Who may well be "volunteering" the services of their wives or less enthusiastic dependant relatives, without first consulting them. Agreement to co-operate must involve the personal commitment of the individual.

In some cases the resources of an area may be so limited that they must be supplemented by rewards in foodstuffs or in cash if people are to be able to undertake any additional work . Assistance in the form of improved tools or the transport of materials may be justified but the benefits likely to result from their use must be carefully measured against the cost. Their provision may in fact be counter-productive and lead to the collapse of a programme if the community cannot sustain these supplies from its own resources once a period of aid comes to an end.

Defining the nature and correct level of assistance to an extension programme requires as much care as the decision taken by the people on the objectives themselves. It involves social and legal questions such as the availability of suitable land, the traditions of individual or communal work amongst the people, their knowledge of appropriate forestry techniques and their willingness or ability to learn them.

Whether work is undertaken on an individual or a community basis it must be clearly demonstrated and understood how this will benefit those who take part in it, and the benefits must be sufficiently attractive to justify the efforts involved. Where the programme involves community action it must be agreed how the actual benefits, either in goods or in cash, will be shared.

1.5 Procedures for change

Some doubt has recently been cast on the belief that if people were shown how to do something useful they would gradually adopt the practice, Le. a "trickle down" process would operate. TIlis system has undoubtedly conferred some benefits on the strata of society who were sufficiently perceptive and financially secure to risk adopting a new practice but the spread of the new idea or technique has not always moved as far downwards as planned. Those Who were most in need of change, and would benefit most from it, often did not have the ability or the resources to initiate the change. ,

The procedure, now being advocated by Compton, is to adopt a "bottom-up" approach, Le. to identify the range of indigenous knowledge and current farming systems and, using institutionally organised knowledge systems, to build on to them features which would make them more productive or less harmful to the environment. TIlis approach must give proper importance to both the social and technical aspects of any system. Some earlier extension efforts may have placed too great importance on the provision of technical information to a few people and not enough on the

- 4 -

social justification of the the existing system and the process of spread ofchange through family or community groups.

The approach to change must also take into account the extent to whichthe target population are individualists or community orientated. In caseswhere community action is essential to achieve an objective, e.g. in theimprovement of water supplies or erosion control, it may be necessary toconcentrate on developing community spirit and resources, possibly in someactivity quite distinct from forestry, before the technical aspects of themajor task can be introduced.

In some societies to which forestry extension may be introduced, theconcept of individual success or individual wealth may not be acceptable.Persons who achieve a high standard of success and personal wealth may beexcluded from community activities, (e.g. excluded from drinking from thecommon cup by other men). The approach via "innovators" or "early adopters"may not always be appropriate and a fresh approach based on action by a widersection of the community may be necessary. The important feature is thatextension staff must make an effort to find out how local people view certainsituations and not try to apply concepts from different cultures withoutfirst giving them a critical examination. They must learn to be good

listeners and to understand the culture and concepts of the local people.

Any form of approach must, however, take into account the policy of thelocal government on development matters, particularly whether it favoursindividual or collective action. A line of approach which is contrary togovernment policy will not be acceptable to the authorities if proposed bythe extension service and may be viewed with great suspicion, or even assubversive, if proposed by a non-government organisation. Extension should,however, be a two-way process and send back information on the views of thecommunity to the government so that they can adapt their policies to

facilitate the achievement of extension goals the people have themselvesestablished.

1.6 Need for properly trained staff

The staff required to implement a programme of forestry extension mustdiffer from those engaged in general protection or production forestry dutiesin both attitude and technical knowledge. Of these, attitude is perhaps themost important. It should not be too difficult for a well trained foresterto acquire the technical skills relevant to extension forestry but if he orshe does not have a correct attitude to the tasks, technical skills inthemselves will be of little value.

Briefly, the social skills required consist of the ability to

communicate on a number of different levels. It is essential to be able tocommunicate with the local people in the concepts, words and idiaa theyunderstand and have the patience to allow them to discuss matters at theirown pace and to formulate ideas in their own words. It is equally necessaryto be able to communicate effectively with a wide range of colleagues atroughly similar levels in both government and non-government organisationsinvolved in rural development. Ability to communicate on a higher level withscientists and research workers, administrators, and policy or decisionmakers in the government is also important. Such skills will enableextension staff to assist the members of the community to formulate andpresent their proposals to the authorities in a form likely to secure thesupport they require. While social skills may be taught, and should in factnow be included in all courses for staff who may be engaged in forestryextension, they must ultimately be acquired by practice. The procedures,values and characteristics of different groups of people, especially if they

-5-

social justification of the the existing system and the process of spread of change through family or community groups.

The approach to change must also take into account the extent to which . the target population are individualists or community orientated. In cases where community action is essential to achieve an objective, e.g. in the improvement of water supplies or erosion control, it may be necessary to concentrate on developing community spirit and resources, possibly in some activity quite distinct from forestry, before the technical aspects of the major task can be introduced.

In some societies to which forestry extension may be introduced, the concept of individual success or individual wealth may not be acceptable. Persons who achieve a high standard of success and personal wealth may be excluded from community activities, (e.g. excluded from drinking from the common cup by other men). The approach via "innovators" or "early adopters" may not always be appropriate and a fresh approach based on action by a wider section of the community may be necessary. The important feature is that extension staff must make an effort to find out how local people view certain situations and not try to apply concepts from different cultures without first giving them a critical examination. They must learn to be good listeners and to understand the culture and concepts of the local people.

Any form of approach must, however, take into account the policy of the local government on development matters, particularly whether it favours individual or collective action. A line of approach which is contrary to government policy will not be acceptable to the authorities if proposed by the extension service and may be viewed with great suspicion, or even as subversive, if proposed by a non-government organisation. Extension should, however, be a two-way process and send back information on the views of the community to the government so that they can adapt their policies to facilitate the achievement of extension goals the people have themselves established.

1.6 Need for properly trained staff

The staff required to implement a programme of forestry extension must differ from those engaged in general protection or production forestry duties in both attitude and technical knowledge. Of these, attitude is perhaps the most important. It should not be too difficult for a well trained forester to acquire the technical skills relevant to extension forestry but if he or she does not have a correct attitude to the t asks, technical skills in themselves will be of little value.

Briefly, the social skills required consist of the ability to communicate on a number of different levels. It is essential ·to be able to communicate with the local people in the concepts, words and idiom they understand and have the patience to allow them to discuss matters at their own pace and to formulate ideas in their own words. It is equally necessary to be able to communicate effectively with a wide range of colleagues at roughly similar levels in both government and non-government organisations involved in rural development. Ability to communicate on a higher level with scientists and research workers, administrators, and policy or decision makers in the government is also important. Such skills will enable extension staff to assist the members of the community to formulate and present their proposals to the authorities in a form likely to secure the support they require. While social skills may be taught, and should in fact now be included in all courses for staff who may be engaged in forestry extension, they must ultimately be acquired by practice. The procedures, values and characteristics of different groups of people, especially if they

- 5 -

have developed with relatively little contact with their neighbours, differso widely that no formal course is likely to convey all the knowledgerequired. If a course can develop in a student a sensitivity to otherpeoples' feelings and an enquiring mind to probe and classify their ideas andbeliefs, it will enable him or her to acquire such knowledge and establish aproper understanding of the people.

The basic skills of communication relating to discussion ordemonstration can be taught without too much trouble but the ability toselect the best method and to apply it effectively is something that requiresjudgement and practice. Willingness to conduct an effective discussion withpotential clients and to gain a firm understanding of their position beforesuggesting possible modifications to it, is essential. Successful approachesshould be widely publicised and carefully analysed but there is no guaranteethey will be equally effective in another situation.

In terms of technical knowledge, the requirements of an extensionforester differ in content, scale and standards. A working knowledge ofpossible extension forestry practices should not take too long to acquire, asin most areas these are still limited in range, but learning should beregarded as a continuous process as developments soon overtake existingknowledge. A certain degree of financial knowledge and skills in planningare required to ensure that any proposals considered will be economicallyviable. A successful extension forester must, however, be orientated to"think small" and to appreciate the value of projects involving perhaps onlya few trees in particular circumstances. It is also necessary to accept thatmatters such as accuracy of spacing, and the standard of maintenance maydiffer greatly from large-scale forestry operations. Timing of operationsmay have to be adjusted to fit into an existing pattern of agricultural orpastoral work. Too often a farmer may find it difficult to grow enough foodto support himself and his family. He may only be able to devote minimaleffort to the growing of trees. In many areas such knowledge or concepts ofrural life may not yet be fully understood and they will have to be developedby staff as they go about their tasks. The knowledge that these matters areimportant and should be studied in the field will be an importantcontribution of training organisations initially.

In an ideal situation, it would be desirable that all members of aforestry organisation should be skilled in forestry extension and movebetween extension and other forestry activities as required. In practicethis is unlikely to happen, especially with existing staff whose attitudes topeople and forests may already be fixed. The current trend towardsspecialisation in forestry studies, especially at the higher levels, alsomakes such flexibility less likely to occur in future. The options of

organising forestry extension activities within a country or region, in

different forms, have been dealt with in a companion volume. (FAO ForestryPaper No. 66, Forestry Extension Organisation, FAO, Rome, 1986). Whateveroption is adopted co-ordination should be maintained between the variousactivities of the forestry organisation as extension forestry must beregarded as part of the overall forestry strategy of a country and not as aseparate activity.

In a similar way, forestry extension must be regarded as part of theoverall development strategy for rural communities. In some cases, it mayplay a major role in meeting needs and increasing wealth. In others, it mayplay a part in improving agricultural or animal husbandry practices. In

either case, co-ordination between technical staff of different organisationsconcerned with development and with the representatives of local and nationalgovernment must be maintained. All fields of development in an area must be

regarded as part of an overall plan to improve the welfare of the population.

-6--

have developed with relatively little contact with their neighbours, differ so widely that no formal course is likely to convey all the knm<ledge required. If a course can develop in a student a sensitivity to other peoples' feelings and an enquiring mind to probe and classify their ideas and beliefs, it will enable him or her to acquire such knowledge and establish a proper understanding of the people.

The basic skills of communication relating to discussion or demonstration can be taught without too much trouble but the ability to select the best method and to apply it effectively is something that requires judgement and practice. Willingness to conduct an effective discussion with

' potential clients and to gain a firm understanding of their position before suggesting possible modifications to it, is essential. Successful approaches should be widely publicised and carefully analysed but there is no guarantee they will be equally effective in another situation.

In terms of technical knowledge, the requirements of an extension forester differ in content, scale and standards. A working knowledge of possible extension forestry practices should not take too long to acquire, as in most areas these are still limited in range, but learning should be regarded as a continuous process as developments soon overtake existing knowledge . A certain degree of financial knowledge and skills in planning are required to ensure that any proposals considered will be economically viable. A successful extension forester must, however, be orientated to "think small" and to appreciate the value of projects involving perhaps only a few trees in particular circumstances. It is also necessary to accept that matters such as accuracy of spacing, and the standard of maintenance may differ greatly from large-scale forestry operations. Timing of operations may have to be adjusted to fit into an existing pattern of agricultural or pastoral work. Too often a farmer may find it difficult to grow enough food to support himself and his family. He may only be able to devote min~mal effort to the growing of trees. In many areas such knowledge or concepts of rural life may not yet be fully understood and they will have to be developed by staff as they go about their tasks. The knowledge that these matters are

. important and should be studied in the field will be an important contribution of training organisations initially.

In an ideal situation, it would be desirable that all members of a forestry organisation should be skilled in forestry extension and move between extension and other forestry activities as required. In practice this is unlikely to happen, especially with existing staff whose attitudes to people and forests may already be fixed. The current trend towards specialisation in forestry studies, especially at the higher levels, also makes such flexibility less likely to occur in future. The options of organising forestry extension activities within a country or region , in different forms, have been dealt with in a companion volume. (FAO Forestry Paper No. 66, Forestry Extension Organisation, FAO, Rome, 1986). Whatever option is adopted co-ordination should be maintained between the various activities of the forestry organisation as extension forestry must be regarded as part of the overall forestry strategy of a country and not as a separate activity.

In a similar way, forestry extens ion must be regarded as part of the overall development strategy for rural communities. In some cases, it may playa major role in meeting .needs and increasing wealth. In others, it may play a part in improving agricultural or animal husbandry practices. In either case, co-ordination between technical staff of different organisations concerned with development and with the representatives of local and national government must be maintained. All fields of development in an area must be regarded as part of an overall plan to improve the welfare of the population.

- 6 -

This does not imply that a single multi-purpose development organisation isnecessarily the best means to implement development but it should emphasisethat the "competition" between various development organisations, which mayhave existed in the past, is not an efficient way to use limited resources orsecure an overall improvement in living conditions.

Suggestions on appropriate training programmes based on the contents ofthis publication will appear in a separate FAO publication.

1.7 Extension research

The effectiveness of any extension programme will be improved by anappropriate research programme. Some information such as the suitability ofspecies, cultural techniques and growth rates may be derived from researchwork being carried out for other purposes within the forestry organisation.As the programme develops, extension staff may be able to identify problemsor areas of work requiring research and either undertake this work incollaboration with farmers and research staff in on-farm trials or pass themover for investigation in suitable circumstances.

Research into social matters is, however, most likely to be of

immediate value to an extension programme. This may not be problem-solvingresearch but the collection and recording of attitudes, family structures,traditional roles, levels of influence and decision-making procedures, landtenure practices and work patterns. In time, research staff may be able totest the impact of various types of approach or the presentation of

information and the nature of incentives to the public. This can only bedone against the background of a well documented pattern of their attitudes,beliefs and social structure.

1.8 Factors limiting forestry extension

Many factors have, in the past, limited public interest in forestryextension as a means of achieving community-orientated forestry practices andwill continue to do so until they are either modified or overcome.Initially, local knowledge limited to certain common agricultural or ruralpractices has made it difficult to take advantage of introduced forestryspecies or practices which could prove beneficial. Lack of material andfinancial resources and problems of education and health have also proved anobstacle to adopting good forestry practices into the normal pattern of life.To overcome these problems, educational support covering all aspects of theseproblems is required.

Interest in many aspects of forestry extension may also be limited bythe length of time between effort and reward in forestry activities. Peoplewho have no reserves of wealth in any form require a prompt return on anyefforts expended. It is, therefore, important to draw their attention tofast-growing, multi-purpose species which will enable them to secure a cropof fodder perhaps, while waiting for a tree crop to mature. Interest Inlonger-term crops may develop in due course, but only when the peopleconcerned have reached a stage when they are able to invest effort or wealthfor a longer period. An exception to this may be fruit trees, such as mango,where the effort is limited and the return from even one successful tree maybe sufficient to induce people to plant. These may sometimes be used as auseful introduction to other types of extension practices.

A further feature which may discourage the development of long-termcrops is security of tenure of land. If a person or a community cannot besure that they will control an area of land long enough to reap the benefits

of any crop established on it, they will use it only for the most easily

-7-

This does not imply that a single mUlti-purpose development organisation is necessari ly the best means to implement development but it should emphasise that the "competition" between various development organisations, which may have existed in the past, is not an efficient way to use limited resources or secure an overall improvement in living conditions.

Suggestions on appropriate training programmes based on the contents of this publication will appear in a separate FAD publication.

1.7 Extension research

The effectiveness of any extension programme will be improved by an appropriate research programme. Some information such as the suitability of species, cultural techniques and growth rates may be derived from research work being carried out for other purposes within the forestry organisation. As the programme develops, extension staff may be able to identify problems or areas of work requiring research and either undertake this work in collaboration with farmers and research staff in on-farm trials or pass them over for investigation in suitable circumstances.

Research into social matters is, however, most likely to be of immediate value to an extension programme. This may not be problem-solving research but the collection and recording of attitudes, family structures, traditional roles, levels of influence and decision-making procedures, land tenure practices and work patterns. In time, research staff may be able to t est the impact of various types of approach or the presentation of information and the nature of incentives to the public. This can only be done against the background of a well documented pattern of their attitudes, beliefs and social structure.

1.8 Factors limiting forestry extension

Many factors have, in the past, limited public interest in forestry extension as a means of achieving community-orientated forestry practices and will continue to do so until they are either modified or overcome. Initially, local knowledge limited to certain common agricultural or rural practices has made it difficult to take advantage of introduced forestry species or practices which could prove beneficial. Lack of material and financial resources and problems of education and health have also proved an obstacle to adopting good forestry practices into the normal pattern of life. To overcome these problems, educational support covering all aspects of these problems is required.

Interest in many aspects of forestry extension may also be limited by the length of time between effort and reward in forestry activities. People who have no reserves of wealth in any form require a prompt return on any efforts expended. It is, therefore, important to draw their attention to fast-growing, multi-purpose species which will enable them to secure a crop of fodder perhaps, while waiting for a tree crop to mature. Interest in longer- term crops may develop in due course, but only when the people concerned have reached a stage when they are able to invest effort or wealth for a longer period. An exception to this may be fruit trees, such as mango, where the effort is limited and the return from even one successful tree may be sufficient to induce people to plant. These may sometimes be used as a useful introduction to other types of extension practices.

A further feature which may discourage the development of long-term crops is security of tenure of land. If a person or a community cannot be sure that they will control an area of land long enough to reap the benefits of any crop established on it, they will use it only for the most easily

- 7 -

- 8 -

produced short-term crops. In many cases the only additional areas of landof any reasonable size available for forestry extension are controlled by thecentral or local government, often through the forestry organisation. Publicservants in such organisations are understandably reluctant to give upcontrol of any areas of land which might in turn reduce their authority andimportance. Only in exceptional cases, notably Nepal, have members of thecommunity obtained rights to manage substantial areas of forest land forextension programmes with adequate security of tenure. In a number ofcountries the forestry authorities have declined to accept the inevitable andrecognise that areas of forest already encroached and denuded of trees mightbe better managed by their present occupiers if a form of lease orcertificate of occupancy could be given which included requirements to carryout approved forestry extension activities.

Bureaucratic procedures in dealing with permits to cut, transport orsell forest produce may also discourage the adoption of forestry extensionpractices by people who believe the less they have to do with officials thebetter. This is a fully understandable attitude in areas where suchofficials openly seek to supplement their incomes with irregular payments forservices performed. Forest produce arising from forestry extension-programmes should be regarded as similar to agricultural or animal productsand be marketed with as few restrictions as possible. In particular, thelevying of taxes on such produce may either discourage production or distortthe market, as people adopt various tactics to avoid payment.

In areas where production could be raised beyond immediate domesticneeds, the lack of suitable marketing arrangements and an acecptable pricestructure may be disincentives to increased production. Marketing may becontrolled by a powerful middle-man organisation which deprives the producersof a proper share of the benefits. Poor communications and transportfacilities or the lack of a satisfactory rural infrastructure are also likelyto limit production.

A reliable supply of planting stock, fertilisers, insecticides, fencingmaterials or other items required, at reasonable prices or on acceptablecredit terms must be arranged if these are not to be limiting factors inimplementing an extension programme.

On a national scale, since areas operated under extension programmesmay not then appear in official records as forest land, or yield any directrevenue to government, there may be a reluctance to devote part of a limitedforestry budget to extension which may appear, on paper, to be a non-productive function. In practice, this ignores the fact that crops of treesestablished by extension activities may have considerably lower direct coststhan those established by government organisations, and that lower pricesarising from greater supplies of forest produce may benefit more people thana somewhat better balance in the forest authority's financial accounts. Thereal importance of a successful extension programme can only be appreciatedby staff of a forestry authority who have been fully informed and properlyorientated to extension forestry, even though they are not engaged in theday-to-day work of extension.

1.9 Benefits of forestry extension programmes

The primary benefit of an extension programme is that it meets a needwhich people have defined for themselves and have considered sufficientlyimportant to devote their time and resources to satisfy. In doing so, thepeople may, in many cases, have learned to co-operate and to plan ahead toachieve their objective, skills which can usefully be applied to improve manyother aspects of their lives.

produced short-term crops. In many cases the only additional areas of land of any reasonable size available for forestry extension are controlled by the central or local government, often through the forestry organisation. Public servants in such organisations are understandably reluctant to give up control of any areas of land which might in turn reduce their authority and importance. Only in exceptional cases, notably Nepal, have members of t .he community obtained rights to manage substantial areas of forest land for extension programmes with adequate security of tenure. In a number of countries the forestry authorities have declined to accept the inevitable and recognise that areas of forest already encroached and denuded of trees might be better managed by their present occupiers if a form of lease or certificate of occupancy could be given which included requirements to carry out approved forestry extension activities.

Bureaucratic procedures in dealing with permits to cut, transport or sell forest produce may also discourage the adoption of forestry extension practices by people who believe the less they have to do with officials the better . This is a fully understandable attitude in areas where such officials openly seek to supplement their incomes with irregular payments for services performed. Forest produce arising from forestry extension programmes should be regarded as similar to agricultural or animal products and be marketed with as few restrictions as possible. In particular, the levying of taxes on such produce may either discourage production or distort the market, as people adopt various tactics to avoid payment.

In areas where production could be raised beyond immediate domestic needs, the lack of suitable marketing arrangements and an acecptable price structure may be disincentives to increased production. Marketing may be controlled by a powerful middle-man organisation which deprives the producers of a proper share of the benefits. poor communications and transport facilities or the lack of a satisfactory rural infrastructure are also likely to limit production.

A reliable supply of planting stock, fertilisers, insecticides, fencing materials or other items required, at reasonable prices or on acceptable credi t terms must be arranged if these are not to be limiting factors in implementing an extension programme.

On a national scale, since areas operated under extension programmes may not then appear in official records as forest land, or yield any direct revenue to government, there may be a reluctance to devote part of a limited forestry budget to extension which may appear, on paper, to be a nonproductive function. In practice, this ignores the fact that crops of trees established by extension activities may have considerably lower direct costs than those established by government organisations, and that lower prices arising from greater supplies of forest produce may benefit more people than a somewhat better balance in the forest authority's financial accounts. The real importance of a successful extension programme can only be appreciated by staff of a forestry authority who have been fully informed and properly orientated to extension forestry, even though they are not engaged in the day-to-day work of extension.

1.9 Benefits of forestry extension programmes

The primary benefit of an extension programme is that it meets a need which people have defined for themselves and have considered sufficiently important to devote their time and resources to satisfy. In doing so, the people may, in many cases, have learned to co-operate and to plan ahead to achieve their objective, skills which can usefully be applied to improve many other aspects of their lives.

- 8 -

In material terms the need may have been for:

fuel for cooking;poles or small timber for housebuilding;fodder for animals;fruit for domestic consumption or sale;shade or shelter for people or animals;employment from the manufacture of handicrafts;cash from the sale of surplus produce.

Many of the benefits may be difficult to measure and value. The readyavailability of fuelwood and materials for house construction may lead insome instances to improved health and to increased time for cultivation offood crops. This may be reflected in higher agricultural output rather thanin returns of forest products. Similarly, the establishment of fodder orshade trees for livestock may lead to higher values of animal products beforeany measurable benefit from forest products arises. If these situations,however, help people to understand the inter-relation of forestry andagriculture, this may lead to a more favourable overall view of forestryextension activities in future.

FRUIT

Forestry extensionprogrammes can bring

a wide range of benefitsto many rural people

FODDER FUELWOOD

Forestry extension programmes can bring a wide range of benefitsto many rural people

HANDICRAFTS POLES & TIMBER

In material terms the need may have been for:

- fuel for cooking; - poles or small timber for housebuilding; - fodder for animals; - fruit for domestic consumption or sale; - shade or shelter for people or animals; - employment from the manufacture of handicrafts; - cash from the sale of surplus produce.

Hany of the benefits may be difficult to measure and value. The ready availability of fueh,ood and materials for house construction may lead in some instances to improved health and to increased time for cultivation of food crops. This may be reflected in higher agricultural output rather than in returns of forest products. Similarly, the establishment of fodder or shade trees for livestock may lead to higher values of animal products before any measurable benefit from forest products arises . If these situations, however, help people to understand the inter-relation of forestry and agriculture, this may lead to a more favourable overall view of forestry extension activities in future.

FRUIT

HANDICRAFTS POLES & TIMBER

Forestry extension programmes can bring ~::~~

a wide range of benefits l r to many rural people

FODDER FUELWOOD

Forestry extension programmes can bring a wide range of benefits to many rural people

- 9 -

2. FORESTRY PRACTICES FOR EXTENSION

This publication does not attempt to deal with the silviculturalaspects of extension forestry which differ widely from place to place. Itdescribes briefly some of the systems to which extension practices can beapplied, suggests ctrcumstances in which they may be used and the benefitswhich may be obtained from their adoption by individuals or by the community.

2.1 Agroforestry systems

Agroforestry is a collective term for all land-use systems andpractices in which woody perennials are purposely grown on the same landmanagement unit as crops and/or animals. This can be either in some form ofspatial arrangement or in a time sequence. To qualify as agroforestry aland-use system or practice must permit significant economic and ecologicalinteraction between the woody and non-woody components.

Within this broad definition, a wide variety of both traditional andrelatively new systems or practices can be classed as agroforestry. Some

important features of agroforestry systems appropriate for use in forestryextension programmes are:

whenever possible they should be carried out on a person's ownland, or on land held under a secure title;alternatively they may be on poorly stocked public forest landleased to an individual or to a community group for a

reasonable period of time;they should aim to create a system under which forestry andagricultural or animal production can continue permanently;where possible there should be a beneficial interactionbetween trees, animals or agricultural crops and the

environment such as providing shelter or fixing nitrogen inthe soil;the persons taking part in the programme should do so

willingly and should be quite clear how they will benefit fromit;

the benefits should be related to the particular needs of thepeople or to earning opportunities which they consider to beimportant; and,

the rewards should be enough to compensate them for any extrawork involved and for any possible reduction in agriculturalor livestock crops.

2.1.1 Distribution of crops by area

Some patterns for the distribution of trees in agroforestry systemsare:

in one or more rows round the edges of fields or landholdings;in alternate rows with food crops;in alternate strips of two or more rows with strips of foodcrops or grazing land, preferably following the contours;as scattered trees amongst food crops, or sheltering tetheredlivestock or poultry;in vegetable gardens, round buildings or homesteads; and,

in scattered small groups of trees often in areas difficult tocultivate for food.

The cultivation of trees round the edges of fields and landholdingsrequires some degree of agreement with the adjoining landholders to forestall

- 10 -

2. FORESTRY PRACTICES FOR EXTENSION

This publication does not: attempt to deal with the silvicultural aspects of extension forestry which differ widely from place to place. It describes briefly some of the systems to which extension practices can be applied, suggests circumstances in which they may be used and the benefitB which may be obtained from their adoption by individuals or by the community.

2.1 Agroforestry systems

Agroforestry is a collective term for all land-use systems and practices in which woody perennials are purposely grown on the same land management unit as crops and/or animals. This can be either in some form of spatial arrangement or in a time sequence. To qualify as agroforestry a land - use system or practice must permit significant economic and ecological interaction between the "oody and non-woody components.

Within this broad definition, a wide variety of both traditional and relatively new systems or practices can be classed as agroEorestry. Some important features of agroforestry systems appropriate for use in forestry extens:lon programmes are:

are:

- whenever possible they should be carried out on a person's own land, or on land held under a secure title;

- alternatively they may be on poorly stocked public forest land leased to an individual or to a community group for a reasonable period of time;

- they should aim to create a system under which fo restry and agricultural or animal production can continue permanently; where possible there should be a beneficial interaction

between trees, animals or agricultural crops and the environment such as providing shelter or fixing nitrogen in the soil; the persons taking part in the programme should do so

willingly and should be quite clear how they will benefit from it;

- the benefits should be related to the particular needs of the people or to earning opportunities which they consider to be important; and,

- the rewards should be enough to compensate them for any extra work involved and for any possible reduction in agr.icultural or lives tock crops.

Distribution of crops by area

Some patterns for the distribution of trees i n agroforestry systems

- in one or more rows round the edges of fields or landholdings; - in alternate rows with food crops; - in alternate strips of two or more ro"s with strips of food

crops or grazing land, preferably following the contours; - as scattered trees amongst food crops, or sheltering tethered

livestock or poultry; - in vegetable gardens, round buildings or homesteads; and,

in scattered small groups of trees often in areas difficult to cultivate for food.

The cultivation of trees round the edges of fields and landholdings requires some degree of agreement with the adjoining landholders to forestall

- 10 -

complaints that the trees are affecting production in the adjoining fields.The last three alternatives have some similarity to the form of agriculturalpractices used for many years, particularly in Africa, where farming wasbased on clearing part of the forest crop and planting food crops followed bya long period of forest fallow. Under this system, it was common for largetrees to stand over the food crops for several of the short periods ofcultivation and the intervening fallow periods.

Trees grown round boundaries or in one or more rows between crops cannormally produce fuelwood, poles, small sawn timber or possibly fodderdepending on the species selected and the form of management adopted by theowner. They can, in time, be managed to give a reasonably consistent returnin material or income to the owner.

Scattered trees amongst food crops, in vegetable gardens or roundbuildings may often be fruit or general purpose trees, some of which mayyield fodder in the dry season. Branches may be lopped from time to time forfuel but the isolated location of the trees usually results in a stem formunsuitable for poles or small saw logs. In some cases, e.g. mango, the yieldfrom the fruit may be of considerable cash value but their value in otherrespects during their productive period may be for shade only. When theireffective fruiting life ends the trees may yield a considerable amount offuelwood and at least one saw log but this occurs only at long intervals andmust be considered more as a bonus than a regular element in production.The benefits of such trees in terms of shelter for tethered animals or forthe occupants of buildings is hard to quantify, but is never-the-lessrecognised by local people who carry out many domestic activities in theshade of such trees.

Trees grown in small groups in areas difficult to cultivate for

foodcrops may be most suitable for fodder or for lopping for fuelwood. The

sites may be used for growing timber species, while providing some shelterfor animals, but it is usually difficult to demonstrate to peasants thebenefits of planting trees from which they are unlikely to see some majorbenefit during their lifetime.

Agroforestry provides opportunities for people to meet local needsfor both food crops and forest products

complaints that the trees are affecting production in the adjoining fields . The last three alternatives have some similarity to the form of agricultural prac.tices used for many years, particularly in Africa, where farming was based on clearing part of the forest crop and planting food crops followed by a long period of forest fa llow . Under this system, it was common for large trees to stand over the food crops for several of the short periods of cultivation and the intervening fallow pe riods.

Trees grown round boundaries or in one or more rows between crops can normally produce fuelwood, poles, small sawn timber or possibly fodder depending on the species selected and the form of management adopted by the owner. They can, in time, be managed to give a reasonably consistent return in material or income to the mroer.

Scattered trees amongst food crops, in vegetable gardens or round buildings may often be frui t or general purpose trees, some of which may yield fodder in the dry season. Branches may be lopped from time to time for fuel but the isolated location of the trees usually results in a stem form unsuitable for poles or small saw logs. In some cases, e.g. mango, the yield from the frui t may be of considerable cash value but their value in other respects during their product ive period may be for shade only. When their effective fruiting life ends the trees may yield a considerable amount of fuelwood and at least one saw log but this occurs only at long intervals and must be considered more as a bonus than a regular element in production. The benefits of such trees in terms of shelter for tethered animals or for the occupants of buildings is hard to quantify, but is never-the-Iess recognised by local people "ho carry out many domestic activities in the shade of s uch trees.

Trees grotJU in small groups in areas difficult to cultivate for foodcrops may be most suitable for fodder or for lopping for fuelwood. The sites may be used for growing timber species, while providing some shelter for animals, but it is usually difficult to demonstrate to peasants the benefits of planting trees from which they are unlikely to see some major benefit during their lifetime.

Agrofores try provides opportunities for people to meet local needs for both food crops and forest products

- 11 -

2.1.2 Silvipasture

This involves the growth and protection of suitable trees either inisolation or as small groups on land primarily devoted to grazing. The treesserve a number of functions sucb as:

providing shade for the animals;promoting the growth of grass under certain tree species (e.g.Acacia) in the dry season;providing fodder for animals or fruits for people;stabilising soil and moisture conditions;protecting riverbanks from erosion; and,

providing fuelwood or timber when trees are due for replacing.

Since grazing lands are normally held on a community basis, thisrequires a broad degree of acceptance by the community that the preservationand planting of trees on such areas are necessary. Protection of the trees,which is vital to their survival, is difficult to achieve unless there is ahigh degree of commitment amongst the community that they should bepreserved. It also requires a clear agreement on the utilisation of thebenefits both during growth and when trees have served their purpose and haveto be replaced. It may, in some cases, require legal powers to ensure thatthe interests of the community are not damaged by a minority of the people.

The broad general benefits of shade, protection of the soil andpromotion of the growth of grass are hard to quantify. Any more immediatebenefits such as the collection of fruit or occasional lopping for fodder orfuelewood are limited and require careful control to avoid over-utilisation.

Trees on pastureland have a vital role to play in good animal husbandry

2.1.3 Strip plantations

In some countries, one of the few readily available resources of landfor planting are strips of unused land along roads, railways, rivers andcanals. Road, railway and canal embankments are normally under the controlof the appropriate authorities. They are usually somewhat reluctant to giveup their rights in these areas, and where they do, they normally imposestrict controls on the type of work which can be undertaken for both

- 12-

Silvipast,ure

This involves the grmvth and protection of suitable trees isolation or as small groups on land primarily devoted to grazing. serve a number of functions such as:

- providing shade for the animals;

either in The trees

promoting the growth of grass under certain tree species (e.g. Acacia) in the dry season;

- providing fodder for animals or fruits for people ; - s tabilising soil and moisture conditions; - prote.cting riverbanks from erosion; and, .- providing fuelwood or timber when trees are due for replacing.

Since grazing lands are normally held on a community basis, this requires a broad degree of acceptance by the community that the preservation and planting of trees on such areas are necessary. Protection of the trees, which is vital to their survival, is difficult to achieve unless there is a high degree of commi tment amongst the community that they should be preserved. It also requires a clear agreement on the utilisation of the benefits both during growth and when trees have served their purpose and have to be replaced. It may, in some cases, require legal powers to ensure that the interests of the community are not damaged by a minority of the people.

The broad general benefits of shade, protection of the soil and promotion of the growth of grass are hard to quantify. Any more immediate benefits such as the collection of fruit or occasional lopping for fodder or fuelewood are limited and require careful control to avoid over-utilisation.

Trees on pastureland have a vital role to play in good animal husbandry

2.1.3 Strip plantations

In some countries) one of the few readily available resources of land for planting are strips of unused land along roads, railways, rivers and canals. Road, railway and canal embankments are normally under the control of the appropriate authorities. They are usually somewha t reluctant to give up their rights in these areas, and where they do, they normally impose strict controls on the type of work which can be undertaken for both

- 12 -

technical and safety reasons. This applies particularly to railway lines.While this does not necessarily exclude individuals from operating in theseareas it is usually administratively more satisfactory for the forestauthority to negotiate the terms of an overall agreement with the controllingauthorities and to make subsidiary agreements with groups of people who arewilling to act jointly and to observe the conditions imposed. In the case ofroads, there are sometimes limitations on the security of title as strips maybe required after some time for widening or other engineering purposes. Thecultivation of certain low growing leguminous crops may be permitted in thefirst year of planting but generally there is a reluctance to allowdisturbance of the surface soil in these areas. Subject to these limitationsthis can be a very valuable source of land for forestry extension projectswhere land is a limiting factor.

The custom in the past has usually been to concentrate on large crownedshade, timber or fruit species which, once established, required the minimumof attention. Such trees, however, yield few immediate benefits to those whoplant them. If strips are properly managed by the local community, with theco-operation and technical assistance of extension staff, there is no reasonwhy they should not be used for shorter term crops producing fodder, smallpoles, fuelwood, or fruits. Unless there are some early benefits from suchcrops, even those who participate in planting may be reluctant to protect thetrees adequately and unless this is done the results are generally very poor.

Trees planted along railway lines are a valuable addition to the

forest resources of an area

2.1.4 Tree farming

In some areas specific demands for forest produce or tree fruits mayjustify a farmer growing trees as a commercial crop on part of his land.This is normally an individual decision and depends on the availability and

- 13 -

technical and safety reasons. This applies particularly to r ailway lines. \<I1ile this does not necessarily exclude individuals crom operating in these areas it is usually administratively more satisfactory for the forest authority to negot iate the terms of an overall agreement with the controlling authorities and to make subsidiary agreements with groups of people who are willing to act jointly and to observe the c·onditions imposed. In the case of roads, there are sometimes limitations on the security of ti tle as strips may be required afte r some time for widening or other engineering purposes. The cultivation of certain loVI growing leguminous crops may be permitted in the first year of planting but generally there is a reluctance to allow disturbance of the surface soil in these areas. Subject to these limitations this can be a very valuable source of land for forestry extension projects where land is a limiting factor.

The custom in the past has usually been to concentrate on large crowned shade, timber or fruit species which, once established, required the minimum of attention. Such trees, hm,ever, yield few immediate benefits to those who plant them. If strips are properly managed by the local community, with the co-operation and technical assistance of extension staff, there is no reason why they should · not be used for shorter term crops producing fodder, small poles, fuelwood J or frui ts. Unless there are some early benefits f rom such crops, even those "ho participate in planting may be reluctant to protect the trees adequately and unles s this is done the results are generally very poor.

Trees planted along railway l ines are a valuable addition to the forest resources of an area

2.1. 4 Tree farm.ing

In some areas specific demands for forest produce or tree fruits may justify a farmer growing trees as a commercial crop on part of his land. This is normally an individual decision and depends on the avai lability and

- l3 -

suitability of land for such a crop and a cash return comparable with whatcan be obtained from agricultural crops in the area. The choice of speciesand management system depends on local requirements but, other than for fruitproduction, the most profitable output is likely to be building poles orfuelwood in areas where there is a considerable shortage of these items.This is most likely to be an individual rather than a communal activity andthe question of the timing of the yield is of the greatest importance. Asthe system inevitably causes some reduct ion in agricultural output a farmermust expect an early return from the trees to compensate him for the initialreduction in income suffered. In theory, there is no reason why timberspecies could not be grown under this system, but this could only be done bypeople who are sufficiently rich in both land and other assets to invest inthese crops.

Space under the trees may be used to some extent for food crops or forrearing tethered animals or poultry and in this respect it can be classed asan agroforestry system but the emphasis is on the tree crop and any otherproduction is subsidiary.

2.9 Taungya

Though taungya has been in use for over 100 years and is sometimesconsidered an agroforestry system it is not strictly so in the sense-in whichthis term is used in this publication. It is a very effective way of raisingtree crops with the simultaneous production of food over a period of 2 to 3years, but the land does not normally belong to the persons growing the foodand the trees are the property of the authority controlling the land.

It differs from true agroforestry systems in that it does not aim toproduce a permanent system of agricultural and forest crops. The croppingarea moves from year to year and eventually reaches a distance where thefarmers must either give up, as they have too far to travel to the area, ormove their homes. The reward to the farmers is limited to the food cropsthey grow. They have, normally, no rights to, or interest in, the treesapart from the few years during which they are tending their food crops.While this has, in many countries, proved a very effective method ofregenerating poorly stocked forest at very low cost, it does not normallyestablish the very close links between the farmers and trees implied inagroforestry systems.

If it were adapted to growing short term tree crops, e.g. 20 yearsrotation, and some fertiliser treatment were introduced in the agriculturalphase, it might be possible for a group of farmers to operate on a permanentbasis. This could be used for the production of large poles or small sawlogswith perhaps an intermediate yield of small poles, fuelwood or fodder. It

would be necessary to establish some particular relationship between theowners of the land, presumably the forest authority, and the farmers to

ensure that the farmers felt fully involved in the operation and received aproper reward for their efforts. This has proved very successful in raisingcrops of Eucalyptus spp. in some countries.

On the other hand, farmers themselves could adapt the taungya systemto estabishing community woodlots for their own benefit if suitable land wereavailable.

2.3 Community woodlots

These are usually intended to meet the general requirements of a

community for fuelwood, poles, light construction timber or similar products,where these needs cannot be met by individual agroforestry efforts. They

14

suitability of land for such a crop and a cash returrl comparable with what can be obtained from agricultural crops in the area. The choice of species and management system depends on local r e quirements but, other than for f ruit production, the most profitable output is likely to be building poles or fuelwood in areas where there is a considerable shortage of these items. This is most likely to be an individual rather than a communal activity and the question of the timing of the yield is of the gr.eatest importance. As the system inevitably causes some reduction in agricultural output a farmer must expect an early return from the trees to compensate him for the initial reduction in income suffered. In theory, there is no reason why timbe r. species could not be grown under this system, but this could only be done by people who are sufficiently rich in both land and other assets to invest in these crops.

Space under the trees may be used to some extent for food crops or for rearing tethered animals or poultry and in this respect it can be classed as an agro forestry system but the emphasis is on the tree crop and any other production is subsidiary.

2.2 Taungya

Though taungya has been in use for over 100 years and is sometime " considered an agroforestry system it is not strictly so in the sense in whic11 this term is used in this publication. It i s a very effective way of r ais ing tree crops with the simultaneous production of food over a period of 2 to 3 years, but the land does not normally belong to the persons growing the food and' the trees are the property of the authority controlling the land.

It differs from true agroforestry systems in that it does not aim to produce a permanent system of agricultural and forest crops . . The cropping area moves from year to year and eventually reaches a distance where the farmers must either give up, as they have too far to travel to the area, or move their homes. The reward to the farmers is limited to the food crops they grow. They have, normally, no rights to, or interest in, the trees apart from the few years during which they are tending their food crops. While this has, in many countries, proved a very effective method of regenerating poorly stocked forest at very low cost, it does not normally establish the very close links between the farmers and trees implied in agroforestry systems.

If it were adapted to growing short term tree crops, e.g. 20 years rotation, and some fertiliser treatment were introduced in the agricultural phase, it might be possible for a group of farmers to operate on a permanent basis. This could be used for the production of large poles or small sawlogs with perhaps an intermediate yield of small poles, fuelwood or fodder. It would be necessary to establish some particular relationship between the owners of the land, presumably the forest authority, and the farmers to ensure that the farmers felt fully involved in the operation and received a proper reward for their efforts. This has proved very successful in raising crops of Eucalyptus spp. in some countries.

On the other hand, farmers themselves could adapt the taungya system to estabishing community woodlots for their own benefit if suitable land were available.

2.3 Community woodlots

These are usually intended to meet the general requirements of a community for fuelwood, poles, light construction timber or similar products, where these needs cannot be met by individual agroforestry efforts. They

- 14 -

may also help to meet the needs of people in the area who do not have landavailable for planting trees. They face two major constraints, namelysuitable areas of land for planting and the willingness of the community toform an organisation to plan and carry out the necessary work and thedistribution of benefits. They can be organised by established groups suchas development committees, schools, religious organisations or by "ad hoc"groups formed on the initiative of forestry extension staff.

During the establishment period it may be possible to use the taungyamethod as suggested above, as this replaces the tending required in the earlyyears with the cultivation of food and provides some early benefits from theland. Definite arrangements must, however, be made for any cultural ormaintenance activities required later in the life of the crop and forprotection against both illegal cutting and fire.

The establishment of woodlots will almost certainly affect a largenumber of people who may have previously used the land on a seasonal orcasual basis and their interests must be taken into account in planning thework. If they feel excluded they are unlikely to co-operate in theprotection of the area, no matter how important others feel about this andproblems of trespass may make a scheme almost unworkable.

Administrative problems may arise in that some of the members whoinitiate a scheme may no longer be alive or able to participate actively asit reaches maturity and decisions on their proper share of the rewards maygive rise to controversy.

Community woodlots meet some needs which cannot be met by agroforestry

2.4 Management of natural vegetation

In some areas community action, assisted by extension programmes, maybe promoted to manage areas of natural vegetation, either held in commonownership or on state or private lands subject to trespass. This, however,is unlikely to gain much support amongst local people until some signs ofdeterioration are apparent. Management normally involves, initially, a

holding operation aimed at avoiding any action which might result in furtherdeterioration of the vegetation. The fact that an area of natural vegetation

- 15 -

may also help to meet the needs of people in the area who do not have land available for planting trees. They face two major constraints, namely sui table areas of land for planting and the willingness of the community to form an organisation to plan and carry out the necessary work and the distribution of benefits. They can be organised by established groups such as development committees, schools, religious organisations or by "ad hoc" groups formed on the initiative of forestry extension staff.

During the establishment period it may be possible to use the taungya method as suggested above, as this replaces the tending required in the early years with the cultivation of food and provides some early benefits from the land. Definite arrangements must, however, be made for any cultural or maintenance activities required later in the life of the crop and for protection against both illegal cutting and fire.

The establishment of woodlots will almost certainly affect a large number of people who may have previously used the land on a seasonal or casual basis and their interests must be taken into account in planning the work. If they feel excluded they are unlikely to co-operate in the protection of the area, no matter how important others feel about this and problems of trespass may make a scheme almost unworkable.

Administrative problems may arise in that some of the members who initiate a scheme may no longer be alive or able to participate actively as it reaches maturity and decisions on their proper share of the rewards may give rise to controversy.

Community woodlots meet some needs which cannot be met by agroforestry

2 . 4 Management of natural vegetation

In some areas community action, assisted by extension programmes, may be promoted to manage areas of natural vegetation, either held in common ownership or on state or private lands subject to trespass. This, however, is unlikely to gai n much support amongs t local people until some signs of deterioration are apparent. Management normally involves, initially, a holding operation aimed at avoiding any action which might result in further deterioration of the vegetation. The fact that an area of natural vegetation

- 15 -

is in urgent need of management usually suggests a human rather than a

technical forestry or agricultural problem. It is necessary to establish bycareful discussion with the local people the main reasons and causes of

damage to the area and explore means of overcoming these. If it is a problemof trespass and illegal felling the demand for fuelwood and timber must bemet from some alternative source. The demand will not simply diminish ifpeople decide to manage the area on which it is now concentrated. In thelast resort it may be necessary, initially, to convert part of the area tomore intensive production to relieve the pressure on the remainder and laterto establish other resources elsewhere to meet increasing demands for thefuture.

If the situation is one of trespass or overgrazing by domestic animalsthe problem may be more intractable. Animal husbandry practices are so

deeply rooted in the culture and traditions of many peoples that they provevery difficult to modify. There are often very sound reasons for the

original practices though the situation in which they are being maintainedhas changed, (e.g. the human and animal population may have increasedgreatly). The practice of grazing domestic animals within a limited area andgrowing fodder for them for a substantial part of the year raises a number ofproblems not least of which is the availability of suitable land for

permanent pasture and for growing fodder. Hygiene and disease problems mayarise when animals are kept permanently in a limited area and veterinaryservices may be lacking or unduly expensive. Any solution to the problem mayhave to be found in long and patient discussion and co-operation between thepeople, animal husbandry, agricultural and forestry extension staff.

Management of natural vegetation implies more than a policy of

exclusion or complete protection as has often been the case in the past. It

normally requires some positive steps to maintain or improve the existingvegetation. This again may require careful discussion and explanation withlocal people who may find it hard to understand why certain operations arenecessary while other more traditional activities must cease. Material yieldfrom such areas may be limited initially and a time span of 20 to 30 yearsmay be required until it again contributes significantly to local needs.Problems may arise, however, in establishing local commitment to manage, bydifferent processes, an area which for a long period has been regarded as acommon resource and managed under traditional practices. The adaptation ofthe skills of traditional management to changed needs may also take a lengthyperiod.

2.5 Erosion control or improvement of water supplies

This usually requires community action and often involves the land ofseveral individual members of the community, as well as areas of common land.It requires a strong commitment by the people concerned to carry out the workand to accept any changes in use of the land involved. It can normally beapplied only where the community are in general sufficiently prosperous toundertake work which may have no immediate benefits, or where a government orvoluntary organisation can compensate those taking part, to some extent, fortheir efforts or co-operation. This is a situation where an aid scheme suchas Food for Work can bridge the gap between effort and deferred benefits.

The benefits are unlikely to be reflected in terms of forest

production, unless trees are grown along contour bunds, on filter stripsalong streams or scattered throughout the agricultural crops. In this casefruit or general purpose trees which can be expected to grow actively formany years are most likely to prove suitable. In general, this work islikely to be undertaken in conjunction with an agricultural extensionprogramme and may provide a useful point of contact and co-operation between

- 16 -

is in urgent need of management usually suggests a human rather than a technical forestry or agricultural problem. It is necessary to establish by careful discussion with the local people the main reasons and causes of damage to the area and explore means of overcoming these. If it is a problem of trespass and illegal felling the demand for fuelwood and timber must be met from some alternative source. The demand will not simply diminish if people decide to manage the area on which it is now concentrated. In the last resort it may be necessary, initially, to convert part of the area to more intensive production to relieve the pressure on the remainder and later to establish other resources elsewhere to meet increasing demands for the future.

If the situation is one of trespass or overgrazing by domestic animal s the problem may be more intractable. Animal husbandry practices are so deeply rooted in the culture and traditions of many peoples that they prove very difficult to modify. There are often very sound reasons for the original practices though the situation in which they are being maintained has changed, (e.g. the human and animal population may have increased greatly). The practice of grazing domestic animals within a limited area and growing fodder for them for a substantial part of the year raises a number of problems not least of which is the availability of suitable land for permanent pasture and for growing fodder. Hygiene and disease problems may arise when animals are kept permanently in a limited area and veterinary services may be lacking or unduly expensive. Any solution to the problem may have to be found in long and patient discussion and co- operation between the people, animal husbandry, agricultural and forestry extension staff.

Management of natural vegetation implies more than a policy of exclusion or complete protection as has often been the case in the past. It normally requires some positive steps to maintain or improve the existing vegetation. This again may require careful discussion and explanation with local people who may find it hard to understand why certain operations are necessary while other more traditional activities must cease. Material yield from such areas may be limited initially and a time span of 20 to 30 years may be required until it again contributes significantly to local needs. Problems may arise, however, in establishing local commitment to manage, by different processes, an area which for a long period has been regarded as a common resource and managed under traditional practices. The adaptation of the skills of traditional management to changed needs may also take a lengthy period.

2.5 Erosion control or improvement of water supplies

This usually requires community action and often involves the land of several individual members of the community, as well as areas of common land. It requires a strong commitment by the people concerned to carry out the work and to accept any changes in use of the land involved. It can normally be applied only where the community are in general sufficiently prosperous to undertake work which may have no immediate benefits, or where a government or voluntary organisation can compensate those taking part, to some extent, for their efforts or co-operation. This is a situation where an aid scheme such as Food for Work can bridge the gap between effort and deferred benefits.

The benefits are unlikely to be reflected in terms of forest production, unless trees are grown along contour bunds, on filter strips along streams or scattered throughout the agricultural crops. In this case fruit or general purpose trees which can be expected to grow actively for many years are most likely to prove sui table. In general, this work is likely to be undertaken in conjunction with an agricultural extension programme and may provide a useful point of contact and co-operation between

- 16 -

forestry and agricultural extension activities.

2.6 Amenity planting

Amenity planting either of ornamental or fruit trees which, however,almost always have some residual value as timber or fuel, can be encouragedby forestry extension programmes. This work can be undertaken either byindividuals round their homesteads or by community groups near publicbuildings or in parks, round schools or religious institutions, markets orwherever space is available. This often involves the more urbanised sectionsof the community or school children and does not normally lead to anyimmediate gain other than beautification of the area or the provision ofshade. In terms of time taken by extension staff and numbers of trees

established it may not seem very productive. It, however, promotes a

community spirit amongst the population which may lead them to tackle otherdevelopment projects in the area. It may also create an interest in, andrespect for trees, which may serve to limit damage or destruction of trees inthe area in future years.

2.7 Small scale-forest based enterprises

Small scale forest-based enterprises, e.g. the production of charcoal,the collection of medicinal plants or wild fruits, the collection of honey,the supply of material for local handicrafts such as cane or raphia, may bepromoted on an individual or community basis by extension processes. In manycases the resource already exists. The need is for an efficient harvesting,marketing or transport system to bring the materials to potential buyers atreasonable cost and in good condition. If the process succeeds, someguidance or agreement may be necessary to avoid over-exploitation of theresource within a limited area. Some financial arrangements may be necessaryto ensure that part of the proceeds are used either to develop the resourceor to improve the harvesting or transport systems. Wherever possibleexisting systems such as local co-operatives should be used to establish thechannels of trade or communication relying mainly on indigenous skills andprocedures.

- 17 -

Charcoal production is a suitable small scale forest enterprise providedthe resources are not over utilised

forestry and agricultural extension activities.

2.6 Amenity planting

Amenity planting either of ornamental or fruit trees which, however, almost always have some residual value as timber or fuel, can be encouraged by forestry extension programmes. This work can be undertaken either by individuals round their homesteads or by community groups near public buildings or in parks, round schools or religious institutions, markets or wherever space is available. This often involves the more urbanised sections of the communi ty or school children and does not normally lead t o any immediate gain other than beautification of the area or the provision of shade. In terms of time taken by extension staff and numbers of trees established it may not seem very productive. It, however, promotes a community spirit amongst the population which may lead them to tackle other development projects in the area. It may also create an interest in, and respect for trees, which may serve to limit damage or destruction of trees in the area in future years.

2.7 Small scale-forest based enterprises

Small scale forest-based enterprises, e.g. the production of charcoal, the collection of medicinal plants or wild fruits, the collection of honey, the supply of material for local handicrafts such as cane or raphia, may be promoted on an individual or community basis by extension processes. In many cases the resource already exists. The need is for an efficient harvesting, marketing or transport system to bring the materials to potential buyers at reasonable cost and in good condition. If the process succeeds, some guidance or agreement may be necessary to avoid over-exploitation of the resource within a limited area. Some financial arrangements may be necessary to ensure that part of the proceeds are used either to develop the resource or to improve the harvesting or transport systems. Wherever possible existing systems such as local co-operatives sh'ould be used to establish the channels of trade or communication relying mainly on indigenous skills and procedures.

Charcoal production is a suitable small scale forest enterprise provided the resources are not over utilised

- 17 -

3. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY EXTENSION

The justification for promoting a forestry extension programme in anarea may be a particular forestry-related problem or a general lack of ruraldevelopment. Many reasons may be advanced for the lack of such development.These include:

the lack of adequate political commitment and power;the lack of an appropriate market infrastructure and transportsystem;insufficient mobilisation and use of local resources;the lack of application of existing technical knowledge;the lack of financial resources;the lack of local organising ability;overpopulation of the area;the lack of educational facilities;poor standards of health; and,

the lack of physical skill and the ability to overcome localobstacles.

In many cases this may be considered a too superficial assessment ofthe situation. It does not, for example, attempt to deal with cultural orreligious factors which, in some cases, may be as important as economic ortechnical factors. Forestry extension techniques cannot claim to deal withall these obstacles to development but they can promote an interest in theclose examination of local problems and a spirit of self-reliance in tacklingthem.

3.1 The process of forestry extension

Forestry extension should be viewed as the whole process by which thepublic, non-government organisations (NGO's) and appropriate governmentauthorities combine their skills and resources to achieve certain forestrydevelopment objectives intended to assist people to bring about improvementsin their economic and social conditions.

In its initial stages, forestry extension involves three major areas ofactivity, namely:

the organisation and sharing of knowledge and skills;public information programmes on forestry matters, and,

informal forestry education on practices to assist people toachieve particular objectives.

The organisation and sharing of knowledge and skills, based initiallyon a study of indigenous information, must be by methods acceptable to thepeople involved. The term "sharing" in place of the more customary term"transfer" implies that any skill adopted in extension programmes should befirmly based on the existing knowledge and skills of the people and be adevelopment they can readily accept and incorporate into their normal patternof work.

The public information phase aims to spread a knowledge of forestrymatters to the general public, or to a section of it such as those in aparticular region or district, or experiencing specific forestry-relatedproblems. The information must be in a form which the people can understandand accept, and should be communicated to them by all the means available andappropriate to their circumstances. The purpose is to make the people awareof the importance of forestry in their particular situation and the

contribution it can make to their welfare or to the environment. It should

- 18 -

3. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY EXTENSION

The justification for promoting a forestry extension programme in an area may be a particular forestry-related problem or a general lack of rural development. Many reasons may be advanced for the lack of such development. These include:

- the lack of adequate political commitment and power; - the lack of an appropriate market infrastructure and transport

system; - insufficient mobilisation and use of local resources; - the lack of application of existing technical knowledge; - the lack of financial resources; - the lack of local organising ability; - overpopulation of the area; - the lack of educational facilities; - poor standards of health; and, - the lack of physical skill and the ability to overcome local

obstacles.

In many cases this may be considered a too superficial assessment of the situat ion. It does not, for example, attempt to deal with cultural or religious factors which, in some cases, may be as important as economic or technical factors. Forestry extension techniques cannot claim to deal with all these obstacles to development but they can promote an interest in the close examination of local problems and a spirit of self-reliance in tackling them.

3.1 The process of forestry extension

Forestry extension should be viewed as the whole process by which the public, non-government organisations (NGO's) and appropriate government authorities combine their skills and resources to achieve certain forestry development objectives intended to assist people to bring about improvements in their economic and social conditions.

In its initial stages, forestry extension involves three major areas of activity, namely:

- the organisation and sharing of knowledge and skills; - public information programmes on forestry matters, and , - informal forestry education on practices to assist people to

achieve particular objectives.

The organisation and sharing of knowledge and skills, based initially on a study of indigenous information, must be by methods acceptable to the people involved. The term "sharing" in place of the more customary term "transfer" implies that any skill adopted in extension programmes should be firmly based on the existing knowledge and skills of the people and be a development they can readily accept and incorporate into their norma l pattern of work.

The public information phase aims to spread a knowledge of forestry matters to the general public, or to a section of it such as those in a particular region or district, or experiencing specific forestry-related problems. The information must be in a form which the people can understand and accept, and should be communicated to them by all the means available and appropriate to their circumstances. The purpose is to make the people aware of the importance of forestry in their particular situation and the contribution it can make to their welfare or to the environment. It should

- 18 -

also highlight possible future developments in which they may be able to playa part. Work done in this field in Nepal in recent years is an importantexample of how public information can lay a sound basis for forestrydevelopment both by local extension-supported programmes and by directgovernment action.

.:114001101004,WMINMOO

WOMAIWOOM.$44000APIHNO

Nepal has recently provided a good example of the effective use ofpublic information campaigns in forestry extension.

Informal education should cover any steps necessary to make knowledgeand skills in forestry techniques available to wider audiences, usingappropriate methods such as posters, publications, demonstrations or shorttraining courses on relevant forestry topics. It may also involve specificcampaigns to educate some members of the public on particular aspects offorestry, such as agroforestry or the establishment of community plantations.

The preparation and conduct of forestry extension programmes must bebased on an initial understanding of present practices, the reasons for theirdevelopment and continued use, and the extent to which they can continue tobe used or developed to achieve further objectives. Such a programme usuallyinvolves training in communication and instructional techniques and in

recommended forestry practices of demonstrators selected from the extensionorganisation or NGO's and from the local community, who have a basicunderstanding of existing practices and a commitment to develop them to meetparticular goals. The process also involves the preparation and distributionof suitable information and educational materials for motivating and

educating all those likely to benefit from the improved practices.

- 19 -

also highlight possible future developments in which they may be able to play a part. Work done in this field in Nepal in recent years is an important example of how public information can lay a sound basis for forestry development both by local extension-supported programmes and by direct government action.

'.'~ . . / ;:. ,\

• .r ,-J'_ "

Nepal has recently provided a good example of the effective use of public information campaigns in forestry extension.

Informal education should cover any steps necessary to make knowledge and skills in forestry techniques available to wider audiences, using appropriate me thods such as posters, publications, demonstrations or short training courses on relevant forestry topics. It may also involve specific campaigns to educate some members of the public on particular aspects of forestry, such as agroforestry or the establishment of community plantat ions .

The preparation and conduc t of forestry extension programmes must be based on an initial understanding of present practices, the reasons for their development and continued use, and the extent to which they can continue to be used or developed to achieve further objectives. Such a programme usually involves training in communication and instructional techniques and in recommended fo rest ry practices of demonstrators selected from the extension organisation or NGO's and from the local community, who have a basic understanding of existing practices and a commitment to develop them to meet particular goals. The process also involves the preparation and distribution of suitable information and educational materials for motivating and educating all those likely to benefit from the improved practices.

- 19 -

3.2 Some basic principles of forestry extension

A forestry extension programme should observe the following principles:

the welfare of the people, particularly the poor or landlessmembers of the community, is an essential objective of a

democratic society;the trees and forests of a country hold potential benefits forall the people;the achievement of national objectives in forestry and ruraldevelopment in many countries depends to a large extent on thesupport of the people and their willingness to act together,where necessary, to achieve these objectives;if the people are fully and accurately informed they will

usually accept, and will support and respect, reasonableprogrammes and laws to preserve and develop forest resources;

- people who are aware of the importance of forest resources tothe development of their country will, as far as theircircumstances and understanding allow, try to use and enjoythese resources carefully and not to deprive others of theirbenefits; and,

both official and voluntary action programmes directed towardsthe conservation and development of forest resources have agreater chance of success when they are co-ordinated at alllevels and directly related to the needs of the people.

This, in some respects, may be an idealistic view of public attitudestowards forestry and tend to overlook the views of those whose daily livesare a struggle for survival and who have had unfortunate and discouragingexperiences with forestry administrations in the past. It represents a

situation, however, towards which all who are genuinely interested innational development should work.

Activities to promote forestry extension in a country should be basedon a desire to promote both efficiency and fairness, while seeking tomaintain ecological stability in the area. Efficiency implies achieving themaximum value or productivity, in its broadest sense, of the forest resourcesof an area without endangering the environment or the economy. Fairnessimplies sharing the benefits of resources created amongst the community whoare responsible for their production. This, in some cases, may involvepersons who have not taken an active part in their production but whoserights to cultivation, gathering, grazing or hunting have been limited by theforestry activities.

To achieve these goals of efficiency and fairness, forestry extensionmust work through two important channels, namely educative and distributive.In its educative function, forestry extension must, in collaboration withother interested agencies, adopt the role of an informal educational processaimed at establishing, in the people, attitudes generally favourable to

development. It must also try to sustain interest and involvement in themost efficient use of land and, where applicable, the maximum production ofuseful materials from it. In its distributive role, forestry extension isconcerned primarily with the spread and adoption of forestry techniqueswhich, in conjunction with local practices and culture, can improve thesocio-economic well-being of the rural people. In this way, it can become animportant factor in social change and development. Through a greaterunderstanding of the needs and aspirations of the people, and by helping toestablish a more highly developed and participatory local social structure,forestry extension can help to achieve fairness in distribution of the

benefits of development in general.

- 20-

3.2 Some basic principles of f orestry extension

A fore s try ex tens i on progr amme should observe the following principles:

- the welfare of t he people, particularly the poor or landless members of the community, i s an essential objective of a democratic society;

- the trees and forests of a country hold potential benefits for all the people;

- the achievement of national objectives in forestry and rural development in many countries depends to a large extent on the support of the people and their willingness to act together, where necessary, to achieve these objectives;

- if the people are fully and accurately informed they will usually accept, and will support and respect, reasonable programmes and laws to preserve and develop forest resources;

- people who are aware of the importance of fore s t resources to the development of their country will, as far as their circumstances and understanding allow, try to use and enjoy these resources carefully and not to deprive others of their benefits; and,

- both official and voluntary action programmes directed towards the conservation and development of forest resources have a greater chance of success when they are co-ordinated at all levels and directly related to the needs of the people.

This, in some respects, may be an idealistic view of public attitudes towards forestry and tend to overlook the views of those whose daily lives are a struggle for survival and who have had unfortunate and discouraging experiences with forestry administrations in the past. It represents a situation, however, towards which all who are genuinely interested in national development should work.

Activities to promote forestry extension in a country should be based on a desire to promote both efficiency and fairness, while seeking to maintain ecological stability in the area. Efficiency implies achieving the maximum value or productivity, in its broadest sense, of the forest resources of an area without endangering the environment or the economy. Fairness implies sharing the benefits of resources created amongst the community who are responsible for their production. This, in some cases, may involve persons who have not taken an active part in their production but whose rights to cultivation, gathering, grazing or hunting have been limited by the forestry activities.

To achieve these goals of efficiency and fairness , forestry extension must work through two important channels , namely educative and distributive. In its educative function, forestry extension must, in collaboration with other interested agencies, adopt the role of an informal educational process aimed at establishing, in the people, attitudes generally favourable to development. It must also try to sustain interest and involvement in the most efficient use of land and, where applicable, the maximum production of useful materials from it. In its distributive role, forestry extension is concerned primarily with the spread and adoption of forestry techniques which, in conjunction with local practices and culture, can improve the socio-economic well-being of the rural people. In this way, it can become an important factor in social change and development. Through a greater understanding of the needs and aspirations of the people, and by helping to establish a ,more highly developed and participatory local social structure, forestry extension can help to achieve fairness in distribution of the benefits of development in general.

- 20 -

All those engaged in forestry extension should set themselves goalswhich should cover the following points:

the achievement of the wise use of both existing and futureforest resources;the establishment and maintenance of wide public understandingof the importance and value of forest resources;the establishment by the public of respect for, and supportof, forestry laws, rules and regulations concerning the properdevelopment and use of forest resources; and,

the demonstration of the need for, and promotion of publicinvolvement in, research into social factors affectingdevelopment and forestry extension techniques and otherfactors that promote the conservation and development of

natural resources.

A forestry extension organisation must therefore serve as an importantchannel for communication and sharing of knowledge and skills between thecommunity and professional foresters. It should serve as a two-way linkbetween forestry research stations and administrations, who are the sourcesand organisers of much new forestry technology, and the community who, bytheir active participation, can contribute to the realism and effectivenessof research programmes. The importance of the two-way flow of informationcannot be over-emphasised. The institutions and administrations willthemselves benefit greatly from the indigenous knowledge, experience andviews of the public, while seeking solutions which adapt new knowledge andskills to established ways of life.

This has been expressed most effectively by Compton in his StructuralUnits and Functional Matrix. Though devised initially for an agriculturalsituation it applies equally well to forestry as these activities whould, inmost cases, be complementary in rural development activities.

R.

IOKS - Institutionally organised knowledge systems.IKS - Indigenous knowledge systems.FSR - Farming systems research.

Figure 3.1 Compton's Structural units and functional matrix

- 21 -

IOKS Feed-in FSR2

Feed-back Extension Feed-down

FSR1 Feed-up IKS

Research Extension Farmer

All those engaged in forestry extension should set themselves goals which should cover the following points:

- the achievement of the wise use of both existing and future forest resources;

- the establishment and maintenance of wide public understanding of the importance and value of forest resources;

- the establishment by the public of respect for, and support of, forestry laws, rules and regulations concerning the proper development and use of forest resources; and,

- the demonstration of the need for, and promotion of public involvement in, research into social factors affecting development and forestry extension techniques and other factors that promote the conservation and development of natural resources.

A forestry extension organisation must therefore serve as an important channel for communication and sharing of knowledge and skills between the community and professional foresters. It should serve as a two-way link between forestry research stations and administrations, who are the sources and organisers of much new forestry technology, and the community who, by their active participation, can contribute to the realism and effectiveness of research programmes. The importance of the two-way flow of information cannot be over-emphasised. The institutions and administrations will themselves benefit greatly from the indigenous knowledge, experience and views of the public, while seeking solutions which adapt new knowledge and skills to established ways of life.

This has been expressed most effectively by Compton in his Structural Units and Functional Matrix. Though devised initially for an agricultural situation it applies equally well to forestry as these activities whould, in most cases, be complementary in rural development activities.

R.

E.

F.

IOKS IKS FSR

Figure 3.1

Research Extension

IOKS • - Feed-in

• I I • Feed-back -~ Extension -I-

• I

FSRl Feed-up --

Institutionally organised knowledge systems. Indigenous knowledge systems. Farming systems research.

Farmer

FSR2

Feed--down

I

• IKS

Compton's Structural units and functional matrix

- 21 -

3.3 The nature of forestry extension

Forestry extension serves as an informal self-development processbecause it does not depend on formal teaching or courses of study. Becauseof this, it may prove more acceptable to certain people, for example oldermen or women who may have had no contact with formal education, but who haveacquired considerable knowledge and skills by an informal transfer from theirparents or family members. It may also satisfy the needs of the young whomay have been disappointed by some years of academic education which has leftthem unprepared for the life they have to lead after they have left school.To these people it may present education in an entirely new light; as aprocess of sharing, adapting, adopting and using new knowledge and skillswith the assistance of a co-worker, rather than under the guidance of a

teacher.

Forestry extension neither has, nor wants to have, any power to coerceor direct people to do things, however important or valuable they may seem tobe to an outsider. It depends entirely on discussion, demonstration andtrial to bring knowledge to people and help them integrate what may be usefulin it into their indigenous rural systems. It enables people to build up intime an ability to discriminate between useful suggestions and others and tocontinue and extend the process of learning into other areas of their lives.

Forestry extension staff should, whenever possible, regard themselvesboth as full-time learners and guides. They will, however, find it difficultto co-operate fully with the public, to motivate and guide them at one timeif, at another, they have responsibilities for enforcing forestry laws andregulations. Because of shortages of staff, it may not always be possible toachieve this clear division of responsibilities but it is an aim which shouldalways be kept in view and accomplished as soon as staff are available.

An extension service exists to serve the whole community and not simplya privileged few. In fact, its greatest value should be to the poorest andleast able members of the community, who may initially have great problemsin time, energy or available land, in taking advantage of what it has tooffer. This often imposes difficult decisions on extension staff, whether toconcentrate on the more able and often more affluent members of the communitywho may adopt extension practices readily, in order to achieve some earlymeasurable results, or on those who need help most but who have particularproblems in adopting new practices.

Forestry extension servesthe whole community

- 22 -

3.3 The nature of forestry extension

Forestry extension serves as an informal self-development process because it does not depend on formal teaching or courses of study. Because of this, it may prove more acceptable to certain people, for example older men or women who may have had no contact with formal education, but who have acquired considerable knowledge and skills by an informal transfer from their parents or family members. It may also satisfy the needs of the young who may have been disappointed by some years of academic education which has left them unprepared for the life they have to lead after they have left school. To these people it may present education in an ent i rely new light; as a process of sharing, adapting, adopting and using new knowledge and skills with the assistance of a co-worker, rather than under the guidance of a teacher.

Forestry extension neither has, nor wants to have, any power to coerce or direct people to do things, however important or valuable they may seem to be to an outsider. It depends entirely on discussion, demonstration and trial to bring knowledge to people and help them integrate what may be useful in it into their indigenous rural systems. It enables people to build up in time an ability to discriminate between useful suggestions and others and to continue and extend the process of learning into other areas of their lives.

Forestry extension staff should, whenever possible, regard themselves both as full-time learners and guides. They will, however, find it difficult to co-operate fully with the public, to motivate and guide them at one time if, at another, they have responsibilities for enforcing forestry laws and regulations. Because of shortages of staff, it may not always be possible to achieve this clear division of responsibilities but it is an aim which should always be kept in view and accomplished as soon as staff are available.

An extension service exists to serve the whole community and not simply a privileged few. In fact, its greatest value should be to the poorest and least able members of the community, who may initially have great problems in time, energy or available land, in taking advantage of what it has to offer. This often imposes difficult decisions on extension staff, whether to concentrate on the more able and often more affluent members of the community who may adopt extension practices readily, in order to achieve some early measurable results, or on those who need help most but who have particular problems in adopting new practices.

Forestry extension serves the whole community

- 22 -

People can and do normally make wise decisions on solving their ownproblems if they are given full information about them, and some relevantadvice on possible solutions. Extension procedures should therefore makeavailable information, help people find a solution to their problems, andencourage them to make decisions and to act on them. People have moreconfidence in decisions they have made for themselves than those that havebeen presented to them.

Forestry extension is only one of many factors (social, technical,economic and political) which tend to produce change in a rural society. It

is mainly concerned with new ideas or techniques to improve local forestryprogrammes such as agroforestry, silvipasture, small-scale forest enterprisesor community participation in the management of natural vegetation. Otherorganisations may aim to produce change in other aspects of life such asagriculture or animal husbandry. In certain cases, advice given to peoplefrom these different sources may be conflicting. It is essential, therefore,for the various organisations concerned in extension or rural development toco-ordinate their programmes and the advice they give to the public. Unlessthis is done, people will be confused and will lose faith in all such advice.

3.4 The spread of extension activities

Forestry extension organisations should, as soon as practicable, worktowards using local people to spread information within their owncommunities, even though they may not be as technically proficient or as wellequipped for the task as professional extension staff. Their standing, andthe respect in which they are held by their communities, may be a greatadvantage to them in spreading information and ideas.

Local leaders play a vital role in the spread of extension activities

-23 -

People can and do normally make wise decisions on solving their own problems if they are given full information about them, and some relevant advice on possible solutions. Extension procedures should therefore make available information, help people find a solution to their problems, and encourage them to make decisions and to act on them . People have more confidence in decisions they have made for themselves than those that have been presented to them.

Forestry extension is only one of many factors (social, technical, economic and political) which tend to produce change in a rural society. It is mainly concerned with new ideas or techniques to improve local forestry programmes such as agroforestry, silvipasture, small-scale forest enterprises or community participation in the management of natural vegetation. Other organisations may aim to produce change in other aspects of life such as agriculture or animal husbandry. In certain cases, advice given to people from these different sources may be conf l icting. It is essential, therefore, for the various or ganisations concerned in extension or rural development to co-ordinate their programmes and the advice they give to the public. Unless this is done, people will be confused and will lose faith in a ll such advice.

3.4 The spread of extension activities

Forestry extension organisations should, as soon as practicable, work towards using local people to spread information within their own communities, even though they may not be as technically proficient or as well equipped for the task as professional extension staff. Their standing, and the respect in which they are held by their communities, may be a great advantage to them in spreading information and ideas.

Local leaders play a vital role in the spread of extension activities

- 23 -

In the same way a forestry extension organisation should never neglectthe opportunity to integrate sound forestry principles into any relatedextension programmes, such as agriculture, animal husbandry or socialdevelopment, so that staff in these fields can reinforce their efforts bypresenting a more comprehensive range of information to the people. In turn,forestry extension staff should take the agricultural, animal husbandry,health and social needs of any area into account in any forestry activitiesor suggestions they may offer to the people.

3.5 Methods of extension

In general, these fall into three main categories. They are mentionedhere very briefly and are discussed in detail in Sections 8 and 9 of thispublication.

Individual contacts

A most effective way of bringing about change is through individualcontact in the home or the work place of people, or in some cases throughinformal contacts in markets or public places. This raises problems,

however, in selecting suitable persons for such contacts, in the limitednumber of people who can be contacted within a given period and thepossibility that this may give rise to feelings of neglect or even ofjealousy amongst some members of the community who cannot be included in theprogramme.

Group contacts

This method is designed to assist specific groups, such as farmers,producers or users of forest produce, women's or youth groups. It is

becoming increasingly important as an extension procedure. Not only mayinformation be presented, or techniques demonstrated to several people,usually with a common interest, at one time, but discussion can take place,comments or suggestions can be offered by the group and questions from bothsides can be asked and answered. This situation makes learning easier and maystimulate group members to take joint action on a problem.

Mass contacts

In this case contact is more tenuous. It is achieved mainly throughthe various means of mass communication such as printed matter, broadcasts oraudio-visual presentations. The lack of direct contact makes it difficult toassess if the message has been properly received and understood by theaudience and more difficult to modify to suit any particular groups of peopleor areas of the country.

3.6 Some features and strategy of forestry extension

When, after proper investigation and joint consultation between anextension organisation and the people, a decision has been taken to promote aforestry extension campaign in an area, the determination of certainimportant features and an overall strategy for the campaign is essential.

For successful implementation, an extension programme requires:

goals, - some clearly defined benefits or results a particulargroup wish to achieve;target groups - groups of people selected as the most likelyto achieve particular goals which they themselves have

discussed and approved, or people most in need of the benefits

- 24-

In the same way a forestry extension organisation should never neglect the opportunity to integrate sound forestry principles into any related extension programmes, such as agriculture, animal husbandry or social development, so that staff in these fields can reinforce their efforts by presenting a more comprehensive range of information to the people. In turn, forestry extension staff should take the agricultural, animal husbandry, h ealth and social needs of any area into account in any forestry activities or suggestions they may offer to the people.

3.5 Methods of extension

In general, these fall into three main categories. They are mentioned here very briefly and are discussed in detail in Sections 8 and 9 of this publication.

Individual contacts

A most effective way of bringing about change is through individual contact in the home or the work place of people, or in some cases through informal contacts in markets or public places. This raises problems, however, in selecting sui table persons for such contacts, in the limited number of people who can be contacted within a given period and the possibility that this may give rise to feelings of neglect or even of jealousy amongst some members of the community who cannot be included in the programme.

Group contacts

This method is designed to assist specific groups, such as farmers, producers or users of forest produce, women's or youth groups. It is becoming increasingly important as an extension procedure. Not only may information be presented, or techniques demonstrated to several people, usually with a common interest, at one time, but discussion can take place, comments or suggestions can be offered by the group and questions from both sides can be asked and answered. This situation makes learning easier and may stimulate group members to take joint action on a problem.

Mass contacts

In this case contact is more tenuous. It is achieved mainly through the various means of mass communication such as printed matter, broadcasts or audio-visual presentations. The lack of direct contact makes it difficult to assess if the message has been properly received and understood by the audience and more difficult to modify to suit any particular groups of people or areas of the country .

3.6 Some features and strategy of forestry extension

When, after proper investigation and joint consultation between an extension organisation and the people, a decision has been taken to promote a forestry extension campaign in an area, the determination of certain important features and an overall strategy for the campaign is essential.

For successful implementation, an extension programme requires:

goals, - some clearly defined benefits or results a particular group wish to achieve; target groups - groups of people selected as the most likely to achieve particular goals which they themselves have discussed and approved, or people most in need of the benefits

- 24 -

these would bring;message - the information or skills which, in conjunction withlocal practices and culture, would help the target groupsachieve their goals;methods - the means by which indigenous and derived knowledgeor skills can be combined and presented to the people to

assist them to achieve their goals; and,

organisation - the structure set up by local people on theirown or in collaboration with an extension organisation to

achieve their goals and to attract the assistance inpersonnel, material or cash that is required for theirpurpose.

All these factors are interrelated. It is normally not possible tochange one factor without affecting one or more of the other factors in aprogramme. On the other hand, if all factors are properly considered andestablished initially, they tend to reinforce each other in operation.

A basic strategy, therefore, to devise and implement an extensionprogramme may be summarised as:

a thorough analysis of the existing situation;a detailed discussion with the client group;the formulation of realistic goals;the determination of means and methods;decisions on who will do what, where, when and how;a programme for the execution of decisions;a system of monitoring, evaluation and feedback for theprogramme; and,a system of incorporating the lessons learned into futureaction.

Forestry extension helps to make people aware of the importanceof forestry in their particular circumstances

- 25 -

these would bring; - message - the information or skills which, in conjunction with

local practices and culture, would help the target groups achieve their goals;

- methods - the means by which indigenous and derived knowledge or skills can be combined and presented to the people to assist them to achieve their goals; and,

- organisation - the structure set up by local people on their own or in collaboration with an extension organisation to achieve their goals and to attract the . assistance in personnel, material or cash that is required for their purpose.

All these factors are interrelated. It is normally not possible to change one factor without affecting one or more of the other factors in a programme. On the other hand, if all factors are properly considered and established initially, they tend to reinforce each other in operation.

A basic strategy, therefore, to devise and implement an extension programme may be summarised as:

a thorough analysis of the existing situation; a detailed discussion with the client group;

- the formulation of realistic goals; - the determination of means and methods;

decisions on who will do what, where, when and how; - a programme for tbe execution of decisions;

a system of monitoring, evaluation and feedback for the programme; and,

- a system of incorporating the lessons learned into future action.

Forestry extension helps to make people aware of the importance of forestry in their particular circumstances

- 25 -

4. PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

4.1 General approach

Though forestry extension has been defined as an informal process ofeducation, the term informal must not be equated with unplanned orunsystematic. Staff engaged on forestry extension activities will,undoubtedly, benefit from a knowledge of some basic principles of educationboth while they, themselves, are acquiring skills in extension work and laterwhen they are helping the public to acquire skills necessary to achieveparticular objectives. An important requirement of extension work, however,is to be able to adapt the basic principles of instruction and learning tothe informal situation of the homestead or field.

4.2 Extension teaching

The term "teaching" may not be favoured by some in this context, but itis used here for lack of a better term, for the process of "helping people tohelp themselves". It is over-optimistic to believe that no assistance orintervention in the process of learning is required in the context ofextension activities with mature persons. Effective teaching may, at least,speed up the process of acquiring knowledge and skills: at best it may bringsuch knowledge and skills to people who would miss out on these entirely.The information coming from many research organisations is published in aform, and expressed in terms, which are largely incomprehensible to manyrural people. A basic skill required in teaching is to interpret anddemonstrate this information in a form ordinary people can understand andadapt to their own situation, if they see any relevance in it.

Some of the techniques of extension can be demonstrated in a classsituation to extension staff but these skills can only be developed and fullyacquired by practice and application in appropriate circumstances. Skill intransferring this information springs initially from an attitude and personalcommitment to the task. Some features of this are:

the instructor should have a genuine willingness to undertakethis task and to acquire the skills necessary to carry it out;he or she must work from the standpoint of the learners andprovide what they wish or need to know, not what the

instructor thinks he knows and ought to provide;they must not under-rate the desire and abilities of people tolearn things they believe will be useful to them; and,they must have a thorough knowledge of what they are trying toconvey to the people and of appropriate techniques for

transferring it in the particular circumstances.

It is difficult to define what makes a goodteacher or extension worker. In some cases itmay be a willingness to "unlearn" some of thevery formal practices of teaching, common in thepast, in developing countries. It also requiresflexibility to adapt the processes to a

particular group of people or situation at the

time. This should serve to emphasise the carewhich must be exercised in allocating staff

members to extension duties. It is not essentialthat they should all be volunteers, as people cangrow in skill and liking for this work, but

anyone who does not show an underlying aptitudefor it should be withdrawn at an early stage.

- 26 -

4. PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

4.1 General approach

Though forestry extension has been defined as an informal process of education, the term informal must not be equated with unplanned or unsystematic. Staff engaged on forestry extension activities will, undoubtedly, benefit from a knowledge of some basic principles of education both while they, themselves, are acquiring skills in extension work and later when they are helping the public to acquire skills necessary to achieve particular objectives. An important requirement of extension work, however, is to be able to adapt the basic principles of instruction and learning to the informal situation of the homestead or field.

4.2 Extension teaching

The term "teaching" may not be favoured by some in this context, but it is used here for lack of a better term, for the process of "helping people to help themselves". It is over-optimistic to believe that no assistance or intervention in the process of learning is required in the context of extension activities with mature persons. Effective teaching may, at least, speed up the process of acquiring knowledge and skills: at best it may bring such knowledge and skills to people who would miss out on these entirely. The information coming from many research organisations is published in a form, and expressed in terms, which are largely incomprehensible to many r ural people. A basic skill required in teaching is to interpret and demonstrate this information in a form ordinary people can understand and adapt to their own situation, if they see any relevance in it.

Some of the techniques of extension can be demonstrated in a class situation to extension staff but these skills can only be developed and fully acquired by practice and application in appropriate circumstances. Skill in transferring this information springs initially from an attitude and personal commitment to the task. Some features of this are:

the instructor should have a genuine willingness to undertake this task and to acquire the skills necessary to carry it out;

- he or she must work from the standpoint of the learners and provide what they wish or need to know, not what the instructor thinks he knows and ought to provide;

- they must not under-rate the desire and abilities of people to learn things they believe will be useful to them; and,

- the y must have a thorough knowledge of what they are trying to convey to the people and of appropriate techniques for transferring it in the part i cular circumstances.

It is difficult to define what makes a good teacher or extension worker. In some cases it may be a willingness to "unlearn" some of the very formal practices of teaching, common in the past, in developing countries. It also requires flexibility to adapt the processes to a particular group of people or situation at the time. This should serve to emphasise the care which must be exercised in allocating staff members to extension duties. It is not essential that they should all be volunteers, as people can grow in skill and liking for this work, but anyone who does not show an underlying aptitude for it should be withdrawn at an early stage.

- 26 -

4.3 Some features of learning

It is no part of an extension programme to provide either informationor skills as an end in themselves. They must serve a clear purpose, that offilling the gap between what a person would like to be able to do and what hecan do at that moment. To acquire knowledge or skills effectively a personmust:

be aware that information exists and is important to himself;see some reason for acquiring and applying it in his normalactivities;be willing to make an effort to do so; and,

get something of value as a result of his efforts.

In the forestry extension context, this will occur if there have beenproper discussions on extension objectives and the people have identifiedclearly what they would like to do, and the steps they must take, to achievethis, e.g. if their desire to grow trees in their farms is frustrated by thelack of suitable planting stock they may develop a strong desire to learn howto set about growing suitable trees for themselves.

4.4 Some important principles of learning relevant to extension

It is useful therefore for anyone engaged in extension activities to beacquainted with some important principles of learning which are applicable toa wide range of circumstances.

Perceived purpose

A person who has a free choice will learn effectively only if heunderstands why he should acquire particular knowledge or skills. The valuemust be related to him, or his particular circumstances. People are notlikely to reach this stage spontaneously. A forestry extension worker mayhave to draw this out of people by introducing topics for discussion andinviting them to see certain techniques in operation, to establish in them anunderstanding of the benefits of certain operations and a wish to know how toimplement them.

Appropriate practice

In the circumstances in which forestry extension is likely to be

necessary, it is very doubtful if a person will acquire a new skill ortechnique on his own account or with little effort. If it involves anymanipulative or physical skills, it may involve "unlearning" a previousprocedure and adopting a new one against vigorous resistance of the mind andmuscles. This is a key feature in any extension activity involvingindividual skills. The demonstration and trial stages present few problems.The personal persistence to apply the new technique until it proves as easyand efficient as a previous method is sometimes lacking. To secure that, theperson trying to acquire the skill must be fully convinced that the skill isnecessary to achieve his objectives and that the resulting benefits willjustify the efforts involved. He must then continue the new practice till heovercomes the mental and physical obstacles to it. At this stage it is

possible that a learner may propose modifications to a suggested practice andhe and his instructor should examine these suggestions critically and, wherethey are justified, adopt an amended method best suited to the circumstances.

In the less tangible skills of co-operation in the management of

vegetation or forest areas, practice based on discussion, compromise andformulation of a common solution to an agreed task, is equally important and

- 27 -

4.3 Some features of learning

It is no part of an extension programme to provide either information or skills as an end in themselves. They must serve a clear purpose, that of filling the gap between what a person would like to be able to do and what he can do at that moment. To acquire knowledge or skills effectively a person must:

- be aware that information exists and is important to himself; - see some reason for acquiring and applying it in his normal

activities; - be willing to make an effort to do so; and, - get something of value as a result of his efforts.

In the forestry extension context, this will occur if there have been proper discussions on extension objectives and the people have identified clearly what they would like to do, and the steps they must take, to achieve this, e.g. if their desire to grow trees in their farms is frustrated by the lack of suitable planting stock they may develop a strong desire to learn how to set about growing suitable trees for themselves.

4.4 Some important principles of learning relevant to extension

It is useful therefore for anyone engaged in extension activities to be acquainted with some important principles of learning which are applicable to a wide range of circumstances.

Perceived purpose

A person who has a free choice will learn effectively only if he understands why he should acquire particular knowledge or skills. The value must be related to him, or his particular circumstances. people are not likely to reach this stage spontaneously. A forestry extension worker may have to draw this out of people by introducing topics for discussion and inviting them to see certain techniques in operation, to establish in them an understanding of the benefits of certain operations and a wish to know how to implement them.

Appropriate practice

In the circumstances in which forestry extension is likely to be necessary, it is very doubtful if a person will acquire a new skill or technique on his own account or with little effort. If it involves any manipulative or physical skills, it may involve "unlearning" a previous procedure and adopting a new one against vigorous resistance of the mind and muscles. This is a key feature in any extension activity involving individual skills. The demonstration and trial stages present few problems. The personal persistence to apply the new technique until it proves as easy and efficient as a previous method is sometimes lacking. To secure that, the person trying to acquire the skill must be fully convinced that the skill is necessary to achieve his objectives and that the resulting benefits will justify the efforts involved. He must then continue the new practice till he overcomes the mental and physical obstacles to it. At this stage it is possible that a learner may propose modifications to a suggested practice and he and his instructor should examine these suggestions critically and, where they are justified, adopt an amended method best suited to the circumstances.

In the less tangible skills of co-operation in the management of vegetation or forest areas, practice based on discussion, compromise and formulation of a common solution to an agreed task, is equally important and

- 27 -

likely to involve just as much personal commitment.

Considerable practice and patience may be required to mastera new technique e.g. preparing cuttings

Knowledge of results

- 28 -

This is relevant, most often, to learning material of a theoreticalnature. In many practical situations in forestry extension, the knowledge ofresults will be apparent, though in some cases only after a period of time.Planting seedlings incorrectly will show up in deaths in two to three weekstime: the results of poor pruning or thinning practices may not be fully seenuntil after the crop has been harvested.

This principle can be viewed from two standpoints. During initialpractice or application of a new skill a learner should be guided on whetherhe is applying it correctly or he may slip into a less efficient method forlack of confirmation that what he is doing is correct. Where he is notcarrying out the correct procedure he should be helped to correct this or hemay fail to achieve his objective and blame it on the system, rather than onhis own incorrect use of it. In terms of output, he should be encouraged tomeasure the results he achieves in comparison with the former method toconfirm the benefits of the new technique. This aspect must, however, behandled with care as the initial application of a new technique willfrequently result in a fall in output until the "appropriate practice" factorovercomes this. This requires particular dedication in extension staff toovercome this difficult phase, where the learners appear to be doing worsethan they were by traditional methods. Again the extension staff must beopen-minded and prepared to modify systems if there are sound reasons fordoing so and if there is no serious deterioration in the end results.

likely to involve just as much personal commitment.

Considerable practice and patience may be required to master a new technique e.g. preparing cuttings

Knowledge of results

This is relevant, most often, to learning material of a theoretical nature. In many practical situations in forestry extension, the knowledge of results will be apparent, though in some cases only after a period of time. Planting seedlings incorrectly will show up in deaths in two to three weeks time: the results of poor pruning or thinning practices may not be fully seen until after the crop has been harvested.

This principle can be viewed from two standpoints. During initial practice or application of a new skill a learner should be guided on whether he is applying it correctly or he may slip into a less efficient method for lack of confirmation that what he is doing is correct. Where he is not carrying out the correct procedure he should be helped to correct this or he may fail to achieve his objective and blame it on the system, rather than on his own incorrect use of it. In terms of output, he should be encouraged to measure the results he achieves in comparison with the former method to confirm the benefits of the new technique. This aspect must, however, be handled with care as the initial application of a new technique will frequently result in a fall in output until the "appropriate practice" factor overcomes this. This requires particular dedication in extension staff to overcome this difficult phase, where the learners appear to be doing worse than they were by traditional methods. Again the extension staff must be open""lIlinded and prepared to modify systems if there are sound reasons for doing so and if there is no serious deterioration in the end results.

- 28 -

Individual differentiation

People learn or acquire skills at their own pace, based on a greatvariety of different factors and earlier experiences. This is s strongargument in favour of individual extension methods where a person can develophis own skills at his own speed and make his own mistakes in the privacy ofhis own land.

Since there are, however, distinct advantages, in savings of time andin mutual support, while working with people in groups, a suitable allowancemust be made for this factor. Not all will acquire skills, or acknowledgethe benefits of a particular technique or course of action, at the same rate.Handling such a situation often requires considerable tact (and sometimes asense of humour) on the parts of both the instructor and the learners.Individuals may even have different motives and reasons for wishing to learnsimilar things and these too have to be taken into account in presentinginformation or skills to them.

An essential feature is to ensure that no one within the group feelsdenigrated or shamed by initial difficulties in acquiring knowledge orskills. This requires considerable tact and versitility on the part of theinstructor in reviewing information in different forms and from differentstandpoints, or devising repeated practice till one person grasps the

situation. At the same time he must avoid boring or discouraging others whohave reached that stage earlier. Maintaining cohesion in a group where ratesof learning differ widely is not easy and the resort to forming sub-groupswhere members can proceed at a more uniform pace may be the only solution.This again requires considerable tact on the part of the instructor to avoidcausing offence to some of the learners who may feel they are beingdown-graded by this action.

Considerable differences may occur in rates of learningand this may lead to tension between workers

Individual differentiation

People learn or acquire skills at their own pace, based on a great variety of different factors and earlier experiences. This is s strong argument in favour of individual extension methods where a person can develop his own skills at his own speed and make his own mistakes in the privacy of his own land.

Since there are) however, distinct advantages, in savings of time and in mutual support, while working with people in groups, a suitable allowance must be made for this factor. Not all will acquire skills, or acknowledge the benefits of a particular technique or course of action, at the same rate. Handling such a situation often requires considerable tact (and sometimes a sense of hUIIlour) on the parts of both the instructor and the learners. Individuals may even have different motives and reasons for wishing to learn similar things and these too have to be taken into account in presenting information or skills to them .

An essential feature is to ensure that no one within the group feels denigrated or shamed by initial difficulties in acquiring knowledge or skills. This requires considerable tact and versitility on the part of the instructor in reviewing information in different forms and from different standpoints, or devising repeated practice till one person grasps the situation. At the same time he must avoid boring or discouraging others who have reached that stage earlier. Maintaining cohesion in a group where rates of learning differ widely is not easy and the resort to forming sub-groups where members can proceed at a more uniform pace may be the only solution. This again requires considerable tact on the part of the instructor to avoid causing offence to some of the learners who may feel they are being down-graded by this action.

Considerable differences may occur in rates of learning and this may lead to tension between workers

- 29 -

Graduated sequence

People progress gradually from learning simple tasks or ideas to morecomplex situations. Success in learning simple things usually leads to anincreased desire to tackle more difficult situations while failure to mastera simple problem leads, often, to a distaste for learning. This is usuallyreflected in a forestry extension context, by the person "dropping-out" andpersisting in his old practices, come-what-may.

The problem in applying this principle to forestry extension practiceslies in deciding at which point to enter the sequence of learning. If anextension assistant starts working with a group at too basic a level, thegroup may reject his help as being of no value to them. If he enters thelearning process at a stage which not all the group have reached by theirprevious experiences, some will be "lost" and gain no benefit from hisguidance.

It is doubtful if discussions of more general topics, such asconservation or management of natural vegetation, are of much value until aperson can identify specific values in trees or particular types ofvegetation. Fairly quick success and the provision of obvious benefits in asimple process can prompt people to attempt more complex tasks ofdevelopment, spreading out from the initial source.

4.5 Motivation for change

The role of forestry extension staff as agents for change is not easy.They start normally with a population who have considerable experience indoing things, usually entirely to their own satisfaction, over a long periodof time. Staff must first establish how and why these customary proceduresare followed. They must discuss and consider very carefully with the peoplewhether any improvements could be made and if any suggestions for improvementwould be feasable in relation to the existing attitudes, skills and resourcesof the people. It may, sometimes, be difficult to establish a genuine desireor justification for change.

Change will, however, only come about and be incorporated into the

pattern of activity of a people, on the basis of individual commitment tochange. The basis of a successful extension programme must therefore be, inhelping the people to reach a rational decision on the need for and benefitsof, some change in their way of life. Once this has been achieved the peoplewill have the incentive to seek out alternative methods of doing things andpersist in acquiring knowledge and skills until they secure their objective.

4.6 Some characteristics of learning situations

Vertical and horizontal learning

Learning can take place either by acquiring new skills, usually withthe assistance of a guide or instructor (vetical learning) or when anindividual applies certain skills previously learned, to a new situation(horizontal learning). A primary objective of vertical learning must be toprovide certain basic skills or techniques which a person can adapt to hisown use and encourage him to seek out ways in which these skills can beapplied in his daily activities. Horizontal learning, in which a persondevelops new applications for existing knowledge, is the ultimate aim oflearning in this context.

Graduated sequence

People progress gradually from learning simple tasks or ideas to more complex situations. Success in learning simple things usually leads to an increased desire to tackle more difficult situations while failure to master a simple problem leads, often, to a distaste for learning. This is usually reflected in a forestry extension context, by the person "dropping-out" and persisting in his old practices, come-what-may.

The problem in applying this principle to forestry extension practices lies in deciding at which point to enter the sequence of learning. If an extension assistant starts working with a group at too basic a level, the group may reject his help as being of no value to them. If he enters the learning process at a stage which not all the group have reached by their previous experiences, some will be "lost" and gain no benefit from his guidance.

It is doubtful if discussions of more general topics, such as conservation or management of natural vegetation, are of much value until a person can identify specific values in trees or particular types of vegetation. Fairly quick success and the provision of obvious benefits in a simple process can prompt people to attempt more complex tasks of development, spreading out from the initial source.

4.5 Motivation for change

The role of forestry extension staff as agents for change is not easy. They start normally with a population who have considerable experience in doing things, usually entirely to thei r own satisfaction, over a long period of time. Staff must first establish how and why these customary procedures are followed. They must discuss and consider very carefully with the people whether any improvements could be made and if any sugges tions for improvement would be feasable in relation to the existing attitudes, skills and resources of the people. It may, sometimes, be difficult to establish a genuine desire or justification for change.

Change will, however, only come about and be incorporated into the pattern of activity of a people, on the basis of individual commitment to change. The basis of a successful extension programme must therefore be, in helping the people to reach a rational decision on the need for and benefits of, some change in their way of life. Once this has been achieved the people will have the incentive to seek out alternative methods of doing things and persist in acquiring knowledge and skills until they secure their objective.

4.6 Some characteristics of learning situations

Vertical and horizontal learning

Learning can take place either by acquiring new skills, usually with the assi;tance of a guide or instructor (vetical learning) or when an individual applies certain skills previously learned, to a new situation (horizontal learning). A primary objective of vertical learning must be to provide certain basic skills or techniques which a person can adapt to his own use and encourage him to seek out ways in which these skills can be applied in his daily activities. Horizontal learning, in which a person develops new applications for existing knowledge, is the ultimate aim of learning in this context.

- 30 -

Conscious or casual learning

A person may learn something by consciously setting out to follow aprogramme to do so, with or without the help of an instructor or guide. He

may also learn simply by observation and by "putting things together",changing or adapting actions which he has observed from one or more sources,to achieve a particular objective. Forestry extension staff should notunder-estimate the role of casual learning. It is, after all, the method bywhich most young persons acquire a wide range of skills. Particular careshould be taken in following good practices, "setting a good example", in alltechnical and administrative matters as people may copy the standard set andadopt it as their own without any formal instruction.

4.7 Two-way flow

At all times, forestry extension staff should be conscious of the needfor, and value of, a two-way flow of information and learning. The fact thatan extension programme appears to be needed in an area would suggest that nomatter how well existing practices may have been adapted to conditions in thearea in the past, something would appear now to have got out of step. He

must find out all he can about existing practices, why they were adopted andhow they are handed on traditionally from generation to generation. He mustconsider what new information is available or might be generated by localinvestigation and how this could best be injected into the traditionallearning process, or if any changes in this process might be desirable. He

must be willing to view the learning process as a feature oiT. normal life, notthe special reserve of academic institutions and aim at informal learning, inboth directions, in all his dealings with the people.

Learning must be a joint activity for extension staff and the people

Conscious or casual learning

A person may learn something by consciously setting out to follow a programme to do so, with or without the help of an instructor or guide. He may also learn simply by observation and by "putting things together", changing or adapting actions which he has observed from one or more sources, to achieve a particular objective. Forestry extension staff should not under-estimate the role of casual learning. It is, after all, the method by which most young persons acquire a wide range of skills. Part:i..cular care should be taken in following good practices, "setting a good example", in all technical and administrative matters as peopl e may copy the standard set and adopt it as their own without any formal instruction.

4.7 Two-way flow

At all times, forestry extension staff should be conscious of the need for, and value of, a two-way flow of information and learning. The fact that an extension programme appears to be needed in an area would suggest that no matter how well existing practices may have been adapted to conditions in the area in the past, something would appear now to halTe got out of step . He must find out all he can about existing practices, «hy they «ere adopted and hml they are handed on traditionally from generation to generat i on . He must consider what new information is available or might be generated by local investigation and how this could best be injected into the traditional learning process, or if any changes in this process might be desirable. He must be willing to view the learning process as a feature of normal life, not the special reserve of academic institutions and aim at informal learning, in both directions, in all his dealings with the people .

.....

. ~': '.: ."

' ..... ,;: .. "lItv,' ,

.'~<~.:, .

Learning mus t be a joint activity for extension staff and the people

- 31 -

5 COMUNICATION

This section deals with the processes of communication in generalterms. These have not been extensively linked to forestry problems, as infact, they can apply equally to a wide range of extension activities. It ishoped readers will be able to examine the points discussed in the context oftheir own experiences and recognise ways in which they are applicable to

their local activities.

5.1 Communication in forestry extension

Communication lies at the core of any extension programme. Withoutgood communication new concepts or technologies will not reach the people whomight benefit from them. Without a reverse flow of information from thepeople, research workers or administrators will never really know whypromising ideas failed to gain acceptance or even what it is the people thinkthey need to break through the barriers of low productivity or poverty.Unfortunately, many people have failed to recognise fully the problemsextension staff experience in conveying to their clients not only thetechnical requirements of a new process but the logic of the whole processand how it can be presented as an acceptable component of a local productionsystem. A new process is not necessarily an acceptable idea because thedeveloper thinks it is good. A person may question why he should producemore than he needs for his immediate requirements if the items are inadequate supply locally, if market prices are low, if he is held to ransom byan expensive and inefficient transport system, and if there is nothing to buyin the stores with any money earned. A extension effort should arise fromthe felt needs of the people, not simply the availability of a new process.Good communication helps people to express their needs in an acceptable formand to relate their needs to available resources of techniques and funds.

Extension staff, many of whom are educated at the vocational ortechnical levels, are expected to be able to communicate regularly on atleast three different levels. They must be able to communicate freely withthe community they serve, with their colleagues in other organisations ordepartments involved in development, and with higher level staff whodetermine policy or control budget allocations.

Communication attempts to bridge the gap between the sources of ideasand potential users of them. It attempts to make available information orskills in a form the public can understand, examine critically, andincorporate into their regular practice, if they can see any benefit inapplying them. New ideas, however, are unlikely to be accepted readily ifthey appear to run counter to some established local customs, beliefs,religious or family practices, or a farmer's accumulated understanding of howhis land should be farmed. The possibility of any new idea being adoptedwidely can only be judged against a sound knowledge of local traditions.Identifying a barrier in traditional practices and a breakthrough point maybe as important as the new technique itself in changing practices.

Extension staff at the vocational or technical level are a key factorin the communication process. They are normally in regular, direct contactwith their clients and are best able to communicate ideas in the colloquiallanguage and idiom the people can understand. Because there may be fewersocial barriers between them and their clients, they are in a good positionto gather information on the clients' views on a wide range of topics,provided they know what is of interest, and pass it on to persons who canevaluate and use this information.

- 32 -

5 COMMUNICATION

This section deals with the processes of communication in general terms. These have not been extensively linked to forestry problems, as in fact, they can apply equally to a wide range of extension activities. It is hoped readers will be able to' examine the points discussed in the context of their own experiences and recognise ways in which they are applicable to their local activities.

5.1 Communication in fo restry extension

Communication lies at the core of any extension programme. Without good communication new concepts or technologies will not reach the people who might benefi t from them. Without a reverse flow of information from the people, research workers or administrators will never really know why promising ideas failed to gain acceptance or even what it is the people think they need to break through the barriers of low productivity or poverty. Unfortunately, many people have failed to recognise fully the problems extension staff experience in conveyIng to their clients not only the technical requirements of a new process but the logic of the whole process and how it can be presented as an acceptable component of a local production sys tem. A new process is not necessarily an acceptable idea because the developer thinks it is good. A person Ulay question why he should produce more than he needs for his immediate requirements if the items are in adequate supply locally, if market prices are low, if he is held to ransom by an expensive and inefficient transport system, and if there is nothing to buy in the stores with any money earned. A extension effort should arise from the felt needs of the people, not simply the availability of a new process. Good communication helps people to express their needs in an acceptable form and to relate their needs to available resources of techniques and funds.

Extension staff, many of whom are educated at the vocational or technical levels, are expected to be able to communicate regularly on at least three different levels. They must be able to communicate freely with the community they serve, with their colleagues in other organisations or departments involved in development, and with higher level staff who determine policy or control budget allocations.

Communication attempts to bridge the gap between the sources of ideas and potential users of them. It attempts to make available information or skills in a form the public can understand, examine critically, and incorporate into their regular practice, if they can see any benefit in applying them. New ideas, hOl<ever, are unlikely to be accepted readily if they appear to run counter to some established local customs, beliefs, religious or family practices, or a farmer's accumulated understanding of how his land should be farmed . The possibility of any new idea being adopted widely can only be judged against a sound knowledge of local traditions. Identifying a barrier in traditional practices and a breakthrough point may be as important as the new technique i tself in changing practices.

Extension staff at the vocational or technical level are a key factor in the communication process . They are normally in regular, direct contact wi th their clients and are best able to communicate ideas in the colloquial language and idiom the people can understand. Because there may be fewer social barriers between them and their clients, they are in a good position to gather information on the clients I viel07S on a wide range of topics, provided they know what is of interest, and pass it on to persons who can evaluate and use this information.

- 32 -

Barriers to the acceptance of new technologies or to development arenot exclusively technical. Administrative or organisational harriers such asa bureaucratic structure or the status some senior staff confer on themselvesand how they expect to be approached and deferred to, may constitute barriersmore effective than any language problems.

5.2 The communication process

Most communication systems identify four basic elements in thecommunication process:

the sender or communicator of the idea;the message to be sent;the channel or means of communication; and,the receiver of the message or the audience.

Working against this is what the communication theorists call "noise",an unfortunate piece of jargon, which for some people may tend to block theflow of understanding rather than facilitate it. A simpler, and moredescriptive term, such as "barriers" would represent the situation moreprecisely to many people. Noise, in this sense, is used not simply in itsoriginal meaning but covers everything which may prevent a message fromgetting through to the intended audience. An example of this may be thesuspicion amongst many rural people of strangers and anything they may haveto say about their customs or way of life.

This is illustrated in Fig. 5.1 below.

S -M-C- R

I I I

Sender qiii Message Channels I Receiveror III

Source

Purpose (Methods) KnowledgeContent Visual "Noise" PersuasionTreatment Spoken (Barriers) Decision

Written ImplementationCombination Confirmation

(Also 5 senses:sight, soundsmell, touch,taste)

When the Receiver responds to a message this is termed Feedback, and theS -M-C-R process is reversed.

Receiver Ai-1 lI Channel Message Sender

(Eormer III (formersender) receiver)

"Noise"(Barriers)

Figure 5.1 The Communication Process: from Agricultural Extension: a

reference manual by A.H. Hunter, FAO, Rome, 1973.

- 33 -

Barriers to the acceptance of new technologies or to development are not exclusively technical. Administrative or organisational harriers such as a bureaucratic structure or the status some senior staff confer on themselves and how they expect to be approached and deferred to, may constitute barriers more effective than any language problems.

5.2 The communication process

Most communication systems identify four basic elements in the communication process:

- the sender or communicator of the idea; - the message to be sent; - the channel or means of communication; and, - the receiver of the message or the audience.

Working against this is what the communication theorists call "noise", an unfortunate piece of jargon, which for some people may tend to block the flow of understanding rather than facilitate it. A simpler, and more descriptive term, such as "barriers" would represent the situation more precisely to many people. Noise, in this sense, is used not simply in its original meaning but covers everything ',hich may prevent a message from getting through to the intended audience. An example of this may be the suspicion amongst many rural people of strangers and anything they may have to say about their customs or way of life.

Sender or

Source

This is illustrated in Fig. 5.1 below.

.. Message

Purpose Content Treatment

S-M-C -R

III .. Channel s III III

(Methods) Visual "Noise" Spoken (Barriers) Written Combination

(Also 5 senses: sight, sound smell, touch, taste)

.. Receiver

KnoOlledge Persuasion Decision Implementation Confirmati.on

When the Receiver responds to a message this is termed Feedback, and the S - M - C - R process is reversed.

III Receiver ........ --+1+1+1---(former III sender)

"Noise" (Barriers)

Channel ~.~----- Message ..... ~------ Sender (former receiver)

Figure 5.1 The Communication Process: reference manual by A.H. Hunter,

from Agricultural FAD, Rome, 1973.

Extension:

- 33 -

a

In practice, the feedback orresponse should receive as muchattention as the message itself. A

message which is either not

understood or not acceptable to a

community is valueless, no matter howoften it is repeated. In fact,

continued repetition withoutmodification may annoy the receiversand prove counter-productive.

- 34-

Feedback is not always complimentarybut should be carefully considered.

5.2.1 The communicator

The communicator is the person who originates the communication. As

such he must take the initiative of establishing communication links with thecommunity and keeping these functioning. Too often, unfortunately, theoriginal communicators of ideas, have a very limited view of theirresponsibilities and frame their communications for publication in scientificjournals or for discussion with other professionals. They overlook entirelythe ultimate use of the information and frame it in technical languageunderstandable only to a limited group in their own field of work.

The task of translating the scientific text into common terms usuallyfalls on extension agents. They have to isolate the relevant information andpresent it in a form their clients can understand and accept. Communicatorsat this level need to be believed by and have the confidence of theirclients. They can only establish this acceptance or credibility by learningto communicate effectively at the appropriate level.

A good communicator:

knows his audience, its wants and its needs;knows his message and how to present it to that particularaudience;knows the most effective channels of communication to reachthe audience with his message;knows his own abilities and limitations, both in technicalknowledge and as a communicator;is interested in his audience, its welfare, and how hismessage can help them;is interested in improving his skills in communication;prepares his messages carefully, using appropriate materialsand aids to arouse interest and ensure a successful receptionof its contents;speaks clearly and uses terms and expressions the audience caneasily understand;realises that establishing a bond of mutual understandingbetween the speaker and the audience is mostly the

responsibility of the speaker;is very conscious of the limitations of time and the span ofattention of listeners;does not try to cover the whole of a major topic at any onetime;selects only those parts most appropriate to the particularsituation; and,does not involve the audience too long at any one time.

In practice, the feedback or response should receive as much attention as the message itself. A message «hich is either not understood or not acceptable to a community is valueless, no matter hOl>l

often it is repeated. In fact, continued repetition ,dthout modification may annoy the receilTers and prove counter-productive.

Feedback is not aLways compLimentary but shouLd be carefuLLy considered.

5.2.1 The communicator

The communicator is the person who originates the communication. As such he must take the initiative of estahli s hing communication links with the community and keeping these functioning. Too often, unfortunately, the original communicators of ideas, have a very limited view of their responsibilities and frame their communlcations for publication in scientif ic journals or for discussion with other professionals. They overlook entirel y the ultimate use of the information and frame it in technical language understandable only to a limited group in their own field of work.

The task of translating the scientific text into common terms usually fall s on extension agents. They have to isolate the relevant information and present it in a form thei r clients can understand and accept. Communicators at this level need to be believ.ed by and have the confidence of their clients. They can only establish this acceptance or credibility by learning to communicate effectively at the appropriate level.

A good communicator:

knmys his audience, its wants and its needs; - knm,s his message and hm' to present it to that particular

audience; - knows the most effective channels of communication to reach

the audience with his message; knows his own abili ties and limitations, both in technical

knowledge and as a communicator; is interested in his audience, its welfare, and how his

message can help them; is interested in improving his skills in communication;

- prepares his messages carefully, using appropriate materials and aids to arouse inter.est and ensure a successful reception of its contents;

- speaks clearly and uses terms and expressions the audience can easily understand; realises that establishing a bond of mutual

between the s~eaker and the audience is responsibility of the speaker;

understanding mostly the

- is very conscious of the limitations of time and the span of attention of listeners;

- does not try to cover the whole of a major topic at anyone time;

- selects only those parts most appropriate to the particular situation; and,

- does not involve the audience too long at anyone time.

- 34 -

Based on the same source, a poor communicator:

omits to supply information which is relevant or useful to theaudience;fails to give full information and to relate it to theactivities of the learners;forgets that time and energy are needed to absorb and thinkover new ideas and practices;keeps on talking, even when the audience have stopped

listening;fails to develop credibility with his audience;fails to understand and allow for the local values, customsbeliefs and prejudices of the audience; and,fails to start out at the correct level of the audience'sknowledge, skills, interests and needs.

(Based on J.M. Fenley and S.K. Williams, cited in AgriculturalExtension, A Reference Manual, FAO, 1973).

5.2.2 The message

Forestry extension staff normally believe they have some importantinformation and ideas which they hope the people will receive, understand andincorporate into their normal pattern of activities. In some cases they maynot achieve this due to incomplete or erroneous information being given tothe people, poor presentation of it, or for a number of other reasons. To

avoid these difficulties, they need to consider the purpose of the message,its content and how to present it.

The purpose or objective should be clearly defined in their own minds.What change in behaviour in relation to forestry do they want to bring about?Is it a change in knowledge, attitude, skill, or in what they expect the

audience to do? In general, an objective which is limited in scope to one ofthese factors at a time is more likely to be successful. The message must berelevant to the receiver. It should be of interest and appear attractive tohim. It must be related to something he understands, feels or thinks:something he can accept in relation to his culture and beliefs.

The preparation of a message can do a great deal to make it acceptableto the receiver. It should be organised and presented in terms heunderstands and in the form of argument or discussion he normally uses. In

particular it should conform to accepted social standards and customs ofspeech, writing or illustrations. Differing treatments can make a messagedull, boring, or even totally unacceptable to an audience. Skills in thisfield, however, are developed more by experience of local reactions to

messages than by theoretical training.

5.2.3 The channels of communication

The channels of communication may be classified as:

visual;spoken; and,

written.

There are also combined methods, such as audiovisual which are oftenmore effective than any of the channels used in isolation. A 16mm film withsound, or a video tape, may present a complex message more effectively thanspeech alone. Each method, however, has its advantages and disadvantages asexplained below.

- 35 -

Based on the same source, a poor communica'tor:

- omits to supply information which is relevant or useful to the audience; fails to give full information and to relate it to the

activities of the learners; - forgets that time and energy are needed to absorb and think

over new ideas and practices; keeps on talking, even when the audience have stopped

listening; - fails to develop credibility with his audience; - fails to understand and allow for the local values, customs

beliefs and prejudices of the audience; and, - fails to start out at the correct level of the audience's

knowledge, skills, interests and needs.

(Based on J .M. Fenley and S.K. Hilliams, cited in Agricultural Extension, A Reference 11anual, FAO, 1973).

5.2.2 The message

Forestry extension staff normally believe they have some important information and ideas which they hope the people will receive, understand and incorporate into their normal pattern of activities. In some cases they may not achieve this due to incomplete or erroneous information being given to the people, poor presentation of it, or for a number of other reasons. To avoid these difficulties, they need to consider the purpose of the message, its content and how to present it.

The purpose or objective should be clearly defined in their mffi minds. IVhat change in behaviour in relation to forestry do they want to bring about? Is it a change in knowledge, attitude, skill, or in what they expect the audience to do? In general, an objective which is limited in scope to one of these factors at a time is more likely to be successful. The message mus t be relevant to the receiver. It should be of interest and appear attractive to him. It must be related to something he unders tands, feels or thinks: something he can accept in relation to his culture and beliefs.

The preparation of a message can do a great deal to make it acceptable to the receiver. It should be organised and presented in terms he understands and in the fo rm of argument or discussion he normally uses. In particular it should conform to accepted social standards and customs of speech, writing or illustrations. Differing treatments can make " message dull, boring, or even totally unacceptable to an audience. Skills in this fie ld, however, are developed more by experience of local reactions to messages than by theoretical training.

5.2.3 The channels of communication

The channels of communication may be classified as:

- visual; - spoken; and, - written.

There are also combined methods, such as audiovisual which are often more effective than any of the channels used in isolation. A 16mm film with sound, or a video tape, may present a complex message more effectively than speech alone. Each method, hm<ever, has it3 advantages and disadvantages as explained below.

- 35 -

'.

Visual communication

"Seeing is believing" is an important principle of extension educationthough it is not necessarily accepted fully in all societies amongst whichforestry extension may seek to operate. Pictures, charts, diagrams, posters,exhibits, and displays can perform important communication functions incountries where people are familiar with the use of symbols. Method andresult demonstrations are more valuable in other circumstances. These wereused so widely in early extension work in the U.S.A. that the local extensionstaff were called "demonstration agents". Visual and oral methods combinedare mainly used by extension staff to serve people with a limited level ofliteracy. Pictorial methods are now being usedfrequently and effectively to draw attention to aforestry extension message in many countries.Staff must be careful, however, to verify thatthe illustrations and symbols used are properlyunderstood and mean to the people what they areintended to mean. There can be considerabledifferences in understanding oC what symbols meanbetween peoples of different backgrounds. Films What is it - -in particular must not use too sophisticated a house,techniques to present information or they may a haystack,simply be dismissed as "magic". or a loaf?

The use of colour in visual materials is important; if properly used itcan greatly enhance the impact of visual materials. In general, the colourschosen should be "logical", i.e. grass should be green or brown, according tothe season or circumstances, tree trunks grey or brown and rivers blue orfawn according to the state of erosion. Care must be exercised in the use ofcolours for posters, or for printing pamphlets, circulars, handouts orabstract diagrams. Certain colours may be taboo or "unlucky" in particularareas while others may have a particularly favourable significance. This maybe important if "colour coding" is used Cor easy identification of particulartypes of documents. It may not be easy to extract information oninauspicious colours from local people as the topic may be one they are notwilling to discuss with strangers.

Spoken communication

Spoken communication takes place regularly during individual contactssuch as:

home or farm visits;enquiries made at offices;telephone calls;meetings, discussions and demonsrations of all kinds; and,radio and TV programmes.

Except for radio and TV these contacts allow two-way communicationwhich has great advantages. The initial response or reaction of therecipient of a message may be as important for future planning as the contentof the message itself. Lack of understanding can be detected in the replyand may be cleared up on the spot. Gestures, facial expressions and even thetone of voice, both of the speaker and the listener, contribute substantiallyto an assessment of how well the collmunication is being received. Oneobstacle which must be overcome is this: an oral message is not recorded inany way and the receiver may remember it in a different way from that whichthe sender intended. Particularly, where precise instructions on forestrytechniques are given orally, the receiver has no means of referring back towhat was said. For this reason, oral messages are best followed up by some

- 36 -

Visual communication

"Seeing is believing" is an important principle of extension education though it is not necessarily accepted fully in all societies amongst which forestry extension may seek to operate. Pictures, charts, diagrams, posters, exhibits, . and displays can perform important communication functions in countries where people are familiar with the use of symbols. Hethod and result demonstrations are more valuable in other circumstances. These were used so widely in early extension work in the U.S.A. that the local extension staff were called "demonstration agents". Visual and oral methods combined are mainly used by extension staff to serve people with a limited level of literacy. Pictorial methods are no,] being used frequently and effectively to draw attention to a forestry extension message in many countries. Staff must be careful, however, to verify that· the illustrations and symbols used are properly understood and mean to the people what they are intended to mean. rnere can be considerable differences in understanding of ,,]hat symbol s mean between peoples of different backgrounds. Films in particular must not use too sophisticated techniques to present information or they may simply be dismissed as "magic".

What is it - -a house,

a haystack, or .a loaf?

The use of colour in visual materials is important; if properly used it can greatly enhance the impact of visual materials. In general, the colours chosen should be "logical", Le. grass should be green or brown, according to the season or circumstances, tree trunks grey or brown and rivers blue or fawn according to the state of erosion. Care must be exercised in the use of colours for posters, or for printing pamphlets, circulars, handouts or abstract diagrams. Certain colours may be taboo or "unlucky" in particular areas while others may have a particularly favourable significance. This may be important if "colour coding" is used for easy identification of particular types of documents. It may not be easy to extract information on inauspicious colours from local people as the topic may be one they are not willing to discuss with strangers.

Spoken communication

Spoken communIcatIon takes place regularly during individual contacts such as:

- home or farm visits; - enquiries made at ·offices; - telephone calls; - meetings, discussions and demonsrations of all kinds; and, - radio and TV programmes.

Except for radIo and TV these contacts allow two-way communication which has great advantages. The initial response or reaction of the recipient of a message may be as important for future planning as the content of the message itself. Lack of understanding can be detected in the reply and may he cleared up on the spot. Gestures, facial expressions and even the tone of voice, both of the speaker and the listener, contribute substantially to an assessment of hot>l well the cOfrnnunication is being received. One obstacle which must be overcome is this: an oral message is not recorded in any way and the receiver may remember it in a diff.erent way from that which the sender intended. Particularly, where precise instructions on forestry techniques are given orally, the recelver has no means of referring back to what was said. For this reason, oral messages are best followed up by some

- 36 -

Domestic radio is the quickest andfar-reaching medium for conveying oral

messages to people in inaccessible areas.It is particularly valuable, and much

used, for spreading forestry informationin many countries. It is claimed that

radio is a low cost method of spreadinginformation. This is true if the

information is received and understood bythe people, but radio can be an expensivemedium, if air-time at peak periods has tobe paid for, or if the audience is smallor does not fully understand the message.

-37 -

form of written instructions, where these are appropriate, or by a follow-upvisit or demonstration to illiterate clients.

Only a limited number of people can be contacted face-to-face in a day.This is likely to be limited as much by the clients' availability based ontheir patterns of work, as by the extension agent's willingness to meet anddiscuss matters with them. This makes oral communication expensive in termsof staff time and effort unless, some form of group contact is organised, butit is nevertheless a very effective method of communication for thosecontacted and may be the only effective method for people lacking skills inreading and interpreting diagrams. Language itself, however, can be a

barrier where the extension staff and the receivers speak different languagesor even dialects. Spoken communication then requires a third person to actas an interpreter with all the possibilities of differences in emphasis, oreven misinterpretation, that implies. The process is awkward, slow and oftenunreliable. Even when both the extension staff and the receivers speak thesame language, differences in dialect, local usages of particular words orexpressions, and levels of language may present barriers to effectivecommunication.

The use of language on the telephone must strike a balance between theexchange of lengthy customary greetings common in face-to-face meetings andthe highly codified language used, for example, in air-traffic communication.Extension staff should be trained to set a good example in the economical useof limited telephone links in rural areas.

Without some personal feedback and follow-up, it is difficult to assess howsuccessful a means of communication it has been. Its use is limited normallyto giving general information as it is difficult to give specific

instructions on technical matters by this method.

Spoken communication enables the communicator to establish a personalbond with the receiver that no other method can equal. In spite of its

limitations, when supplemented by some visual aids, it is likely to remain amost useful method of extension work for the forseeable future.

Written communication

Written communication is indispensible in the day-to-day operations ofany organisation, particularly an extension service.

The advantages of writLen communication are:

- with many people, it has greater status and carries moreauthority than oral communication, particularly if it carriesan impressive official stamp;

form of ,.ritten instructions, where these are appropriate, or by a follm,,-up visit or demonstration to illiterate clients.

Only a limited number of people can be contacted face-to-face in a day. This is likely to be limited as much by the clients' availability based on their patterns of \vork, as by the extension agent IS \villingness to meet and discuss matters with them. This makes oral communication expensive in terms of staff time and effort unless, some form of group contact is organised, but it is nevertheless a very effective method of communication for those contacted and may be the only effective method for people lacking skills in reading and interpreting diagrams. · Language itself, however, can be a barrier where the extension staff and the receivers speak different languages or even dialects. Spoken communication then requires a third person to act as an interpreter with all the possibilities of differences in emphasis, or even misinterpretation, that implies. The process is awkward, slow and often unreliable. Even when both the extension staff and the receivers speak the same language, differences in dialect, local usages of particular words or expressions, and levels of language may present barriers to effective communication.

The use of language on the telephone must strike a balance between the exchange of lengthy customary greetings common in face-to-face meetings and the highly codified language used, for example, in air - traffic communication. Extension staff should be trained to set a good example in the economical use of limited telephone links in rural areas.

Domestic radio is the quickest and far-reaching medium for conveying oral messages to people in inaccessible areas. It is particularly valuable, and much used, for spreading forestry information in many countries. It is claimed that radio is a 1m. cost method of spreading information. This is true if the information is received and understood by the people, but radio can be an expensive medium, if air-time at peak periods has to be paid for, or if the audience is small or does not fully understand the message.

Without some personal feedback and follow-up, it is difficult to assess how successful a means of communication it has been. Its use is limited normally to giving general information as it is difficult to give specific instructions on technical matters by this method.

Spoken communication enables the communicator to establish a personal bond with the receiver that no other method can equal. In spite of its limitations, when supplemented by some visual aids, it is likely to remain a most useful method of extension work for the forseeable future.

~vritten communication

Ivritten communication is indispensible in the day-to-day operations of any organisation, particularly an extension service.

The advantages of written communication are:

- with many people, it has greater status and authority than oral communication, particularly an impressive offi.cial s tamp;

- 37 -

carries more if it carries

Extension staff, in any field of work,must adapt their methods to the particularsubject, to the ability of the audience tounderstand the different techniques used andto the facilities available. Usually theywill employ a combination of two or morechannels of communication in the same

meeting or presentation.

)r;/..2)

r *-11

A well written personal letter is attractive to

5.2.4 The receiver or the audience

- 38 -

in some countries it is essential for transacting any type ofofficial business;it provides a generally low-cost method of spreading

information to large numbers of people;when used in an interesting way, such as in attractiveleaflets or magazines, it holds a reader's attention and maystimulate him to seek more information on the matter; and,

- the material can be retained for as long as is necessary andis valuable for confirming detailed instructions given orallyor by audio-visual methods.

The disadvantages of this method are:

many people whom forestry extension staff want to reach arenot yet fully literate;it is entirely one-way communication unless the reader

follows up the contact with a request for further information;few people will change their traditional practices just

because they happen to have read about alternative methods.

many people

The audience is made up of all those whom the communicator wishes toreceive, understand and use the ideas or information he is presenting. If anaudience is co make progress, an extension agent must help them to changetheir knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. If no change takes place, therehas been no effective communication and no progress. Communication has takenplace if the people learn useful facts (acquire knowledge), or if some ofthem begin to feel a new procedure may offer some benefits (change theirattitude), or decide to adopt a new technique (change their behaviour).

People are different in many ways. One major difference is in theirability to understand forestry ideas and practices. For this reason,communication sometimes fails because the communicator uses terms too

difficult, or too unfamiliar, for an audience to understand. Forestryextension staff cannot expect much progress in getting people to plant treecrops on parts of their land if the idea is presented to them in words andexpressions totally unfamiliar to them. A good test is for extension staffworking in a common language such as English or French to translate sometechnical instructions into a local language to appreciate how difficult itcan be to find suitable terms to express many important concepts to thepeople.

- in some countries it is essential for transacting any type of official business; it provides a generally low-cost method of spreading

information to large numbers of people; when used in an int e resting way, such as in attractive

leaflets or magazines, it holds a reader's attention and may stimulate him to seek more information on the matter; and,

- the material can be retained for as long as is necessary and is valuable for confirmins detailed instructions given orally or by audio-visual methods.

The disadvantages of this method are:

- many people whom forestry extension staff want to reach are not yet fully literate; it is entirely one-way communication unless the reader

follmvs ;jp the contact with a request for further information; few people will change their traditional practices just

because they happen to have read about alternative methods.

Extension. staff, in any field of work, must adapt their methods to the particular subject, to the ability of the audience to understand the different techniques used and to the facilities available. Usually they will employ a combinat ion of two or more channels of communicllt lon in the same meeting or presentation.

A well written personal letter is at tractive t.) many people

5.2.4 The receiver or the audience

The audience i s made up of all those whom the communicator wishes to receive, unde rstand and use the ideas or information he is presenting. If an audience is to make progress, an extension agent mus t help them to change their knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. If no change takes place, there has been no effective communication and no progress. COlillllunication has taken place if the people learn useful facts (acquire knowledge), or if some of them begin to feel a new procedure may offer some benefits (change their attitude), or decide to adopt a new technique (change their behaviour).

People are different in 1!lany '.ays . One major difference is in their ability to understand forestry ideas and practices. For this reason, communication sometimes fails because the communicator uses terms too difficult, . or too unfamiliar, for an audience to understand. Forestry extension staff cannot expect much progress in getting people to plant tree crops on parts of their land if the idea is presented to them in words and expressions totally unfamiliar to them. A good test is for extension staff working in a common language such as English or French to translate some technical instructions into a local language to appreciate hOI, difficult it can be to find sui table terms to express many important concepts to the people.

- 38 -

Good extension practices, therefore, require a thorough study of theclients in order Lo know their abilities, interests and backgrounds. This isdone normally through the conduct of a study of the social and economicconditions of the area in which they live. In more leisurely times, this wasaccomplished simply by living and working amongst them for a considerableperiod and recording the knowledge acquired. This must often, now, be

speeded up by the use of carefully worded surveys or questionnaires. An

understanding of the groups with whom extension staff are to work is

essential to plan their approach or strategy in terms of methods and the useof available resources.

An obstacle to good communication is "noise" (or barriers), the conceptof which has been explained in Section 5.2 above. Experienced communicatorscan anticipate when barriers are likely to occur, and try to forestall them.For example, the lack of planting material for a forestry extension projectmay be such a barrier to an all-out effort by the community. To overcomethis barrier the extension staff can assist with the establishment of smallforest nurseries at strategic places to provide the planting requirementsbefore proceeding with the main task. Generally speaking, they should notadvocate any change of practice unless they have made provision for

overcoming any of the barriers to achievement which are likely to arise.

Those who hope to work effectively mainly with rural people shouldrealise that there is no basic competition between the methods or channels ofcommunication. The challenge is that oC making meanings clear and of gettingideas accepted. To achieve this aim, forestry extension staff need to useall the methods of communication readily available to them and to improviseothers as they go along. It is a question of finding the best combination ofchannels for the task in hand.

401,

441105

Communication brings people and ideas together

- 39 -

Good extension practices, therefore, require a thorough study of the clients in order to know their abilities, interests and backgrounds. This is done normally through the conduct of a study of the social and economic conditions of the area in which they live. In more leisurely times, this was accomplished simply by living and working amongst them for a considerable period and recording the knowledge acquired. This must often, now, be speeded up by the use of carefully worded surveys or questionnaires. An understanding of the groups with whom extension staff are to work is essential to plan their approach or strategy in terms of methods and the use of available resources.

An obstacle to good communication is ··noise" (or barriers), the concept of which has been explained in Section 5.2 above. Experienced communicators can anticipate when barriers are likely to occur, and try to forestall them. For example, the lack of planting material for a forestry extension project may be such a barrier to an all-out effort by the community. To overcome this barrier the extension staff can assist w~th the establ ishment of small forest nurseries at strategic places to provide the planting requirements before proceeding with the main task. Generally speaking, they should not advocate any change of practice unless they have made provision for overcoming any of the barriers to achievement which are likely to arise.

Those who hope to work effectively mainly with rural people should realise that there is no basic competition between the methods or channels of communication. The challenge is that of making meanings clear and of getting ideas accepted. To achieve this aim, forestry extension staff need to use all the methods of communication readily available to them and to improvise others as they go along. It is a question of finding the best combination of channels for the task in hand.

Communication brings people and ideas together

- 39 -

5.3 The adoption process

Consciously or unconsciously, every person goes through certain mentalstages before changing his or her ideas or practices. Experienced extensionstaff understand this process and fit their guidance to the present stage ofthinking of their audiences. People go through five clearly defined stageswhilst adopting a new idea or practice. These are: awareness, interest,evaluation, trial and adoption.

These are often represented as steps on a stairway as shown below:

Adoption

Trial

Interest

Awareness

Evaluation

Figure 5.2 Stages in the adoption process

Each stage in the adoption process depends on the preceding stageshaving been completed successfully. Forestry extension staff might recommendthe adoption of a community forestry project which is either too advancedtechnically or not socially acceptable to rural people. In other cases, thepeople may not even be aware of the practice and will, therefore, not haveany interest in it. The staff, in such circumstances, will not succeed inintroducing it as they have not started at the right point in the sequence.

Often the first stage of a forestry extension programme is to bring topeople's notice that a new forestry technique has been developed. If the newtechnique can be shown to relate to their normal practices and have somepossible beneficial effect on the people, they may be interested to find outmore about it.

Some questions they might ask are:

is the new forestry practice really as good as it is describedto be; if so why are not more people already adopting it;will it not be in conflict with their traditional cultivation,grazing, social or religious customs;what benefits will it bring to them; and,

how can it be carried out with the skills and resources theyhave available?

This step is also the first stage in the process of change which willcontinue until the new practice is finally adopted or perhaps discarded asimpractical or undesirable. Change results from personal decisions, however,and these are affected by beliefs, emotions, customs, traditions and manyother personal values. When adequate information is not available, decisionsare based on traditional values, e.g. the belief that grazing is moreimportant than the protection of trees. Such a view may be adopted whenthere is a lack of understanding that grazing and the successful growth oftrees in the same area can be compatible, or even beneficial in many cases.Where people lack essential information, economic or social progress seldomoccurs. The task of forestry extension staff is to bring new information tothe people and help them to use this information to make important decisions.

- 40-

5.3 The adoption process

Consciously or unconsciously, every person goes through certain mental stages before changing his or her ideas or practices. Experienced extension staff understand this process and fit their guidance to the present stage of thinking of their audiences. People go through five clearly defined stages whilst adopting a new idea or practice. These are: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial and adoption.

These are often represented as steps on a stairway as shown below:

Adoption

Trial

Evaluation

Interest

Awareness

Figure 5.2 Stages in the adoption process

Each stage in the adoption process depends on the preceding stages having been completed successfully. Forestry extension staff might recommend the adoption of a community forestry project which is either too advanced technically or not socially acceptable to rural people. In other cases, the people may not even be aware of the practice and will, therefore, not have any interest in it. The staff, in such circumstances, will not succeed in introducing it as they have not started at the right point in the sequence.

Often the first stage of a forestry extension programme is to bring to people's notice that a new forestry technique has been developed. If the new technique can be shmm to relate to their normal practices and have some possible beneficial effect on the people, they may be interested to find out more about it.

Some questions they might ask are:

is the new forestry practice really as good as it is described to be; if so why are not more people already adopting it;

- will it not be in conflict with their traditional cultivation, grazing, social or religious customs;

- what benefits will it bring to them; and, - how can it be carried out with the skills and resources they

have available?

This step is also the first stage in the process of change which will continue until the new practice is finally adopted or perhaps discarded as impractical or undesirable. Change results from personal decisions, however, and these are affected by beliefs, emotions, customs, traditions and many other personal values. When adequate information is not available, decisions are based on traditional values, e.g. the belief that grazing is more important than the protection of trees. Such a view may be adopted when there is a lack of understanding that grazing and the successful growth of trees in the same area can be compatible, or even beneficial in many cases. lfuere people lack essential information, economic or social progress seldom occurs. The task of forestry extension staff is to bring new information to the people and help them to use this information to make important decisions.

- 40 -

5.4 Motivation of rural people

A motive is something which prompts a person to act in a certain way toachieve a goal he or she considers to be important at a particular time,within their cultural environment. A study of what people consider to beimportant at differing stages in their personal development, i.e. theirneeds, is fundamental to determining what they may be prepared to do tosatisfy these needs.

In his study of human needs, A.H. Maslow (Fig. 5.3) has defined ahierarchy of human needs rising from physiological or basic needs throughsecurity or safety needs, belonging or affection needs, esteem or ego needs,to self-actualisation needs.

Physiological Security Belonging Esteem Self-Or qp. Or 41110- Or . 421,» or .0. actualisation

Basic needs Safety needs Affection needs Ego needs needs

Figure 5.4 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.

Physiological or basic needs are needs people must satisfy in order toexist. In their most basic form they include food, drink and rest. In somecircumstances they will also include clothing and shelter. The satisfactionof these needs determines a person's ability to exist and advance towardshigher needs. They are needs which, in rural areas in developing countries,are normally met by family, or less commonly individual, effort. In lessdeveloped areas changes in dress tend to be limited largely by tradition butas an community develops there is often a marked improvement in standards ofaccomodation after the basic needs of food and drink have been met.

Safety or security needs. These concern self-, or family-protection,avoidance of injury and, to a limited extent, provision for the future.Security may be expressed either in a particular type of house or farmsteadconstruction or in banding together in groups for mutual protection. In manycases, provision for the future may be limited to a prudent store of food tolast to the time of the next harvest, or longer, depending on the storagequalities of the food. In other cases cattle may be regarded as a necessaryprovision for expected or unexpected events requiring exceptional outlays,such as marriages or funerals and their accumulation cannot be judged interms of the pure economics of animal husbandry. In a few cases provisionfor the future may consist of burying currency in the ground, which may seema futile action, but which may be the only solution where no effectivesavings or banking system has yet been developed.

Belonging or affection needs reflect the fact that everyone needs, tosome extent, to give or receive friendship. The expression of this need maydiffer between an urbanised society where a person may not even know theoccupant of the next flat, and a small rural community where almost everyoneknows each other, probably over several generations, and may even bedistantly related to most other members. The social or fraternalorganisations in urbanised societies which are based on trades, professions,religious affiliations or other groupings, meets needs which to a largeextent are met in rural communities by family or cultural bonds.

Esteem or ego needs. These may be expressed in certain societies bythe desire at a certain age to become independent of the family group, to

- 41 -

5.4 Motivation of rural people

A motive i s something which prompts a person to act in a certain way to achieve a goal he or she considers to be i mportan t at a particular time, within their cultural environment. A s tud y of what people consider to be important at differing stages in their personal development, i.e. t hei r needs, is fundamental to dete rmining what they may be prepared t o do to satisfy these needs.

In his study of human needs , A. H. Maslow (.:-..F,:;i:!;gc: . ......,=.5.:.. =.;3) has defined a hierarchy of human needs rising from physiological or basic needs through security or safety needs, belonging or affection need s, es t eem or ego needs, to self-actualisation needs.

Physiological or ..

Basic needs

Security or

Safety needs

Belonging .. or. ~

Affection needs

Figure 5.4 Maslow's Hierarchy of Need s .

Es teem or ..

Ego needs

Selfac tualisation

needs

Physiological or basic needs are needs people mus t satisfy in order to exist. In their most basic form they include food, drink and rest. In some circumstances they will also include clothing and shelter. The satisfaction of these needs determines a person's ability to exist and advance towards higher needs. They are needs which, in rural areas in developing countries , are normally met by family, or less commonly individual, effort. In less developed areas changes in dress tend to be limited large ly by tradition but as an community develops there is often a marked improvement in standards of accomodation after the basic needs of food and drink have been met.

Safety or security needs. These concern self-, or family-prot ection, avoidance of injury and, to a l i mi ted extent, provision for the future . Security may be expressed either in a particular type of house or farmstead construction or in banding together in groups for mutual protection. In many cases, provision for the future may be limited to a prudent store of food to last to the time of the next harvest, or longer, depending on the storage qualities of the food. In other cases catt le may be regarded as a necessary provision for expected or unexpected events requiring exceptional outlays, such as marriages or funerals and their accumula tion cannot be judged in terms of the pure economics of animal husbandry. I n a few cases provision for the future may consist of burying currency in the ground, which may seem a futile action, but which may be the only solution where no effective savings or banking system has yet been developed.

Belonging or affection needs reflect the fact that everyone needs, to some extent, to give or receive friend ship . The expression of this need may differ between an urbanised society where a person may not even know. the occupant of the next flat, and a small rural community where a lmost everyone knows each other, probably over several generations, and may even be distantly related to most other members. The social or fraternal organisations in urbanised societies which are based on trades, professions, religious affiliations or other groupings, meet s needs which to a large extent are met in rural communities by family or cultural bonds.

Esteem or ego needs. These may be expressed in certain societies by the desire at a certain age to become independent of the family group, to

- 41 -

secure the respect of others either by achieving certain accepted feats ofmanhood or undergoing initiation ceremonies to adulthood, or by acquiringcertain possessions such as valuable ornaments for women. In close-knitrural communities independence may be less important than a rising positionin the family or community organisation. In urbanised societies, where aperson is not required to assert his dominance by physical means orattributes, tokens of rank or esteem, such as larger or better furnishedoffices, official cars, etc., take their place.

Self-actualisation needs refer to the needs of a person to develop hisor her skills or capabilities to the highest level and may be expressed incertain societies, in leadership of family or community groups and in othersby creative or artistic pursuits. Self-actualisation needs may be moreeasily achieved in societies where the acquisition of material possessions atlower levels in the hierarchy is not considered to be of great importance.They may be achieved by only a few in urbanised societies where much efforthas to be expended in acquiring and maintaining the customary possessions of"civilised" life.

5.4.1 Perception and satisfaction of needs

How persons may view a need and how they may attempt to satisfy itdepends on their cultural background, their perception of the need and theirindividual characteristics. Culture, and in more advanced societies law,affects the way in which a person can satisfy basic needs, particularlyphysiological ones. The perception a person may have of an area of landdepends to what extent their needs have been satisfied. An area may beviewed as a potential food producing area by one whose needs are at theprimary level, as a desirable site for a prestige home by one whose currentneeds are esteem and ego, and as a site for recreation by one whose needs areat the self-actualisation stage.

- 42 -

No set pattern can cover all needs but the knowledge that needs doexist and motivate people strongly to satisfy them cannot be ignored. It is

the task of extension staff, guided by sociologists, to try to determine thepeople's current aspirations and motivating factors in their particular areasof work.

The individual characteristics of peopleaffect the identification or selection ofparticular objects or activities to satisfyneeds at various levels. In general, in

close-knit rural communities there is likely tobe less individual expression in both the

determination and satisfaction of needs. In

urbanised socieies, these are likely to be

greater, as is suggested by attempts t o

"personalise" vehicles or standard housing unitsin suburban residential areas.

Human needs motivate peopleto undertake activities to

meet these needs

secure the respect of others either by achieving certain accepted feats of manhood or undergoing initiation ceremonies to adulthood, or by acquiring certain possessions such as valuable ornaments for women. In close-knit rural communities independence may be less important than a rising position in the family or cormnunity organisation. In urbanised societies, where a person is not required to assert his dominance by physical means or attributes, tokens of rank or esteem, such as larger or better furnished offices, official cars, etc., take their place.

Self-actualisation needs refer to the needs of a person to develop his or her skills or capabilities to the highest level and may be expressed in certain societies, in leadership of family or community groups and in others by creative or artistic pursuit s. Self - actualisation needs may be more easily achieved in societies where the acquisition of material possessions at lower levels in the hierarchy is not considered to be of great importance. They may be achieved by only a few in urbanised societies where much effort has to be expended in acquiring and maintaining the customary possessions of "civilised" life.

5.4 . 1 Perception and satisfaction of needs

How persons may view a need and how they may attempt to satisfy it depends on their cultural background, their perception of the need and their individual characteristics. Culture, and in more advanced societies law, affects the way in ~]hich a person can satisfy basic needs, particularly physiological ones. The perception a person may have of an area of land depends to what extent their needs have been satisfied . An area may be viewed as a potential food producing area by one whose needs are at the primary level, as a desirable site for a prestige home by one whose current needs are esteem and ego, and as a site for recreation by one whose needs are at the self-actualisation stage.

The individual characteristics of people affect the identification or selection of

or activities to satisfy particular needs at

objects various levels. In general, in

is likely t o in both the

of needs . In likely to be

close-knit rural communities there be less individual expression determination and satisfaction urbanised socieies, these are greater, as is suggested by "personalise" vehicles or standard in suburban residential areas.

attempts to housing units

Human needs motivate people to undertake activities to

meet these needs

CD CIJ~D

/ , / / -,. ..

~

No set pattern can cover all needs but the knowledge that needs do exist and motivate people strongly to satisfy them cannot be ignored. It is the task of extension staff, guided by sociologists, to try to determine the people's current aspirations and motivating factors in their particular areas of work.

- 42 -

An individual's motivation, however, is not static. Whatever needapplies at a given time becomes the focus of an individual's struggle toachieve it. If a lower level need is not sufficiently met, there is atendency to fall back to the lower level, but this lasts only until the needis satisfied. The individual's motivation is once again directed at the

appropriate higher level need. However, this does not imply that the

hierarchy of needs is arranged like a step ladder with regular intervalsbetween the satisfaction of one need and the next. Needs may have fairlywide areas of overlap. No need may ever be completely satisfied but as eachneed emerges oae set holds the strongest motivating or driving force.

5.4.2 Motivating factors

Many factors can motivate people to accept new ideas and practices.Some of these, which may apply to people in areas where this publication maybe used, are as follows;

Psychological factors

new experience;greater efficiency;security of earnings or output;recognition within the community;better life for children;more leisure time.

These factors may vary considerably between different societies and itis an important function of sociologists, working with extension staff, to

determine the factors of greatest importance in any particular area. These

can then be used to good effect in encouraging people to meet these needs, asfar as practicable, by participation in forestry extension activities.

Social status

higher social status;greater prestige;role expectancy;sociability;hobbies.

Social status and the prestige associated with a particular role in acommunity may be be strongly motivating factors in certain areas, more sothan individual achievements in economic matters.

Economic factors

secure food supply;better houses;safe drinking water;health care;clothing and some consumer goods;education of children;higher levels of training;more earning power.

Ranking in importance of these factors in a particular community couldeasily be undertaken by discussion and simple surveys and could serve as animportant guide both to what motivates the people and how they might becomeinvolved in a forestry extension programme.

-43 -

An individual's motivation, however , is not static. tfuatever need applies at a given time becomes the focus of an individual's struggle to achieve it. If a lower level need is not sufficiently met , there is a tendency to fall back to the . lower level, but this lasts only until the need is satisfied. The individual's motivation is once again directed at the appropriate higher level need. However, this does not imply that the hierarchy of needs is arranged like a step ladder with regular intervals between the satisfaction of one need and the next. Needs may have fairly wide areas of overlap. No need may ever be completely satisfied but as each need emerges one set holds the strongec.t motivating or driving force.

5.4.2 Motivating factors

Many factors can motivate people to accept new ideas and practices. Some of these, which may apply to people in areas where this publication may be used, are as follows;

Psychological factors

- new experience; - greater efficiency;

security of earnings or output; - recognition within the community; - better life for chi ldren ; - more leisure time.

These factors may vary considerably between different socie ties and it is an important function of sociologists, working with extension staff, to determine the factors of greatest importance in any particular area. These can then be used to good effect in encouraging people to meet these needs, as far as practicable, by participation in forestry extension activities.

Social status

- higher social status; - greater prestige; - role expectancy; - sociability; - hobbies.

Social status and the prestige associated with a particular role in a community may be be strongly motivating factors in certain areas, more so than individual achievements in economic matters.

Economic factors

secure food supply; better houses;

- safe drinking water; - health care;

clothing and some consumer goods; - education of children; - higher levels of training; - more earning power.

Ranking in importance of these factors in a particular community could easily be undertaken by discussion and simple surveys and could serve as an important guide both to what motivates the people and how they might become involved in a forestry extension programme.

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Satisfaction of learning

- one set of skills when learned, will help to motivate adultsto learn more difficult tasks.

This can be a strong motivating factor in peasant communitiesespecially amongst the older groups who may have missed out on formaleducation. If a skill is properly presented and sufficient training givenin a friendly, encourging atmosphere, there is no doubt about thesatisfaction some older people get in acquiring it.

The discussion of these points may appear to many readers to besomewhat academic and involve the considerable use of technical terms, awarning against which was given in Section 4.6.4. They are included,however, as an indication of the levels to which a person may have to exploreto establish the motivation which may persuade someone to adopt or rejectforestry extension practices.

5.5 The diffusion process

Diffusion is defined as the process by which information and improvedpractices are spread from their original sources, initially to a fewadopters, and in time to other users. In the case of forestry, it is theprocess by which new forestry practices or skills are transferred from theirpoint of origin (forestry research stations or administrations) to thecommunity. A distinction between the terms "diffusion" and "adoption" mustbe made. Diffusion occurs between persons, usually in a group, whileadoption is the result of an individuales decision or commitment to theprocess. Though this process has been demonstrated to operate in certainmore advanced communities there is reason to believe that in societies withmarkedly different cultures it may not proceed as smoothly as Fig. 5.2 mightsuggest. This is one area which would justify further detailed study as soonas practicable.

Where studies have been done in developed areas, they show that themost effective means of providing awareness and arousing interest in a newpractice are the mass media, printed materials, broadcasts and audiovisualmeans. Following closely on this is the influence of friends and neighbours.In societies where the art of discussion has not yet been stifled bytelevision or other types of mass entertainment, the influence of discussionwith friends and neighbours may be of greater importance then mass media orprint. Government agents, dealers and salesmen, in that order, are lesseffective as communicators of such information in the initial stages. In

some rural areas, the population are found to be highly sceptical of anyinformation on agricultural matters coming from anyone even suspected ofbeing a salesman.

At the evaluation, trial and adoption stages, friends and neighbours,are regarded as the most helpful group, followed by government or voluntryagencies. This emphasises the importance of using local volunteer leaderswith whom the community can identify, in introducing a new practice into anarea, in preference even to full-time paid extension staff. Staff arenormally required, however, to follow up the growing interest and to ensurethat recommended techniques are properly applied.

5.6 Categories of adopters

Experienced forestry extension staff make full use of all availablechannels to pass their messages to the people. The speed at which newforestry practices are adopted varies considerably but is normally measured

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Satisfaction of learning

- one set of skills when learned, will help to motivate adults to learn more difficult tasks.

This can be a strong motivating factor in peasant communities especially amongst the older groups who may have missed out on formal education. If a skill is properly presented and sufficient training given in a friendly, encourging atmosphere, there is no doubt about the satisfaction some older people get in acquiring it.

The discussion of these points may appear to many readers to be somewhat academic and involve the considerable use of technical terms, a warning against which was given in Section 4.6.4. They are included, however, as an indication of the levels to which a person may have to explore to establish the motivation which may persuade someone to adopt or reject forestry extension practices.

5.5 The diffusion process

Diffusion is defined as the process by which information and improved practices are spread from their original sources, initially to a few adopters, and in time to other users. In the case of forestry, it is the process by which new forestry practices or skills are transferred from their point of origin (forestry research stations or administrations) to the community. A distinction between the terms "diffusion" and "adoption" must be made. Diffusion occurs between persons, usually in a group, "'hile adoption is the result of an individual's decision or commitment to the process. Though this process has been demonstrated to operate in certain more advanced communities there is reason to believe that in societies with markedly different cultures it may not proceed as smoothly as Fig. 5.2 might suggest. TI1is is one area which would justify further detailed study as soon as practicable.

lfuere studies have been done in developed areas, they show that the most effective means of providing awareness and arousing interest in a new practice are the mass media, printed materials, broadcasts and audiovisual means. Following closely on this is the influence of friends and neighbours. In societies where the art of discussion has not yet been stifled by television or other types of mass entertainment, the influence of discussion with friends and neighbours may be of greater importance then mass media or print. Government agents, dealers and salesmen, in that order, are less effective as communicators of such information in the initial stages. In some rural areas, the population are found to be highly sceptical of any information on agricultural matters coming from anyone even suspected of being a salesman.

At the evaluation, trial and adoption stages, friends and neighbours, are regarded as the most helpful group, followed by government or voluntry agencies. This emphasises the importance of using local volunteer leaders with whom the community can identify, in introducing a new practice into an area, in preference even to full-time paid extension staff. Staff are normally required, however, to follow up the growing interest and to ensure that recommended techniques are properly applied.

5.6 Categories of adopters

Experienced forestry extension staff make full use of all available channels to pass their messages to the people. The speed at which new forestry practices are adopted varies considerably but is normally measured

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in years. There are grounds for believing that new practices do spreadgradually through families. This may be an important factor in areas whereextended families are the social norm. One innovator or early adopter perfamily may be enough to set the process of change in motion.

Fig. 5.4 shows five categories of people according to the time andspeed of reaction to change.

Innovators Early Early Late LateAdopters Majority Majority Adopters

2.5% 13.5% 34% 34% 16%

Figure 5.4 Distribution of farmers amongst the five categories based onthe time of adoption. From Diffusion of Innovations by E.M.Rogers, The Free Press, New York, 1983.

5.6.1 The innovators

These are generally very few in number initially. They are people whoare eager to accept new ideas. Usually they amount to only about 1 in 40 ofthe population in an average rural community. This is not simply a matter ofeconomics: traditional ways of doing things have a strong hold over

populations in general. A common reply to many suggestions of new practicesin certain countries in Africa is, "It is not our custom". In somesocieties, innovators may be looked on with suspicion or even jealousy, andyet they are important in initiating an extension programme. They can bepersuaded to try new methods and thereby create an awareness of them in thecommunity. However, extension staff should exercise tact and great cautionand avoid over praising innovators in public or in spending too much timewith them which might foster feelings of jealousy amongst the community.

5.6.2 The early adopters

The early adopters are more willing to see the value of a new practicein their community and will try it, if they feel it has a fair chance ofsuccess. They form an opinion on its suitability to their circumstances morethrough interaction with other members of the community than by officialpersuasion. It is important at this stage to make sufficient informationwidely available which people can discuss during this process. Earlyadopters are usually younger than average and have a better education or moreexperience of the world. They are likely to be more active in community orpolitical affairs than the late adopters. They are likely to be just a

little more prosperous than the average and so able to take limited riskswith their land and crops. Their acceptance of a new procedure is notautomatic and often involves considerable effort on the part of communityleaders and extension staff to lay the groundwork for the change.

5.6.3 The early majority

They are usually of middle age and of average experience and education(if education is the norm in the area). They are usually respected membersof their community, reasonably cautious, and adopt a practice only after theyare convinced of its value. If the practice involves trade in a commoditythey are likely to delay until some established pattern of trading has beendeveloped.

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in years. There are grounds for believing that new practices do spread gradually through families. This may be an important factor in areas where extended families are the social norm . One innovator or early adopter per family may be enough to set the process of change in motion.

Fig. 5.4 shm,s five categories of people according to the time and speed of reaction to change.

Innovators

2. 5%

Figure 5.4

Early Adopters

13.5%

Early Majority

34%

Late Hajority

34%

Late Acropters

16%

Distribution of farmers amongst the five categories based on the time of adoption. From Diffusion of Innovations by E.H. Rogers, The Free Press, New York, 1983.

The innovators

These are generally very few in number initially. They are people who are eager to accept new ideas . Usually they amount to only about 1 in 40 of the population in an average rural community. This is not simply a matter of economics: traditional ways of doing things have a strong hold over populations in general . A common reply to many suggestions of new practices in certain countries in Africa is , "It is not our custom". In some societies, innovators may be looked on with suspicion or even jealousy, and yet they are important in initiating an extension programme . They can be persuaded to try new methods and thereby create an awareness of them in the community. However, extension staff should exercise tact and great caution and avoid over praising innovators in public or in spending too much time with them which might foster feelings of jealousy amongst the community.

5 . 6.2 The early adopters

The early adopters are more willing to see the value of a new practice in their community and will try it, if they feel it has a fair chance of success. They form an opinion on its s uitability to their circumstances more through interact i on with other members of the community than by official persuasion. It is important at this stage to make sufficient information widely available which people can discuss during this process. Early adopters are usually younger than average and have a better education or more experience of the world. They are likely to be more active in community or political affairs than the late adopte rs. They are likely to be just a little more prosperous than the average and so able to take limited risks with their land and crops. Their acceptance of a new procedure is not automatic and often involves considerable effort on the part of community leaders and extension staff to lay the ground,;ork for the change.

The early majority

They are usually of middle age and of average experience and education (if education is the norm in the area) . They are usually respected members of their community, reasonably cautious, and adopt a practice only after they are convinced of its value. If the practice involves trade in a commodity they are likely to delay until some established pattern of trading has been developed.

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5.6.4 The late majority

They make up about one third of the members of a community. They arethe more conservative and less wealthy section, and adopt a practice onlywhen it is becoming generally accepted by the community.

5.6.5 The late adopters

These are commonly the older members of the community, veryconservative in outlook, close observers of tradition, and seldom willing orfinancially able to take risks. Because of their age and general backgroundthey are also likely to be less able to understand and apply a new technique.

Early adopters play an important role in introducing a new forestry oragricultural practice into an area

The main purpose of this classification is to understand how peoplecome to adopt new ideas which extension staff are hoping to introduce tothem. It also indicates the percentages of the population they can

reasonably expect to have convinced at various stages in the diffusion

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5.6.4 The late majority

They make up about one third of the members of a community. They are the more conservative and less wealthy section, and adopt a practice only when it is becoming generally accepted by the community.

5.6.5 The late adopters

These are commonly the older members of the community, very conservative in outlook, close observers of tradition, and seldom willing or financially able to take risks. Because of their age and general background they are also likely to be less able to understand and apply a new technique .

Early adopters play an important r ole in introducing a new forestry or agricultural practice into an area

The main purpose of this classification is to understand how people come to adopt new ideas which extension staff are hoping to introduce to them. It also indicates the percentages of the population they can reasonably expect to have convinced at various stages in the diffusion

- 46 -

process. It should narrow the field of those who may prove suitable forselection as voluntary leaders to help achieve their objective andcommunicate effectively with the bulk of the people. Serious thought must,however, be given to how the early and late majority groups can be involved.Unless a new technique can penetrate these groups, its main impact will be tomake the prosperous members of the community even more prosperous and widenthe gap between them and the bulk of the population. If there appears to bea significant check in the spread of a practice it is important to find outif there is any underlying social or cultural reason why this is so.

Innovators and early adopters may also assist in presenting informationto the people in an acceptable order. If people are not aware of a new ideait may be better to show them what it looks like and what benefits they mayexpect from practising it before showing them how it should be done. Theinnovators and early adopters can help to show to a wider public how a newmethod could be of benefit to the people of an area.

However, when people are selected to demonstrate on their own land, ona wider scale, a new practice which it is proposed to introduce, it ispreferable that those who have average resources (i.e. in land, labour,capital and skills) should be chosen. They will be more credible if they aretypical of the community or section of the area which is the target of theextension programme. This cannot normally be applied in the initial stagesof a campaign, however, as those with limited resources are unlikely to beinnovators or early adopters.

These points emphasise the importance of extension staff really gettingto know and understand their clients thoroughly and the need to gain theirconfidence. Finally, it is necessary to know how to put this knowledge touse by selecting the most efficient extension methods and working through themost suitable people. These methods are described in the Section 7 through 9of this publication.

process. It should narrow the field of those who may prove suitable for selection as voluntary leaders to help achieve their objective and communicate effectively with the bulk of the people. Serious thought must, however, be given to how the early and late majority groups can be involved . Unless a new technique can penetrate these groups, its main impact will be to make the prosperous members of the community even more prosperous and widen the gap between them and the bulk of the population. If there appears to be a significant check in the spread of a practice it is important to find out if there is any underlying social or cultural reason why this is so.

Innovators and early adopters may also assist in presenting information to the people in an acceptable order. If people are not aware of a new idea it may be better to show them what it looks like and what benefits they may expect from practising it before showing them how it should be done. The innovators and early adopters can help to show to a wider public how a new method could be of benefit to the people of an area.

However, when people are selected to demonstrate on their own land, on a wider scale, a new practice which it is proposed to introduce, it is preferable that those who have average resources (i.e. in land, labour, capital and skills) should be chosen. They will be more credible if they are typical of the community or section of the area which is the target of the extension progrannne. This cannot normally be applied in the initial stages of a campaign , however, as those with limited resources are unlikely to be innovators or early adopters.

These points emphasise the importance of extension staff really getting to know and understand their clients thoroughly and the need to gain their confidence. Finally, it is necessary to know how to put this knowledge to use by s electing the most efficient extension methods and working through the most suitable people. These methods are described in the Section 7 through 9 of this publication.

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6. AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

People learn by the use of their senses (i.e. through what they see,hear, smell, feel and taste). When more than one sense is involved theopportunities for learning are increased. Research findings indicate thatpeople remember 10% of what they hear, 50% of what they see and up to 90% ofwhat they see, hear, and do, in a combined learning situation. Audio-visualaids are means available to forestry extension staff to use, in addition topractical activities, to make learning more effective. They can, however,never replace personal contacts between staff and the public.

AV aids enable people to understand the message more clearly. Not onlydo they hear the words but they can see the shape, size, or colour of anobject, or the appearance of an area of land, and carry away a mental pictureof it which makes the forestry message being put over to them moreunderstandable. Some of the more elaborate AV aids, however, are notsuitable or available to rural extension workers working in remote areas. Inthis section, attention will be focussed on the use of some appropriate Avaids without going into details of their construction.

Though the use of AV aids in field extension activities is limited totheir simpler forms, where farmers' training centres and rural developmentcentres have been established they provide greater opportunities for the useof more complex aids. AV techniques are very effective when used to supportinstruction in a "classroom" situation, though this does not necessarilyimply a formal classroom. AV aids must, however, always be regarded as ahelp to more effective learning. It is amistake to think of them as making the jobof instruction easier. In fact, they often

take considerable skill and time to

produce, or even to set up for use. Theiruse with a group must be carefully plannedand adequate time allowed for members tosee or get acquainted with them. An objectpassed round a group while the speaker iscontinuing to talk is a considerabledistraction and may have a negative effecton understanding the message as a whole.In the same way a single specimen availablefor examination by a large group for only a ="1..,few minutes at the end of a session, cannotfulfil its function properly. Whenproperly used, however, AV aids make Learning is aided by the uselearning easier, more interesting and more of all the five sensescomplete.

6.1 Non-projected aids

Non-projected aids form the basis of a whole range of teaching andextension aids. They are generally simple and often relatively inexpensiveand can be used to re-inforce or clarify a speaker's message.

6.1.1 Some advantages of non-projected aids

Non-projected visual aids:

normally require no power or light source for their use, whichis an important advantage in remote areas;are usually easily available, or can be produced by localstaff;

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6. AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

People learn by the use of their senses (i.e. through what they see, hear, smell, feel and taste). When more than one sense is involved the opportunities for learning are increased. Research findings indicate that people remember 10% of what they hear, 50% of what they see and up to 90% of what they see, hear, and do, in a combined learning situation. Audio-visual aids are means available to forestry extension staff to use, in addition to practical activities, to make learning more effective. They can, however, never replace personal contacts between staff and the public.

AV aids enable people to understand the message more clearly. Not only do they hear the words but they can see the shape, size, or colour of an object, or the appearance of an area of land, and carry away a mental picture of it which makes the forestry message being put over to them more understandable. Some of the more elaborate AV aids, however, are not suitable or available to rural extension workers working in remote areas. In this section, attention will be focussed on the use of some appropriate AV aids without going into details of their construction.

Though the use of AV aids in field extension activities is limited to their simpler forms, where farmers' training centres and rural development centres have been established they provide greater opportunities for the use of more complex aids . AV techniques are very effective when used to support instruction in a "classroom" situation, though this does not necessarily imply a formal classroom. AV aids must, however, always be regarded as a help to more effective learning. It is a mistake to think of them as making the job of instruction easier. In fact, they often take considerable skill and time to produce, or even to set up for use. Their use with a group must be carefully planned and adequate time allowed for members to see or get acquainted with them. An object passed round a group while the speaker is continuing to talk is a considerable distraction and may have a negative effect on understanding the message as a whole. In the same way a single specimen available for examination by a large group for only a few minutes at the end of a session, cannot fulfil its function properly. When properly used, however, AV aids make learning easier, more interesting and more complete.

6 . 1 Non-projected aids

Learning is aided by the use of all the five senses

Non-projected aids form the basis of a whole range of teaching and extension aids. They are generally simple and often relatively inexpensive and can be used to re-inforce or clarify a speaker's message.

Some advantages of non-projected aids

Non-projected visual aids:

- normally require no power or light source for their use, which is an important advantage in remote areas;

- are usually easily available, or can be produced by local staff;

- 48 -

are usually more easily amended or altered to apply to

particular areas or circumstances;can be of great variety of size, shape or colour, with localinterest or appeal;can be adapted to the needs of a variety of subjects; and,

may give a learning group the opportunity to take part intheir creation, which is, in itself, a valuable part of the

process of learning.

6.1.2 Examples of non-projected aids

Real objects:

these should be used whenever practicable because people oftenknow, or at least recognise, them;they are generally easy to obtain and to use;they can usually be seen and handled by all the group, withlittle risk of damage;where appropriate, people can handle, taste, smell or evenhear them; and,their proper use can often be fully explained or demonstratedon the spot.

Samples or specimens:

- these are often real objects mounted in a special way,

(e.g. sometimes enclosed in plastic) to protect them when theyare being examined and studied; and,

while, perhaps, not making such a direct impact as a realobject, they are a sensible compromise for any equipment orbiological specimens which might suffer from unskilledhandling.

Specimens and models are valuable learning aids

Models:

these are replicas (often on a different scale) of realobjects which are either too large or too small to be studiedconveniently in a learning situation;they are often used at public events such as agriculturalshows or fairs to make the objects more understandable to the

visitors, (e.g. models of different types of saw teeth); and,

- 49 -

- are usually more easily amended or altered to apply to particular areas or circumstances;

- can be of great variety of size, shape or colour, with local interest or appeal;

- can be adapted to the needs of a variety of subjects; and, - may give a learning group the opportunity to take part in

their creation, which is, in itself, a valuable part of the process of learning.

6.1. 2 Examples of non-projected aids

Real objects:

- these should be used whenever practicable because people often know, or at least recognise, them;

- they are generally easy to obtain and to use; - they can usually be seen and handled by all the group, with

little risk of damage; - where appropriate, people can handle, taste, smell or even

hear them; and, - their proper use can often be fully explained or demonstrated

on the spot.

Samples or specimens:

these are often real objects mounted in a special way, (e.g. sometimes enclosed in plastic) to protect them when they are being examined and studied; and,

- while, perhaps, not making such a direct impact as a real object, they are a sensible compromise for any equipment or biological specimens which might suffer from unskilled handling.

Specimens and models are valuable learning aids

Models:

- these are replicas (often on a different scale) of real objects which are either too large or too small to be studied conveniently in a learning situation;

- they are often used at public events such as agricultural shows or fairs to make the objects more understandable to the visitors, (e.g. models of different types of saw teeth); and,

- 49 -

because they often involve considerable effort and expense inconstruction and should be made as robustly, and handled ascarefully, as possible.

Photographs:

photographic prints, if clear and enlarged to a suitablescale, can present good visual evidence of certain forestryactivities;they can be used to illustrate objects or activities, whichwould be impossible or inconvenient to demonstrate physicallyin certain areas;each should illustrate clearly one point only, show the mainpoint predominantly and where possible have some local orhuman focus of interest; and,

they should be available on a wallboard or display case forstudy after the discussion, as it is unlikely that all themembers will be able to see or absorb all the information inthem during the brief time the photographs are in use with thegroup.

Blackboard or chalkboard:

this is one of the commonest items available and the basis ofmany valuable visual aids to learning;it is inexpensive and either generally available or can beeasily improvised in many learning situations;

- it can be used by extension staff to convey messages in wordsor illustrations, cheaply and often in an attractive form;it can be used to record important points during talks or todraw diagrams to illustrate particular points in them;

- it is very flexible; any written material or diagram which isnot readily understood can be erased and presented again in anew and more understandable form;the audience can see a diagram "grow" during a talk; thistakes away much of the mystery of posters which are sometimestoo complex to understand quickly;

- when appropriate, diagrams and text can be written on theboard before a talk starts, to avoid interrupting the deliveryby drawing or writing, and help to hold the attention of theaudience;on the other hand material set out in this way may distractthe attention of the audience before it is required in thetalk and may introduce an element of confusion;coloured chalks are inexpensive and can greatly improve thequality of diagrams and text and assist understanding; and,considerable skill in the preparation of diagrams or the

lay-out of text can be acquired by practice, at little costother than the initial time devoted to acquiring the skills.

When using a blackboard, do not talk to the audience while writing onthe board. This is sometimes difficult to avoid, but the message is likelyto have much less impact if the voice is unclear or the listeners areconcentrating on two things at the same time.

Flannelgraph:

flannel or felt has a surface which when pressed against asimilar surface will remain in position because the fibresinterlock;

- 50 -

- because they often involve considerable effort and expense in construction and should be made as robustly, and handled as carefully, as possible.

Photographs:

- photographic prints, if clear and enlarged to a suitable scale, can present good visual evidence of certain forestry activities;

- they can be used to illustrate objects or activities, which would be impossible or inconvenient to demonstrate physically in certain areas;

- each should illustrate clearly one point only, show the main point predominantly and where possible have some local or human focus of interest; and,

- they should be available on a wallboard or display case for study after the discussion, as it is unlikely that all the members will be able to see or absorb all the information in them during the brief time the photographs are in use with the group.

Blackboard or chalkboard:

- this is one of the commonest items available and the basis of many valuable visual aids to learning;

- it is inexpensive and either generally available or can be easily improvised in many learning situations;

- it can be used by extension staff to convey messages in words or illustrations, cheaply and often in an attractive form;

- it can be used to record important points during talks or to draw diagrams to illustrate particular points in them;

- it is very flexible; any written material or diagram which is not readily understood can be erased and presented again in a new and more understandable form;

- the audience can see a diagram "grow" during a talk; this takes away much of the mystery of posters which are sometimes too complex to understand quickly;

- when appropriate, diagrams and text can be written on the board before a talk starts, to avoid interrupting the delivery by drawing or writing, and help to hold the attention of the audience;

- on the other hand material set out in this way may distract the attention of the audience before it is required in the talk and may introduce an element of confusion;

- coloured chalks are inexpensive and can greatly improve the quality of diagrams and text and assist understanding; and,

- considerable skill in the preparation of diagrams or the lay-out of text can be acquired by practice, at little cost other than the initial time devoted to acquiring the skills.

When using a blackboard, do not talk to the audience while writing on the board. This is sometimes difficult to avoid, but the message is likely to have much less impact if the voice is unclear or the listeners are concentrating on two things at the same time.

Flannelgraph:

- flannel or felt has a surface which when pressed against a similar surface will remain in position because the fibres interlock;

- SO -

pictures or cards can be backed with felt which will thenadhere to the felt board by simply pressing them into place;in some cases, the felt on the card is replaced by a specialmaterial with dots of a synthetic fibre on one side whichadheres to a felt board in the same way;it is easy and inexpensive to make; a rough blanket stretchedtightly over a board will serve if nothing else is available,though a proper covering of felt is much more satisfactory;it can form a colourful and attractive aid if suitably

prepared shapes or cut-out pictures are used;cards can be moved around and regrouped as necessary to

illustrate a talk or support particular views;it can also be used to build up or illustrate a complex ideausing a series of individual steps; and,

the materials can be prepared and tried out in advance andre-used many times, if the cut-outs are stored carefully,

preferably between sheets of cardboard;

Some disadvantages of flannelgraphs are:

they require a certain amount of flair and aptitude on thepart of the extension staff to design and produce attractivematerial;they are difficult to use at outdoor meetings because wind mayblow away the cards; and,there may be some difficulty in getting suitable sources ofcut-outs.

Some guidelines on the use of flannelgraphs:

use them only when the instructor has a clear conception ofhow the topic is to be covered;decide in advance how the subject matter is to be presented(either as a story or as a series of explanatory symbols);select and prepare the pictures or key words which may beused; and,rehearse the presentation and lay out the cards in the correctorder, for easy use.

!4/1../19!-*Y1,1)1*#/11/161 /11,-R

Flannelgraphs are usually best used indoors

- 51 -

- pictures or cards can be backed with felt which will then adhere to the felt board by simply pressing them into place;

- in some cases, the felt on the card is replaced by a special material with dots of a synthetic fibre on one side which adheres to a felt board in the same way;

- it is easy and inexpensive to make; a rough blanket stretched tightly over a board will serve if nothing else is available, though a proper covering of felt is much more satisfactory; it can form a colourful and attractive aid if suitably

prepared shapes or cut-out pictures are used; cards can be moved around and regrouped as necessary to

illustrate a talk or support particular views; - it can also be used to build up or illustrate a complex idea

using a series of individual steps; and, - the materials can be prepared and tried out in advance and

re-used many times, if the cut-outs are stored carefully, preferably between sheets of cardboard;

Some disadvantages of flannelgraphs are:

- they require a certain amount of flair and aptitude on the part of the extension staff to design and produce attractive material;

- they are difficult to use at outdoor meetings because wind may blow away the cards; and,

- there may be some difficulty in getting suitable sources of cut-outs.

Some guidelines on the use of flannelgraphs:

- use them only when the instructor has a clear conception of how the topic is to be covered ;

- decide in advance how the subject matter is to be presented (either as a story or as a series of explanatory symbols);

- select and prepare the pictures or key words which may be used ; and ,

- rehearse the presentation and layout the cards in the correct order, for easy use.

.". " . "

Flannelgraphs are usually best used indoors

- 51 -

") .. - .. ~

1 ~

When using flannelgraphs in a presentation:

ensure all the audience can see the flannelgraph easily;stand on one side when placing pictures or words on the board,or when commenting on any of them, to avoid obstructing theview;

do not clutter the board with too many words or pictures;remove them and repeat the presentation if it is necessary toachieve full understanding;encourage the audience to ask questions on the topic or thepictures or symbols being displayed; and,

invite members of the audience to review the important pointsof the presentation using the flannelgraph to check theircomprehension.

Flip-charts

Flip-charts are a useful alternative to flannelgraphs:

they are generally easier to transport and use thanflannelgraphs;they are made with several large sheets of paper, as

available, fastened between two hard covers such as plywood orhardboard;they can be opened out so that the covers form a free-standingunit;

each page has a picture or a diagram relating to one stage ina talk or demonstration;the pages can be turned over to expose the next stage to theaudience;they can also serve as a handy form of teaching outline forthe speaker; and,

they are generally easier to use out of doors than flannel-graphs.

Posters, wall charts, and otherlarge illustrated literature are goodsources of illustrations for enlargingand transferring to the flip-chartpages provided this does not infringecopyright. Broad tipped marker pensare most suitable for adding titles oradditional information to the sheetsduring use.

These are small illustrated or lettered cards which can be producedduring a talk and affixed to any smooth surface by one or more small piecesof plastic adhesive placed on the reverse. They serve as emphasis or as areminder of some particular point in the talk.

- 52-

Flip-charts are convenientto use in the field

Flash cards

When using flannelgraphs in a presentation:

- ensure all the audience can see the flannelgraph easily; - stand on one side when placing pictures or words on the board,

or when commenting on any of them, to avoid obstructing the view; do not clutter the board with too many words or pictures;

- remove them and repeat the presentation if it is necessary to achieve full understanding; encourage the audience to ask questions on the topic or the pictures or symbols being displayed; and,

- invite members of the audience to review the important points of the presentation using the flannelgraph to check their comprehension.

Flip-charts

Flip-charts are a useful alternative to flannelgraphs:

they are generally easier to transport and use than flannelgraphs;

they are made with several available, fastened between two hardboard;

as large sheets of paper, hard covers such as plywood or

- they can be opened out so that the covers form a free-standing unit;

- each page a talk or the pages audience;

has a pic ture demonstration; can be turned

or a diagram relating to one stage in

over to expose the next stage to the

- they can also serve as a handy form of teaching outline for the speaker; and, they are generally easier to use out of doors than flannelgraphs.

Posters, wall charts, and other large illustrated literature are good sources of illustrations for enlarging and transferring to the flip-chart pages provided this does not infringe copyright. Broad tipped marker pens are most suitable for adding titles or addi tional information to the sheets during use.

Flash cards

." .. I' ""","'" ..

• 1"'"

Flip-charts are convenient to use in the field

These are small illustrated or lettered cards which can be produced during a talk and affixed to any smooth surface by one or more small pieces of plastic adhesive placed on the reverse. They serve as emphasis or as a reminder of some particular point in the talk .

- 52 -

Some useful points to consider in using flash cards are:

- the illustrations or text on the cards must be large enough tobe seen clearly by the whole audience;illustrations can be drawn, printed or cut out from posters ormagazines, subject to the agreement of the copyright holders;they can be used to portray different forestry systems;their use should be carefully planned and rehearsed; and,the illustrations should be pre-tested on a suitable targetgroup to ensure that the symbols are understandable.

Lettering and drawing

Although free-hand lettering using felt tipped marker pens issatisfactory in most cases, there may be some advantages in using largestencils or self-adhesive plastic letters, where these are available, to

establish a style of text easily recognisable and understandable by peoplewith limited literacy skills. Whatever solution is adopted, it is importantto note that neither words nor diagrams will serve as effective visual aidsif they are not neatly and clearly prepared and immediately recognisable bythe audience.

6.2 Projected visual aids

The most common feature of this system is that a bright light is shonethrough a transparent picture and, by means of a lens, an enlarged picture isprojected on to a screen. There is, however, another less common form ofprojection which is mentioned below.

6.2.1 Classification of projected visual aids

Opaque projection

In this case, the material to be projected is not transparent. It maybe an item such as a black and white or coloured picture, a book or even asolid object such as a piece of wood or a rock. A special projector calledan episcope, which uses a bright light and mirrors to project an image, is

required. It is a relatively expensive and heavy piece of equipment and mostsuited for use in a central location such as a community training centre,where it can serve a variety of different courses. It is also useful forprojecting illustrations from books on to a large sheet of paper. Theoutlines can then be traced with a crayon and used as the basis of a posteror diagram. Permission from the copyright holder should, however, be

obtained before these are used publicly.

Transparent still projection

The materials projected in this case are non-moving transparentpictures in the form of slides or filmstrips. Some black and white film-strips may still be in circulation but they are much less common and thereare great advantages in preparing or ordering all new material in colour.The difference in cost is very little. Both pictures and projectors arerelatively cheap and easy to obtain.

Cine projection

This involves the projection of moving pictures with or without sound,in the form of either 8mm or 16mm films. 8mm films are mainly the result ofamateur photography and are now so rare that the purchase of an amm projectoris seldom justified. Films themselves are generally expensive, especially

- 53 -

Some useful points to consider in using flash cards are:

- the illustrations or text on the cards must be large enough to be seen clearly by the whole audience;

- illustrations can be drawn, printed or cut out from posters or magazines, subject to the agreement of the copyright holders;

- they can be used to portray different forestry systems; - their use should be carefully planned and rehearsed; and, - the illustrations should be pre-tested on a suitable target

group to ensure that the symbols are understandable.

Lettering and drawing

Although free-hand lettering using felt tipped marker pens is satisfactory in most cases, there may be some advantages in using large stencils or self-adhesive plastic letters, where these are available, to establish a style of text easily recognisable and understandable by people with limited literacy skills. Whatever solution is adopted, it is important to note that neither words nor diagrams will serve as effective visual aids if they are not neatly and clearly prepared and immediately recognisable by the audience.

6.2 Projected visual aids

The most common feature of this system is that a bright light is shone through a transparent picture and, by means of a lens, an enlarged picture is projected on to a screen. There is, however, another less common form of projection which is mentioned below.

6.2.1 Classification of projected visual aids

Opaque projection

In this case, the material to be projected is not transparent. It may be an item such as a black and white or coloured picture, a book or even a solid object such as a piece of wood or a rock. A special projector called an episcope, which uses a bright light and mirrors to project an image, is required. It is a relatively expensive and heavy piece of equipment and most suited for use in a central location such as a community training centre, where it can serve a variety of different courses. It is also useful for projecting illustrations from books on to a large sheet of paper. The outlines can then be traced with a crayon and used as the basis of a poster or diagram. Permission from the copyright holder should, however, be obtained before these are used publicly.

Transparent still projection

The materials projected in this case are non-moving transparent pictures in the form of slides or filmstrips. Some black and white filmstrips may still be in circulation but they are much less common and there are great advantages in preparing or ordering all new material in colour. The difference in cost is very little. Both pictures and projectors are relatively cheap and easy to obtain.

Cine projection

This involves the projection of moving pictures with or without sound, in the form of either 8mm or 16mm films. 8mm films are mainly the result of amateur photography and are now so rare that the purchase of an 8mm projector is seldom justified. Films themselves are generally expensive, especially

- 53 -

when made for a specific purpose and for only a limited audience. A 16mmprojector is also expensive and requires careful handling and regular expertmaintenance. In future, the role of films is likely to be taken overprogressively by video tapes.

6.2.2. Some advantages and disadvantages of projected aids

The advantages of projected aids are, briefly:

the viewers attention is directed towards a bright picture ina darkened room;the whole atmosphere promotes a feeling of anticipation andinterest; and,as there is only one centre of interest, the screen, casualdistractions are avoided.

Some of the disadvantages of projected visual aids are:

if they are made specifically for a target audience they mayinvolve a considerable amount of work and expenditure of timeand money in preparation and organisation; this work can initself, however, be a useful learning experience and lead to afuller understanding of the subject and of communicationtechniques;if the material is obtained from commercial sources, it may beexpensive and too general or too sophisticated for a

particular audience and have more entertainment than

educational value;staff sometimes feel discouraged as they cannot influence thecontent of films or filmstrips and they feel they are playingvery little direct part in the learning process; and,

they may be somewhat envious of the resources used in theproduction of commercial projected aids and discouraged intheir attempts to work effectively with much more limitedresources.

Projected and non-projected aids are complementary and should be usedeither together or individually as circumstances require.

6.2.3 Examples of projected visual aids

Projected visual aids include the following items:

Colour slides

these are photographs taken on colour film, which is

relatively cheap and is now widely available, and afterprocessing mounted in a slide frame, through which it can beprojected by means of a slide projector;for repeated use in extension work, it is best if the slidesare mounted in strong plastic frames with adequate protectionfor the coating of the film;they are useful for illustrating a long sequence of events,such as the development of a plantation, and compressing itinto a convenient viewing time;they can provide out-of-season demonstrations of forestryextension activities, such as nursery work or tree planting,to prepare people to engage actively in the real task at theproper season;they can bring a particular activity to the attention of

- 54 -

when made for a specific purpose and for only a limited audience. A l6mm projector is also expensive and requires careful handling and regular expert maintenance. In future, the role of films is likely to be taken over progressively by video tapes.

Some advantages and disadvantages of projected aids

The advantages of projected aids are, briefly:

- the viewers' attention is directed towards a bright picture in a darkened room;

- the whole atmosphere promotes a feeling of anticipation and interest; and,

- as there is only one centre of interest, the screen, casual distractions are avoided .

Some of the disadvantages of projected visual aids are:

- if they are made specifically for a target audience they may involve a considerable amount of work and expenditure of time and money in preparation and organisation; this work can in itself, however, be a useful learning experience and lead to a fuller understanding of the subject and of communication techniques;

- if the material is obtained from commercial sources, it may be expensive and too general or too sophisticated for a particular audience and have more entertainment than educational value;

- staff sometimes feel discouraged as they cannot influence the content of films or filmstrips and they feel they are playing very little direct part in the learning process; and,

- they may be somewhat envious of the resources used in the production of commercial projected aids and discouraged in their attempts to work effectively with much more limited resources.

Projected and non-projected aids are complementary and should be used either together or individually as circumstances require.

Examples of projected visual aids

Projected visual aids include the following items:

Colour slides

these are photographs taken on colour film, which is relatively cheap and is now widely available, and after processing mounted in a slide frame, through which it can be projected by means of a slide projector;

- for repeated use in extension work, it is best if the slides are mounted in strong plastic frames with adequate protection for the coating of the film;

- they are useful for illustrating a long sequence of events, such as the development of a plantation, and compressing it into a convenient viewing time;

- they can provide out-of-season demonstrations of forestry extension activities, such as nursery work or tree planting, to prepare people to engage actively in the real task at the proper season;

- they can bring a particular activity to the attention of

- 54 -

people in their home area, saving the cost and organisationrequired for a field day or tour to view it;slides can be copied cheaply and distributed widely for use inpublicising an activity;they are easy to store and to transport;

light, easily transportable, projectors are available for useeither on mains electricity or with car-type batteries;if no slide projector is available, a number of battery-operated, or daylight, hand viewers can be used with smallgroup of people, if multiple copies of the slides areavailable;the pace and the content of slide projection can be altered tosuit the needs of the audience (cf. cinema films, the speedand content of which cannot be changed);close-ups or enlargements of a subject, illustrating detailswhich could be overlooked by many people during a fielddemonstration, can be shown;specific features of certain tasks can be clearly illustratedfor discussion;the commentary can be varied to suit the requirements of aparticular audience;slides cannot show movement, which is a disadvantage;the audience cannot participate in their use as they can witha flannelgraph; and,

colour slides cannot, normallly, be left displayed for a longtime for personal study by individuals.

Some other important considerations and suggestions for the use ofslides in forestry extension activities are:

it is essential to darken the room adequately if used duringthe day, unless special equipment for back projection on to ascreen in daylight is used;before giving a slide show, check the projector and screen andensure that there is a spare lamp available;slides need a commentary; someone must explain what each slidedemonstrates unless it is a presentation using slides inconjunction with a pre-recorded commentary;the slides should support the commentary which should besuitable for use on its own, if the projector fails;prepare a script on which to base the proper arrangement ofthe slides, and select slides to illustrate important featuresof it;

limit the show to about 40 slides unless it is a preparedslide-tape show, where the pace of the commentary may requirethe use of more slides;include pictures of local interest or people, whenever

possible;set up the projector and screen in advance and arrange theseating so that everyone can view the screen easily;rehearse the presentation before the audience arrives;introduce the show with a brief explanation of what the

members of the audience are going to see, relating the subjectto local problems and experiences;each slide should be shown on the screen long enough to befully understood by the audience;encourage the audience to ask questions at convenient pointsin the presentation;answer these carefully but briefly but do not turn the answer

- 55 -

people in their home area, saving the cost and organisation required for a field day or tour to view it; slides can be copied cheaply and distributed widely for use in publicising an activity;

- they are easy to store and to transport; - light, easily transportable, projectors are available for use

either on mains electricity or with car-type batteries; - if no slide projector is available, a number of battery

operated, or daylight, hand viewers can be used with small group of people, if multiple copies of the slides are available;

- the pace and the content of slide projection can be altered to suit the needs of the audience (cf. cinema films, the speed and content of which cannot be changed);

- close-ups or enlargements of a subject, illustrating details which could be overlooked by many people during a field demonstration, can be shown;

- specific features of certain tasks can be clearly illustrat ed for discussion;

- the commentary can be varied to suit the requirements of a particular audience; slides cannot show movement, which is a disadvantage;

- the audience cannot participate in their use as they can with a flannelgraph; and,

- colour slides cannot, normailly, be left displayed for a long time for personal study by individuals.

Some other Important considerations and suggestions for the use of slides in forestry extension activities are:

- it is essential to darken the room adequately if used during the day, unless special equipment for back projection on to a screen in daylight is used;

- before giving a slide show, check the projector and screen and ensure that there is a spare lamp available;

- slides need a commentary; someone must explain what each slide demonstrates unless it is a presentation using slides in conjunction with a pre-recorded commentary; . the slides should support the commentary which should be

suitable for use on its own, if the projector fails; - prepare a script on which to base the proper arrangement of

the slides, and select slides to illustrate important features of it;

- limit the slide-tape the use of include

possible;

show to about 40 slides unless it is a prepared show, where the pace of the commentary may require more slides;

pictures of local interest or people, whenever

- set up the projector and screen in advance and arrange the seating so that everyone can view the screen easily;

- rehearse the presentation before the audience arrives; - introduce the show with a brief explanation of what the

members of the audience are going to see, relating the subject to local problems and experiences;

- each slide should be shown on the screen long enough to be fully understood by the audience;

- encourage the audience to ask questions at convenient points in the presentation;

- answer these carefully but briefly but do not turn the answer

- 55 -

into an impromptu talk; and,

- distribute literature on the subject, if any is available, atthe end of the show.

Slides are cheap andeasy to use

Filmstrips

Filmstrips are lengths of 35mm film showing a series of picturesforming a natural sequence. A filmstrip projector is used to project thisnon-motion film and is sometimes referred to as a 35mm still projector. It

is basically the same as a slide projector and, in fact, most good slideprojectors are available with the necessary attachments to show filmstrips.Masks are also available to reduce the picture to half-size to suit somecommercial filmstrips which are produced in the half-frame format. Somefilmstrip carriers, however, are difficult to load and the film may bedamaged in the process. People who use them should always be trainedinitially with strips of film which are of no value.

Some of the features of film strips are;

the sequence of pictures in filmstrips cannot be altered atwill to suit local interests;unsuitable pictures cannot be eliminated and may lead to someunnecessary discussion by the audience;filmstrips are usually supplied by commercial organisationsand are aimed at a wide audience; they may not, therefore, beparticularly well adapted to local conditions;they are reasonably inexpensive; and,

they are easily transportable.

Combined slide/tape presentations

Projectors with facilities for synchronising the showing of slides orfilmstrips with a commentary prepared on magnetic tape, where the projectorresponds to signals from the tape to change the picture, are now readilyavailable and not unduly expensive. Preparing the tape to support a seriesof pictures, however, requires some expertise. Assistance to carry this outmay be available at the local broadcasting organisation. Such tapes normallyuse music, at least for the introduction and the ending, and it is worthseeking professional help in selecting and recording this.

Tape/slide presentations standardise the presentation of an ideawherever they are used, which can have both positive and negative values.They must still be presented, however, by someone who can answer questions onthe topic authoritatively, if they are to be effective.

- 56-

into an impromptu talk; and, - distribute literature on the subject, if any is available, at

the end of the show.

j

Filmstrips

Slides are cheap and easy to use

Filmstrips are lengths of 35mm film showing a series of pictures forming a natural sequence. A filmstrip projector is used to project this non-motion film and is sometimes referred to as a 35mm still projector. It is basically the same as a slide projector and, in fact, most good slide projectors are available with the necessary attachments to· show filmstrips. Masks are also available to reduce the picture to half-size to suit SOme connnercial filmstrips which are produced in the half-frame format. Some filmstrip carriers, however, are difficult to load and the film may be damaged in the process. People who use them should always be trained initially with strips of film which are of no value.

Some of the features of film strips are;

- the sequence of pictures in filmstrips cannot be altered at will to suit local interests;

- unsuitable pictures cannot be eliminated and may lead to some unnecessary discussion by the audience; filmstrips are usually supplied by connnercial organisations

and are aimed at a wide audience ; they may not, therefore, be particularly well adapted to local conditions;

- they are reasonably inexpensive; and, - they are easily transportable.

Combined slide/tape presentations

Projectors with ·facilities for synchronising the showing of slides or filmstrips with a connnentary prepared on magnetic tape, where the projector responds to signals from the tape to change the picture, are now readily available and not unduly expensive. Preparing the tape to support a series of pictures, however, requires some expertise. Assistance to carry this out may be available at the local broadcasting organisation. Such tapes normally use music, at least for the introduction and the ending, and it is worth seeking professional help in selecting and recording this.

Tape/slide presentations standardise the presentation of an idea wherever they are used, which can have both positive and negative values. They must still be presented, however, by someone who can answer questions on the topic authoritatively, if they are to be effective.

- 56 -

Overhead projector

This apparatus projects large transparencies from a horizontal table,through a lens-prism which focusses a brilliant image on to an angled screenusually located behind the speaker.

The main features of an overhead projector are:

it can project charts, diagrams or written material preparedin advance on a sheet of transparent plastic film;it can be used to project complex diagrams which can be copiedon to treated film by a copying machine, known as a

transparency maker;a series of overlays, i.e. one sheet containing additionalmaterial placed on top of another, can be used to build up acomplex diagram; and,

it can be used in place of a chalkboard by writing withspecial pens on a roll of clear film fitted to the machine.

Some of the advantages of using overhead projectors are:

they enable the speaker to face the audience while writing orexplaining a diagram, which is not possible with a chalkboard;the image on the screen is normally large enough for all theaudience to see easily and to read any captions; and,

complete blacking-out of the room is not necessary as the

image is very bright.

Some disadvantages are:

the intense light can cause eye-strain for the instructor ifused for long periods, and particularly if he writes a greatdeal on a transparency while it is in use;the equipment and materials used are costly initially,

particularly if a transparency maker is required, but they canserve for a number of years if handled carefully; and,

standard classroom projectors are difficult to transport andliable to suffer damage in handling, but special portablemodels are available.

Overhead projectors are particularly valuable once a stock oftransparencies has been built up

-57 -

Overhead projector

This apparatus projects large transparencies from a horizontal table, through a lens-pri sm which focusses a brilliant image on to an angled screen usually located behind the speaker.

The main features of an overhead projector are:

- it can project charts, diagrams or written material prepared in advance on a sheet of transparent plastic film;

- it can be used to project complex diagrams which can be copied on to treated film by a copying machine, known as a transparency maker;

- a series of overlays, i.e. one sheet containing additional material placed on top of another, can be used to build up a complex diagram; and, it can be used in place of a chalkboard by writing with

special pens on a roll of clear film fitted to the machine.

Some of the advantages of using overhead projectors are:

- they enable the speaker to face the audience while writing or explaining a diagram, which is not possible with a chalkboard;

- the image on the screen is normally large enough for all the audience to see easily and to read any captions; and,

- complete blacking-out of the room is not necessary as the image is very bright.

Some disadvantages are:

- the intense light can cause eye-strain for the instructor if used for long periods, and particularly if he writes a great deal on a transparency while it is in use;

the equipment and materials used are costly initially, particularly if a transparency maker is required, but they can serve for a number of years if handled carefully; and,

- standard classroom projectors are difficult to transport and liable to suffer damage in handling, but special portable models are available.

Overhead projectors are particularly valuable once a stock of transparencies has been built up

- 57 -

Cinema films

Cinema films are undoubtedly very effective "crowd pullers" in ruralareas in developing countries. Their real value as a teaching aid is,

however, limited as they are very seldom sufficiently specific to be able torelate their topic directly to the needs of the people in the area. In

countries where a film industry is being built up there are greaterpossibilities for films to be made for particular requirements at a

reasonable cost. The local content of such films usually proves veryattractive and should compensate Cor any slightly less sophisticatedproduction techniques. Even if they only entertaLn a crowd and put them intoa friendly, receptive, frame of mind films provide an opportunity for

extension staff to take advantage of the situation and get over a seriousmessage.

Judged on their teaching value some advantages of using cinema filmsare:

- they show movement and can be used to demonstrate workingtechniques in suitable locations, often as skillfully as apersonal demonstration;people may find topics illustrated by films easier to

understand than static aids because of the movement and thesetting in which they are filmed;a long sequence of events which takes place at a result

demonstration can be compressed into a short period of timeand can make an interesting and entertaining film;they can, to some extent, be used in place of long andexpensive tours to bring the experiences and success of peoplein other areas to the attention of local people; and,

they can be used to get a message over in identical terms tovery large numbers of people in different locations.

There is always the possibility, however, that some points in a filmmay be misunderstood by the audience and it is important that the showing ofany film should be followed by discussion to verify that it made the rightimpression. It is particularly important, if films are being made for aspeciFic audience, that they be carefully validated before the final printsare made to ensure they do not contain any points of doubt or confusion orscenes unacceptable to the intended audience.

Some of the disadvantages of using cinema films are:

people often regard them more as entertainment than educationbut, nevertheless, they may learn something from them; a

combination of entertainment and educational films in one

programme is often an effective way of presenting a message;there may be no electricity supply in areas where there ismost need to show the films; a mobile unit is, therefore,required to provide power and possibly to transport the

equipment; this is generally very expensive;the cost of making films, or even of purchasing copies ofexisting films, is high;copies of films have a relatively short life if they are usedintensively in the field;many films are not effective as teaching aids because they aretoo fast a medium of instruction for certain audtences; anactivity may be shown very briefly and followed too quicklyby an entirely different sequence for a rural audience, used

to a much slower tempo of life, to comprehend; and,

-58 -

Cinema films

Cinema films are undoubtedly very effective "crowd pullers" in rural areas in developing countries. Their real value as a teaching aid is, however, limited as they are very seldom sufficiently specific to be able to relate their topic directly to the needs of the people in the area. In countries where a film industry is being built up there are greater possibilities for films to be made for particular requirements at a reasonable cost. The local content of such films usually proves very attractive and should compensate for any slightly less sophisticated production techniques. Even if they only entertain a crowd and put them into a friendly, receptive, frame of mind films provide an opportunity for extension staff to take advantage of the s ituation and get over a serious message.

are: Judged on their teaching value some advantages of using cinema films

- they show movement and can be used to demonstrate working tec1wiques in suitable locations, often as skillfully as a personal demonstration;

people may find topics illustrated by films easier to understand than static aids because of the movement and the setting in which they are filmed;

- a long sequence of events which takes place at a result demonstration can be compressed into a short period of time and can make an interesting and entertaining film;

- they can, to some extent, be used in place of long and expensive tours to bring the experiences and success of people in other areas to the attention of local people; and,

- they can be used to get a message over in identical terms to very large numbers of people in different locatfons.

There is always the possibility, however, that some points in a film may be misunderstood by the audience and it is important that the showing of any film should be followed by discussion to verify that it made the right impression. It is particularly important, if films are being made for a specific audience, that they be carefully validated before the final prints are made to ensure they do not contain any points of doubt or confusion or scenes unacceptable to the intended audience.

Some of the disadvantages of using cinema films are:

- people often regard them more as entertainment than education but, nevertheless, they may learn something from them; a combination of entertainment and educational films in one programme is often an effective way of presenting a message;

- there may be no electricity supply in areas where there is most need to show the films; a mobile unit is, therefore, required to provide power and possibly to transport the equipment; this is generally very expensive;

- the cost of making films, or even of purchasing copies of existing films, is high;

- copies of films have a relatively short life if they are used intensively in the field; many films are not effective as teaching aids because they are too fast a medium of instruction for certain audiences; an activity may be shown very briefly and followed too quickly by an entirely different sequence for a rural audience, used

to a much slower tempo of life, to comprehend; and,

- 58 -

- modern film editors often include extraneous scenes (side-cuts) for artistic reasons which are quite incomprehensible torural audiences and detract from their understanding of themessage.

Some considerations and suggestions on the use of cinema films inforestry extension programmes are:

there should be sufficient movement and activity in the filmto justify its use;for study purposes films made in the same locality are ofteamore effective even if they are not as expertly produced asfilms made outside the area;silent films (which are now rare) can be shown with a personsupplying a commentary in a local dialect; they operate at alower speed than sound film but most projectors can adjust forthis;

films using a foreign language are often more value if thecommentary is turned down and replaced by a commentary spokenby a person in the local dialect; the terms used are likely tobe more understandable and a good operator can soon acquire aconsiderable degree of skill in providing a commentary; and,

diplomatic missions and international organisations oftenmaintain large libraries from which films can be borrowed,usually without charge.

Some guidelies in the use of cinema films are:

all films should be carefully reviewed before being used inforestry extension programmes, or even as entertainment, to

ascertain their suitability for a particular audience; filmsfrom certain countries may include scenes which are consideredoffensive in others;exercise discretion in selecting films for any given learningsituation and eliminate any likely to cause confusion or to betoo sophisticated for the target audience;take into account the objective of the programme, the previousexperience of the audience, their age and education level,interests and customs, particularly in the matter of clothing;a film should only be used as a learning aid; it should befollowed up by a talk, discussion or demonstration toconsolidate the message it aimed to convey;beEore showing a film, explain briefly the information itcontains and tell the audience why it is important to them;alert the audience to look for certain points in the film;always allow an adequate period for discussion ot furtherexplanation of the film; when this procedure is followedmany useful points may be raised in the discussion; and,

always hold one short film in reserve, preferably a comedy orgeneral interest film, to wind up the programme or theaudience may leave before adequate discussion of the maintheme has taken place.

The question of the suitability of a film for a particular audience isnot likely to arise if locally made films are used as these will, already,have taken such points into consideraton.

- modern f ilm editor s often include extraneous s cenes ( s i de cuts) for artistic r easons which are quite incomprehens i ble to rur al audiences and det ract from their unders t anding of t he me s s a ge.

Some conside rations a nd suggestions on the use of cinema films in forestry extension programmes a re:

- there should be suff ici ent movement a nd ac t ivi ty in the f ilm to justify its use;

- for study purposes films made in the same local i ty a r e often more effective even if they are no t as expertly produced as films made outside the a r ea; silent films (which are now ra re ) can be shown wi th a person supplyi ng a commentary i n a local dialect; they operate a t a lower speed than s ound f ilm but mo s t pro jectors can adjust for this;

- films using a forei gn l a nguage are often mor e val ue if the commentary is turned down and rep l aced by a commentary s poken by a pe rson in the local dialect; the te rms used are likel y t o be more understandable and a good ope r ator can soon acqui r e a considerable degree of ski l l in pr ovidi ng a commentary; "and, diplomatic miss i ons and i nternational organisations of t en

maintain large libraries from which fUms can be borr owed , usually without charge.

Some gui de lies in the use of cinema films are:

- all films should be ca r eful ly reviewed before being used in forestry extension progr ammes, or even as entertainment, to a scerta in their suitability for a particular audience; films f rom certain countries may include scenes which are considered offensive in others ; exercise discretion in selecting films for a ny given learning situation and elimina t e any like l y to cause confusion or to be too sophisticated f or the t arget audience; take i nto account t he objective of the programme, the previous exper i ence of t he audience, their age and education level , intere s ts and customs, particularly in the matter of clothing; a film should only be used as a learning aid; it should be followed up by a t a l k, discussion or demonstration to consolidate the message it aimed to convey;

- be f ore showing a film, explain briefly the information it contains and tell t he audience why it is important to them;

- ale rt t he audience to look for certain points in the film; - always allow an adequate period for discussion ot fur t he r

explanation of t he fi l m; when this procedure is fol l owed many useful point s may be raised in the discussion; and,

- always hold one short film in reserve, preferably a comedy or general i nte r est film, to wind up the programme or the audience may leave before adequate discnssion of the ma i n theme has taken place.

The question of the sui tability of a film for a particular audience is not likely to arise if locally made films are used as these will , already , have taken such point s into cons i deraton.

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Check the following points before showing any films:

make sure the power supply is reliable and at an acceptablevoltage; (most modern projectors can be adjusted to a range ofvoltages around the common standards);check the electrical connections and extension cord, if one isrequired; carry screwdrivers, multiplugs or adaptors wherethere is a variety of sockets in common use;darken the room adequately without cutting off ventilation;keep spare projection lamps easily accessible; (there is oftena holder on the projector case Eor these);set up the projector, thread the film, focus on the screen andtest its operation in advance of the arrival of the audience;reset the film to the starting point;make sure the sound is set at a suitable level for the placeand the number of people expected;

- mount the projector high enough to project over the heads ofthe audience and to avoid a distortion of the picture on thescreen; and,

erect the screen so the base is at least 1.30m above thefloor.

Films can combine entertainment with informationfor effective learning

6.3 Tape recorders

The use of tape recorders is discussed in more detail in Section 9.9Radio. Tape recorders are useful for recording interviews and discussionsfor use on radio or as a special item at an extension meeting. They canalso be used to record songs or plays for entertainment to draw people intomeetings where more serious discussion can take place.

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Check the following points before showing any films:

- make sure the power supply is reliable and at an acceptable voltage; (most modern projectors can be adjusted to a range of voltages around the common standards);

- check the electrical connections and extension cord, if one is required; carry screwdrivers, multiplugs or adaptors where there is a variety of sockets in common use; darken the room adequately without cutting off ventilation; keep spare projection lamps easily accessible; (there is often a holder on the projector case for these); set up the projector, thread the film, focus on the screen and test its operation in advance of the arrtval of the audience; r ese t the film to the starting point; make sure the sound is set at a suitable level for the place and the number of people expected;

- mount the projector high enough to project over the heads of the audience and to avoid a distortion of the picture on the screen; and,

- erect the screen so the base is at least 1.3Om above the floor.

Films can combine entertainment with information for effective learning

6.3 Tape recorders

The use of tape recorders is discussed in more detail in Section 9.9 Radio. Tape recorders are useful for recording interviews and discussions for use on 'radiO or as a special item at an extension meeting. They can also be used to record songs or plays for entertainment to draw people into meetings where more serious discussion can take place.

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Preparing a tape recording describinga common forestry task can, in itself, be avery valuable teaching experience inplanning and organising the content. It canalso highlight odd mannerisms of speechwhich a person can correct and so improvehis or her extension skills. Both taperecorders and tapes are relativelyinexpensive and so widely used in mostcountries they can play a major part in

Forestry extension programmes. Mostcountries have some commercial or officialfacilities for editing and reproducing tapesto enable copies of a good standard to beproduced and supplied at a reasonable cost.

6.4 Video recorders

The initial value of video recordingsto extension staff is likely to be more as alearning aid than teaching aid. Planningand recording simple activities may bring tolight many personal mannerisms or

difficulties in expression which a personmay not have previously recognised and whichcan be easily corrected. It can also leadto very valuable self-criticism of themanner of presentation of training material.In time, a collection of short excerpts canbe built up which, while lacking thequalities of a professional programme, canstill be used as aids in introducing eitherextension staff or limited numbers of the

public to new skills. The facility ofimmediate review through the viewer of thecamera should lead to very rapidimprovements in both planning and recordingthe activity.

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The use oC video recorders is also referred to in Section 9.10Television. They consist of a video camera with a portable unit whichrecords both pictures and sound, a battery pack or leads to draw power from avehicle battery, and an AC adaptor to allow direct operation from the mainsor for recharging batteries. A video recorder, and a television set or videomonitor, are required for s.creening the picture, which is accompanied by thesound recorded during filming. For some purposes additional lights andexternal microphones may be desirable. A sequence can be reviewed on themonitor of the camera immediately after recording and can be retaken if itis, in any respect, unsatisfactory.

Small format video equipment, i.e. home-grade video using tape, isby present standards, reasonably inexpensive, and easy to operate. It isvaluable for quick, simple recordings of on-going activities but it has thedrawback that editing the tape inevitably leads to some loss of picturequality. It is not, therefore, suitable for recordings which are to bewidely copied and used for more formal study purposes. Semi-professionalequipment, which uses k" tape, is more expensive. As such tapes are normallycarefully edited and more widely used Cor study, operation of the camerarequires a higher degree of skill, and some detailed thought particularly atthe planning stage of the programme.

Preparing a tape recording describing a common Eorestry task can, in itsel f, be a very valuable teaching experience in planning and organising the content. It can also highlight odd mannerisms of speech which a person can correct and so improve his or her extension skills. Both tape recorders and tapes are relatively inexpen.si ve and so widely used in most countries they can play a major part in forestry extension programmes. Most countries have some commercial or official facilities for editing and reproducing tapes

. to enable copies of a good standard to be produced and supplied at a reasonable cost.

6.4 Video recorders

The use oE video recorders is also referred to in Section 9.10 Television. They consist of a video camera with a portable unit which records both pictures and sound, a battery pack or leads to draw power from a vehicle battery, and an AC adaptor to allow direct operation from the mains or for recharging batteries. A video recorder, and a television set or video monitor, are required for screening the picture, which is accompanied by the sound recorded during filming. For some purposes additional lights and external microphones may be desirable. A sequence can be reviewed on the monitor of the camera immediately after recording and can be retaken if it is, in any respect, unsatisfactory.

Small format video equipment, Le. home-grade video using ~" tape, is by present standards, reasonably inexpensive, and easy to operate. It is valuable for quick, simple recordings of on-going activities but it has the drawback that editing the tape inevitably leads to some loss of picture quality. It is not, therefore, suitable for recordings which are to be widely copied and used for more formal study purposes. Semi-professional equipment, which uses 1;" tape, is more expensive. As such tapes are normally carefully edited and more widely used for study, operation of the camera requires a higher degree of skill, and some detailed thought particularly at the planning stage of the programme.

The initial value of video recordings to extension staff is likely to be more as a learning aid than teaching aid. Planning and recording simple activities may bring to light many personal mannerisms or difficulties in expression which a person may not have previously recognised and which can be easily corrected. It can also lead to very valuable self-criticism of the manner of presentation of training material. In time, a collection of short excerpts can be built up which, while lacking the qualities of a professional programme, can still be used as aids in introducing either extension staff or limited numbers of the public to new skills. The facility of immediate review through the viewer of the camera should lead to very rapid improvements in both planning and recording the activity.

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The use of more sophisticated recording equipment was found in Chile andPeru, where video has been extensively used in rural education, to justifythe recruitment and training of a group of specialist "audio-visualtrainers". If this is adopted, very close co-operation between the group forwhom the material is being made, and the programme makers is necessary toensure that the technical content is correct. The experience of its use inLatin America suggests that video could be much more widely used in ruraltraining programmes and may largely replace films and slides as a trainingmedium in the forseeable future.

The main difficulty with the use of video equipment in rural areas,apart from making the right choice of equipment and the availability oftelevision sets or monitors for viewing the results, has been problems ofmaintenance and repair. However, even this is being reduced as localtechnicians acquire more skill in the repair of domestic television sets.The national television network in a country is also likely to have thenecessary skills to undertake maintenance and repair of the moresophisticated types.

6.5 Puppets

Puppetry is an aid which communicates ideas through entertainment.Puppets are small, doll-like, figures representing people which aremanipulated either by strings or by the hands by one or more puppeteersscreened from the audience, often in a decorative booth or stand. There isusually a considerable element of entertainment in the performance, though aserious message should run throughout it and be brought out prominently atthe end. They may be used either to mobilise people for a specificobjective, or to stimulate discussion of a sensitive, or embarrassing, issuewhich "puppets" may argue about but which "real people" may wish to avoid.

In general, if puppetry is already an established art in a country, itis useful to put it to work to spread forestry extension ideas. If it isnot, it is a matter of ascertaining how easily the skills can be acquired andwhether this novel type of presentation would have a major impact on thepeople.

The preparation of a puppet show involves:

defining the message to be conveyed and the target audience;writing a script incorporating the intended message;devising suitable characters and creating the puppets;training the puppeteers and the persons to speak the lines andallowing them to rehearse together; (in some countries puppets"speak" in a very stylised way);selecting and recording appropriate music to accompany theperformance; and,

making a sound recording the complete performance so that itcan be presented later with only the help of the puppeteers.

Staging a puppet show involves arranging a suitable booth, which in thefield may have to be the back of a vehicle. Any windows in the vehicleshould be curtained and a backcloth and simple stage curtains devised toheighten the illusion of the performance. In general, the performance islikely to have more impact if some trouble has been taken to make anattractive booth for the purpose.

The use of more sophisticated recording equipment was found in Chile and Peru, where video has been extensively used in rural education, to justify the r ecruitment and training of a group of special is t "audio-visual trainers". If this is adopted, very close co-operation between the group for whom the material is being made, and the programme makers is necessary to ensure that the technical content is correct. The experience of its use in Latin America suggests that video could be much more widely used in rural training programmes and may largely replace fi lms and slides as a training medium in the forseeable future.

The main difficulty with the use of video equipment in rural areas, apart from making the right choice of equipment and the availability of television sets or moni tors for viewing the results, has been problems of maintenance and repair. However, even this is being reduced as local technicians acquire more skill in the repair of domestic television sets. The national television network in a country is also likely to have the necessary skills to undertake maintenance and repair of the more sophisticated types.

6.5 Puppets

Puppetry is an aid which communicates ideas through entertainment, Puppets are small, doll-like, figures representing people which are manipulated either by strings or by the hands by one or more puppeteers screened from the audience, often in a decorative booth or stand. There is usually a considerable e l ement of ent ertainment in the performance, though a serious message should run throughout it and be brought out prominently at the end. They may be used either to mobilise people for a specific objective, or to stimulate discussion of a sens itive, or embarrassing, issue which "puppets" may argue about but which "rea l people" may wish to avoid.

In general, if puppetry is already an es tablished art in a country, it is useful to put it to work to spread forestry extension ideas. If it is not, it is a matter of ascertaining how easily the skills can be acquired and whether this novel type of presentation would have a major impact on the people .

The preparation of a puppet show involves:

- defining the message to be conveyed and the target audience; - writing a script incorporating the intended message; - devising suitable characters and creating the puppets; - training the puppeteers and the persons to speak the lines and

allowing them to rehearse together; (in some countries puppets "speak" in a very stylised way);

- selecting and recording appropriate music to accompany the performance; and,

- making a sound recording the complete performance so that it can be presented later with only the help of the puppeteers.

Staging a puppet show involves arranging a suitable booth , which in the field may have to be the back of a vehicle. Any windows i n the vehicle should be curtained and a backcloth and simple stage curtains devised to heighten t he illusion of the performance. In general, the performance is likely to have more impact if some trouble has been taken to make an attractive booth for the purpose.

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6.6 Music and plays

The use of a theme song, particularly a short, simple, attractive tunewith words people can sing or hum as they go about their normal business, andwhich can be played frequently on radio programmes oc at meetings and otherextension activities, is of great value. It serves the dual purpose ofgetting over a message and creating a favourable attitude to it. "SmokeyBear" songs have entertained and educated many children in America on thedangers of forest fires.

The use of plays, like puppetry, depends very much on the traditions ofthe area and on local skills in devising and performing suitable material.Where these exist they should be developed and used as widely as

circumstances allow. Where there is no tradition oE local live theatre, theproblems of introducing it may not be worth the effort involved when comparedto the use of other aids such as radio programmes, television, videos, slidesor films.

6.7 Mobile units (audio-visual vans)

These are, preferably, all-weather cross-country vehicles which cangenerate their own power to operate a wide range of audio-visual equipmentcarried on the vehicle. They are used to support extension activities suchas meetings and demonstrations or as a mass contact method particularlyduring an extension campaign.

6.7.1 Normal facilities of a mobile unit

The facilities found in a mobile unit would normally be:

a public address system (i.e. microphone, amplifier and

loudspeakers);- record and tape players for providing music and recordedmessages through the loudspeaker system;slide, filmstrip, video recorders and monitors and filmprojectors and screens suitable for both indoor and outdoorpresentations;stocks of suitable slides, filmstrips, video tapes and filmsrelated to the current campaign;additional popular records, tapes and films to entertainand attract crowds to presentations; and,

adequate stocks of suitable extension literature and postersfor distribution to the public.

6.7.2 Purposes of mobile units

The main purposes of mobile units are;

to supplement the activities of local extension staff at keypoints in the awareness and interest or implementation stagesof campaigns;to help create more confidence on the part of the public inthe local extension staff when the information they have beengiving is authenticated and reinforced by recorded messagesfrom leaders and other important sources; and,

to stimulate people to seek further information and advice onextension matters.

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6.6 Muslc and plays

The use of a theme song, particularly a short, simple, attractive tune with words people can sing or hum as they go about their normal business, and which can be played frequently on radio programmes or at meetings and other extension activities, is of great value. It serves the dual purpose of getting over a message and creating a favourable attitude to it. "Smokey Bear" songs have entertained and educated many children in America on the dangers of forest fires.

The use of plays, like puppetry, depends very much on the traditions of the area and on local skills in devising and performing suitable material. Where these exist they should be developed and used as «ide1y as circumstances a11m;. Where there is no tradition of local live theatre, the problems of introducing it may not be worth the effort involved when compared to the use of other aids such as radio programmes, television, videos, slides or films.

6.7 Mobile units (audio-visual vans)

These are, preferably, all-weather cross-country vehicles which can generate their O\m power to operate a wide range of audio-visual equipment carried on the vehicle. They are used to support extension activities such as meetings and demonstrations or as a mass contact method particularly during an extension campaign.

6.7.1 Normal facilities of a mobile unit

The facilities found in a mobile unit would norrually be:

a public address system (Le. microphone, amplHler and loudspeakers); record and tape players folC providing music and recorded

messages through the loudspeaker system; slide, filmstrip, video recorders and monitors and film

projectors and screens suitable for both indoor and outdoor presentations;

- stocks of suitable slides, filmstrips, video tapes and films related to t"e current campaign; additional popular records, tapes and films to entertain

and attract crowds to presentations; and, adequate stocks of suitable extension literature and posters for distribution to the public.

6.7.2 Purposes of mobile units

The main purposes of mobile units are;

- to supplement the activities of local extension staff at key points in the awareness and interest or implementation stages of campatgns;

- to help create more confidence on the part of the public in the local extension staff when the infot:"r1lation they have been giving is authenticated and reinforced by recorded messages from leaders and other important sources; and, to stimulate people to seek further information and advice on extension matters.

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6.7.3 Advantages and disadvantages of mobile units

Some of the advantages of mobile units are:

their visits are generally attractive to people in ruralareas, as they have a high entertainment as well as aneducative value;they have a wide range of facilities available for presentinga message which can be supported by some attractive music orvisual entertainment;they are highly mobile and can penetrate even into remoteareas of a country; and,the fact that the staff are willing to visit and provideinformation and entertainment for people in remote areas fewother officials visit, creates a favourable attitude locallytowards them and their message.

Some of the disadvantages of mobile units are:

they are costly to purchase and maintain in use because of thespecial equipment they carry and there are normally fewavailable in most countries;they need to be staffed with persons of very special

qualities; sociable, friendly but knowledgeable personscapable of conveying a wide range of information to a greatvariety of people, and willing to work at nights, and on restdays whenever an audience can be gathered;proper maintenance of the vehicles is not easy to arrange ifthey are intensively used in remote areas;they require a back-up organisation to prepare and replaceprogramme materials as necessary and to ensure the supply ofliterature and other consumable items; and,some areas of the country may still be inaccessible to them.

Mobile units can play a valuable part in extension campaignsbut they are expensive and not always easy to staff

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6.7.3 Advantages and disadvantages of mobile units

Some of the advantages of mobile units are:

their visits are generally attractive to areas, as they have a high entertainment educative value;

people in as well

rural as an

they have a wide range of facilities available for presenting a message which can be supported by some attractive music or visual entertainment;

- they are highly mobile and can penetrate even into remote areas of a country; and,

- the fact that the staff are willing to visit and provide information and entertainment for people in remote areas few other officials visit, creates a favourable attitude locally towards them and their message.

Some of the disadvantages of mobile units are:

- they are costly to purchase and maintain in use because of the special equipment they carry and there are normally few available in most countries;

they need to be staffed with persons of very special qualities; sociable, friendly but knowledgeable persons capable of conveying a wide range of information to a great variety of people, and willing to work at nights, and on rest days whenever an audience can be gathered;

- proper maintenance of the vehicles is not easy to arrange if they are intensively used in remote areas;

- they require a back-up organisation to prepare and replace programme materials as necessary and to ensure the supply of literature and other consumable items; and,

- some areas of the country may still be inaccessible to them.

" "

Mobile units can play a valuable part in extension campaigns but they are expensive and not always easy to staff

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6.8 Display visuals

This is a general term for various items used to convey informationwhich are discussed in detail in Section 9 in relation to their functions inmass education. A few more specific points concerning the use of these itemsas visual aids are given here.

Posters:

these serve primarily to announce or publicise extensionactivities or campaign objectives;they have very little training value unless they are followed-up by other activities such as meetings or demonstrations;and,

they are useful in reminding the public of a campaign messagewhen used with other extension methods and informationmaterials.

Wallcharts

Though somewhat similar in appearance to posters, wall charts have adifferent educational function. Their main characteristics and uses are:

they are particularly suited to simple classroom or workshopinstruction;they are used to provide explanatory support for topics whichmay be difficult to cover in depth within a limited period;they are used to explain by simple diagrams certain complexprocesses (e.g. the rainfall cycle, or a particular piece ofmechanical equipment); and,

their principal value lies in the fact that they can be lefton a wallboard and used by students for revision or

verification of material covered previously in class.

There are a number of useful series of wall charts relevant to forestryproduced by commercial organisations, some for sale and others available freefor public relations or community service functions. Some wallcharts,however, have a tendency to provide a great deal of information within alimited area. They may sometimes be of most value if particular itemsillustrated on a chart can be enlarged and displayed on their own for study.An episcope can be used for this purpose, subject to the agreement of thecopyright holder.

Wallboards or bulletin boards

These should be constructed of materials which make it possible to

attach notices with drawing-pins without difficulty. Alternatively they canbe constructed of a mnooth material which allows notices to be attached withsmall pieces of plastic adhesive material.

The main functions of wallboards are:

they can carry posters, wallcharts, bulletins, copies of

handouts, notices of extension activities, forestryinformation and news, in fact anything relevant which can bedisplayed on a suitably sized board;they should be erected at strategic places where people cansee and study them conveniently, (preferably covered areas ofmarkets, stores, offices, schools, etc.);

- if used for instructional purposes, they should be selective

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6.8 Display visuals

This is a general term for various items used to convey information which are discus s ed in detail in Section 9 in relation to their functions in mass education. A few more specific points concerning the use of these items as visual aids are given here .

Posters:

- these serve primarily to announce or publicise extension activities or campaign objectives;

- they have very little training value unless they are followedup by other activities such as meetings or demonstrations; and,

- they are useful in reminding the public of a campaign message when used with other extension methods and information materials.

Wallcharts

Though somewhat similar in appearance to posters, wall charts have a different educational function. Their main characteristics and uses are:

- they are particularly suited to simple classroom or «orkshop instruction ;

- they are used to provide explanatory support for topics which may be difUcult to cover in depth «ithin a limited period;

- they are used to explain by simple diagrams certain complex processes (e.g. the rainfall cycle, or a particular pie ce of mechanical equipment); and,

- their principal value lies in the fact that they can be left on a wallboard and used by students for reV1S10n or verification of material covered previously in class .

There are a number of useful series of wall chart s relevant to forestry produced by commercial organisations, some for sa le and others available free for public relations or community service functions . Some wallcharts, however, have a tendency to provide a great deal of information within a limi ted area. They may sometimes be of most value if particular items i l lustrated on a chart can be enlarged and displayed on their own for study. An episcope can be used .for this purpose, subject to the agreement of the copyright holder.

Wallboards or bulletin boards

These should be constructed of materials which make i t poss ible to a t tach notices with drawing-pins without diff i cult y . Alternatively they can be construct ed of a smooth material which allows notices to be attached with smal l pieces of plastic adhesive material.

The main functions of wallboards are:

they can carry posters, wal1charts, bulletins , copies of handouts, notices of extension activities, forestry information and news, in fact anything relevant which can be displayed on a suitably sized board;

- they should be erected at strategic places where people can see and study them conveniently, (preferably covered areas of markets, stores, offices, schools, etc.);

- if used for instructional purposes, they should be selective

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and only display material relevant to the current topic for alimited period for study and review; or,

if used for general information purposes, as an aid to

extension, the material should be attractively arranged andregularly replaced and updated.

A neglected wallboard with a randomassortment of often out-of-date notices ismost likely to have a negative effect on thepublic. Training establishments or ruraldevelopment centres and schoo/s can seldomhave enough wallboard space. Themanufacture and supply, free of charge, ofwallboards which can be used as required forforestry or general rural developmentinformation or wallcharts, would in manycases be an effective use of a limitedbudget for extension work, particularlywhere the recipient of the board, e.g. a

rural headmaster or community leader,undertakes responsibility for maintainingthe material displayed on it and so becomesmore involved in the extension activity.

Magnetic Boards

Magnetic boards are particularly useful in certain learning situationsbut they are not as widely used as they might be. The main obstacles totheir use are that large sheets of smooth steel, about the size of a smallchalkboard, are not easy to find in rural areas and are not particulary easyto transport over long distances. They are heavy and if they become bentthey are particularly difficult to straighten. They are, therefore, not socommon, or so widely versatile, as chalkboards. All the display materialsused on them must be prepared in advance. To be effective they must be usedin a prominent position in a study area and as such they are in directcompetition for space with chalkboards, feltboards, wallboards and projectorscreens.

The main characteristics and functions of a magnetic board are:

the technique is similar to flannelgraph, though the

illustrative materials are more expensive to construct;they consist of a smooth metal sheet, normally attached to awall, to which objects, which have small magnets affixed totheir back, can be attached;they can support heavier objects than a flannelgraph, providedmagnets of suitable size are used;the symbols can be slid over the surface and show movementmore effectively than flannelgraph where symbols must "jump"from place to place.they can be used outdoors relatively unaffected by weather orwind, but only small sizes of magnetic boards can be

considered easily transportable; and,

some initiative must be shown to devise and prepare newmaterial for use on a magnetic board, otherwise there may be atendency to use the same material repeatedly for only one ortwo specific learning situations.

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and only display material relevant to the current topic for a limited period for study and review; or,' if used for general information purposes , as an aid to

extension, the material should be attractively arranged and regularly replaced and updated.

A neglected wallboard with a random assortment of often out-of-date notices is most likely to have a negative effect on the public. Training establishments or rural development cent res and schools can seldom have enough wallboard space . The manufacture and supply, free of charge, of wallboards which can be used as required for forestry or general rural development information or wa11charts, would in many cases be an effective use of a limited budget for extension work, particularly where the recipient of the board, e.g. a rural headmaster or community leader, undertakes responsibility for maintaining the material displayed on it and so becomes more involved in the extension activity.

Magnetic Boards

Magnetic boards are particularly useful in certain learning situations but they are not as widely used as they might be. The main obstacles to their use are that large sheets of smooth steel, about the size of a small chalkboard, are not easy to find in rural areas and are not particu1ary easy to transport over long distances. They are heavy and if they become bent they are particularly difficult to straighten. They are, therefore, not so common, or so widely versatile, as chalkboards. All the display materials used on them must be prepared in advance. To be effective they must be used in a prominent position in a study area and as such they are in direct competition for space with chalkboards, fe1tboards, wallboards and projector screens.

The main characteristics and functions of a magnetic board are:

the technique is similar to flanne1graph, though the illustrative materials are more expensive to construct;

- they consist of a smooth metal sheet, normally attached to a wall, to which objects , which have small magnets affixed to their back, can be attached;

- they can support heavier objects than a f1anne1graph, provided magnets of suitable size are used; the symbols can be slid over the surface and show movement

more effectively than f1anne1graph where symbols must "jump" from place to place.

- they can be used outdoors relatively unaffected by weather or Wind , but only small sizes of magnetic boards can be considered easily transportable; and, some initiative must be shown to devise and prepare new

material for use on a magnetic board, otherwise there may be a tendency to use the same material repeatedly for only one or two specific learning situations.

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6.9 Extension literature

The use of literature in extension campaigns is discussed in full inSection 9.6. Its role is complementary to the main extension process. Thepreparation of extension literature is, therefore, a valuable teaching/learning exercise for all staff involved in forestry extension who will haveto communicate ideas or techniques to members of the public.

Leaflets

These are of most value if they are produced in a standard size andformat which is convenient to handle and which is easy and cheap to produce.They should also be of a format which can be conveniently stored in bulk forquick issue, and filed for easy reference.

Some of the qualities of a good leaflet are:

they should have an attractive design and lay-out which makesthem easily recognisable for what they are;they should have a clear, distinctive, title so that anyparticular leaflet in a series can be easily located;they should provide simple, practical advice on forestrymatters for a specific audience (e.g. advice on tree plantingpractices for farmers oC arable land may not be the same asthat for cattle rearers);

- they should be printed in the vernacular or in very simpleterms in a common language;they should make use of illustrations to supplement writteninstructions but illustrations should not displace wordsentirely as is happening in instruction sheets for some

commercial products marketed worldwide;people should be encouraged to discuss the information in theleaflets amongst themselves and with extension staff at

meetings;any important observations made on these occasions should betaken into account when reprinting the leaflet or in designingothers in the series;without the reinforcement of the message by personal contactsleaflets in themselves may be of little value in persuadingpeople to change their practices; and,

they can serve as a valuable reminder of techniquesdemonstrated at meetings and are very important for verifyingwhat a person may think he was told at such a time.

Handouts

These are simple summaries of what a person has been told or has seenin a talk or a demonstration. As they may be used in large numbers, or mayserve the specific needs of one activity only, economy in their production isa vital requirement.

A stock of suitable paper, possibly colour-coded for particular topicsand pre-printed with headings, a logo, or some feint background illustration,can be maintained for typing, cyclostyling or otherwise reproducing handoutsas required. People taking part in formal courses may wish to file andretain handouts because they may contain a great deal of useful information.This is easier to do if they are in a standard format. For many otherpeople, however, who receive handouts, they may have only a very short usefullife and their contents should be brief, clear and easily read. Their costshould be kept as low as is compatible with their function and their

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6.9 Extension literature

The use of literature in extension campaigns is discussed in full in Section 9.6. Its role is complementary to the main extension process. The preparation of extension literature is, therefore, a valuable teaching / learning exercise for all staff involved in forestry extension who will have to communicate ideas or techniques to members of the public.

Leaflets

These are of most value if they are produced in a standard size and format which is convenient to handle and «hich is easy and cheap to produce. They should also be of a format which can be conveniently stored in bulk for quick issue, and filed for easy reference.

Some of the qualities of a good leaflet are:

- they should have an attractive design and lay-out «hich makes them easily recognisable for what they are;

- they should have a clear, distinctive, title so that any particular leaflet in a series can be easily located; they should provide simple, practical advice on forestry

matters for a specific audience (e.g. advice on tree planting practices for farmers of arable land may not be the same as that for cattle rearers); they should be printed in the vernacular or in very simple terms in a common language; they should make use of illustrations to supplement written instructions but illustrations should not displace words entirely as is happening in instruction sheets for some commercial products marketed worldwide;

- people should be encouraged to discuss the information in the leafle ts amongst themselves and with extension staff at meetings; any important observations made on these occasions should be taken into account when reprinting the leaflet or in designing others in the series;

- without the reinforcement of the message by personal contacts leaflets in themselves may be of · little value in persuading people to change their practices; and,

they can serve as a valuable reminder of techniques demonstrated at meetings and are very important for verifying what a person may think he was told at such a time.

Handouts

These are simple summaries of what a person has been told or has seen in a talk or a demonstration. As they may be used in large numbers, or may serve the specific needs of one activity only, economy in their production is a vital requirement.

A stock of suitable paper, possibly colour-coded for particular topics and pre-printed with headings, a logo , or some feint background illustration, can be maintained for typing, cyclostyling or otherwise reproducing handouts as required. People taking part in formal courses may wish t o file and retain handouts because they may contain a great deal of useful information. This is easier to do if they are in a standard format. For many other people, however, who receive handouts, they may have only a very short useful life and their contents should be brief, clear and easily read. Their cost should be kept as low as is compatible with their function and their

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importance in an extension programme.

Their main function may be summarised as:

they are useful aids to extension work and are oftendistributed at the end of meetings, demonstrations, field daysand tours;they are used to summarise, in short simple sentences, themain points of the activity; and,they help recall the message conveyed by the extension staff.

Bulletins

The distribution of bulletins is largely restricted to extension staffor particular community leaders to provide them with a full summary ofinformation available on a particular topic. They should also be used toup-date staff on the latest technological developments or achievements in aparticular field of work.

If carefully prepared, distributed, and filed, they may form the mainsource of reference material for field staff preparing talks, planningdemonstrations or answering queries on a topic. If they are to serve auseful purpose of this sort they should be printed on good quality paper andstored in clearly identifiable covers. For bulletins which may have to bereferred to in the field, laminating the pages between two thin films ofplastic increases their useful life and keeps them clean and attractive.This usually has to be done at the point of production. Though laminatingmachines are not very expensive, there is unlikely to be enough work tojustify having them widely distributed throughout an organisation.

Newsletters

These are a more informal source of information. They are more widelydistributed and may go out to active participants in extension programmes andbe made available to people who are potential participants. They are used tocirculate information on achievements or problems within a particular area ofwork. They provide a forum for a regular exchange of ideas betweenenthusiastic workers in different locations who may rarely meet. Staff ofall grades should be encouraged to contribute and items should be printed inthe vernacular if this is the language in which a contributor can most easilyexpress himself or herself.

Newsletters are often launched with a certain degree of enthusiasm andlater fade away as staff feel either they have nothing important to

contribute or are too busy to get their information or ideas down on paper.Emphasis should be placed, throughout the organisation, on the value of theexchange of ideas and staff should be credited and perhaps rewarded in cashor in their career prospects for useful contributions to the knowledge ofextension, made in this way.

importance in an extension programme.

The·ir main function may be summarised as:

- they are useful aids to extension work and are often distributed at the end of meetings, demonstrations, field days and tours;

- they are used to summarise, in short simple sentences, the main points of the activity; and,

- they help recall the message conveyed by the extension staff.

Bulletins

The distribution of bulletins is largely restricted to extension staff or particular community leaders to provide them with a full summary of information available on a particular topic. They should also be used to up-date staff on the latest technological developments or achievements in a particular field of work.

If carefully prepared, distributed, and filed, they may form the main source of reference material for field staff preparing talks, planning demonstrations or answering queries on a topic. If they are to serve a useful purpose of this sort they should be printed on good quality paper and stored in clearly identifiable covers. For bulletins which may have to be referred to in the field, laminating the pages between two thin films of plastic increases their useful life and keeps them clean and attractive. This usually has to be done at the point of production. Though laminating machines are not very expensive, there is unlikely to be enough work to justify having them widely distributed throughout an organisation.

Newsletters

These are a more informal source of information. They are more widely distributed and may go out to active participants in extension programmes and be made available to people . who are potential participants. They are used to circulate information on achievements or problems within a particular area of work. They provide a forum for a regular exchange of ideas between enthusiastic workers in different locations who may rarely meet. Staff of all grades should be encouraged to contribute and items should be printed in the vernacular if this is the language in which a contributor can most easily express himself or herself.

Newsletters are often launched with a certain degree of enthusiasm and later fade away as staff feel either they have nothing important to contribute or are too busy to get their information or ideas down on paper. Emphasis should be placed, throughout the organisation, on the value of the exchange of ideas and staff should be credited and perhaps rewarded in cash or in their career prospects for useful contributions to the knowledge of extension, made in this way .

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7. WORKING WITH PEOPLE

Extension services seek to help people to make decisions which shouldlead to an improvement in their environment and standard of living and toassist them to acquire the knowledge and skills to implement these decisions.To do this, they rely on effective communication with the people. Extensionstaff must, therefore, be at all times in close contact with the communityand must acquire the characteristics and skills necessary to work closely andharmoniously with them.

7.1 Personal characteristics required

To serve effectively in an extension organisation, staff must have, ordevelop progressively, the following characteristics.

Creativity

Extension staff should not propose a solution to a problem justbecause it appears to be the "stock answer" to the situation.They should think round the whole situation, try to study theproblem from every possible angle, e.g. environmental, technical,cultural, and financial, and generate a number of possible linesof approach to solving it.They should be willing to examine every possible solutionsuggested, develop any favourable points in it and if necessarycombine these with favourable aspects of other possiblesolutions.They should present new ideas or viewpoints for the people toexamine critically and make their own decisions.As agents of change, they should, by their own example of

flexibility, try to bring about constructive changes in the waypeople think and act.

Initiative

When a situation arises they should try to take appropriateaction on it, using their own resources.They should discuss all developmental problems with the localcommunity concerned and encourage them to make an appropriatedecision for themselves on the basis of existing knowledge andskills.

If the situation is too complex for them to give proper advicethey should define the problem clearly, first for discussion withthe community, and then refer specific points to subject-matteror administration specialists at district or central level.This is not likely to happen unless the extension staff haveconfidence in themselves and are able and allowed to makedecisions about their own work.

Organisational ability

The work of the extension staff themselves must be well plannedand organised, if the local people and their leaders are to

support a programme of extension.Good organisation leads to the most effective use of limitedresources.Success in this area will increase the reputation of the membersof the extension service and the willingness of people to seekout and follow their advice.

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7. WORKING WITH PEOPLE

Extension services seek to help people to make decisions which should lead to an improvement in their environment and standard of living and to assist them to acquire the knowledge and skills to implement these decisions. To do this, they rely on effective communication with the people. Extension staff must , therefore, be at all times in close contact with the community and must acquire the characteristics and skills necessary to work closely and harmoniously with them.

7. 1 Personal characteristics required

To serve effectively in an extension organisation, staff must have, or develop progressively, the following characteristics.

Creativity

Extension staff should not propose a solution to a problem just because it appears to be the "stock answer" to the situation. They should think round the whole situation, try to study the problem from every possible angle, e.g. environmental, technical, cultural, and financial, and generate a number of possible lines of approach to solving it. They should be willing to examine every possible solution suggested, develop any favourable points in it and if necessary combine these with favourable aspects of other possible solutions. They should present new ideas or viewpoints for the examine critically and make their own decisions . As agents of change, they should, by their olm flexibility, try to bring about constructive changes people think and act.

Initiative

people to

example of in the way

When a situation arises they should try to take appropriate action on it, using their own resources. They should discuss all developmental problems with the local community concerned and encourage them to make an appropriate decision for themselves on the basis of existing knowledge and skills. If the situation is too complex for them to give proper advice they should define the problem clearly, first for discussion with the community, and then refer specific points to subject-matter or administration specialists at district or central level . This is not likely to happen unless the extension staff have confidence in themselves and are able and allowed to make decisions about their own work.

Organisational ability

The work of the extension staff themselves must be well planned and organised, if the local people and their leaders are to support a programme of extension. Good organisation leads to the most effective use of limited resources. Success in this area will increase the reputation of the members of the extension service and the willingness of people to seek out and follow their advice.

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Problem-solving ability

Extension staff must be able to recognise and define the

essential elements of a problem, and equally, recognise anyextraneous factors which may be attached to it by a special

interest group.They should measure the problem against their own knowledge andexperience and, if possible, suggest solutions to it.They should discuss the options and possible solutions with thecommunity and encourage them to take an appropriate decision.They should observe closely the factors which influence the

community in decision making, e.g. personal influence, culturalvalues, finance, and take these into account in making anyfurther proposals.

Judgement

Extension staff should always consider the effect which theiractions, general behaviour and the language they use, will haveon the community.They must learn the significance attached to certain words byparticular groups of people.They must exercise tact and discretion in all their dealings.They must never let their words or actions arouse hostility tothe general concept of self-help through extension.

Self-improvement

Extension staff must follow the principle that learning is a

continuous process for all people and apply it conscientiously totheir own activities.They shou1d take every opportunity of keeping their knowledge up-to-date by private study, reading, discussion with knowledgeablepersons and attending demonstrations of new techniques.

Reliability

Extension staff must be aware of the importance of keeping anypromises they may make to people and limit their commitments towhat they can be sure of delivering.If they fail in this, confidence in them and in theirorganisation may be destroyed, and this is difficult to restore.

It is unlikely that a candidate for a post in an extension service willhave all these desirable qualities, so some discretion is necessary in theprocess of selection. The qualities can, however, be developed by trainingexperience and personal effort. The reward structure of the organisationshould consider improvements in skill in these fields as important as formalacademic qualifications.

7.2 Public speaking

Extension staff must expect to have to speak frequently to members ofthe public, formally and informally, either as individuals or groups. To

carry out this function effectively they must acquire skills in speaking.The following points may assist a person to become a better speaker. Apersonal list of "things that did not go well", prepared immediately aftereach talk, is, however, of most value in improving speaking skills.

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Problem-solving ability

Extension essential extraneous

staff must be elements of a

f actors which interest group_

able to recognise and define the problem, and equally, recognise any may be attached to it by a special

They should measure the problem against their own knowledge and experience and, if possible, suggest solutions to it. They should discuss the options and possible solutions with the community and encourage them to take an appropriate decision. They should observe closely t he factors which influence the community in decision making, e.g. personal influence, cultural values, finance, and take these into account in making any further proposals.

Judgement

Extension staff should always consider the effect which their actions, general behaviour and the language they use, will have on the community. They must learn the significance attached to certain words by particular groups of people. They must exercise tact and discretion in all their dealings. They must never let their words or actions arouse hostility to the general concept of self-help through extension.

Self-improvement

Extension staff must follow the principle that learning is a continuous process for all people and apply it conscientiously to thei r own activities. They should take every opportunity of keeping their knowledge upto-date by private study, reading, discussion with knowledgeable persons and attending demonstrations of new techniques.

Reliability

Extension staff must be aware of the importance of keeping any promises they may make to people and limit their commitments to what they can be sure of delivering. If they fail in this, confidence in them and in their organisation may be destroyed, and this is difficult to restore.

It is unlikely that a candidate for a post in an extension service will have all these desirable qualities, so some discretion is necessary in the process of selection. The qualities can, however, be developed by training experience and personal effort. The reward structure of the organisation should consider improvements in skill in these fields as important as formal academic qualifications.

7.2 Public speaking

Extension staff must expect to have to speak frequently to members of the public, formally and informally, either as individuals or groups. To carry out this function effectively they must acquire skills in speaking. The following points may assist a person to become a better speaker. A personal list of "things that did not go well", prepared immediately after each talk, is, however, of most value in improving speaking skills.

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Ensure that what you have to say is of real interest to that

particular audience. Take time to find out in advance the typeof audience you have to meet, their knowledge, if any, of thesubject, and what more they want and need to know about it.

List a number of particular points you want to cover. Mentionthese to the audience at the outset so they know at which pointin the talk you are as it proceeds, and when the end is due.Constuct this list from the knowledge or ideas you want the

audience to carry away with them from the meeting.

Do not apologise in advance for what you may consider to be yourshortcomings or limitations as a speaker. If you do have any, itis not necesary to emphasise them by drawing attention to them.

If you consider it necessary, make sure that the person makingthe introduction is supplied with all the necessary informationon the topic and on the background of the speaker.

Talk "to" the audience, but not "at" them. Establish sympatheticeye-contact with a number of them in different parts of the room.Do not direct your attention to the wall, the ceiling, or out ofthe windows.

Start with the confidence that you can give a good talk, but makethe necessary preparations to justify this. Do not be upset bytemporary nervousness: even good speakers can suffer from this attimes.

Speak naturally in a firm, clear voice, but do not shout at youraudience. Do not stand rigid but avoid using unnecessarygestures: they will distract the audience and may even make youlook foolish.

Observe the faces of the people in the audience throughout thetalk. The facial expressions of the audience are the best guideto the speaker of the success, or otherwise, of the talk as itproceeds. These may indicate interest or lack of it, approval ordisapproval or even boredom. Be sensitive to these clues.

Illustrate a talk with personal examples, as appropriate, but donot let it degenerate into gossip. Do not over-emphasiseyourself as an example.

Never memorise a speech, or even attempt to read it. It willlose all freshness and impact. There are considerabledifferences between formal written language and the colloquiallanguage familiar to most audiences at extension activities.

It is useful to have small cards with clear headings and a fewkey words as reminders of the content of each section. Make useof any visual aids appropriate to the situation. Not only willthese add interest to the talk but they will serve as veryeffective reminders, both to you and the audience, of the

important points.

Single sheets of thin paper are not suitable for use as notes.They are difficult to handle unobtrusively and are liable torustle or blow away and so distract the audience, which adds tothe speaker's nervousness.

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Ensure that what you have to say is of rea l inter est to that particular audience . Take time to find out in advance the type of audience you have to meet, their knowledge, if any, of t he subject, and what more they want and need to know about i t .

List a number of particular points you want to cover . Mention these to the audience at the outset so they know at whi ch point in the talk you are as it proceeds, and when the end i s due. Constuct this list from the knowledge or ideas you want the audience to carry away with them from the meeting.

Do not apologise in advance for what you may conside r t o be your shortcomings or limitations as a speaker . If you do have any, it is not necesary to emphasise them by drawing attention t o t hem.

If you consider it necessary., make sure that the person making the introduction is supplied with all the necessary information on the topic and on the background of the speaker.

Talk "to" the audience, but not "at" them . Establish sympa t het ic eye-contact with a number of them in di fferent parts of t he room. Do not direct your attention to the wall, the ceiling, or out of the windows.

Start with the confidence that you can give a the necessary preparations to justify this. temporary nervousness: even good speakers can times .

good tal k, but make Do not be upset by suffer fr om t his at

Speak naturally audience. Do ges tures: they look foolish.

in a firm, clear voice, but do not shout a t your not stand rigid but avoi d using unnecessary will distract the audience and may even make you

Observe the faces of the people in the audience throughout the talk. The facial expressions of the audience are the best guide to the speaker of the success, or otherwise , of the t a l k as it proceeds. These may indicate interest or lack of it , approval or disapproval or even boredom. Be sensitive to these clues.

Illustrate a talk with personal examples, as not let it degenerate into gossip. Do yourself as an example.

appropriate, but do not over-emphasise

Never memorise a speech, or even attempt to read it. It will lose all freshness and impact . There a re considerable differences between formal written language and the col loquial language familiar to most audiences at extension activiti es.

It is useful to have small cards with clear headings and a few key words as reminders of the content of each section . Make use of any visual aids appropriat e to the situation. Not only wi ll these add interest to the talk but they will serve as very effective reminders, both to you and the audience , of the important points.

Single sheets of thin paper are not suitable for use as no t es. They are difficult to handle unobtrusively and a re liabl e t o rustle or blow away and so distract the audience, whi ch adds to the speaker ts nervousness .

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Rehearse the talk to yourself in private. If possible, recordparts of it on video or on audio tape and study these critically.Avoid recording all the material, however, as this may tempt youto try to memorise it.

Try to relax the audience at first. This can be done by aninteresting anecdote or a short, relevant, story. These must,however, be well told or they will not have the desired impactand will tend to increase the strain between the audience andspeaker.

An alternative is to review briefly what you intend to coverduring the talk, by way of an introduction.

Make sure the whole audience can see and hear you adequately. If

some persons are standing at the rear, and there are seatsavailable at the front, invite them to occupy them. This usuallyhas a relaxing effect on the audience in general.

Avoid "talking down" to an audience. Do not underestimate thebasic intelligence or interest of the members in many ruralmatters.

Dress suitably for the occasion: do not appear in field dress fora formal occasion in town, or attend a formal meeting or a localcouncil looking as if you had just had a hard day's work in thefield.

Never "play down" a member of the audience. You will do yourselfmore damage than the person you are trying to hurt. This isespecially important during question periods. Try to be

courteous when someone asks a question you have just finishedanswering. Try not to get angry or provoked, or if you are, trynot to show it. Answer the question as briefly as circumstancesallow. It might assist someone who has not fully understood yourearlier answer.

Leave time for a careful summing-up at the end of the talk. In

it refer only to the major points discussed; do not attempt togive a complete review. A detailed summnry lasting 7 to 8

minutes may make the audience wonder why you had to have an hourto make the points in the first place.

If you wish to answer questions at the end of the talk let theaudience know about this at the beginning. They can then holdover any questions they want to ask until the end.

It may be embarrassing for a speaker not to get any questionsafter inviting them. This can sometimes .be overcome by using thedirect approach, "Now who has the first question?"

At large meetings, or where time does not permit individualquestions, suggest that people who would like further informationcome to you after the meeting and that you will be happy to speakwith them.

If a question is difficult to answer, or needs a little thought,throw it open to the whole audience. Address it first to theaudience in general. If you address a question to one member ofthe audience he may be embarrassed and the audience will show

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Rehearse the talk to yourself in private. If possible, record parts of it on video or on audio tape and study these critically. Avoid recording all the material, however, as this may tempt you to try to memorise it.

Try to relax the audience at first. This can be done by an interesting anecdote or a short, relevant, story. These must, however, be well told or they will not have the desired impact and will tend to increase the strain between the audience and speaker.

An alternative is to review briefly what you intend to cover during the talk, by way of an introduction.

Make sure the whole audience can see and hear you adequately. If some persons are standing at the rear, and there are seats available at the front, invite them to occupy them. This usually has a relaxing effect on the audience in general.

Avoid "talking down" to an audience. Do not underestimate the basic intelligence or interest of the members in many rural matters.

Dress suitably for the occasion: do not appear in field dress for a formal occasion in town, or attend a formal meeting or a local council looking as if you had just had a hard day's work in the field.

Never "play down" a member of the audience. You will do yourself more damage than the person you are trying to hurt. This is especially important during question periods. Try to be courteous when someone asks a question you have just finished answering. Try not to get angry or provoked, or if you are, try not to show it. Answer the question as briefly as circumstances allow. It might assist someone who has not fully understood you~ earlier answer.

Leave time for a careful summing-up at the end of the talk. In it refer only to the major points discussed ; do not attempt to give a complete review. A detailed summary l as ting 7 to 8 minutes may make the audience wonder why you had to have an hour to make the points in the first place.

If you wish to answer questions at the end of the talk let the audience know about this at the beginning. They can then hold over any questions they want to ask until the end.

It may be embarrassing for a speaker not to get any questions after inviting them. This can sometimes .be overcome by using the direct approach, "Now who has the first question?"

At large meetings, or where time does not permit individual questions, suggest that people who would like further information come to you after the meeting and that you will be happy to speak with them.

If a question is difficult to answer, or needs a little thought, throw it open to the whole audience. Address it first to the audience in general. If you address a question to one member of the audience he may be embarrassed and the audience will show

- 72 -

more interest in how he or she deals with it than than with thequestion itself. Review any suggestions you have received fromthe audience and formulate your answer as best you can. If

necessary, undertake to give a written answer later.

Bring the questions to an end before they run down and becometrivial or irrelevant. An effective way to do this is to say,"There is time for just one more question", which allows you toend the discussion after it has been answered.

Try to be as brief as possible in answering questions, withoutactually leaving out valuable points. It is better to stop whilethe audience's interest is still high, than to continue untilthey are bored and restless.

Hand out any printed materials at the end of the talk. It is

distracting to have the audience rustling and reading papers theyhave just received while the talk is going on. If it is

necessary to give out materials at any particular point in atalk, stop talking, issue a copy to everyone and study the

specific point with them. Ask them to put away the paper andthen resume the talk.

Avoid any distracting mannerisms. Do not fidget or fumble withkeys, coins or chalk. A few minutes in front of a video

recorder, or even a tape recorder, may tell you a lot you did notknow about your presentation.

Be genuinely enthusiastic about your topic and as optimistic orcheerful as the circumstances allow and let this enthusiasm spillover to the audience.

Accept politely any comments the chairman may make about you inclosing the meeting.

Accept any reasonable invitation to speak; the practice acquiredwill build up your stock of reference material and increase yourconfidence and skills.

- 73 -

Always prepare a talk carefully no matter how informal the situation may be

more interest in how he or she deals with it than than with the question itself. Review any suggestions you have received from the audience and formulate your answer as best you can. If necessary, undertake to give a written answer later .

Bring the questions to trivial or irrelevant. "There is time for just end the discussion after

an end before they run down and become An effective way to do this is to say, one more question", which allows you to it has been answered.

Try to be as brief as possible in answering questions, without actually leaving out valuable points. It is better to stop while the audience' s interest is still high, than to continue until they are bored and restless.

Hand out any printed materials at the end of the talk. It is distracting to have the audience rustling and reading papers they have just received while the talk is going on. If it is necessary to give out materials at any particular point in a talk, stop talking, issue a copy to everyone and study the specific point with them. Ask them to put away the paper and then resume the talk.

Avoid any distracting mannerisms. Do not fidget or fumble with keys, coins or chalk. A few minutes in front of a video recorder, or even a tape recorder, may tell you a lot you did not know about your presentation.

Be genuinely enthusiastic about your topic and as optimistic or cheerful as the circumstances allow and let this enthusiasm spill over to the audience.

Accept politely any comments the chairman may make about you in closing the meeting.

Accept any reasonable invitation to speak; the practice acquired will build up your stock of reference material and increase your confidence and skills.

\.~ :~',:¥"< ..• . '\>~, \i "

Always prepare a talk carefully no matter how informal the situation may be

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7.3 Working with local leaders

A major objective of any extension programme must be to establish alocal organisation which is capable, both of implementing the programme, andof ensuring its continuation after any official support ends. To achievethis, extension staff must work through local leaders. There are never likelyto be enough paid staff, either to contact all the people who shouldparticipate in such a programme, or to influence or train them effectively.For this, the co-operation of local leaders is essential. In addition,people are likely to be suspicious of any activity which appears to by-passthe local leadership, and the obstacles which this could raise might provedisastrous.

The leaders, through which extension staff have to work, are bothformal and informal. Formal leaders are people who hold positions in societywhich carry some official status and responsibillity. By their influence, andthe respect in which they are held by the people, they can gain support for aprogramme. Informal leaders are people who, though they do not hold anyofficial'positions, are regarded by their neighbours as responsible andprudent people whose judgement and advice are valued locally. If they adopta new procedure, or express support for it, others will follow their lead.They can be of great value in organising meetings or demonstrations locallyand generally in promoting and encouraging the adoption of new ideas. Thesupport and assistance of both types of leader is essential to the success ofa development programme.

7.3.1 Formal leaders

areSome examples of formal leaders whose support is important for success

political leaders, such as members of the legislature or thecabinet, or party officials at national or local level;cultural leaders, leaders of religious groups, teachers inpublic or private educational institutions;leaders of the administration, officials of other governmentorganisations e.g. agriculture, animal husbandry, health orcommunity development;traditional leaders, village or district chiefs, leaders ofclans or community groups; and,

special interest groups, heads of local development groups,businessmen, farmers' associations, womens' or youthorganisations.

The support of these leaders can spread initially through theorganisations they represent and, in time, through the general community whonote any statements they may make on the matter. To secure their support itis necessary, initially, to ensure that the leaders are fully informed on thebackground and reasons for any extension proposals and their relevance to theparticular area. They should be encouraged to attend local meetings ordemonstrations both to widen their knowledge of the topic and to indicatetheir support for it publicly.

7.3.2 Informal leaders

-

These can normally be identified by maintaining close contact with thelocal people over a wide range of activities and observing those who meet thefollowing criteria:

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7.3 Working with local leaders

A major objective of any extension programme must be to establish a l ocal organisation which is capable, both of implementing the programme, and of ensuring its continuation after any official support ends. To achieve this, extension staff must work through local leaders . There are never likely to be enough paid staff, either to contact all the people who should participate in such a programme , or to influence or train them effectively. For this, the co-operation of local leaders is essential. In addition, people are likely to be suspicious of any activity which appears to by-pass the local leadership, and the obstacles which this could raise might prove disastrous .

The leaders, through which extension staff have to work, are both formal and informal. Formal leaders are people who hold positions in society which carry some official status and responsibillity. By their influence, and the respect in which they are held by the people, they can gain support for a programme. Informal leaders are people who, though they do not hold any of ficial· positions, are regarded by their neighbours as responsible and prudent people whose judgement and advice are valued locally. If they adopt a new procedure, or express support for it, others will follow their lead. They can be of great value in organising meetings or demonstrations locally and generally in promoting and encouraging the adoption of new ideas . The support and ass istance of both types of leader is essential to the success of a development programme.

are:

7. 3.1 Formal leaders

Some examples of formal leaders whose support is important for success

- political leaders, such as members of the legislature or the cabinet , or party officials at national or local level;

- cultural leaders, leaders of religious groups, teachers in public or private educational institutions ;

- leaders of the administration, officials of other government organisations e.g. agriculture, animal husbandry , health or community development ;

- traditional leaders, village or district chiefs , leaders of clans or communi ty groups; and,

- special interest groups , heads of local development groups, businessmen, farmers' associations, womens' or youth organisations.

The support of these l eaders can spread initially through the organi sations they represent and , in time, through the general community who note any statements they may make on the matter. To secure their support it is necessary, initially, to ensure that the leaders are fully informed on the background and reasons for any extension proposals and their relevance to the particular area. They should be encouraged to attend local meetings or demonstrations both to widen their knowledge of the topic and to i ndicate their support for it publicly.

Informal leaders

These can normally be identified by maintaining close contact with the local people over a wide range of activities and observing those who meet the fo llowing criteria:

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show good judgement in the conduct of their own affairs;possess considerable practical experience in such activitiesas farming, animal husbandry or rural development;show an interest in following new practices before the

majority of the people;seek out information on new practices in any appropriate way;have a reasonable standard of wealth and education;are unemotional, and convinced only by facts;are able to speak convincingly to their neighbours; and,

are sought out by others in their group for opinions andadvice.

Their support is important in spreading an interest in new activitiesthroughout their communities. Their assitance is most effctive if they canbe persuaded to carry out some appropriate activity on their own and then actas a leader in spreading it to others.

7.3.3 Training local leaders

Local leaders, both formal and informal, should be encouraged to takeup any training opportunities which might improve their leadership qualities.For formal leaders, training should centre on the general requirements ofextension and the broad reasons for promoting or adopting a particular courseof action in an area. They should be supplied with any appropriate documentsand be encouraged to speak informatively about the matter on any suitablepublic occasion, and to show their interest by attending appropriatemeetings, discussions or demonstrations.

.Informal leaders should be given all the appropriate informationavailable but should also be offered opportunities to attend courses orprogrammes in:

how to carry out particular techniques;how to organise meetings and demonstrations;how to reconcile or justify new practices in terms of localcustoms and beliefs; and,

how to express the benefits of a practice in terms the publiccan understand.

In offering this assistance, however, extension staff must be carefulto avoid creating the impression that the local leaders are particularlyfavoured by the organisation or are in any way directly a part of it. Theirinmpartiality and leadership may be compromised if they are thought to berepresentatives of an official organisation.

In spite of this, it is important to recognise the services of informalleaders in some ways. They can be acknowledged by pointing out theirachievements to political or formal leaders, particularly in a speech on asuitable public occasion, by sending them letters of thanks for particularservices or by recording their activities in official reports. Photographsand brief accounts of their work may be displayed on bulletin boards or inwall newspapers. They may also be included in parties invited to makeofficial tours or visits to suitable activities. However, it must be madeclear to the public that they are informal leaders, and not in any wayemployed, or dependent on, the extension organisation.

Some benefits which can accrue to an extension organisation bydeveloping a network of local voluntary leaders are:

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- show good judgement in the conduc t of their own affairs; - posse ss conside rable prac tical experience in such activities

a s f a rming , animal husba ndry or r ural devel opment; show an interest in following new practices before the

majority of the people ; seek out information on new practices in any appropriate way ; have a reasonable standard of wealth a nd education;

- are unemotional , and convi nced onl y by facts; are able t o speak convincingl y t o t heir neighbours; and,

- are sought out by others in their group for opinions and advice.

Their support is important i n spreading an interes t in new activit i es throughout their communities. Their assi tance is mos t effctive if they can be persuaded to carry out some appropr i ate activi t y on their own and then ac t as a leader in spreading it to others.

7.3.3 Training local leaders

Local leaders, both formal and inf orma l , should be encour aged to t ake up any training opportuni ties which might improve their leadership qualities . For formal leaders , training shoul d centre on the general requirements of extens ion and the broad r easons f or pr omot ing or adopt ing a particular course of action in an area. They should be supplied wi t h any appropriate documents and be encouraged to speak informative ly about t he matter on any suitable public occasion, and to show their i nterest by attending appropriat e meetings, discussions or demons trations.

Informal ava"ilable but programmes in:

leaders should

should be given all the appropriate als o be offered opport unities to attend

- how to carry out particular t echniques; - how to organi s e meetings and demonstrat ions;

information courses or

- how to reconci l e or justify new pr ac t ices i n terms of local customs and beliefs; and , how to expres s the be nefi t s of a prac t i ce in terms the public can understand.

In offering this assistance, however, ext ens i on staff must be careful to avoid creating the impression t hat the l ocal leaders are particularly favoured by the organisation or are in any Hay directly a part of it. Thei r inmpartiality a nd l eadership may be compromised if they are thought t o be representatives of an official organi sa t ion.

In spite of this, it is impor t ant t o r ecognise the services of informal leaders in some ways . They can be acknowledged by pointing out their achievements to political or formal leaders , particularl y in a speech on a suitable public occasion, by sending them letters of thanks for particul a r services or by recording their act i vi ties in official reports. Photographs and brief accounts of their wor k may be displayed on bulletin boards or in wall newspapers . They may also be included in parties invited to make official tours or visits to suitable act ivities. However, it must be made clear to the publ i c that they are informal leaders, and not in any way employed , or dependent on , the ext ens ion organisation.

Some benefits which can accrue to an extension organisation by developing a network of local volunt ary leaders are:

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they are an important source of detailed information on localcustoms, viewpoints, attitudes, etc;they in turn normally have good contacts with the local peoplewhom they can inform or influence on appropriate topics; and,the views they express are more likely to gain acceptancelocally than those of a paid extension assistant.

Some problems which may arise in their use, however, are:

the difficulty of finding people willing to take on theseresponsibilities on a voluntary basis; and,the need to ensure that the information and advice they giveis accurate and genuinely available to all.

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they are an important source of detailed information on local customs, viewpoints, attitudes, etc; they in turn normally have good contacts with the local people whom they can inform or influence on appropriate topics; and, the views they express are more likely to gain acceptance

locally than those of a paid extension assistant.

Some problems which may arise in their use, however, are:

the difficulty of finding people willing to take on these responsibilities on a voluntary basis; and,

- the need to ensure that the information and advice they give is accurate and genuinely available to all,

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8. INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP EXTENSION METHODS

It is the task of forestry extension staff:

to provide people with an opportunity to learn, by methods,and in circumstances, appropriate to them; and,

to stimulate in their clients mental and physical activitywhich leads to effective learning.

To achieve their objectives, forestry extension methods must meet thesetwo major requirements.

People learn in different ways, some by listening, some by observing,and some through discussion. A person will, generally, learn moreeffectively by using a combination of two or more of these methods. Studiessuggest that the more varied the methods of extension used in an area, themore people change their attitudes and practices.

Different extension methods have been found to be more effective, indifferent situations, and at different stages in the adoption process. All

people do not learn, or change their practices, at the same speed. Some maybe ready to adopt a new practice and need to know how to carry it out, whileothers are, as yet, scarcely aware that it exists or are just beginning toshow an interest in it. For these reasons, the use of a variety of extensionmethods, suited to the needs of the people, and used either consecutively orin some cases simultaneously, is necessary to carry out an effective forestryextension programme.

Appropriate methods which forestry extension staff can use fall intothree main categories:

individual methods;group methods; and,

mass methods.

Individual and group methods will be dealt with jointly in this sectionwhile mass methods follow in the next section.

8.1 Individual methods

Individual, face-to-face, contact has been found to be the mosteffective way of facilitating the learning process in an individual.Personal contacts have many important values such as:

the personal influence of an extension agent is important insecuring co-operation and participation in extensionactivities and in the adoption of improved practices;people will listen to the advice and suggestions of extensionstaff whom they feel they know and like personally, and whoseknowledge they respect; and,

immediate feedback is obtained on whether the message has beenunderstood in the sense intended.

These factors pose considerable problems for extension organisations indeveloping countries. There are usually serious shortages of mature andexperienced staff available for extension duties and the organisations haveto rely mainly on young urban, recently qualified, people who lack a depth offield experience and who find it difficult to establish the trust and mutualrespect necessary between the extension staff and their clients. This may be

a particularly serious problem in communities where there is more respect for

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8. INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP EXTENSION METHODS

It is the task of forestry extension staff:

- to provide people with an opportunity to learn, by methods, and in circumstances, appropriate to them; and, to stimulate in their clients mental and physical activity which leads to effective learning.

To achieve their objectives, forestry extension methods must meet these two major requirements.

People learn in different ways, some by listening, some by observing, and some through discussion. A person will, generally, learn more effectively by using a combination of two or more of these methods. Studies suggest that the more varied the methods of extension used in an area, the more people change their attitudes and practices.

Different extension methods have been found to be more effective, in different situations, and at different stages in the adoption process. All people do not learn, or change their practices, at the same speed. Some may be ready to adopt a new practice and need to know how to carry it out, while others are, as yet, scarcely aware that it exists or are just beginning to show an interest in it. For these reasons, the use of a variety of extension methods, suited to the needs of the people, and used either consecutively or in some cases simultaneously, is necessary to carry out an effective forestry extension programme.

Appropriate methods which forestry extension staff can use fall into three main categories:

- individual methods; - group methods; and, - mass methods.

Individual and group methods will be dealt with jointly in this section while mass methods follow in the next section.

8.1 Individual methods

Individual, face-to-face, contact has been found effective way of facilitating the learning process in Personal contacts have many important values such as:

to be the most an individual.

the personal influence of an extension agent is important in securing co-operation and participation in extension activities and in the adoption of improved practices;

- people will listen to the advice and suggestions of extension staff whom they feel they know and like personally, and whose knowledge they respect; and,

- immediate feedback is obtained on whether the message has been understood in the sense intended.

These factors pose considerable problems for extension organisations in developing countries. There are usually serious shortages of mature and experienced staff available for extension duties and the organisations have to rely mainly on young urban, recently qualified, people who lack a depth of field experience and who find it difficult to establish the trust and mutual respect necessary between the extension staff and their clients. This may be a particularly serious problem in communities where there is more respect for

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age and wisdom than for formal education.The need to move relatively junior staff atshort intervals to widen their experienceand improve their career prospects, makesit even more difficult for them to

establish long-term relations with thepeople in their area of work. On the otherhand more mature staff tend to prefer aless active role and are normally offeredfew incentives to take up such posts whichoften involve considerable travel and

irregular hours of duty. A small core ofexperienced and well rewarded staff

assisting a larger, more mobile, group of1 younger and less experienced people may be

the best that many countries can hope forat this stage.

8.2 Home visits

Some of the purposes oE making home visits are:

to acquaint the extension staff (particularly new members)with the client and his family, to exchange traditionalcourtesies, and to establish a friendly working relationship;to obtain first-hand knowledge of the living and workingconditions of the client and his family, and the problemsfaced by them;to supply general information on forestry matters to that

family;to answer specific requests for help (e.g. requests for

information, seeds, plants or other materials), wheneverpossible;to explain in detail, and demonstrate where practicable,recommended forestry practices (e.g. nursery techniques or theestablishment of small woodlots);to adjust general recommendations on forestry practices givenin pamphlets or in radio programmes to suit the person'sparticular situation or problems;to follow up and observe the results of recommended forestrypractices which have already been adopted;to identify and arouse interest in problems the person maynot yet have recognised as such;to plan an activity such as a meeting or demonstration;to invite the person and his family to take part in a plannedactivity; or,

to recruit, train, or encourage a local volunteer leader toorganise or lead a local forestry development committee.

8.2.1 Some features of home visits

Some of the advantages of making home visits are:

- the extension staff gain first-hand knowledge of the actualproblems faced by their clients and are able to see the

circumstances in which they arise;they help to develop the goodwill and confidence of the familyvisited in the extension agent and in the advice given; and,individual teaching provided in this way is most effective asit can take place in the way, and at the speed, most suited to

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age and wisdom than for formal education. The need to move relatively junior staff at short intervals to widen their experience and improve their career prospects, makes it even more difficult for them to establish long-term relations with the people in their area of work. On the other hand more mature staff tend to prefer a less active role and are normally offered few incentives to take up such posts which often involve considerable travel and irregular hours of duty. A small core of experienced and well rewarded staff assisting a larger, more mobile, group of younger and less experienced people may be the best that many countries can hope for at this stage.

8.2 Home visits

Some of the purposes of making home visits are:

- to acquaint the extension staff (particularly new members) with the client and his family, to exchange traditional courtesies, and to establish a friendly working relationship; to obtain first-hand knowledge of the living and working

conditions of the client and his family, and the problems faced by them; to supply general information on forestry matters to that

family; to answer specific

information, seeds, possible;

requests plants

for help (e.g. requests for or other materials), whenever

to explain in detail, and demonstrate where practicable, recommended forestry practices (e.g. nursery techniques or the establishment of small woodlots);

- to adjust general recommendations on forestry practices given in pamphlets or in radio programmes to suit the person's particular situation or problems;

- to follow up and observe the results of recommended forestry practices which have already been adopted; to identify and arouse interest in problems the person may

not yet have recognised as such; to plan an activity such as a meeting or demonstration;

- to invite the person and his family to take part in a planned activity; or, to recruit, train, or encourage a local volunteer leader to organise or lead a local forestry development committee.

8.2.1 Some features of home visits

Some of the advantages of making home visits are:

the extension staff gain first-hand knowledge of the actual problems faced by their clients and are able to see the circumstances in which they arise; they help to develop the goodwill and confidence of the family visited in the extension agent and in the advice given; and,

- individual teaching provided in this way is most effective as it can take place in the way, and at the speed, most suited to

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the client.

Some disadvantages of home visits which can be avoided as far as

possible by good planning are:

visits are expensive in terms of time and transport requiredand can only be made at times convenient to the client;the number of people who can be contacted within a givenperiod is limited;a tendency may develop to visit some families, with whom goodrelations have been established, more frequently, at the

expense of trying to establish better relations with others;and,this situation may result in loss of contact with the

community as a whole and cause jealousy and resentment amongstsome members of it.

8.2.2 Checklist for planning a home visit

Tt is useful to have a simple checklist of steps for planning andmaking home visits, to ensure that each visit is effective and makes the bestuse of the time involved. Such checklists will develop and improve withlocal experience but some points which should appear in an initial checklistare as follows.

Planning the visit:

suggest a time convenient to the person's work or habits,(e.g avoid clashing with the time of religious observances,known festivals or market days);make a firm appointment, if possible;decide in advance on a clear purpose for the visit;review any notes made following previous visits to the person;check any technical information that may be required on thevisit, (refer to publications or to a subject-matterspecialist, if necessary);collect any pamphlets, instructional material or samples ofseed to be left with the client;arrange a series of visits within an area to save time and

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respect);his family in the

to comment on favourably to start the

travel and, if possible, include other work in the area (e.g.visits to offices) during periods of the day when people arenot normally available; and finally,consider carefully in advance the best form of approach toeach person.

Making the visit

be punctual (or follow local custom in thisgive a suitable greeting to the client andcustomary form;try to find somethingdiscussion;let the person and his family talk about their problems (atlength, if necessary);prompt them to ask for possible solutions to their problems;give any relevant information and some suggested solutions oradmit where more information is needed before a response canbe given;demonstrate any skill required, if appropriate;confirm any essential information in writing or in diagrams,

the client.

Some disadvantages of home visits which can be avoided as far as possible by good planning are:

visits are expensive in terms of time and transport required and can only be made at times convenient to the client; the number of people who can be contacted wi thin a given

period is limited; a tendency may develop to visit some families, with whom good relations have been established, more frequently, at the expense of trying to establish better relations with others; and, this situation may result in loss of contact with the

community as a whole and cause jealousy and resentment amongst some members of it.

8.2.2 Checklist for planning a home visit

It is useful to have a simple checklist of steps for planning and making home visits, to ensure that each visit is effective and makes the best use of the time involved. Such checklists will develop and improve with local experience but some points which should appear in an initial checklist are as follows.

Planning the visit:

- suggest a time convenient to the person's work or habits, (e.g avoid clashing with the time of religious observances, known festivals or market days);

- make a firm appointment, if possible; decide in advance on a clear purpose for the visit;

- review any notes made following previous visits to the person; check any technical information that may be required on the visit, (refer to publications or to a subject-matter specialist, if necessary);

- collect any pamphlets, instructional material or samples of seed to be left with the client;

- arrange a series of visits within an area to save time and travel and, if possible, include other work in the area (e.g. visits to offices) during periods of the day when people are not normally available; and finally,

- consider carefully in advance the best form of approach to each person.

Making the visit

be punctual (or follow local custom in this respect); give a suitable greeting to the client and his family in the customary form;

- try to find something to comment on favourably to start the discussion; let the person and his family talk about their problems (at length, if necessary);

- prompt them to ask for possible solutions to their problems; - give any relevant information and some suggested solutions or

admit where more information is needed before a response can be given;

- demonstrate any skill required, if appropriate; - confirm any essential information in writing or in diagrams,

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either on the spot, or as soon after as possible;make careful notes on what has been discussed or achievedduring the visit;encourage the family members to join in any suitable groupextension activities in the area, if appropriate, (e.g. to

take part in establishing a community woodlot); and,

- keep any information collected about the person seeking helpstrictly confidential, (do not leave notes or files lyingaround in the office).

Follow-up

enter the notes made during the visit on the record card orfile kept for that particular person, as soon after the visitas possible;supply any forestry or other relevant literature requested bythe person visited; (pass on requests to other extensionorganisations, e.g. agriculture, community development or

health services if their help is required);call on the assistance of a subject-matter specialist foradvice on any problems which cannot be solved by localresources; and,

plan and arrange follow-up visits as required; note these in aprogramme of work diary.

8.3 Office calls and enquiries

Encourage people who are interestedin forestry extension to call at theextension office if they are in the area,and set aside particular times of the weekfor these visits, if possible, (e.g. marketdays, when people are likely to be in thearea rather than on their farms). Trainthe office staff to receive visitorspolitely and either deal with simplerequests for publications directly, if theycan, or refer them to one of the extensionstaff for more detailed discussions if

necessary. Ensure that none of the staffabuse their positions by asking favoursfrom the public for doing this work.

Some important considerations and suggestions for dealing with officecalls and making the best use of the time of the staff are as follows:

people who call on their own initiative at a forestryextension agent's office or home show that they are interestedin his work and in any information he may have to offer;the more confidence the people have in an extension agent, themore likely they are to call on him for assistance and followany advice or suggestions he might offer;this may reduce the number of home visits necessary and saveboth time and travel costs of staff;circulars, brochures and handouts on relevant matters shouldbe readily available to such callers (even if they do not needto discuss any particular points with the person in charge);a definite period of time, or day suited to local custom,should be set aside for receiving such callers, who shouldreceive priority attention by the staff at that time;

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either on the spot, or as soon after as possible; make careful notes on what has been discussed or achieved during the visit;

- encourage the family members to join in any sui table group extension activities in the area, if appropriate, (e.g. to take part in establishing a community woodlot); and, keep any information collected about the person seeking help strictly confidential, (do not leave notes or files lying around in the office).

Follm,- up

- enter the notes made during the visit on the record card or file kept for that particular person, as soon after the visit as possible;

- supply any forestry or other relevant literature requested by the person visited; (pass on requests to other ext ension organisations, e.g. agriculture , community development or health services if their help is required);

- calIon the assistance of a subject-matter specialist for advice on any problems which cannot be solved by local resources; and,

- plan and arrange follow-up visits as required; note these in a programme of work diary.

8.3 Office calls and enquiries

Encourage people who are interested in forestry extension to call at the extension office if they are in the area, and set aside particular times of the week for these visits, if possible, (e.g. market days, when people are likely to be in the area rather than on their farms). Train the office staff to receive visitors politely and either deal with simple requests for publications directly, if they can, or refer them to one of the extension staff for more detailed discussions if necessary. Ensure that none of the staff abuse their positions by asking favours from the public for doing this work.

=

Some important considerations and suggestions for dealing with office calls and making the best use of the time of the staff are as follows:

people who calIon their own initiative at a forestry extension agent's office or home show that they are interested in his work and in any information he may have to offer;

- the more confidence the people have in an extension agent, the more likely they are to calIon him for assistance and follow any advice or suggestions he might offer;

- this may reduce the number of home visits necessary and save both time and travel costs of staff;

- circulars, brochures and handouts on relevant matters should be readily available to such callers (even if they do not need to discuss any particular points with the person in charge);

- a definite period of time, or day suited to local custom, should be set aside for receiving such callers, who should receive priority attention by the staff at that time;

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- calls and enquiries dealt with in this way are less expensiveand time consuming than home visits; and,

a careful record of office calls should be kept; this mayserve as a basis for follow-up activity or as an index ofpublic interest or participation in an extension activity.

8.4 Personal letters

Personal letters may be of limited importance in extension activitiesin some areas at present, but their importance will increase as literacybecomes widespread. People usually derive some satisfaction or pleasure fromreceiving a helpful, well-written, personal letter. This, in itself, mayhelp to establish good working relations in an area. Letters are the mainform of communication both within an extension organisation and with otherpublic organisations. All extension staff should try to acquire some skillin letter writing.

Some points which should be taken into account in this respect are:

some people may have to write for information because it isnot possible for them to make a personal call;all such letters should be answered promptly and courteously;a well constructed reply can create a Favourable impressionand help build up public confidence in an extensionorganisation;a poorly written, or very formal reply, can discourage aperson Crom writing again, and damage any developing

confidence;information given in a reply should be as full as required forthe purpose but should not contain any unnecessary details orirrelevant facts;if a complete reply cannot be given immediately, a short,friendly, acknowledgement should be sent, and a full replyshould be promised and sent as soon as the information isavailable; and finally,letters should be concise, clear and well laid out; if theyare too long they are likely to confuse the reader.

8.4.1 Some features of letters

Letters are:

useful in answering requests for information where a personalcall on the enquirer is not considered necessary in the

circumstances, or cannot be made promptly;useful for following-up visits or office calls and confirmingor reinforcing any advice given orally; and,

useful in maintaining contact with, and encouraging, local

voluntary leaders in their activities.

They are:

not in themselves considered to be a major source of

information to rural people, or if used on their own, of muchvalue in changing work practices;not of very great value as extension aids in countries withouta reliable postal service, or where rural people are mainlyilliterate;they may, however, be an important means, and in some casesthe only effective means of communication between scattered

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calls and enquiries dealt with in this way are less expensive and time consuming than home visits; and, a careful record of office calls should be kept; this may serve as a basis for follow-up activity or as an index of public i nterest or participation in an extension activity.

8.4 Personal letters

Personal letters may be of limited importance in extension activities in some areas at present, but their i mportance wil l increase as literacy becomes widespread. People usually derive some satisfaction or pleasure from receiving a helpful, well-written, personal letter. This, in itself, may help to establish good working relations in an area. Letters are the main form of communication both within an extension or ganisation and with other public organisations. All extension staff should try to acquire some skill in letter writing .

Some points which should be taken into account in this respect are :

- some people may have to write for information because it is not possible for them to make a personal call;

- all such letters should be answered promptly and courteously; a well constructed reply can create a favourable impression and help build up public confidence in an extension organisation; a poorly written, or

person from writing confidence; information given in a the purpose but should irrelevant facts;

very formal again, and

reply, can discourage a damage any developing

reply should be as full as required for not contain any unnecessary details or

if a complete reply cannot be given immediately, a short, friendly, acknowledgement should be sent, and a full reply should be promised and sent as soon as the information is available; and finally,

- letters should be concise, clear and well laid out; if they are too long they are likely to confuse the reader.

8.4.1 Some features of letters

Letters are:

- useful in answering requests for information where a personal calIon t he enquirer is not considered necessary in the circumstances, or cannot be made promptly;

- useful for following-up visits or office calls and confirming or reinforcing any advice given orally; and, useful in maintaining contact with, and encouraging, local

voluntary leaders in their activities.

They are:

not in themselves considered to be a major source of information to rural people, or if used on their o,m, of much value in changing work practices;

- not of very great value as extension aids in countries without a reliable postal ser vice, or where rural people are mainly illiterate; they may, however, be an important means, and in some cases the only effective means of communication between scattered

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members of an extension service; and,though they are an expensive and not very effective means ofmaintaining contact with large numbers of people, if usedproperly they can be useful in establishing confidence andcreating a good impression of an extension service in general.

Letters play a vital part in transmitting information from the publicand field staff in an extension service to administrators, research workersor policy makers. While people at the field level may have some difficultyin expressing themselves in formal language, they should not be discouragedfrom setting down their views on paper. More attention should be paid to thesubstance of their letters than to the niceties of language. Though someguidance should be given in the proper format of such letters, this shouldnot receive so much emphasis that it is likely to inhibit people fromwriting.

8.5 Telephone calls

Telephone calls are becoming increasingly popular in transactingbusiness in developed societies and, if used properly, they can be veryvaluable in explaining a situation and obtaining advice or instructions overlong distances within a very short time. Staff should be trained to make andto receive telephone calls effectively. It should, however, be emphasised intraining that there is no permanent record of what was said during a

telephone call and great care must be taken to ensure that all detailedinstructions given during one are fully understood. Where importantinstructions or decisions are given during a telephone call, they should befollowed by written confirmation as soon as practicable. Some people are notgood at "thinking on their feet" and there is always the possibility that adecision may be made, or some advice given on the spur of the moment, duringa telephone call, which may seem later to be unwise. If there is any doubton either of these points, it is better to avoid making any importantdecisions and arrange to call back, after giving the matter some furtherconsideration, or to send a letter if the instructions are too lengthy ordetailed to send by telephone.

While telephone conversations should always be conducted in a politeand friendly manner, staff should be discouraged from prefacing these withlengthy customary greetings. These should be limited to the minimumacceptable to the other party without causing offence. Telephone calls, atcertain times of the day, are expensive and lengthy enquiries after thewelfare of distant relatives are costly and may prevent an urgent call beingmade by another person.

8,5.1 Some features of telephone calls

The main purposes and advantages of telephone calls are:

they serve a similar purpose to office calls, while avoidingtime spent on travel;they are useful in requesting and receiving specific

information quickly, provided it is possible to convey theinformation accurately by word of mouth alone;they provide a quick means of following-up and evaluating theeffectiveness of radio and T.V. programmes, where these arewidely used in extension activities; and,

they are useful for "sounding out" a person on a suggestion,before committing the proposal to a letter;

Some of the disadvantages which are always present and should be

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members of an extension service; and, - though they are an expensive and not very effective means of

maintaining contact with large numbers of people, if used properly they can be useful in establishing confidence and creating a good impression of an extension service in general.

Letters play a vital part in transmitting information from the public and field staff in an extension service to administrators, research workers or policy makers. While people at the field level may have some difficulty in expressing themselves in formal language, they should not be discouraged from setting down their views on paper. More attention should be paid to the substance of their letters than to the niceties of language. Though some guidance should be given in the proper format of such letters, this should not receive so much emphasis that it is likely to inhibit people from writing.

8.5 Telephone calls

Telephone calls are becoming increasingly popular in transacting business in developed societies and, if used properly, they can be very valuable in explaining a situation and obtaining advice or instructions over long distances within a very short time. Staff should be trained to make and to receive telephone calls effectively. It should, however, be emphasised in training that there is no permanent record of what was said during a telephone call and great care must be taken to ensure that all detailed instructions given during one are fully understood. Where important instructions or decisions are given during a telephone call, they should be followed by written confirmation as soon as practicable. Some people are not good at "thinking on their feet" and there is always the possibility that a decision may be made, or some advice given on the spur of the moment, during a telephone call, which may seem later to be unwise. If there is any doubt on either of these points, it is better to avoid making any important decisions and arrange to call back, after giving the matter some further consideration, or to send a letter if the instructions are too lengthy or detailed to send by telephone.

I<hi1e telephone conversations should always be conducted in a polite and friendly manner, staff should be discouraged from prefacing these with lengthy customary greetings. These should be limited to the minimum acceptable to the other party without causing offence. Telephone calls, at certain times of the day, are expensive and lengthy enquiries after the welfare of distant relatives are costly and ' may prevent an urgent call being made by another person.

8.,5.1 Some features of telephone calls

The main purposes and advantages of telephone calls are:

- they serve a similar purpose to office calls, while avoiding time spent on travel;

they are useful in requestIng and receiving specific information quickly, provided it is possible to convey the information accurately by word of mouth alone; they provide a quick means of following-up and evaluating the effectiveness of radio and T. V. programmes, where these are widely used in extension activities; and, they are useful for "sounding out" a person on a suggestion, before committing the proposal to a letter;

Some of the disadvantages which are always present and should be

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compensated for, as far as possible, are:

face-to-face contact is not possible, though variations in thetone of voice, or in the way of speaking may add meaning tothe message, if both the sender and receiver are sufficientlyfamiliar with the language and idiom being used;many rural areas lack an efficient telephone service and insome areas, few people have access to a service;calls may take some time to connect and the caller may be tiedto his desk while waiting for a connection;poor reception may lead to misunderstandings or frustration;

- it is a relatively expensive means of communication; and,

some members of the public may lack confidence in its use.

8.6 Informal contacts

Informal contacts are based on casualor chance meetings between extension staffand members of the public, which can be

turned to good account by gatheringinformation on attitudes towards forestryextension in the area, or on problems facedby the public. Although totally unplanned,they may provide useful opportunities forexchanging information and for establishingpublic confidence in the extension staff.They are of most value in circumstanceswhere people do not live rigidly by theclock and appreciate the opportunity to talkinformally with others they meet by chance.If not used with care, however, they canseriously upset a programme of work for aparticular day. Staff should be encourgedto use them with discretion, so that othermembers of the public will not get the

impression that they are "never out of thecoffee shop".

Some points to consider, and suggestions on informal contacts are:

they provide many good opportunities for introducingextension ideas to the public;at places where people gather informally (e.g. at marketplaces or coffee shops), discussion of such matters is normaland socially acceptable;they give extension staff not only an opportunity to learnabout other people's views and attitudes on forestry but alsotheir wants, needs and aspirations over a whole range of

topics;they provide members of the public with an opportunity toseek information or advice on a matter which they might feeldid not justify an office call or letter;they may assist in establishing good relations and confidencein the extension staff which will encourage the public tomake fuller use of their services in future; and,they can be used to "float" suggestions or ideas which thepublic, after further discussion, may decide to adopt later.

compensated for, as far as possible, are:

- face-to-face contact is not possible, though variations in the tone of voice, or in the way of speaking may add meaning to the message, if both the sender and receiver are sufficiently familiar with the language and idiom being used;

- many rural areas lack an efficient telephone service and in some areas, few people have access to a service;

- calls may take some time to connect and the caller may be tied to his desk while waiting for a connection;

- poor reception may lead to misunderstandings or frustration; - it is a relatively expensive means of communication; and, - some members of the public may lack confidence in its use.

8.6 Informal contacts

Informal contacts are based on casual or chance meetings between extension staff and members of the public, which can be turned to good account by gathering information on attitudes towards forestry extension in the area, or on problems faced by the public. Although totally unplanned, they may provide useful opportunities for exchanging information and for establishing public confidence in the extension staff. They are of most value in circumstances where people do not live rigidly by the clock and appreciate ' the opportunity to talk informally with others they meet by chance. If not used with care, however, they can seriously upset a programme of work for a particular day. Staff should be encourged to use them with discretion, so that other members of the public will not get the impression that they are "never out of the coffee shop".

i,-t-\ ." t , ,~ ,

, - , t :.... •

Some points to consider, and suggestions on informal contacts are:

- they provide many good opportunities for introducing extension ideas to the public;

- at places where people gather informally (e. g. at market - places or coffee shops), discussion of such matters is normal

and socially acceptable; - they give extension staff not only an opportunity to learn

about other people's views and attitudes on forestry but also their wants, needs and aspirations over a whole range of topics;

- they provide members of the public with an opportunity to seek information or advice on a matter which they might feel did not justify an office call or letter;

- they may assist in establishing good relations and confidence in the extension staff which will encourage the publ'ic to make fuller use of their services in future; and,

- they can be used to "float" suggestions or ideas which the public, after further discussion, may decide to adopt later.

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8.7 Group Methods

Group methods consist of a number of activities in which there aredirect personal contacts between the extension staff and the public, but noton a one-to-one basis. They include such important extension activities ascommunity meetings, method and result demonstrations, field days and tours.Their principal value is to assist people to progress from the interest tothe trial stages of learning.

They provide excellent opportunitiesfor extension staff to present informationto a group of people, which is often one inwhich there is already some common interestor bond. They also provide opportunitiesfor discussion and direct contact betweenthe group members themselves and the

extension staff. This process can assistpeople to reach a decision to take jointaction on a problem. Groups include, butthey also exclude, certain people and thoseexcluded may feel neglected or slighted andadopt a very negative attitude towards theobjectives of the group. This is a pointwhich requires very careful consideration inselecting or forming groups to promoteextension activities.

Group methods are useful for a number of reasons such as:

to give or receive information about a proposed extensionprogramme;to help create a favourable attitude towards a programme;

- to focus attention on problems jointly affecting members ofthe group and possible forestry solutions to them;to create awareness and interest in a particular forestrypractice by describing it carefully and discussing its

implications for the local community and possible benefitsfrom it;to encourage, advise and train community leaders; and,

to demonstrate basic forestry skills at a convenient location.

8.7.1 Features of group methods

Group methods are:

less expensive than individual methods, in terms of staff

time and effort, to cover a given number of people;very effective, in that attitudes and decisions arrived at bygroup discussion usually carry more weight in a community thanindividual attitudes and decisions and are more likely to bewidely adopted; and,

they are able to assist the learning or change process ofindividuals by the exchange of ideas and experiences betweenmembers of the group.

Some of the disadvantages of group methods, however, are:

it may take a long period of discussion for a group of

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Groups exclude as well asinclude certain people

8.7 Group Methods

Group methods consist of a number of activities in which there are direct personal contacts between the extension staff and the public, but not on a one-to-one basis . They include such important extension activities as community meetings, method and result demonstrations, field days and tours. Their principal value is to assist people to progress from the interest to the trial stages of learning .

They provide excellent opportunities for extension staff to present information to a group of people, which is often one ia which there is already some common interest or bond . They also provide opportunities for discussion and direct contact between the group members themselves and the extension staff. This process can assist people to reach a decision to take joint action on a problem. Groups include, but they also exclude, certain people and those excluded may feel neglected or slighted and adopt a very negative attitude towards the objectives of the group. This is a point which requires very careful consideration in selecting or forming groups to promote extension activities.

Groups exclude as well as include certain people

Group methods are useful for a number of reasons such as:

- to give or receive informat i on about a proposed extension programme;

- to help create a favourable attitude towards a programme; . - to focus attention on problems jointly affecting members of

the group and possible forestry solutions to them; - to create awareness and interest in a particular forestry

practice by describing it carefully and discussing its implications for the local community and possible benefits from it;

- to encourage, advise and train community leaders; and, - to demonstrate basic forestry skills at a convenient location.

Features of group methods

Group methods are :

- less expensive than individual methods, in terms of staff time and effort, to cover a given number of people;

- very effective, in that attitudes and decisions arrived at by group discussion usually carry more weight in a community than individual attitudes and decisions and are more likely to be widely adopted; and ,

- they are able to assis t the learning or change process of individuals by the exchange of ideas and experiences between members of the group.

Some of the disadvantages of group methods, however, are:

- it may take a long period of discussion for a group of

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people to arrive at a decision on a matter;one or two people with strongly-held divergent opinions maydeflect the group from a wise decision;because of differences in conditions and interests of thegroup members, instruction in forestry practices cannot alwaysbe related to the particular problems of each member; and,it is not always easy to get all the members of a group ofpeople together at the same time for discussion or action.

The advantages, however, of group methods outweigh their limitationsand they play a most important part in extension programmes. They usuallylead to a much more rapid spread of information and change of attitudes thancould be achieved by their spread from a few isolated persons enjoyingindividual contacts with extension staff.

8.8 Group meetings

These are one of the oldest and most popular methods of contacting andcommunicating with people largely because they have been, for a long time, afamiliar means of receiving and discussing information of importance andtaking decisions, in many communities. They are also a very effective methodof spreading new ideas in relation to their cost.

8.8.1 Purposes of group meetings

The main purposes of group meetings are:

to introduce and discuss new ideas or practices, such as theconcepts of agroforestry or community woodlots;

- to create a favourable attitude towards forestry as a means oflocal community development;to obtain the opinions of some members of a community onpossible activities; and,to gain support for solving some local problems by means ofsuitable forestry extension programmes.

8.8.2 Types of group meetings

Common types of group meetings are:

community meetings open to all persons willing to take partand usually aimed at a general description and discussion of asituation affecting the people;special interest meetings to serve the needs of a group with aparticular interest in a topic, or some special need for

assistance;meetings limited to selected individuals who have acceptedresponsibility as leaders and need assistance in carrying outtheir tasks;training meetings to encourage, advise and train communityleaders on some specific topic; and,organisation meetings, and planning meetings, to establish theframework and procedures for carrying out decisions.

8.8.3 Checklist and guidelines for improving the effectivenessof meetings

Meetings, if they are to be effective, must be systematically organisedand conducted. For this a basic checklist of tasks, which can soon bemodified on the basis of experience to suit local conditions, is necessary.

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people to arrive at a decision on a matter; - one or two people with strongly-held divergent opinions may

deflect the group from a wise decision; - because of differences in conditions and interests of the

group members, instruction in forestry practices cannot always be related to the particular problems of each member; and,

- it is not always easy to get all the members of a group of people together at the same time for discussion or action.

The advantages, however, of group methods outweigh their limitations and they playa most important part in extension programmes. They usually lead to a much more rapid spread of information and change of attitudes than could be achieved by their spread from a few isolated persons enjoying individual contacts with extension staff.

8.8 Group meetings

These are one of the oldest and most popular methods of contacting and communicating with people largely because they have been, for a long time, a familiar means of receiving and discussing information of importance and taking decisions, in many communities. They are also a very effective method of spreading new ideas in relation to their cost.

8.8.1 Purposes of group meetings

The main purposes of group meetings are:

- to introduce and discuss new ideas or practices, such as the concepts of agroforestry or community woodlots;

- to create a favourable attitude towards forestry as a means of local community development;

- to obtain the opinions of some members of a community on possible activities; and,

- to gain support for solving some local problems by means of suitable forestry extension programmes.

8.8.2 Types of group meetings

Common types of group mee~ings are:

- community meetings open to all pers ons willing to take part and usually aimed at a general description and discussion of a situation affecting the people;

- special interest meetings to serve the needs of a group with a particular interest in a topic, or some special need for assistance;

- meetings limited to selected individuals who have accepted responsibility as leaders and need assistance in carrying out their tasks;

- training meetings to encourage, advise and train community leaders on some specific topic; and,

- organisation meetings, and planning meetings, to establish the framework and procedures for carrying out decisions.

8.8.3 Checklist and guidelines for improving the effectiveness of meetings

Meetings, and conducted. modified on the

if they are to be effective, must be systematically organised For this a basic checklist of tasks, which can soon be

basis of experience to suit local conditions, is necessary.

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Some of the factors which should be taken into account are as follows.

Planning a meeting:

after taking into account local opinion, decide on the purposeof the meeting and review the subject matter and theinformation available;decide on the form of meeting most suited to the objective,e.g. a lecture or discussion, a large or small meeting, formalor informal procedure;decide on the time of the meeting both in terms of day andseason; select a convenient time of day for the targetaudience and an appropriate season to allow people to act onany new information or on any decisions they may make;decide on the place of the meeting, one that is familiar tolocal people, easy to reach, as comfortable as possible in thecircumstances and in a location appropriate to the subject fordiscussion;make the necessary arrangements to reserve the meeting place,advertise the meeting widely, erect notices and signposts, ifrequired, and arrange parking facilities for any vehicleswhich may bring people to the meeting;arrange adequate seating, according to local custom or

requirements. e.g. special seats may be expected by visitorsfrom urban areas; the audience must be able to hear and seeclearly; they must be reasonably comfortable by localstandards and, in some areas, special seating arrangements mayhave to be made for women and children attending; and,

a chairman and speakers must be arranged and formally invitedto take part, some time in advance of the date selected; theyshould be briefed fully on the purpose of the meeting and thebackground and numbers of the audience expected and suitabletransport arranged for them, if necessary; they should bewelcomed on arrival by one of the organisers of the meetingand properly introduced to the audience.

Group meetings should be held in a way and at a place appropriateto the topic and the customs of the people

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Some of the factors which should be taken into account are as follows.

Planning a meeting:

- after taking into account local opinion, decide on the purpose of the meeting and review the subject matter and the information available;

- decide on the form of meeting most suited to the objective, e.g. a lecture or discussion, a large or small meeting, formal or informal procedure;

- decide on the time of the meeting both in terms of day and season; select a convenient time of day for the target audience and an appropriate season to allow people to act on any new information or on any decisions they may make;

- decide on the place of the meeting, one that is familiar to local people, easy to reach, as comfortable as possible in the circumstances and in a location appropriate to the subject for discussion;

- make the necessary arrangements to reserve the meeting place, advertise the meeting widely, erect notices and signposts, if required, and arrange parking facilities for any vehicles which may bring people to the meeting;

arrange adequate seating, according to local custom or requirements. e.g. special seats may be expected by visitors from urban areas; the audience must be able to hear and see clearly; they must be reasonably comfortable by local standards and, in some areas, special seating arrangements may have to be made for women and children attending; and,

- a chairman and speakers must be arranged and formally invited to take part, some time in advance of the date selected; they should be briefed fully on the purpose of the meeting and the background and numbers of the audience expected and suitable transport arranged for them, if necessary; they should be welcomed on arrival by one of the organisers of the meeting and properly introduced to the audience.

Group meetings should be held in a way and at a place appropriate to the topic and the customs of the people

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As many as may be necessary of the following arrangements should bemade prior to the meeting:

advance publicity to attract a sufficient number of people toattend;a public address system, if the meeting is to be a large one;

- a competent interpreter, if necessary;any visual aids which may be required by the speaker;handouts on the topic for the audience;food and refreshments, at least for the principal guests, ifthis is appropriate; and,

toilets for the audience.

Administration:

arrange funds to cover the cost of hiring a meeting placeand any equipment needed, advance publicity, handouts,refreshments, etc.;arrange transport facilities and refreshments for the guestsand staff required and in some cases for the audience;

- decide on an agenda or programme for the meeting; and,

rehearse the arrangements and verify that they are adequate;for subsequent meetings it should be possible to rely, to someextent, on the experience of previous meetings, suitably

modified.

Holding the meeting:

arrange to start on time, (subject to local custom in thisrespect);observe local custom in the procedure for opening the meeting;welcome the audience;thank the hosts for arranging the meeting, or for allowing itto be held in that particular place;

- introduce the guests who are to speak, or who are present asobservers, making sure they are addressed by their propertitles or descriptions;describe the purpose of the meeting and outline the agenda;start the main part of the programme as promptly as circum-stances permit;at suitable points during the meeting, encourage questions anddiscussion oE the topics;summarise the important points learned or discussed;note and emphasise any important decisions taken; and,

distribute information or extension material on the subject tothose present.

Closing the meeting:

thank the hosts, the guest speakers and the chairman for theirassistance; and,

follow local custom in the procedure for winding up the

meeting.

Follow-up

The following points should receive attention as soon as possible afterthe meeting:

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As many as may be necessary of the following arrangements should be made prior to the meeting:

advance publicity to attract a sufficient number of people to attend; a public address system, if the meeting is to be a large one; a competent interpreter, if necessary;

- any visual aids which may be required by the speaker; - handouts on the topic for the audience; - food and refreshments, at least for the principal guests, if

this is appropriate; and, toilets for the audience.

Administration:

arrange funds to cover the cost of hiring a meeting place and any equipment needed, advance publicity, handouts, refreshments, etce; arrange transport facilities and refreshments for the guests and staff required and in some cases for the audience; decide on an agenda or programme for the meeting; and, rehearse the arrangements and verify that they are adequate; for subsequent meetings it should be possible to rely, to some extent, on the experience of previous meetings, suitably modified.

Holding the meeting:

- arrange to start on time, (subject to local custom in this respect);

- observe local custom in the procedure for opening the meeting; - welcome the audience;

thank the hosts for arranging the meeting, or for allowing it to be held in that particular place; introduce the guests who are to speak, or who are present as observers, making sure they are addressed by their proper titles or descriptions ;

- describe the purpose of the meeting and outline the agenda; start the main part of the programme as promptly as circumstances permit; at suitable points during the meeting, encourage questions and discussion of the topics; summarise the important points learned or discussed; note and emphasise any important decisions taken; and, distribute information or extension materIal on the subject to those present.

Closing the meeting:

thank the hosts, the guest speakers and the chairman fo ·( their assistance; and, follow local custom in the procedure for winding up the

meeting.

Follow-up

The following points should receive attelltion as soon as possible after the meeting:

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arrange for the meeting place to be cleaned and for any chairsor other items borrowed to be returned;send letters of thanks to the host, the chairman and the guestspeakers;record any decisions taken and assistance promised and takeprompt action on these matters; and,

arrange publicity in the local press and radio for the

meeting, the principal views expressed, and any decisionstaken.

Ensure everything is left clean and tidy after the meeting

The use of visual aids, charts, diagrams or slides will greatlyincrease the understanding of most topics and these should be used during themeeting, or displayed at the meeting place, as far as circumstances allow.

8.9 Training and Visit system

The Training and Visit system (T&V) is now much used in certain areasin agricultural extension and has been well covered in literature. Whetherit can be adapted to forestry extension depends on local circumstances suchas the number of people willing to participate in an area, the nature of thework they wish to undertake, and the need or justification for regular visitsat short intervals throughout the year. Where the T&V system is being usedfor agriculture or other rural extension in an area a forestry componentmight well be built into it. Use could then be made of existing extensionstaff who have already established good working relations with the localpeople to spread information on forestry practices or to assist people toimplement tasks already commenced.

8.9.1 Organisation of the T&V system

Under this system an extension assistant arranges to meet a number ofparticipating farmers (perhaps 8 to 12) at regular intervals, usually for oneday every two weeks. The meeting time is devoted to discussion of progressin their normal farming practices, problems that have arisen or can beforeseen and possible solutions to them, work requiring to be done in the

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- arrange for the meeting place to be cleaned and for any chairs or other items borrowed to be returned;

- send letters of thanks to the host, the chairman and the guest speakers;

- record any decisions taken and assistance promised and take prompt action on these matters; and,

- arrange publicity in the local press and radio for the meeting, the principal views expressed, and any decisions taken.

Ensure everything is left clean and tidy after the meeting

The use of visual aids, charts, diagrams or slides will greatly increase the understanding of most topics and these should be used during the meeting, or displayed at the meeting place, as far as circumstances allow.

8.9 Training and Visit system

The Training and Visit system (T&V) is now much used in certain areas in agricultural extension and has been well covered in literature. Whether it can be adapted to forestry extension depends on local circumstances such as the number of people willing to participate in an area, the nature of the work they wish to undertake, and the need or justification for regular visits at short intervals throughout the year. Where the T&V system is being used for agriculture or other rural extension in an area a forestry component might well be built into it. Use could then be made of existing extension staff who have already established good working relations with the local people to spread information on forestry practices or to assist people to implement tasks already commenced.

8.9.1 Organisation of the T&V sys tem

Under this system an extension assistant arranges to meet a number of participating farmers (perhaps 8 to 12) at regular intervals, usually for one day every two weeks. The meeting time is devoted to discussion of progress in their normal farming practices, problems that have arisen or can be foreseen and possible solutions to them, work requiring to be done in· the

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immediate future and any possible improvements in techniques suggested byresearch or by the study of practices in other areas, as appropriate. Themeetings give the extension assistant an opportunity to demonstrate newtechniques or tools on the land of one of the participating farmers and toallow the group to practise if they so wish. The procedure promotesco-operation between numbers of progressive farmers in an area who can inturn demonstrate improved procedures to other farmers in their locality whoare not members of the formal T&V group.

The extension assistant, on the other hand, joins other assistantsworking with similar groups in the area for one day every two weeks on atraining session provided by subject matter officers or specialists from thelocal district or regional agricultural organisation. The attention of thistraining group is directed to appropriate activities for the participatingfarmers in the area at that season and to information, advice or skills theycan offer to improve performance on the farms. If a member of the forestrystaff with appropriate skills and experience can be attached to the

specialist staff group providing this training at appropriate times of theyear it may be possible to integrate valuable forestry practices into thenormal pattern of agricultural activities in the area. Where interestjustifies it, a forestry extension assistant could join an agriculturalextension assistant on his field contacts with the farmers.

It is unlikely, however, that the opportunities or demand forassistance in forestry matters would ever be sufficiently great to justifyestablishing such a large team of forestry extension staff in an area asagricultural extension might require. Some local procedure for co-ordinatingforestry and agricultural activities should be found. To try to establish aforestry T&V system running parellel to an existing agricultural system wouldbe expensive in staff and resources and would lead to the possibility ofconflicting advice being offered to farmers by enthusiastic field staff,though this would not be the intention of their central orgnisations.

8.10 Demonstrations

Demonstrations normally fall into two categories:

result demonstrations, andmethod demonstrations.

8.10.1 Result demonstrations

A result demonstration shows what can be expected after a particularforestry practice has been in use for a certain period of time. It isintended to stimulate interest in the practice and induce people to learnmore about it and to give it a trial. The comparison between the oldpractice or technique and the new one is an essential feature of a resultdemonstration. The differences are there to be seen and discussed by thegroup. Questions can be asked and answered and additional information on thetime taken, work involved and the costs can be explained by the extensionstaff. Result demonstrations in forestry involve a much longer time spanthan in agriculture and it may only be possible to show some stages in thewhole process.

Some of the main purposes of result demonstrations are:

they provide evidence of the benefits of adopting a recomm-ended forestry practice;they are an effective method of introducing a new topic oridea in an extension campaign;

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immediate future and any possible improvements in techniques suggested by research or by the study of practices in other areas, as appropriate. The meetings give the extension assistant an opportunity to demonstrate new techniques or tools on the land of one of the participating farmers and to allow the group to practise if they so wish. The procedure promotes co-operation between numbers of progressive farmers in an area who can in turn demonstrate improved procedures to other farmers in their locality who are not members of the formal T&V group.

The extension assistant, on the other hand, J01llS other assistants working with similar groups in the area for one day every two weeks on a training session provided by subject matte~ officers or specialists from the local district or regional agricultural organisation. The attention of this training group is directed to appropriate activities for the participating farmers in the area at that season and to information, advice or skills they can offer to improve performance on the farms. If a member of the forestry staff with appropriate skills and experience can be attached to the specialist staff group providing this training at appropriate times of the year it may be possible to integrate valuable forestry practices into the normal pattern of agricultural activities in the area. 1<here interest justifies it, a forestry extension assistant could J01n an agricultural extension assistant on his field contacts with the farmers.

It is unlikely, however, that the opportunities or demand for assistance in forestry matters would ever be sufficiently great to justify establishing such a large team of forestry extension staff in an area as agricultural extension might require. Some local procedure for co-ordinating forestry and agricultural activities should be found. To try to establish a forestry T&V system running parellel to an existing agricultural system would be expensive in staff and resources and would lead to the possibility of conflicting advice being offered to farmers by enthusiastic field staff, though this would not be the intention of their central orgnisations.

8.10 Demonstrations

Demonstrations normally fall into two categories:

result demonstrations, and method demonstrations.

8.10.1 Result demonstrations

A result demonstration shows what can be expected after a particular forestry practice has been in use for a certain period of time. It is intended to stimulate interest in the practice and induce people to learn more about it and to give ita trial. The comparison between the old practice or technique and the new one is an essential feature of a result demonstration. The differences are there to be seen and discussed by the group. Questions can be asked and answered and additional information on the time taken, work involved and the costs can be ex plained by the extension staff. Result demonstrations in forestry involve a much longer time span than in agriculture and it may only be possible to shm' some stages in the whole process.

Some of the main purposes of result demonstrations are:

- they provide evidence of the benefits of adopting a recommended forestry practice; they are an effective method of introducing a new topic or idea in an extension campaign;

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they appeal to the individual and help influence the moresceptical members of a group;they provide a good source of information for discussion atfurther meetings, for news stories, pictures, radio talks Orinterviews;they can provide cost data and other basic information on theproposed methods;a high percentage of the audience is likely to understand thetopic due to the combination of seeing and hearing and theavailability of additional explanations from staff members onthe spothelping to organise the demonstration gives some of the groupmembers the opportunity to develop skills in communityleadership;they establish a feeling of confidence by the people in theextension staff and in extension work in general; and,

they provide a certain amount of entertainment, usually in arelaxed social atmosphere, which helps develop a communityspirit.

Some disadvantages of result demonstrations are:

they may be relatively costly to organise, particularly iftravel to the site is involved at the extension organisation'sexpense; and,

they take time to plan and carry out, especially for forestryactivities.

Guidelines for result demonstrations

It is very important to build uplocally a series of guidelines fororganising demonstrations, to review thesecarefully after each demonstration and toincorporate improvements based on the

experience gained. If this is done the

standard of organising and presentingdemonstrations can improve greatly over ashort period of time. Some usefulguidelines to adopt initially are asfollows.

Decide on the purpose of the demonstration:

what it is intended to prove; simple clear-cut comparisonsbetween treatments or species are easier to understand thanmore complex demonstrations involving a combination of

treatments or factors.

Gather the necessary information:

technical information based on the history and costs of the

work seen, supplemented by any relevant information on thetechnique gained from other areas; and,

- extension information, taking into account any social, fin-ancial or administative barriers that might exist to the

adoption of the practice in the area and any ways of overcom-ing them, which can be referred to in the demonstration ordiscussion.

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- they appeal to the individual and help influence the more sceptical members of a group;

- . they provide a good source of information for discussion at further meetings, for news s t ories, pictures, radio talks or interviews;

- they can provide cost data and other basic information on the proposed methods;

- a high percentage of the audience is likely to understand the topic due to the combination of seeing and hearing and the availability of additional explanations from staff members on the spot;

- helping to organise the demonstration gives some of the group members the opportunity to develop .skills in community leadership;

- they establish a feeling of confidence by the people in the extension staff and in extension work in general; and,

- they provide a certain amount of entertainment, usually in a relaxed social atmosphere, which helps develop a community spirit.

Some disadvantages of result demonstrations are:

- they may be relatively costly to organise, particularly if travel to the site is involved at the extension organisation's expense; and,

- they take time to plan and carry out, especially for forestry activities.

Guidelines for result demonstrations

It is very important to build up locally a series of guidelines fo r organising demonstrations , to review these carefully after each demonstration and to incorporate improvements based on the experience gained. If this is done the standard of organising and presenting demonstrations can improve greatly over a s hort period of time. Some useful guidelines to adopt initially are as follows.

Decide on the purpose of the demonstration:

what it is intended to prove ; simple clear-cut comparisons between treatments or species a re easier to understand than more complex demonstrations involving a combination of t reatments or factors.

Gather the necessary information:

- technical information based on the history and costs of the work seen, supplemented by any relevant information on the technique gained from other areas; and,

- extension information, taking into account any social, financial or administative barriers that might exist to the adoption of the practice in the area and any ways of overcoming them, which can be referred to in the demonstration or discussion.

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Make a detailed plan:

decide on who is to do what, where, when and how;consider what evidence is needed to convince the community andhow proof of this can be established;identify the area most suited for the demonstration and thesource of any materials needed (e.g. seeds, plants, tools,equipment, visual aids, etc.);decide on the number of demonstrators needed and their rolesin the demonstration; and,

prepare a written plan covering the entire demonstration stepby step.

Select and train the demonstrators:

consult with the community leaders to arrange the most conven-ient date and time for the demonstration, the persons to takepart in it and the persons to be invited;as far as practicable, involve the local people so they willbe convinced of the suitability and value of the recommendedpractices;agree on the procedures to be adopted with the demonstratorsand give them the training and practice required if this isnecessary; and,

rehearse the demonstrators in the parts they have to play andthe staff who will describe and explain the activity. (This isoften the most difficult part of the whole procedure; it issometimes very difficult to persuade local demonstrators topractise sufficiently to achieve the smooth performancerequired for a convincing demonstration.)

Publicise the demonstration:

do this by word of mouth, through local leaders and otherinfluential people; their endorsement of it will be of greatvalue;by letters of invitation, posters, press and announcementson the radio, where possible; and,make any arrangements for transport widely known to thepersons invited to attend.

Conducting the demonstration:

welcome the persons attending the demonstration;thank the hosts for allowing the demonstration to take placein that particular area;explain the purpose of the demonstration and why the practiceis believed to be of value to the people;introduce the persons who will do the demonstrations;explain what they will do and what the expected result willbe;

arrange a clear commentary so that everyone can understandwhat the demonstrators are doing;invite, and answer as fully as possible, any questions fromthe audience; note the names and addresses of persons whocannot be given a full answer at the time and arrange to letthem have one as soon as possible; and,distribute extension literature or materials relevant to thesituation to those attending.

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Make a detailed plan:

- decide on who is to do what, where, when and how; consider what evidence is needed to convince the community and how proof of this can be established; identify the area most suited for the demonstration and the source of any materials needed (e.g. seeds, plants, tools, equipment, visual aids, etc.);

- decide on the number of demonstrators needed and their roles in the demonstration; and,

- prepare a written plan covering the entire demonstration step by step.

Select and train the demonstrators:

- consult with the community leaders to arrange the most convenient date and time for the demonstration, the persons to take part in it and the persons to be invited;

- as far as practicable , involve the local people so they will be convinced of the sui tabili ty and value of the recommended practices;

- agree on the procedures to be adopted with the demonstrators and give them the training and practice required if this is necessary; and,

- rehearse the demonstrators in the parts they have to play and the staff who will describe and explain the activity. (This is often the most difficult part of the whole procedure; it is sometimes very difficult to persuade local demonstrators to practise sufficiently to achieve the smooth performance required for a convincing demonstration.)

publicise the demonstration:

- do this by word of mouth, through local leaders and other influential people; their endorsement of it will be of great value;

- by letters of invitation, posters, press and announcements on the radio, where possible; and, make any arrangements for transport widely known to the

persons invited to attend .

Conducting the demonstration:

- welcome the persons attending the demonstration; thank the hosts for allowing the demonstration to take place in that particular area;

- explain the purpose of the demonstration and why the practice is believed to be of value to the people; introduce the persons who will do the demonstrations;

- explain what they will do and what the expected result will be;

- arrange a clear commentary so that everyone can understand what the demonstrators are doing;

- invite, and answer as fully as possible, any questions from the audience; note the names and addresses of persons who cannot be given a full answer at the time and arrange to let them have one as soon as possible; and,

- distribute extension literature or materials relevant to the situation to those attending.

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Supervise the demonstration:

record details of what took place, anything that went wrong,comments by the audience or other relevant observations,carefully, and use these as a means of improving futuredemonstrations;

prepare press and radio releases where appropriate;visit the demonstration area as often as necessary afterwardsto maintain the demonstrators' interest in the procedure;check on the progress of the demonstration area and ensurethat any subsequent treatments are properly carried out;take photographs both during the demonstration and at

intervals afterwards to record the development of the area;anderect a sign to ensuredemonstration area.

continued public interest in the

Complete the demonstration (after a suitable period of time):

- call a meeting of leaders and people to examine the resultsachieved;summarise the various steps taken during the demonstration andthe information recorded;show photographs of various stages in the development andprepare exhibits or displays of the highlights; and,

- distribute literature about the practice demonstrated.

Follow-up:

report to the relevant authorities the results and the impactof the demonstration on the community;publicise the results, through the local press and radio, atlocal meetings and during extension visits;

- ask influential persons and the demonstrators themselves tospeak about the results at any meetings they may attend; and,use photographs and other visual aids to present the evidenceto other interested parties.

Other points to consider in result demonstrations:

carry out the demonstration on private or community landrather than on government land, if this is possible;local demonstrators should carry out as many of the

operations as possible, with the help or guidance of theextension staff;complex demonstrations should not be attempted until thedemonstrators have acquired considerable skill, and theconfidence and understanding of the community have been gainedby a series of simpler demonstrations;photographs, transparencies and films may be used to condensea result demonstration extending over many months, or evenyears, for showing to an audience at meetings or on othersuitable occasions;radio items, newspaper articles, pamphlets, circular lettersand talks supported by visual aids can be used to informpeople of the results of demonstrations and of the successesof local persons, thus making the results more widely known;result demonstrations should be carefully planned in view oftheir importance in getting an extension programme goingsuccessfully, their value in building confidence in the

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Supervise the demonstration :

record details of what took comments by the audience carefully, and use these

demonstrations;

place, anything that went wrong, or other relevant observations, as a means of improving future

- prepare press and radio releases where appropriate; - visit the demonstration area as often as necessary afterwards

to maintain the demonstrators' interest in the procedure; check on the progress of the demonstration area and ensure that any subsequent treatments are properly carried out; take photographs both during the demonstration and at

intervals afterwards to record the development of the area; and,

- erect a sign to ensure demonstration area.

continued public interest in the

Complete the demonstration (after a suitable period of time):

call a meeting of leaders and people to examine the results achieved; summarise the various steps taken during the demonstration and the information recorded;

- show photographs of various stages in the development and prepare exhibits or dis plays of the highlights; and, distribute literature about the practice demonstrated.

Follow-up:

- report to the r e levant authorities the results and the impact of the demonstration on the community; publicise the results, through the local press and radio, at local meetings and during extension visits;

- ask influential persons and the demonstrators themselves to speak about the results at any meetings they may attend; and,

- use photographs and other visual aids to present the evidence to other interested parties.

Other points to consider in result demonstrations:

carry out the demonstration on private or community land rather than on government land, if this is possible;

local demonstrators should operations as possible, with extens ion staff;

carry out as many of the help or guidance of

the the

complex demonstrations should not be attempted until the demonstrators have acquired considerable skill, and the confidence and understanding of the community have been gained by a series of simpler demonstrations;

- photographs, transparencies and films may be used to condense "a result demonstration extending over many months, or even years, for showing to an audience at meetings or on other suitable occasions;

- radio items, newspaper articles, pamphlets, circular letters and talks supported by visual aids can be used to inform people of the results of demonstrations and of the successes of local persons, thus making the results more widely known;

- result demonstrations should be carefully planned in view of their importance in getting an extension programme going successfully, their value in building confidence in the

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extension staff and of the time and effort needed to organisethem.

8.10.2 Method demonstrations

Method demonstrations are the oldest form of teaching. They are thebasis of the apprentice system which has trained skilled craft-workers formany hundreds of years. In forestry extension, they can be used to show aperson how to do a job, such as potting seedlings or planting trees, step bystep until they have acquired sufficient proficiency in the task.

The purposes of method demonstrations are:

to teach basic forestry skills to small groups of people;and,to teach how to do certain things, (rather than why theyshould be done, as in a result demonstration);

Some advantages of method demonstrations are:

it is possible to instruct a reasonable number of people inbasic forestry skills at one time;people attending can see, hear, discuss, and participate inthe demonstration;this results in much more complete learning than passivelylistening to a talk, even if illustrations are used to supportit; and,

if properly carried out,Aemonstrations can generate a greatdeal of interest and enthusiasm for a practice, as well asproviding the skills required for it.

Some disadvantages of method demonstrations are:

if there are too many participants some of them may be unableto hear and see clearly what is being demonstrated and mayadopt wrong techniques ; and,

many people may not be able to practise the skill demonstratedadequately due to shortage of time or facilities.

It is important to draw a cleardistinction between method demonstrationsand training courses. Because of the

numbers present and the time available atmethod demonstrations, people may gain onlya superficial knowledge of the procedure andmay, therefore, be unable to apply it on

their own successfully, without additionaltraining.

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There are limits to what aperson can learn at amethod demonstration

extension staff and of the time and effort needed to organise them.

8.10.2 Method demonstrations

Method demonstrations are the oldest form of teaching. They are the basis of the apprentice system which has trained skilled craft-workers for many hundreds of years. In forestry extension, they can be used to show a person how to do a job, such as potting seedlings or planting trees, step by step until they have acquired sufficient proficiency in the task.

The purposes of method demonstrations are:

- to teach basic forestry skills to small groups of people; and,

- to teach how to do certain things, (rather than why they should be done, as in a result demonstration);

Some advantages of method demonstrations are:

- it is possible to instruct a reasonable number of people in basic forestry skills at one time; people attending can see, bear, discuss, and participate in the demonstration;

- this results in much more complete learning than passively listening to a talk, even if illustrations are used to support it; and,

- if properly carried out , demonstrations can generate a great deal of interest and enthusiasm for a practice, as well as providing the skills required for it.

Some disadvantages of method demonstrations are:

- if there are too many participants some of them may be unable to hear and see clearly what is being demonstrated and may adopt wrong techniques; and,

- many people may not be able to practise the skill demonstrated adequately due to shortage of time or facilities.

It is important to draw a clear distinction between method demonstrations and training courses. Because of the numbers present and the time available at method demonstrations, people may gain only a superficial knowledge of the procedure and may, therefore, be unable to apply it on their own successfully, without additional training.

(

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There are limits to what a person can learn at a method demonstration

Guidelines for method demonstrations

Many of the points noted in the guidelines for result demonstrationsapply equally well here and should be modified to suit local conditions.This applies particularly to advance planning and publicity for thedemonstration.

Guidelines more specific to method demonstrations are as follows.

First decide on the objectives and what should be covered by thedemonstration, (e.g. nursery establishment, seed sowing, tree planting).Then check these objectives against such questions as:

is the practice, and the way it is done, really important;can people afford to follow it in their present circumstances;are supplies of plants or materials required readily availablein sufficient quantities to allow it to be adopted in thearea;is all the information about the practice readily availableand fully understood by the staff; and,

have any social, cultural or economic problems been fullydiscussed with the local leaders?

This matter of discussion with the local leaders is important because:

it helps to establish liaison with them;it helps to secure their endorsement of the project;it encourages them to provide land or other necessary facilit-ies for the demonstration where these are needed;it provides staff with a valuable opportunity of demonstratingthe skills to these important people in a discreet way; and,

it involves more people in the demonstration and encourageswidespread discussion of the project.

Preparing and presenting the demonstration:

gather all the necessary materials required (such as soil,

seed, seedlings, potting bags, fertiliser, etc.) in convenientplaces;decide on each step in the operation which must be shown;

- instruct the demonstrators on the correct performance of eachstep in the operation;rehearse the presentation, whenever possible, at least threetimes until the staff are thoroughly familiar with it, knowthe most suitable pace and the time required for it;when people have gathered to watch the demonstration, welcomethem and explain what is to be done.and why it is importantfor them to learn the new method;ask for volunteers from the audience to assist if necessary;

- go through the demonstration, explaining it step by step,repeating difficult sté-ps when necessary;encourage the audience to'ask questions;check the effectiveness of the demonstrations by inviting someof the audience to try one or more of the steps involved anddiscretely correct any errors they may make;allow as much practice by members of the audience as circum-stances permit;summarise the importance of the operation, the steps involvedand the materials required; and,

distribute literature showing the procedure step by step.

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Guidelines for method demonstrations

Many of apply equally This applies demonstration.

the points noted in the guidelines for result demonstrations well here and should be modified to s uit local conditions. particularly to advance planning and publicity for the

Guidelines more specific to method demonstrations are as follows.

First decide on the objectives and what should be demonstration, (e.g. nursery establishment, seed sowing, Then check these objectives against such questions as':

covered by the tree planting).

- is the practice, and the way it is done, really important; - can people afford to follow it in their present circumstances; - are supplies of plants or materials required readily available

in sufficient quantities to allow it to be adopted in the area;

- is all the information about the practice readily available and fully understood by the staff; and, have any social, cultural or economic problems been fully discussed with the local leaders?

This matter of discussion with the local leaders is important because:

- it helps to establish liaison with them; - it helps to secure their endorsement of the project; - it encourages them to provide land or other necessary facilit-

ies for the demonstration where these are needed; - it provides staff with a valuable opportunity of demonstrating

the skills to these important people in a discreet way; and, - it· involves more people in the demonstration and encourages

widespread discussion of the project.

Preparing and presenting the demonstration:

- gather all the necessary materials required (such as soil, seed, seedlings, potting bags, fert iliser, etc.) in convenient places;

- decide on each step in the operation which must be shown; instruct the demonstrators on the correct performance of each step in the operation;

- rehearse the presentation, whenever possible, at least three times until the staff are thoroughly familiar with it, know the most suitable pace and the time required for it;

- when people have gathered to watch the demonstration, welcome them and explain what is to be done, and why it is important for them to learn the new method;

- ask for volunteers from the audience to assist if necessary; - go through the demonstration, explaining it step by step,

repeating difficult s~s \when necessary; encourage the audience to "Isk questions;

- check the effectiveness of the demonstrations by inviting some of the audience to try one or more of the steps involved and discretely correct any errors they may make; allow as much practice by members of the audience as circumstances permit;

- summarise the importance of the operation, the steps involved and the materials required; and,

- distribute literature showing the procedure step by step.

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are:

are:

Some other points for consideration in planning method demonstrations

arrange a series of demonstrations at convenient sites if toomany people are likely to attend one central demonstration;encourage local leaders to supplement these with more localdemonstrations;demonstrations often result in requests for follow-up visitsto an individual person's land; ensure local resources areadequate to meet this demand;poor demonstrations may destroy people's confidence in thestaff carrying them out;demonstrations should be limited to the number which can beproperly planned and carried out with the resources available;in evaluating demonstrations, follow-up visits should be madeto check whether the people have in fact learned the skillsdemonstrated and have put them to good use;a report should be prepared containing information on thelocations of demonstrations conducted, the attendances, the

subjects of the demonstrations and the results obtained;actual materials, equipment and people are the best visualaids to use.

8.11 Field days

Field days are best held on land belonging to local persons who havesuccessfully adopted improved forestry practices, or if this is not possible,on experimental stations or government demonstration centres.

8.11.1 Purposes of field days

The main purposes of field days are:

to commence, or inspect progress, or observe the outcome ofresult demonstrations; and,

to see, by field demonstrations, the scientific basis on whichadvisory work is based.

8.11.2 Some considerations in planning field days

Some factors which should be taken into account in planning field days

they are usually organised for limited groups of people;it is usual to allow plenty of time for discussions, quest-ions and For a careful inspection oC the area;the number of people invited should be limited to those whowill benefit most from the visit and who are likely to be mosteffective in supporting the extension programme;the programme must be planned carefully to obtain the bestresults for the time and expenditure involved;for a field day, adapt the checklists and guidelines for ext-ension meetings and result or method demonstrations to suitthe particular circumstances, and make the necessarypreparations;extension staff should limit themselves to introducing thehosts, and commenting briefly and favourably on the mostimportant and successful aspects of their activities;the hosts should do most of the talking and demonstratingduring a field day;

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are: Some other points for consideration in planning method demonstrations

- arrange a series of demonstrations at convenient sites if too many people are likely to attend one central demonst ration;

- encourage local leader s to supplement these with more local demonstrations;

- demonstrations often result in requests for follow-up visits to an individual person's land; ensure local resources are adequate to meet this demand; poor demonstratIons may destroy people's confidence in the staff carrying them out;

- demonstrations should be limited to the number «hich can be properly planned and carried out with the resources available;

- in evaluating demonstrations, follow-up visits should be made to check whe ther the people have in fact learned the skills demonstrated and have put theln to good use;

- a report should be prepared containing Lnformation on the locations of demonstrations conducted, the attendanceB, the subjects of the demonstrations and the results obtained;

- actual materials, equipment and people are the best visual aids to use.

8.11 Field days

Field days are best held on land belonging to local persons <1ho have successfully adopted improved forestry practices, or if this i s not possible, on experimental stations or government demonstration centres.

are:

8.11. 1 Purposes of field days

The main purposes of field days are:

- to commence, or inspect progress, or observe the outcome of result demonstrations; and,

- to see, by field demonstrations, the scientific basis on '\-lhich advisory work is based.

8 .11.2 Some cons iderations in planning field days

Some factors ',hich should be taken into account in planning field days

- they are usually organised for limited groups of people; it is usual to allow plenty of time for discussions, questions and for a careful inspection of the a 'rea;

- the number of people invited should be limited to those who will benefit most from the visit and who are likely to be most effective in supporting the extension progralUlUe;

- the programme must be planned carefully to obtain the best results for the time and eKpenditure involved;

- for a field day, adapt the checklists and guidelines for extension meetings and result or method demonstrations to suit the particular circumstances, and make the necessary preparations;

- extension staff should limit themselves to introducing the hosts, and commenting brtefly and favourably on the most important and successful aspects of their activities;

- the hosts should do most of the talking and demonstrating during a field day;

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extension staff should be ready to explain any technicalpoints to visitors in terms they can understand;at the conclusion of the briefing they should thank thehosts for their co-operation in making the field daypossible and the visitors for attending;at the end of the visit the extension staff should summarisethe main points of the discussion; and,

distribute reading materials related to any subjects raisedduring the discussion, if available.

The use that can be made of field days is limited as frequent visitsmay cause an unacceptable inconvenience to the hosts or to the experimentalstations and may interfere with their main function of research.

8.12 Field trips and tours

Field trips and tours can be regarded as a series of fielddemonstrations arranged in sequence. They are extension activities whichappeal to people's desire to travel and to see things in other areas. Onaccount of the expense involved, however, they can only be undertakenoccasionally and must, therefore, be very carefully planned and carried outto gain the maximum benefit from them. Activities which may be visited rangefrom small demonstration or test plots to established forestry plantations orindustries as appropriate.

8.12.1 Purposes of field trips and tours

Field trips:

offer people the opportunity to see for themselves validevidence of improved forestry practices in a number of

different areas; and,

may be devoted to a single topic or to a variety of topics,thus acquainting the public, through their leaders, withseveral important aspects of a forestry extension programme.

8.12.2 Advantages of field trips and tours

Field trips:

can present information in a clear way to enable the visitorsto understand the message; and,

considering their important educational impact on the membersthey may be amongst the most effective and economical methodsof teaching the broader aspects of extension.

8.12.3 Guidelines in arranging field trips and tours

Some useful guidelines in arranging effective field trips and toursare:

decide on the purpose of the tour;consult local leaders to select places and things to be seen,the time required for each visit and the people to be invited;work out a detailed schedule of visits;visit the area to inform the hosts on the purpose of the

visit, and the number and nature of the party; and,

rehearse the tour to check the adequacy of the time allowedfor visits and the arrangements Cor travel and accommodation.

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- extension staff should be ready to explain any technical points to visitors in terms they can understand; at the conclusion of the briefing they should

hosts for their co-operation in making the possible and the visitors for attending;

thank field

the day

at the end of the vi s it the extension staff should summarise the main points of the discussion; and,

- distribute reading materials r elated t o any subjects raised during the discus sion, if available.

The use that can be made of field days is limited as frequent visits may cause an unacceptable inconvenience to the hosts or to the experimental stations and may interfere with their main function· of research.

8.12 Field trips and tours

Field trips and tours can be regarded as a series of field demonstrations arranged in sequence. They are extension activities which appeal to people's desire to travel and t o see things in other areas. On account of the expense involved, however , they can only be undertaken occasionally and must, therefore, be ve r y carefully planned and carried out to gain the maximum benefit from them. Activities which may be visited range from small demonstration or test plots t o established forestry plantations or industries as appropriate.

8.12.1 Purposes of field trips and tours

Field trips:

- offer people the opportunity to see for evidence of improved forestry practices different areas; and,

themselves valid in a number of

- may be devoted to a single topic or to a variety of topics, thus acquainting the public, through their leaders, with several important aspects of a fores try extension programme.

8.12.2 Advantages of field trips and tours

Fie ld trips :

can present information in a clear ~lay to enable the visitors to understand the message; a nd ,

- considering their important educational impact on the members they may be amongst the most effective and economical methods of teaching the broader aspects of extension.

8.12 . 3 Guidelines in arranging fie ld trips and tours

Some useful guidelines in arranging effective field trips and tours are:

- decide on t he purpose of the tour; - consult local leaders t o select places and things to be seen,

the time required for each visit and the people to be invited; - work out a detailed schedule of visits; - visit the area to inform the hosts on the purpose of the

visit, and the number and nature of the party ; and, rehearse the tour to check the adequacy of the time allowed for visits and the arrangements for travel and accommodation.

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8.12.4 Factors in planning field trips and tours

Some factors which should be taken into consideration in planning fieldtrips and tours are:

smaller groups are more manageable than large groups and themembers of a smaller group may, therefore, get more benefitfrom a visit;the maximum number any tour leader should attempt to manageis 30 participants;keep the party together and persuade them to move quickly frompoint to point;use a small portable megaphone if necessary as an aid to

holding the attention of the participants;the extension staff should be prepared to provide technical,background and interpretive information on activities visited.

8.13 Panel discussions

This is a process by which a number of persons pool their knowledge andexperiences or feelings, and through discussion and general agreement,clarify the issues under consideration. The leader of the discussion groupshould serve as a moderator rather than as a resource person. He shouldensure that every member gets a reasonable chance to be heard. His functionis to keep the discussion moving in an orderly manner. He should discourageanyone, including himself, from trying to dominate the discussion. Such ameeting could be used when a group of people have already acquired someknowledge about the possibilities of undertaking an extension programme in anarea and are considering in more detail what they might do about it.

Another type of panel discussion much favoured at present is one inwhich a group of persons knowledgeable in a subject are assembled and

questions are posed by members of the audience. The members of the panelexpress their opinions and give such information as they can on the topic.This is somewhat similar to a symposium discussion. The panel methodconsists, however, of a rather informal discussion by several experts on anumber of more or less related topics, while a symposium has severalspeakers, each of whom gives a rather detailed and carefully preparedpresentation of his views. In using any of these methods the organisers mustexercise great care in selecting members of the panel who can speak to thelocal audience in a level of language they can understand. The object is toassist the audience to have a better understanding of a problem, not to

baffle them with the erudition of the panel members.

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Limit the members on a fieldtrip to a number the leader can

manage

8.12.4 Factors in planning field trips and tours

Some factors which should be taken into consideration in planning field trips and tours are:

- smaller groups are more manageable than large groups and the members of a smaller group may, therefore, get more benefit from a visit;

- the maximum number any tour leader should attempt to manage is 30 participants;

- keep the party together and persuade them to move quickly from point to point;

- use a small portable megaphone if necessary as an aid to holding the attention of the participants;

- the extension staff should be prepared to provide technical, background and interpretive informat ion on activities visited.

8.13 Panel discussions

Limi t the members on a fie ld trip to a number the leader can

manage

This is a process by which a number of persons pool their knowledge and experiences or feelings, and through discussion and general agreement, clarify the issues under consideration. The leader of the discussion group should serve as a moderator rather than as a resource person. He should ensure that every member gets a reasonable chance to be heard. His function is to keep the discussion moving in an orderly manner. He should discourage anyone, including himself , from trying to dominate the discussion. Such a meeting could be used when a group of people have already acquired some knowledge about the possibilities of undertaking an extens ion programme in an area and are considering in more detail what they might do about it.

Another type of panel discussion much favoured at present is one in which a group of persons knowledgeable in a subject are assembled and questions are posed by members of the audience. The members of the panel express their opinions and give such information as they can on the topic. This is somewhat similar to a symposium discussion. The panel method consists, however) of a rather informal discussion by several experts on a number of more or less related topics, while a symposium has several speakers, each of whom gives a rather detailed and carefully prepared presentation of his views. In using any of these methods the organisers must exercise great care in selecting members of the panel who can speak to the local audience in a level of language they can understand. The object is to assist the audience to have a better understanding of a problem, not to baffle them with the erudition of the panel members.

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8.14 Extension schools

Extension schools are characterised by the following features:

they are designed to give participants knowledge and skill insome specific field of work;they normally involve intensive training over a period of time(1 to 4 days is common);they can be located in any suitable rural training facility;they normally involve pre-enrolment procedures and an

obligation to attend all the sessions;they offer an opportunity for the presentation of muchinformation and practice to a selected group of people with aspecial interest in the topic;demonstrations, discussions and the use of visual aids, addmuch to their effectiveness; and,

periodic and terminal evaluations help to keep the programmerealistic and provide guidance in conducting future courses.

8.15 Farmers' training centres

Farmers' training centres were, at one time, a major feature of ruralextension programmes in some countries but they have recently Fallen inpopularity as it is often difficult for rural people to be absent from theirhomes for a lengthy period. Where they exist, however, they can be used totrain people in the ideas and practices of forestry, either as specificcourses or as components of a wider agricultural course.

A farmers' training centre should provide the following facilities:

accommodation for 20 or more people with residential anddining facilities;training areas complete with the necessary facilities andequipment, such as nurseries and plantations;courses in appropriate topics devised to last from 2 days toabout 4 weeks;clear objectives for each training programme, such as to showthat farming and forestry can be carried out together;an aim to create in the participants' minds the desire toapply the information acquired on their own lands;the facilities to teach them some of the joint skills requiredin forestry and agriculture (e.g. tree farming integrated withgrazing or growing cash crops);the facilities to provide both the necessary theoretical andpractical training to achieve these objectives; and,skill to provide leadership training in conjunction with theseother activities.

To fulfil this role, farmers' training centres must be integrated withcurrent extension programmes to the extent that:

subjects covered in the training contribute to the educationalobjectives included in extension programmes;participants are selected on the basis of their leadershippotential and through recognised leader recruitment processes;and,

participants, on completion of the training, are utilised inplanning and implementing forestry extension programmes.

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8.14 Extension schools

Extension schools are characterised by the following features:

they are designed to give participants knowledge and skill in some specific field of work; they nonnal1y involve intensive training over a period of time (1 to 4 days is common); they can be located in any suitable rural training facility;

they normally involve pre-enrolment procedures and an obligation to attend all the sessions; they offer an opportunity for the presentation of much

information and practice to a selected group of people with a special interest in the topic;

- demonstrations, discussions and the use of visual aids, add much to their effectiveness; and ,

- periodic and terminal evaluations help to keep the programme realistic and provide guidance in conducting future courses.

8.15 Farmers' training centres

Farmers' training centres 'tolere, at one time, a major feature of rural extension programmes in some countries but they have recently fallen in popularity as it is often difficult for rural people to be absent from their homes for a lengthy period. Where they exist, hm,ever, they can be used to train people in the ideas and practices of forestry, either as specific courses or as components of a wider agricultural course~

A farmers' training centre should provide the following facil ities:

- accommodation for 20 or more people with residential and dining facilities; training areas complete with the necessary facilities and

equipment, such as nurseries and plantations; - courses in appropriate topics devised to last from 2 days to

about 4 weeks; - clear objectives for each training programme, such as to sho<1

that farming and forestry can be carried out together; - an aim to create in the participants I minds the desire to

apply the information acquired on their own lands; the facilities to teach them some of the joint skills required in forestry and agriculture (e.g. tree farming integrated with grazing or growing cash crops);

- the facilities to provide both the neces sary theoretical and practical training to achieve these objectives; and,

- skill to provide leadership training in conjunction with these other activities.

To fulfil this role , farmers' training centres must be integrated with current extension programmes to the extent that:

- subjects covered in the training contribute to the educational objectives included in extension programmes ; participants are selected on the basis of their leadership potential and through recognised leader recruitment processes; and, participants, on completion of the training, are utilised in planning and implementing forestry extension programmes.

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Where such centres exist and are having difficulty in attractingsufficient candidates they may convert to training and motivating young menand women who do not yet have the same work or family ties as older personsand can devote the time to undertaking short training programmes.

Where such centres exist and are having difficulty in attracting sufficient candidates they may convert to training and motivating young men and women who do not yet have the same work or family ties as older persons and can devote the time to undertaking short training programmes.

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9. MASS EXTENSION METHODS

As neither individual nor group methods can reach everyone who may wantor need information on forestry extension matters various methods of masscommunication such as print, broadcast or audio-visual methods are employedto reach large numbers of people quickly and often at low cost. Theinformation they convey must be, in most cases, generalised but it can playan important role in certain phases of an extension campaign.

9.1 Functions of mass methods

Mass methods are used for a variety of reasons which include thefollowing:

they help carry forestry information to many more people in ashort period of time than can be reached by individual orgroup methods;they help create general awareness and interest in a new topicor forestry activity;they help form favourable attitudes amongst the general publictowards forestry extension programmes; and,

they provide helpful repetition and reinforcement of extensionmessages to those already contacted personally throughindividual or group methods;

9.1.1 Features of mass media

Some of the positive features of mass media are:

they can increase the impact of extension staff in the fieldby the rapid spread of information, though they involve nopersonal contact;many more people can be influenced, over a given period oftime, than by individual or group methods; and,

news stories, repeating basically the same information on

radio, TV and in press releases, help the people to rememberthe message.

Some of the less favourable aspects of mass media which must be takeninto account in planning their use are:

comparatively few people in rural areas in developing count-ries have access to newspapers regularly;the number of television sets in these areas is also limitedby national coverage and cost; and,the amount of detailed information, on which people can act,that can be transmitted by mass media, is limited.

Some examples of mass media and the ways in which they can be used mosteffectively are considered below.

9.2 Circular letters

Some suggestions on writing official letters are given in Section 8.4.1and are generally relevant here, though circular letters for mass use shouldgenerally be written in a less formal way.

9. MASS EXTENSION METHODS

As neither individual nor group methods can reach everyone who may want or need information on forestry extension matters various methods of mass communication such as print, broadcast or audio-visual methods are employed to reach large numbers of people quickly and often at low cost. The information they convey must be, in most cases, generalised but it can play an important role in certain phases of an extension campaign.

9.1 Functions of mass methods

Mass methods are used for a variety of reasons which include the following:

- they help carry forestry information to many more people in a short period of time than can be reached by individual or group methods;

- they help create general awareness and interest in a new topic or forestry activity;

- they help form favourable attitudes amongst the general public towards forestry extension programmes; and,

- they provide helpful repetition and reinforcement of extension messages to those already contacted personally through individual or group methods;

Features of mass media

Some of the positive features of mass media are:

- they can increase the impact of extension staff in the field by the rapid spread of information, though they involve no personal contact;

- many more people can be influenced, over a given period of time, than by individual or group methods; and,

- news stories, repeating basically the same information on radio, TV and in press releases, help the people to remember the message.

Some of the less favourable aspects of mass media which must be taken into account in planning their use are:

- comparatively few people in rural areas in developing countries have access to newspapers regularly;

- the number of television sets in these areas is also limited by national coverage and cost; and, the amount of detailed information, on which people can act, that can be transmitted by mass media, is limited.

Some examples of mass media and the ways in which they can be used most effectively are considered below. , 9.2 Circular letters

Some suggestions on writing official letters are given in Section 8.4.1 and are generally relevant here, though circular letters for mass use should generally be written in a less formal way.

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Some of the purposes for which circular letters may be used are:

to give advance warning to local authorities and communityleaders of anticipated forestry problems, such as shortagesof fuelwood, or the danger of forest fires;to publicise an extension activity, such as a demonstration ormeeting;to serve as a reminder to the audience of information oradvice given at meetings or demonstrations;to summarise the outcome of a result demonstration and to

carry news of the success of the demonstration to a much widerpublic;to inform people about a new forestry practice which extensionstaff believe would be of benefit to people in the area;to create awareness and interest in a new practice by

reporting the results achieved locally; and,to reinforce the effects of personal contact methods, such asmeetings or demonstrations or of other mass media campaigns.

9.2.1 Features of circular letters

Some of the benefits of using circular letters are:

they are simple and relatively cheap to produce in largenumbers, though postage charges may add to the costconsiderably; and,

they can be kept by the receiver and studied repeatedly, ifnecessary, in his own time.

Some disadvantages of using circular letters which are worthconsidering are:

they are of value only to those who can read reasonably welland who can understand the contents without furtherexplanation;there are limits to how much information can be effectivelyconveyed in a letter; and,

satisfactory duplicating facilities and adequate supplies ofpaper and envelopes are not always readily available to staffin rural areas.

9.2.2 Checklist and guidelines for using circular letters

A simple checklist and guidelines for preparing and using circularletters are:

appeal immediately to the reader's personal interest by usinga strong statement in the first paragraph;if possible, use a small illustration or a logo, somewhere inthe letter, to reinforce the message;quote relevant Eacts to support the message being conveyed,e.g. each household needs about 4 tons of fuelwood each year;suggest something positive the reader can do about it;be informal; use simple language and style and make it soundas if the writer were talking to the receiver in a friendly,helpful way; and,

cover only one subject in each letter.

Some of the purposes for which circular letters may be used are:

- to give advance warning to local authorities and community leaders of anticipated forestry problems, such as shortages of fuelwood, or the danger of forest fires;

- to publicise an extension activity, such as a demonstration or meeting; to serve as a reminder to the audience of information or

advice given at meetings or demonstrations; - to summarise the outcome of a result demonstration and to

carry news of the success of the demonstration to a much wider public;

- to inform people about a new forestry practice which extension staff believe would be of benefit to people in the area;

to create awareness and interest in a new practice by reporting the results achieved locally; and,

- to reinforce the effects of personal contact methods, such as meetings or demonstrations or of other mass media campaigns.

9.2.1 Features of circular letters

Some of the benefits of using circular letters are:

they are simple and relatively cheap numbers, though postage charges may considerably; and,

to produce add to

in the

large cost

- they can be kept by the receiver and studied repeatedly, if necessary, in his own time.

Some disadvantages of using circular letters which are worth considering are:

- they are of value only to those who can read reasonably well and who can understand the contents without further explanation;

- there are limits to how much information can be effectively conveyed in a letter; and,

- satisfactory duplicating facilities and adequate supplies of paper and envelopes are not always readily available to staff in rural areas.

9.2.2 Checklist and guidelines for using circular letters

A simple checklist and guidelines for preparing and using circular letters are:

- appeal immediately to the reader's personal interest by using a strong statement in the first paragraph;

- if possible, use a small illustration or a logo, somewhere in the letter, to reinforce the message; quote relevant facts to support the message being conveyed, e.g. each household needs about 4 tons of fuelwood each year;

- suggest something positive the reader can do about it; - be informal; use simple language and style and make it sound

as if the writer were talking to the receiver in a friendly, helpful way; and,

- cover only one subject in each letter.

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9.3 Newspaper stories

Some.of the functions of newspaper stories in forestry extension are:

to create awareness of and interest in a new forestry topic ofgeneral interestto give advance warning or advice on importan; forestry prob-lems, such as shortages of building materials;to increase people's knowledge and understanding of new for-estry techniques, e.g. controlled or rotational grazing inforest areas;to create more favourable attitudes towards extension

programmes and new forestry techniques;to publicise extension meetings and demonstrations; and,

to inform people of ways to save labour, time or money byadopting new and better forestry methods.

9.3.1 Use of newspaper stories

Some of the advantages of using newspaper storiescampaigns are:

in rural areas in developing countries many people still donot have easy access to newspapers because of their cost orlimited circulation;some people may not be able to read them with ease or

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in extension

newspaper stories

might not normallyextension staff

Rural people tend to place greatreliance on what they read in

newspapers

which should be

more people will be able to read newspapers as literacy andthe availability of papers increase;

- rural people in general tend to place great reliance on whatthey read in newspapers;newspaper stories can reach many people whoattend extension activities or contactdirectly;

they are an inexpensive extension method as they only requirethe staff to write acceptable stories or press releases andsend them to suitable outlets; and,they reinforce other extension activities such as radio and TVprogrammes or demonstrations.

Some of the disadvantages of usingtaken into account are:

9.3 Newspaper stories

Some .of the functions of newspaper stories in forestry extension are:

- to create awareness of and interest in a new forestry topic of general interest to give advance warning or advice on important forestry problems, such as shortages of building materials; to increase people's knowledge and understanding of new forestry techniques, e.g. controlled or rotational grazing in forest areas;

to create more favourable attitudes towards extension programmes and new forestry techniques; to publicise extension meetings and demonstrations; and,

- to inform people of ways to save labour, time or money by adopting new and better forestry methods .

9.3.1 Use of newspaper stories

Some of the advantages of using newspaper stories in extension campaigns are:

- more people l<i1l be able to read newspapers as literacy and the availability of papers increase; rural people in general tend to place great reliance on what they read in newspapers;

- newspaper stories can reach many people who might not normally attend extension activities or contact extension staff directly; they are an inexpensive extension method a~ they only require the staff to «rite acceptable stories or press releases and send them to suitable outlets; and, they reinforce other extension activities such as radio and TV programmes or delnonstrations.

~ ~

Rural people tend to place great reliance on what they read in

newspapers

Some of the disadvantages of using newspape r s tories which should be taken into account are:

in rural areas in developing countries many people still do not have easy access to newspapers because of their cost or limited circulation; some people may not be able to read them with ease or

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pleasure, particularly if the production standards are poor;editors often shorten stories for their own reasons and thefull information intended may not be included; and,editors may omit Lo print a story at an important time,

without giving any aotice or reason for doing so.

9.3.2 Planniag newspaper stories

Some steps to be considered in planning a news story are:

determine the purpose of the story;- identify the problem;

identify the target readers;consider how much they already know about the subject;consider their attitude, if any, to the subiect;decide what you want them to know or do;

- make sure the information you give is acicate and practical;make sure the timing of the story is appropriate;use only informatioa directly related to the problem;list the facts in logical order;make a rough outline of the story;learn what the editor wants and try to meet his or her needs;and,

adopt the style normally used by that particular paper, so theeditor will be encouraged to print it with few, if any, cuts.

9.3.3 Principles of writing for newspapers

Some important principles to follow in writing for newspapers are:

check that the information is accurate aad in line with offic-ial policy;consider if the story, as written, sounds entirely convincing;consider if the target audience will uaderstand it in the wayit is presented;give the important facts first, so that i the editor decidesto cut the story due to lack of space, at least the mostimportant parts of the message will appear;the leading statemeats or opening paragraphs should cover theimportant Factors, who, what, where, why, when and how;use personal words and make clear references to people

concerned; the public are geaerally more interested in otherpeople than in thiags;be brief, clear and accurate in writing;as far as practicable, use simple words, short sentences andshort paragraphs;give facts in preference to opinions;make the words sound convincing by using a Atreet aad person-alised style;

- point out the advantages that persons will obtain by adoptiagparticular practices, quoting quantities and values if

possLble; and,

limit each paragraph to a single idea or topic.

9.3.4 Follow-up

Some necessary steps to follow-up a newspaper story are:

keep copies of the article on a file and show them to peopleconcerned whenever possible;

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pleasure, particularly if the production standards are poor; - editors often shorten stories for thei r own reasons and the

full incot'iuation intended .may not be included; and , editors may ami t to print a story at an important t i.rne J

without giving any l10t I ce at' reason for doing so~

9 . 3.2 Plannine newspaper stories

Some s teps to. be considered in planning a news story are:

- determine the purpose :)( i.::le story; _. Identify the problem;

identify the target readers; - consider hot' much they already know about the subject ;

cons i der their attitude, if any, to the subject; - decide ~'lhat you ~Y'ant them to knOl.'1 or do;

make Ga o~ r:~le information you give is .1.CGl l C3.te and practical; - make sure the timing of the story t:::; ':!l"fn'opriate; - use only information directly related to the problem ; - list the facts in logical orrleL; - make a rough outline of the stot'y; - learn what the edi tor wants and try to meet his or her needs;

and, - adop t the style normally used by that particular paper, so the

editor will be encouraged t o print it with few, if any, cuts .

Principles of 'tY'riting for ne\·lspa f,Jer .s

Some important principles to follow in I . .,rit i.ng for net-lspapers are:

check that the information is accurat e 4,11 i n. line with official policy; consider if the story, as \rritten, sounds entirely convincing;

- consider if the target audience wi,11 understand it in the way it is presented;

- give the hnpor-tant facts first, so that U: the erl ttGr decides to cut the story due to lack of space, at least the most important parts of the message will appear;

- the leading st<ltements or opening paragraphs should cover the important £ac i:ors, who, what, 'tY'here, why, when and how; use personal words and make clear references to people

concerned; the public are geller-ally more interested in athey' people than in thirlgS;

- be brief, clear and accurate in 'Y'riting; - as far as practicable, use simple words, short sentences and

short paragraphs; give f acts in pr~ce(el1ce to oplnlons;

- ma}~e the '>lords sound convincing by using a :liJp.c t and personalised style; point out the advantages that persons >Jil l obtain by adopting paloticular practices, quoting quantities and values if possible ; and, limi t each paragra ph i:O ;.1 sIngle idea or topic.

9.3. 4

Some necessary steps to follow-up a ne\ys paper story are:

keep copies of the article on a file and sho\-l them to people concerned whenever possible;

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Posters are intended to:

catch the eye of passers-by;impress on them a fact or an idea; and,

encourage them to support an idea,

9.4.2 Design of posters

Some simple factors Lo bear in mind in the design of posters are:

a brief glance is usually all that people give to a poster,just long enough to identify it;passers-by will only look longer if something particularlycatches their attention and stimulates their interest;the message on a poster must therefore be simple, clear anddirect.

9.4.3 SuggesLious Luc po6tec tit=511-;it

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consider if the initial story justifies a follow-up story,after some time, describing any action taken or results

achieved; and,

mention the news story and public reaction to t in routinereports to senior staff.

9.4 Posters

A poster is usually a large sheet of paper or cardboard with anillustration and usually a few simple words. They may, less commonly, bepainted or enamelled metal which is more durable but much more expensive.

9.4.1 qunctions of posters

Some useful suggestions for designing posters are:

consider who the audience will be;decide what it is hoped they will do as a result of the

campaign;put down on a sheet of paper words and rough sketches thatexpress the message simply and clearly;put the message into a very few words, as a concise, strikingslogan;

A brief glance is all that

people usually give to a poster

- consider if the initial story justifie~ a follo«-up story, after some time, describing any action taken or results achieved; and, mention the news story and public react ion to t t in routine reports to senior staff.

9.4 Posters

A poster is usually a large sheet of paper or cardboard «ith an illust ra tion and usually a few simple «ords. They may, l ess commonly, be painted or enamelled metal ",vhich is more durable bllt Tl1llch more expensive .

Functions of posters

Posters are intended to :

- catch the eye of passers-by; - impress on them a fact or an idea ; and, - encourage them to support an idell.

Design of posters

Some simple factor.s to bear in mind in the desi.gn of posters are:

- a brief glance i.s usually all that people give to a pos te r, just long enough to i.dentify it;

- passers -by will only' look longer if soniething particularly catches their attention and stimulates their interest;

- the message on a poster must therefore be simpl e, clear and direct.

Suggestiou8 rue pvsLe r d~s .i.5n

A brie f glance is all that people usually give to a poster

Some useful suggestions ro r designing posters are:

- constder who the audience \>lill be; decide «hat it is hoped they will do as a l:esult of the

campaign ; - put dmm on a sheet of paper \v"Ords and rough sketches that

express the message slmply and clearly; - put the message into a very feH (-lOrUS, as a concise , strikine

slogan;

visualise, and put into picture form, the central idea of themessage;make a rough sketch of the poster on a small scale, 1/3 or 1/5of actual size initially;use plain bold lettering and lines throughout;use colours to attract attention and for. contrast, but not sothat they cause confusion; and,

do not crowd the letters, words or illustrations.

Posters can be produced in quantity by letterpress, by silk-screen, bysome more expensive duplicating machines, or by hand-work if only a few arerequired.

9.4.4 Some considerations on the use of posters

are:Some other factors that should be taken into account in using posters

posters should supplemeat hat should not aim to replace otherextension methods;they are useful to introduce or launch a campaign;they can be used to reinforce a campaign after it has beensucessfully launched;in general, the greater the number of posters used in anarea, the greater the impact;over-use of posters, however, defeats their purpose and mayturn people against the idea they are trying to promote;common sense and good taste should dictate both where theyshould be used and the number that should appear in any oneplace;posters can be put ap on notice boards, wall of buildings,fences, trees or in other suitable places, provided they doaot cause offence to the owner of the property; (seekpermission from the occupier, if in doubt); and,

poaters should be removed whea they have served their purposeand before they become untidy, or they may cause offence topassers-by.

Competitions to desigh pos, open to members oE the public or tostudeats, are an excellent way of generating interest in a topic and ingaining an insight lato how the people in a particular area view and wish torepresent an. idea. TIoderate cash prizes may attract very large numbers ofentries. Such a competition some years ago in East Africa featured loss ofpoteatial wealth as far more important in the view of local people than lossof soil or wildlife in forest fires.

9.5 Wall newspapers

These are generally similar in size aad appearance to posters but theycan be prepared in various forms. Their value depends to some extent on thelevel of literacy L11 the area in which they are ased and whether they can beexhibited in places protected from the weather where they can remain on viewfor a reasonable period. They may be prepared in a combined form with aportion used as a bulletin board and a portion for photographs or newspaperclippings of taterest to the public.

9.5.1 Some considerations on the use of wall newspapers

they usually attempt to communicate a number of ideas at onetLme;

- visualise, and put into picture form, the central idea of the message;

- make a rough sketch of the poster on a small scale, 1/3 or 1/5 of actual size initially;

- use plain bold lettering and lines throughout; - use colours to attract attention and [01: contrast, but not so

that they cause confusion; and, - do not crowd the l etters, "ords or illustrations.

Posters lOan be produced in quant-ety by letterpress, by silk-s creen, by some more expensive duplicating 11lE\chines, or by hand-work 1£ only a few are required.

~re:

9.4.4 Some considerations on the U'3C of posters

Some other factors that ~hould be taken into account in using p~)8ters

posters should supplement ~)Ut should not aim to replace other extension methods; they are useful to introduce or launch a campaign;

- they can be used to reinforce a campaign after it has been sucessfully launched; in general, the greater the number of posters used en an

area, the grea ter the impact; - over-use of posters, hm:>lever, defeats thel r rurpose and may

turn people again.st th~ idea they are try.tnn to promote; - common 'Jense and good taste should dictate both where the y

shoul d be used and the numb,, )': thai: should appear in anyone place;

- posters can be put up on notice boards, l-Ia l L, of buildings, f e nces, trees or in othel~ suitable placep, provided they do not cause offence to the ovm e c of the property; (seek permission from the occupier, if in doubt); a-'1d,

- posters :;hould be removed when they have served their purpos e and before l:ltey be come untidy, or t he y may cause offence to passers-by .

r::01u"[>cti ti0 l1G to de s i gn pO ~I l.: o...!r s , open to members of t he public or to students, are an excellent way of: generating i nterest i n a topic and i n gaining an insight into hot'1 the people in a par t lClIlar area view and wish t o represent an ide a. Ho(lerate cash prizes may -':l t t 'ract very large numbers o f .entrie s . Such a competition some ye ars a go in East Africa fea ture d loss o f poten t ial " ealth as far more impocta n t in the vie" of local people than lo ss of sailor wildlife tn f orest fires .

These are generally similar in si:~e and appearance to posters but they can be pre pared in various forms . lIle lr value depends to Rome extent on the level of literacy in the area in ',",hich they an~ Ils ed and t'lhether they can be exhibited in places [>(oi:ected from the weath(~ r :dhe (' t?: they can remain on view foe a reasonable period. They iUay be prepared in a combined Eorm Hith a portion used as a bulletin board and a portion for photographs or ne\vspaper clippings of "interest to the public.

9.5.1 Some considerations on the use of \"811 newspapers

- they usually attempt to communicate a <lumber of ideas at one time;

Some of the functions of pamphlets and leaflets are:

they may be used as single items, for example, to explainproper tree planting techniques;they may be used in a series covering broader topics such aswoodlot establishment, with separate leaflets on nurseryestablishment, seedling production, planting and maintenanceof woodlots and felling and sales;they may be used in conjunction with other visual aids atmeetings and demonstrations in long-term campaigns;they are useful to supplement larger publications when newinformation is available but when reprinting of the wholepublication is not necessary or practicable; and,

they can be handed out after meetings and offered to listenerson radio programmes to supplement the information given in theprogramme.

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These materials can often be produced locally, quickly and cheaply andcan be used in many ways in forestry extension programmes.

9.6.1 Functions of pamphlets and leaflets

they contain more illustrations and written material thanposters;they are best displayed in places where people can pause toread them Eor a few minutes without interrupting the flow ofpassers-by;they are oEten mainly pictorial with sketches or photographsas their main feature;the text is normally as brief and vivid as possible andset-out for easy reading; and,they can sometimes be used to report the results of researchand to recommend new forestry practices, provided these areeasily understandable and can be presented in an attractiveform.

A typical wall newspaper for extension purposes may contain materialsuch as:

reports and pictures of meetings, demonstrations, tours Orother current extension activities;an announcement of the appointment of a new member of theextension staff in the district;a progress report with pictures on community plantations inthe district;an illustrated feature on the success of a local person insome forestry extension activity; or,

an article urging the community to prevent forest fires.

Printed matter and pictures displayed in wall newspapers may be sabjectto copyright and prior arrangements may have to be made with the publishersfor their use. This can usually be obtained but it may involve a delaybefore the material can be displayed and will almost certainly require fullacknowledgement of the source from which it was taken.

9.6 Pamphlets and leaflets

they contain more illustrations and written material than posters;

- they are best displayed in places where people can pause to read them for a few minutes without Interrupting the flow of passers-by;

- they are often mainly pictorial with sketches or photographs as their main feature; the text is normally as brief and vivid as possible and

set-out for easy reading; and, - they can sometimes be used to report the results of research

and to recommend new forestry practices, provided these are easily understandable and can be presented in an attractive form.

A typical wall newspa pe r for extension purposes may contain material such as:

- reports and pictures of meetings, demonstrations, tours or other current extension activities;

- an announcement of the appointment of a new member of the extension staff in the district; a progress report with pictures on community plantations in the dist rict; an illustrated feature on the success of a local person in some forestry extension activity; or, an article urging the community to prevent forest fires.

Printed matter and pictures displayed in'lall newspapers may be subj ect to copyright and prior arrangements may have to be made with the publishers for their use. This can usually be obtained but.it may involve a delay before the material can be displayed and will almost certainly require full acknm.ledgement of the source from which it was taken.

9.6 Pamphlets and leaflets

These materials can often be produced locally, quickly and cheaply and can be used in many ways in forestry extension programmes.

9.6.1 Functions of pamphlets and leaflets

Some of the functions of pamphlets and leaflets are:

- they may be used as single items, for example, to explain proper tree planting techniques; they may be used in a series covering broader topics such as woodlot establishment, with separate leaflets on nursery establishment , seedling production, planting and maintenance of ,modlots and felling and sales;

- they may be used in conjuncti.on with other visual aids at meetings and demonstrations i n long-term campaigns;

- they are useful to supplement larger publications when new information is available but when reprinting of the "lhole publication is not necessary or practicable; and ~

- they can be handed out after meetings and of fered to listenerr, on radio programmes to supplement the informatIon gi\len in the programme.

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9.6.2 Advantages of using pamphlets and leaf ets

In preparing pamphlets and leaflets, a writer should:

keep the particular public for whom they are intendedconstantly in mind;write in a simple form and in words the intended readers canunderstand;write about things that interest most of the people;avoid difficult scientific and technical terms, such as thespecific names of plants or diseases;use simple illustrations whenever possible;adopt a good layout, (i.e. arrange material in a simple,logical, easy-to-follow manner and make it attractive);realistic illustrations (i.e. pictures) are usually mosteffective in extension work, though they are difficult to

reproduce with simple equipment;clear line drawings are usually more effective and attractivethan unclear pictures produced by mimeograph;good illustrations make any publication easier to understandand more interesting to read; and,

they should have an attractive and colourful cover whichshould impel the reader to look inside.

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Leaflets can be handed out aftermeetings or demonstrations

Some advantages of the use of pamphlets and leaflets are:

their production cost can be low, (simple ones may be

mimeographed);the time required for preparation is short;they can get a message across to the public quickly;their small size and general layout encourages the writer toeliminate non-essential information from the message; and,they serve as a lasting reminder or further explanation ofmatters a person may have heard about at a talk ordemonstration.

9.6.3 Guidelines for producing pamphlets and leaflets

9 . 6 .2

teaUets can be handed out after meetings or demonstrations

Advantages o f using pamphlets and leafle t s

Some advantages DC the use of pamphlets and leaflets are:

their production cost can be low, (simpl'~ nnes may be mimeographed) ; the ttllle required for prepara tion is short;

- they can get a message across to the puhLic quickly; - their small size and general layout encourages the 'vriter to

eliminate non-essential information frorn the message; and, - they serve as a lasting reminder or further explanat ion of

,na tters a person may have heard about at a talk or demonstration.

Guiuelines for producing pamphlets and leaflets

In preparing pamphlets and leaflets, a IITiter should:

keep the particular public for 't",hom they are intended constantly in mind;

- \'lrite in a simIJle torm and in words the intended readers can under s tand;

- lv-rite about things that intere!:;t most of the people; - avoid difficult sc.ief1tific and technical terms, such as the

speclf f.c names of plants or diseases; - use simple illustr::lt tons whenever possible;

adopt a good layout) (i.e. arrange mater. tal in a simple) logical, easy-to-follow manner and make it attractive); realistIc illustrations (Le. pictures) are usually most

effective in extension '.J'ork, though they a r e difficult to reproduce with simple equipment ;

- elear line dr al<ings ar.e usually more effective and attractive than unclear pictures p roduce(l bj mimeograph;

- good illus t rations make any publication e as i l?:T to understand and more inte resting to read; and, they should have an attractive and colourful c over Hhich

should impel. the reader to look inside .

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9.7 Fact sheets

Fact sheets are a condensed treatment of any items of subject matter ofgeneral interest. They usually cover a single topic and are often limited toa single page. A fact sheet on tree planting will give, briefly, the mostimportant information on the practice. Most sheets are illustrated withdrawings or photographs, sometimes in pale outline and overprinted with text.

Fact sheets are mainly used to provide information on curreat subjectmatter to field workers or community leaders. Essential facts from technicalbulletins can be given, combined with drawings and/or photographs to make aneffective, easily read and understandable summary, which can be reproducedquickly and inexpensively.

Extension administrators concerned with the problems of improving thecommunication of information within an organisation should consider carefullythe advantages of using fact sheets which can be colour-coded for topics,filed and, in time, built ap into a comprehensive volume of information OT1

current techniques.

9.8 Exhibits and displays

The materials in exhibitions and displays have some of the samecharacteristics as posters (Section 9.4). The difference is, however, thatthe exhibits are three-dimensional, usually larger and more detailed, and maycontain real objects or models where appropriate.

9.8.1 Functions of exhibits and displays

Some of the major functions of exhibits and displays are:

to catch the attention of passers-by, or visiLors to officesor shows;to impress one central idea or fact on them;to stimulate their interest in the subject matter presented;to urge them to take some sort of action; and,

to establish good relations between members of the extensionstaff and the public they meet in connection with theseactivities.

Exhibits and displays often use real objects or models and areable to give much detailed information to the public. They attract and holdthe attention for longer periods than posters because they are usually placedin areas where people move about more slowly. Forestry extension exhibitsand displays can be used very effectively in the entrance halls of offices,at local fairs, agricultural shows, exhibitions marking important nationalevents, or at forestry activities such as Arbor Days.

9.8.2 Guidelines in preparing and using exhibits and displays

SoMe simple initial guidelines in preparing and using exhibits anddisplays, which can be modified by local experience, are:

decide who the audieace will be, and what it is hoped theywill do;decide on the message;the most effective exhibtts are built round a single idea withthe minimum of supporting information;the central idea should stand out clearly;a combination of real objects, models and diagrams, with

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9.7 Fact sheets

Fact sheets are a condensed treatment of any items of subject matter of general interest. They ~sually cover a single topic and are often limited to a single page. A fact sheet on tree planting will give , briefly, the most impor'tant information on the practlce. ~'108t sheets are i.llustrated wi 'f:h drawings or photographs, sometimes in pale out line and overprinted with text.

Fact sheets are mainly used to provide information on current subject matter to field workers or community leaders. Essential facts f rom technical bulletins can be given, combined with drawings and/or photographs to make an effective, easily read and understandable sUlmuary, which can be reproduced quickly and inexpensively.

Extension administrators concerned with the problems of improving the communication of informat i on wi thin an organisation should consider carefully the advantages of using fact sheets 1;vohich can be colour·-co(led for topics, filed and, in time, built up into a comprehensive voluTile of information on current techniques.

9.8 Exhibits and displays

The materials in exhibitions and displays ha,,,, .some of the same characteristics as posters (Section 9.4). The difference is, hO<lever, that the exhibits are three-d i mensional, usually larger and more detailed, and may contain real objects or models where appropriate.

9.8.1 Functions of exhibi.ts and displays

Some of the major func tions of exhibits and displays are:

to catch the attentlon of passers-by, or visitors to offices or shows;

- to impress one central idea or fact on them; - to stimulate their interest in the subject matter presented; - to urge them to take some sort of action; and, - to establish good relations between members of the extension

staff and the public they meet i n connection "'ith these activities.

Exhibits and displays often use real objects or models and are able to give much detailed information to t he public. They attract and hold the attention for longer periods than posters because they are usually placed in areas where people move about more slowly. Forest ry extension exhibits and displays can be used very effectively in the entrance halls of offices, at local fairs, agricultural shows) exhibitions marking impor.tant national events, or at forestry activi ties such as Arbor Days.

9.8.2 Guidelines in preparing and using exhibit s 'in.} displays

Some simple initial guidelines In pl.~eparing and using exhibits and displays, which can be modified by local experience, are:

- decide who the audience 'Will be, and what it is hoped they will do;

- decide on the me s sage; the most effective exhiblts are built round a single idea with the minimum of supportinB information;

- the central idea should stand out clearly; a combinatlon of real objects, m.od(~ls and diagrams, with

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suitable labels, plus a bold sign or slogan, usually gets themessage across;something should be tncluded which relates the subject to theviewers' own interests, experiences or needs;

- the exhibit should cover such points as what the problem is,what can be done about it, and what the benefits will be;

- the supportive information should be presented in the form of"why" and "how" to do something;"before" and "after" photographs, with captions, can conveyuseful information;

- the use of actual objects e.g. old and new tools, models,drawings, specimens or actual demonstrations, helps greatly toconvey the message; and,

projected visual aids (e.g. back projection of transparencies)can be used in conjunction with the exhibit when appropriate.

9.8.3 Some other suggestions on exhibits and displays

Some other considerations and suggestions which should be taken intoaccount in planning exhibits and displays are:

clutter is the worst enemy of an exhibit or display; the

fewer elements in it, within reason, the better it is;keep written material to a minimum; use only enough captionsor signs to tell the story; (at fairs etc. attendants canoffer additional explanations, if necessary);vary the size, style, and colour of lettering to createinterest and to direct attention to the centre of interest;use a colour scheme of 2 or 3 colours with neutral shades fOrthe background and areas of intense colour for points of

interest; select colours to be used to make the best use of-auspicious" colours and aVoid -taboo" colours;locate the centre of interest near eye level (about 1.60mhigh);items above 2m or below lm high will not be seen as well asthose closer to eye level;by securing the co-operation of people in producing a fewbasic items for exhibits, to be kept permanently in a

locality, or at a rural training centre, extension staffcan be spared the difficult task of carrying heavy displaymaterial from place to place;time spent on preparing exhibits is more effectively used ifthe exhibit can be used at more than one place;design and construct eAlibits and displays in such a aay thatthey can easily be dismantled and transported for re-use atother places;when displayed at a major event sach as a field day or a

national exhibition, many people can benefit from it.

9.8.4 Organising and presenting the exhibit or display

Some practical potnts in presenting an exhibit or display which can befurther developed as local experience is gained, are:

select a type of exhibit appropriate to the activity and thesituation;make a written plan, diagram or model of the exhibit;for large exhibits draw a plan on an open floor to verify thatvisitors will be able to circulate freely;

- locate and arrange the materials required;

109 -

suitabl e labels , plus a bold sign or s logan, usually gets the message across;

- something should b" i ncluded " hlch re la tes the subject to the viewers' own interests, experiences or needs; the exhibit should cover s u ch point s as "hat the problem is, "hat can be done about it, and what the benefits will be;

- the supportive information should be presented in the form of "why" and "how" to do something; "befo re" . and "after " photographs, with captions, can convey useful information; the use of actual objects e.g. old and new tools, models,

drawings , specimens or actual demonstrations, helps greatly to convey the message; and,

- projected visual aids (e.g. back projection of transparencies) can be used in conjunction with the exhibit ,("hen appropriate.

9.8.3 Some other suggestions on e"hibits and displays

Some other considerations and suggestions "hich should be taken into account in planning exhibits and displays are:

clutte r is the "orst enemy o f an exhihIt or display; the fewer e l ements in it, within reason, the better it is;

- keep written mate rial to a minimum; use only enough captions or s igns to tell the story; (at f airs etc. attendants ca n offer additional explanations, i f necessary); vary the size, style, and colour of l e ttering to create

interest and to direc t attention to the centre of inte rest; use a colour scheme of 2 or 3 colours with neutral shades for the background and areas of intense colour for points of interest; select colours to be used to make the best use of "auspic ious" co lours and avoid "taboo" co lours; locate the cent re of interest near eye level (about 1. 60m

high) ; items ab ove 2m or below 1m high will not be seen as well as those close r to eye level; by securing the co-operation o f people in producing a fetv

basic items for exhibits, to be kept permanently in a locali ty, or at a ("ul·al training centre, extension staff can be spared the di. fficult t ask of carrying heavy display material froln place to place;

- time s pent on preparing exhibi t s is moce effectively used if the exhibi t can be used a t more than one place;

- design and construct exhibits and displays in such a X-laY that they can easi l y be dismantled and transported for re-use at other places;

- ;vhen displayed at a major event such as a field day or a national exhibition, many people can benefIt from it.

Organlsi.ng and presenting the eX~lih it or display

Some practical points in presenting an exhibit 0, display which can be further deve loped as l ocal experience is gained, are:

- select a type of exhibit appropriate to the activity and the situation; make a written plan, diagr.am or model of the exhibit ;

- for large exhibits draw a plan on an open floor to verify that visi tors will he able to ci rculate freely;

- locate and arrange the mate daI s required;

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outline their positions on the backing material in crayon orpaint so they can be .removed and replaced quickly and

precisely as required;fix all va/uable portable materials securely to a base;

(strong copper wire is very suitable for this purpose and isgenerally unobtrusive);where appropriate, have someone to present and explain theexhibit and answer questions;

- have reading materials available for distribution (or evenseedlings for distribution) j_.f appropriate;keep a book to record requests for further information andfollow up aay contacts by letter, personal vistt or

invitations to meetings; and,

evaluate and report on the effectiveness of the exhibit andthe interest it aroused, and any successful follow-up withinterested persons.

9.9 Radio

Radio is one of the fastest, most powerful, and in many countries theonly effective way, of communicating with the majority of rural people. It

can be a very valuable and inexpensive means of spreading an unaerstanding offorestry amongst the people.

9.9.1 Purposes of radio programmes

The main purposes of radio programmes are:

to create awareness and interest in conservation or in newforestry practices;ta give early warning to the public of possible forestryproblems;to inform the public about on-going forestry extension

activities;to stimulate people to contact and seek the advice of forestryextension staff; and,

to help build interest in extension activities in general andto support them.

9.9.2 Features of radio programmes

Some of the advantages of radio programmes are:

the message reaches the people more quickly than printedmaterial, which takes time to be compiled, printed and

distributed;it reaches people of all cultural levels who can understandthe language of transmission, at little or no cost to

themselves;a forestry radio programme is not, normally, a costlyextension method, as there is often no charge for air time ifthe topic is of wide public interest;it is an extremely useful and effective method of communic-ating with people who are not fully literate; and,listeners come to like the personalities who are often heardon radio programmes and the organisation can capitalise onthis by arranging for them to make personal appearances atother forestry extension activities.

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- outline their positions on the backin~ Hl.1.t2r:"ial in crayon or paint so they can he ' removed and replaced quickly and precisely as required; fix all valuable pOctable

(strong copper vlire is very generally unobtrusive);

materials securely to a base; sui table Ear this purpose and is

- where appropriate, have someone to present and expla tn the exhibit and answer questions;

- have reading matecials available for distribut ion (or even seedlings for distribution) L[ appropriate;

- keep a book to record requests for further information and follow up allY contacts by letter, personal vistt or invitations to meetings; and,

- evaluate and report on the effectiveness of the exhibit and the interest it aroused, and any successful follow-up '\<lith interested persons.

9.9 Radio

Radio is one of the fastest, most powerful, and in many countries the only effective \Yay, of communicating \¥ith the majority of rural people. It carl be a very valuable and inexpensl1l0 nleans of spreading an understanding of forestry amonest the people.

Purposes of radLo programmes

The main pu-rpOSe8 of radio progrannnes are:

to create ali-lareness and inter.est in conservation or in new forestry practices ;

- to give eacly warning to the public of possible forestry problems;

to inform the public about on-goine forestry extension activities; to stimulate people to contact and seek the advicp. of for.es try extension staff; and,

- to help build interest i..n es<tension activities in general 8.11.1

to support them.

9.9 .2 Features or: radio programmes

Some of t he advantages of radlo pro8rammes are:

- the message reaches the people ma t e ri.al, 'i:l7hich takes time to distributed;

more be

quickly compiled,

I:',,,n printed printed and

- it reaches people of all cultural level s who can understand t~H~ language of transmission, at l'tttle or no cost to themselves;

a forestey radio progrannne is not, normally, a costly extension method, as there is often no charge for ai.r time if the topic is oE "lide public interest; it is an extre!Ul?ly Llsetul and effective method i)( c:omnlUni.c-ating \l7ith people who are not fully litet::';tte; and,

- 1 Lstenet'l3 come to lik e the personal tties who are often heard on radio programme8 <lnd the organisation can cap t t rll i.s~ on this by arranging for them t o make per.sonal appearances at other forestry extension activities.

-- llO -

Radio is an effective method ofcommunicating with peoplewho are not fully literate

Some of the disadvantages of radio programmes which must be borne inmind are:

the number of people owning, or having access to, a radio setmay be limited in poor, rural areas;there is no easy means of 'telling if the message is fullyunderstood by the listeners; and,a message may promote more latarest in a topic than localstaff can conveniently handle or follow-up at that time.

9.9.3 Guidelines and checklist for recording a radio broadcast

Radio broadcasts are commonly recorded in advance on tape, which

enables them to be edited aqd adjusted for timing before being broadcast.The procedure for doing this can he used Cor any taped message which may thenbe used in conjunction with extension meetings and activities or by mobileunin. (Section 6.7).

The diaries and field notes of extension staff should suggest manyuseful items for programmes. Where posible, interviews anti discussions withlocal persons or groups should be arranged. These enable the speakers torelate their experiences in Clete own words, which can be very convincing tolisteners.

Some simple guideltnes and a checklist for making a tape recording are:

prepare a Colder of forestry informaijon and ideas suitablefor broadcasting and keep it up-to-date with regular

additions;decide on the purpose of any broadcast before attemptingplan it in detall;discuss the outline of any interview with the speaker beforerecording it; explain the reason for the broadcast; Fiad outwhat he or she did and what success was achieved;make sure that the names and tttles of speakers used tabroadcast are accurate, that the person concerned does notobject to being named, and that no criticism of the person ismade during the interview;try out some questions before recording and if the speaker isnervous or flustered rehearse them to give him conCidence;

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-.

Radio is an effective method of communicating 'tvith people ~Y'ho are not fully litera.te

Some of the disadvantages oE radio programmes which must he borne in mind are:

the number. of people owning, or having access to, a radio set may be limited in poor, rllral areas; there is no easy means of ' tell ing 1.f the message is fully

understood by the listeners; and, - a message may promote more tnte.r.es t in a topic than loc-l.l

staff can conveniently handle or follow-up at that time.

9.9 . 3 Guidelines and checklist for recording a radio broadcast

Radio broadcasts are commonly recorded ill advance on tape, ('lhich enables them to be ed tted and adjusted for timing before being broadcast. The procedure for doing thiR can be used fO 'r any taped message which may then be used in conjunction lY'ith extension meetings and activities or by mobile unit~. (Section 6.7).

The diaries and fie ld noteG of extension staff s hould s U3gest many useful items fo r programmes. Wlere possible, interviews alld (1 iscussions t,lith l ocal persons or groups should be arranged. These enable t he speakers to relate their experiences In th{~ .i.!: Oim Hords, which can be ve ry convi.ncinz to Itste ners.

Some simple gutdp.:l "tnes and a checklist for mak:tng a tape recording are:

- prepare a raIder of forestry informal: 1.OI'l ;;lnd ideas sui table for broadcat;ti ng and keep it up-to-dat e ~Y i th regula r additionB;

- decide on the purpose of any broadcast before attempting to plan it in detail;

- di scu ss the outline of any interview t., itrt the speaker before recording it; explain the reason for the brt)adc;:t~t; find out what he or she did and '<That succ ess ,,,as achieved;

- make sure that the na1ues and titles of speakers useo Ln the broadcast are accurate, that the person concerned does not object to being named i and that no criticism of the pe"eson is made during the inter view; tryout some questions before recor:-dil18 and if the speaker is nervous or flu~-3t.f:"!1.·e(l t"eh~an;e them to give him COTl ~ ldence;

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keep questions short aad frame them to start with, "how",

"what", here" and "when", to avoid getting a series of "yes"or "no" answers whic.11 require another questioa to get theinterview goiag again;avoid using questions beginning "how many" as the aaswer maysimply he a number, without any further explanation;make the interview personal by stressing the terms "you" aad"yours" in the interview;

- avoid discussing the speaker's private affairs, especially hiscash income;make an effort to show the speaker you are interested in him;listen carefully to what he has to say;try to give the impression of having an informal chat;keep the speaker on familiar ground aad do not surprise himwith awkward questions;encourage the speaker to do most of the talking;make the questions real questions, not long statements of theinterviewer's opLaioas for the speaker to confirm or deny;do not put words Lato the speaker's mouth;straight subject-matter talks by a knowledgeable and respectedperson are of value in introducing a new idea, provided theyare brief, well-planned, interesting, and in a level of

language the listeners can understand;reports of forest visits, demonstrations or field days andanswers to requests for information are useful in news andmagazine-type programmes.

9.9.4 Some technical potnn

Some technical poiats which should be noted in making recordings, areas Eollows:

conduct interviews aad recordings in the person's own area,if poasible; this overcomes the difficulty of getting the

person to a studio where liseassion may be inhibited by theunfamiliar surroundings and the gadgetry; it may also be

n record some realistic background noises to incor-porate in the programme;ensure ne perGoa making the recording knows how to operatethe tape recorder;check that the recorder is operating correctly before Gtartingthe interview; and,LE background noiseG are likely to interfere with the

interview, (e.g. ehildren playing), make the recordingindoors, e.g. in a barn or a hut.

If the basic interview materialprovided, the producer of the programme aut%e radio station will normally arrange allthe introduction, continuity announcementsand music necessary to produce a well-balanced programme ia the normal format ofthe statioa. It should not be necessary forexteasioa staff to tackle this stage 1::work themselves.

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..,t., .

/';..1.kg,

;..1

\:1.....

7-'7:Jvide the basic material forprofessional producers to work on

- keep questions short and ftOame them to start with, "how", " -.;·]hat" , " (yhere " and "'{yhen", to avoid ~etting a seri es of "yes" or "no" ans\Yer.s \Y'ht ch require another question to get the intervie\v going again;

- avoid using questions beginning "hm·] many" as the anstJer may simply be a number, without any curthe r explanation;

- make the intervie,. " persoaal by stressing the terms "you" and "yours" in the interview;

- avoid discussing the speake r. ' s p r Ivate affa~rs, especial~ ly hi s cash income;

- make an effor.t to show the speaker you are interested in him; listen carefully to what h e has to say;

- try to give the impression of having an Infomal chat; keep the speaker on familiar ground and do not s urprise him with awkward quesi:tons;

- encourage the speaker to do most of the talking; - make the questions real quest ions, not long statements of the

' intervie'{.-ler's op ~nlons cor the speaker to confitlu or deny; - do not put '{..,orels into the speaker's mouth; - straight subject-matter talks by a knm.ledgeable and respected

person are of value in introducing a new idea, provided they are b·cief, well-planned, interesting, and in a level of language the listeners can understand;

- reports or: corest visits, demonstrations or field days and anSHers to requests coc i nformation are useful in news and rl\agazine-type programmes.

Some technic~l potnts which should be noten in mak.ing recordings, are as (0110'"8;

conduct intervie\\fs and r.ecordings in the person 's own a rea, 1 f pos sible; this overcomes the dt ~ I: LenIty of get ting the pers on to a studio where (1 ts,I':,lssion may be inhibited by the unfamiliar surround tnes and the gadgetry; it may al~o he pos!J Lbl~ t o r.ecord some realistic 'r>A.ck.zro und noises to incorporate in the p cog~_'amlile;

- ensure the per>]O!.l ,naking the recording kno\>ls how to opera t e the t ape cecorder;

- check that the reCOrd8 "C [8 operating correctly be fore starting the lnterview; and, if background noises are

intervie'{.-l, (A:.e. c11tldren indoors, e.3. in a b~rn or a

l l ke ly to playing) ,

hut.

If the basic Ll1l.:er v l ew }j1aterial is prov-tded, the producer of the p r ogramme at t',,, cadio station Hill normal l:J "Hange all the introduction, cont i nuity announcements and music necessary to pcod uce a well balanced program,ne tn the normal format of the statlnn. It should not be nece ssary foe extens ton si:a.f [ to tackle thi s stage o f l:1 1 -~

t\fork themselves.

i nterfere make the

with the r ecord i nR

?:ovlJe. the basic lnaterial f or r r ofessional producers to work on

- lU -

9.9.5 Some considerations aad suggestions

Some considerations and suggestions in preparing radio programmes are:

research has shown that people tend to believe what they hearon the radio;the mass media, which includes radio, rank as the most

effective media in the awareness and interest stages of

learning;hearing friends and neighbours speak on the radio increasea aaextension programme's influence in the evaluation, trial andadoption stages of learning;if there is a choice, the early adopters, or informal leaders,should be interviewed rather than the innovators, who may beregarded as too progressive by some of their neighbours;good interviews require careful thought and planning but canbe re-used several times at meetings;extension staff can provide a radio station with recorded spotannouncements or radio plugs to be repeated at frequentintervals during the day;consider the listening habits of the people, (determined bysurveys), when planning an extension programme by means ofradio and select broadcasting times appropriate to these;relate the scripts to the experiences and needs of the localpeople;advertise the next similar radio programme by anaouncing thesubject and who will be interviewed before closing eachprogramme; and,

be selective and take advice from professionals; not allextension information is necessarily good radio material.

9.10 Television

Television adds both vision and movement to broadcasting and in manyareas it can now also add colour. These qualities greatly increase its valueas a forestry extension technique, where an effective TV service exists andwhere there are sufficient sets to cover a reasonable proportion of thepopulation. This stage has, unfortunately, not yet been reached in manydeveloping countries and its spread to rural areas may take several years.In other countries, however, TV is playing an increasingly important role.Sets have been installed in suitable rural locations at government expense,to enable large numbers of people to receive broadcasts of educational andentertainment value.

9.10.1 Uses of TV in extension

On national networks, forestry items may occupy a relatively minor partof the programme schedule. They may appear as occasional general interestprogrammes, features to support the awareness and interest phases of

extension campaigns, or as reports on outstanding achievements in forestry.

TV can, however, play a major role in training extension staff and inpromoting extension work in rural areas. It may soon not only take over therole of cinema films in extension, but also greatly widen their scope bypresenting more immediate and localised material Eor training. Using simplevideo recorders of various types, which are discussed in Section 6.2.4, itenables extension staff to monitor their own performance as extensionists, ina wide variety of situations. It can also enable the person to studycritically, and at leisure, the reactions of the audience to his performance,based on facial expressions, body movements or reactions to statements and

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9.9.5 Some considerations and sugges tions

Some considerations and suggeG tions in preparing radio programmes are:

- research has shmm that people tend tn believe what they hear on the radio; the mass media,

effective media learning;

t-ll-tich in the

includes radio, a~"areness and

rank as interest

the f(lOSt

stages of

heartng friends and neighbours s peak on the radio increases an ext ensIon programme '8 influence in the evaluation, trial and adoption stages of learning;

- if there is a choice, the early adopter.s , or informal leaders, should be interv iewed rather than the innovators, tvho may be regarded as too progressive by some of their neighbo1lt'S;

- good interviews require careful thought and planning but can be re-used several times at meetings;

- extension staff can provi.de a radio station Hith recorde.d spot announcements or radio plugs to be repeated at frequent intervals during the day; consider the listening habits of the people, (determined by su r veys), when planning an extension programme by means of radio and select broadcasting times appropriate to these; relate the scripts to the experiences and needs of the local people;

- advertise the next sImilar radio programme by announcing the subject and who will be interviewed before closing each programme; and,

- be selective and take advice from professionals; not all extension information is necessarily good radio material.

9.10 Television

Television adds both vi sion and movement to broadcasting and in many areas it can now also add colour. These qualities greatly increase its value as a forestry extension technique, where an effective TV service exists and where there are sufficient sets to cover a reasonable proportion of the population. This stage has , unfortunately, not yet been reached in many developing countries and its spread to rural areas may take several years. In other countries, however, TV is playing an increasingly important role. Sets have been installed in suitable rural locations at government expense, to enable large numbers of people to receive broadcasts of educational and entertainment value.

9.10.1 Uses of TV in extension

On national networks, forestry items may occupy a relatively minor part of the programme schedule. They may appear as occasional general interest programmes, features to support the aHareness and i nterest phases of extension campaigns, or as reports on outstanding achievements in rorestry.

TV can, however, playa major role in training extension staff and in promoting extension work in rural areas. It may soon not only take over the role of cinema films in extension, but also greatly widen their scope by presenting more immediate and localised material for training. Us ing simple video recorders of various types, 'tvhich are discussed in Sect ion 6.2.4, it enables extension staf f to monitor their mm performance as extensionists, in a wide variety of situations. It can also enable the person to study critically, and at leisure, the reactions of the audience to his performance, based on facial expressions, body moveInent~ or reactions to statement s and

- 113 -

questions raised during the meeting. Even simple recordings, which are notiatended for wider showing, can be of great assistance both in improving theperformance of the lastructor and in assessing the interest and value of thematerial being covered.

More professtocially produced material can be used as short programmesfor either instructional staff or their clients during short sessions, eitherin the morning or eveaiag, so providing a properly structured course of studyover a relatively short period, without the loss of working time involved ina residential course. RecordincYs can be made of result or methoddemonstrations, compressing a lengthy period of time Lato an hour or so, ordemonsteating a technique skilfully aad with all the necessary resoarces.These can be shown as short programmes of roughly twenty minutes eachfollowed by discussion and a review or further demonstration if required,

9.10.2 Guidelines for prepaciag TV material

Initially, arrangemeat:; for preparing a TV programme either for showingto a national audience or for use as a video cassette La trataing smallergroups are beGt handled by the natioaal TV organisation, or by a commercialcompany. They will have all the necessary equipmeat and expertise to do thework successfully. The equipment and skills required to edit and copy tapesare expensive aad cannot be justified by a forestry extension organisatioaunless there to a aational commitment to use TV or video recordings inforestry extension on a very wide scale. By providing expertise, facilitiesand field services during the maldag of a programme, however, forestryextension staff can gala an insight into the complexities of the task andwill be made to think more deeply about their techniques and normal method ofpresentation.

If a simple video camera and recorder become avai.lAble to forestryextension staff, inttial attempts at recording should be oa a modest scaleand limited to programmes of a few minut es, The guidelines for radiorecordiag caa be modified initially but the elements of vision and movementadd important new factors. The fact that a sequence taken by a video cameracan be reviewed on the moaitor of the camera immediately it 15 recordedenables faults to be corrected aad the general level of presentation to beimpro.,Ted very rapidly. Recordings made on simple video equipment cannotnormally be edited to the standard required for wide-scale use but theexperieace that can be gained in producing these is a valuable contributionto more effective preseatatioa of forestry extension aaterial.

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questions raised duri ng the Ineeting. Even simple recordings, which are not intended for wider shmJing, can be of 3reat assistance both in improving the performance of the instrllci:or and in assessing the interest and value of the material being covered.

Hore pro f ess tonally produced material can 1):= IPJed as short programmes for either i..ns tructional staff or thei. r cllents during short sessions) e i.tller in the morning o r even.i. ~l':L so providing a properly st ructured course of study over a relatively short period, without the loss o f working time invo·t veu. in a residential c o urse 0 Re cordings can be made :) r: r ·~~.;ul t o r method demonstrations, cO jnfJ-c:~~:;s ing i:l leng thy period of time into an hour or so, or dt~l!ll)f1sj.: :::,at ing a technique skilfully and with all the neces sary reSOlu'ces. These can ~)!~ shovm ao short programmes 0 C roughly ttJenty minutes each follmJed by discIl.sslon and a review or further demonstration if required.

9.11).2 Guidelines for preparing i'V material

lni tially, a rrange!nl~!l i.:;.:; (() r preparing a TV programme l'! ~ i:1t '= (' f or showing to a national audience or rot' u se as a vided casseti:e t il t r~ aJ.f\ing smaller groups a ce best handled by the national TV organisation, or by a cOto.lllerclal company. They will have all the necessary equip111e nt and expertise to do the work s ucc.ess [ully. The equipment and skil.l.s required to edit and copy tap"s are. expensive ·3.rld cannot be justified by a forestry extension organisation unles s there lS ;1 :1; .. \i: i.l)ual commitment to use TV or v.lJeo recordings in forestry extension on ;.1 ve r y ll~de scale . By providing expe rtlse) facilities and r:it~ ld services during t he lUakine of a programme, hO\llever} forestry extension star:~ c;.;tn 3atn an insight into the complexities of the task and will be made to think more deeply about t'u~l l' tzchniques and normal methol1 o f presentation.

If a simple video camera and rec.order become aVil .:. '.'1'1'." to forestry extension staff, ini.tial attempts at recording should be 011 a modest scale and 1. 1.m t t: (~ ; 1. tc) pt~ogrammes of a few minutes 0 The g uidelines for radio record ine can be modified initially but the elements of vision and movement add important new fat:i.:ocs . The fact that a sequence taken by a video camera can be revie\Jed on the moni..i.:or or: the camera immediately it is r ecorded enab le .s faults to be corrected and the general level of presentaU.on to be improved very tOapidly. Recordings made on simple video equipment cannot normally be edited to the standard required fo r "ide-scale use but the exp.~r i.ence that can be gained in producing these is a valuable contri.bution to more effec·tive presentai: ton of forestry extension mate;" tal.

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10. EXTENSION CAMPAIGNS

The function of an extension campaign is to focus the attention of thepublic on a particular, widespread, problem which has been clearly identifiedin an area (e.g. a possible shortage of fuelwood). The ultimate objective isto stimulate the people to take action to overcome the problem by personal orcommunity efforts.

An extension campaign involves:

a co-ordinated plan using a range of communication and

educational skills to achieve widespread recognition of a

problem and the adoption of appropriate solutions to overcomeit

the co-ordinated use of a variety of extension methods in acarefully planned sequence and degree to achieve the

necessary recognition and action; and,

a planned effort to achieve the objective over a particularperiod of time, related to the purpose of the campaign, andco-ordinated at national, regional or district level as

appropriate to the objective.

10.1 Reasons for using the campaign approach

There are many sound reasons for using the campaign approach in majorextension activities such as:

a co-ordinated approach to a large-scale, complex, extensioneffort can be more effective tban the individual efforts of anumber of staff working in isolation, on their own initiative;it permits the integration of a variety of methods to presenta unified message to a high proportion of the target audienceover the required area;it allows detailed planning to make the best use of the staff,time, and resources available over the whole area;it enables activities to be scheduled and repeated at timesmost favourable for particular sub-divisions of the area; and,the high profile of the effort helps to generate publicenthusiasm and support for the objectives of the campaign.

10.2 Principles of extension campaigns

Extension campaigns are based on the principle that the more people areexposed to an idea, the more likely they are to accept or adopt it. Theymust be conducted, however, as proper communication systems in which theneeds, views and constraints of the people are not only fully respected butincorporated both into the information and the activity components of the

campaign.

Campaigns are normally limited to a definite period of time dictated bythe specific objectives of the campaign, (e.g. fire protection in communityforests). Some campaigns may have no seasonal constraints, but they shouldneverthless have a time limit. A campaign will lose its impact if it

continues too long without any measurable result. A finite period, afterwhich it can be evaluated, is important both to assess its effects and toplan any subsequent phases to achieve an increased effect.

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10 . EXTENSION CAMPAIGNS

The function of an extension campaign is to focus the attentton of the public on a particular, widespread, problem which has been clearly identified in an area (e.g. a possible shortage of fuelwood). The ultimate objective i s to stimulate the peopl e to take action to overcome the problem by personal or community efforts.

An extension campaign involves:

a co-ordinated plan using a range of communication and educational skills to achieve \videspread recognition of a problem and the adoption of appropriate solutions t o overcome it; the co-ordinated use of a variety of extension methods in a carefully planned sequence and degree to achieve the necessary recognition and action; and,

- a planned effort to achieve the objective over a partIcular period of time, related to the purpose of the campaign, and co- ordinated at national, regional or district level as appropriate to the objective.

10.1 Reasons for using the campaign approach

There are many sound reasons for using the campaign approach in major extension activities ., such as:

- a co-ordinated approach to a large -scale, complex, extension effort can be more effective than i:~ , e individual efforts of a number of staff working in isolation, on their o~m initiat ive ; it permits the integration of a variety of methods to present a unified message to a high proportion of the target audience over the required area;

- it allot.s detailed planning to make the best use of the staff, time, and resources available over the whole area;

- it enables activit ies to be scheduled and repeated at times most favourable for pacticular sub-divisions of the area; and, the high profile of the effort helps to generate public

enthusiasm and support for the objectives of the campaign .

10.2 Principles of extension campaigns

Extension campaigns are based on the principle that the more people are exposed to an idea, the more likely they are to accept or adopt it. They must be conducted, however, as prope r c OTamunication systems in ~.J'hich the needs, vie«s and constraints of the people are not only fully respected but incorporated both into the information and the act ivity components of the campaign.

Campaigns are nor'1lally limited to a definite period of time dictated by the specific objectives of the campaign, (e. g . fire protection in community f orests). Some campaigns may have no seasonal constraints, but they should neverthless have a time limit. A campaign will lose its impact if it c ontinues too long Hithout any me a:3urable res ult. A finite period, after 'h'hich it can be evaluated, is important both to assess its effects and to plan any subsequent phases to achieve an i ncreased effect.

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10.3 Guidelines for planning extension campaigns

!lome simple steps in the process of planning extension campaigns are asfollows.

10.3.1 Analysis of the current situation

Important questions to be asked and answered at the initial stage, byquestionaires or surveys, by discussion with informed persons, or by study ofofficial records, are as follows.

Topic:

how familiar are the target audience with the matter;can the problem be seen by them or demonstrated to them

easily;is enough known about the problem to determine its causesprecisely and to offer realistic solutions;to what extent is the problem the result of firmly held viewsor the operation of traditional practices by the public;what benefits will the people derive from a solution to theproblem;can it be solved mainly by their own resources or will

significant assistance be required;have they the necessary understanding or skills to solve it;and,

can it besolved in one stage or only by a series of steps?

Situation:

how serious i2 the problem or how great the opportunity;how has it arisen;have any previous attempts been made to solve it; if so,

what was the result of these?

Population:

hou many people are affected by the problem;how are they distributed geographically;what is their composition by age, sex, level of education,occupation, resources, facilities, etc.;what do they know about the topic;have they shown any previous interest in it;do they consider it important in their lives;has their way of life contributed, or given rise, to the

problem;do they have the necessary knowledge or skill to solve it;have they aay wish to solve it;have the views of their families and friends any influence onwhat they might be willing to do to solve the problem;have their customs or habits any effect on solutions whichmight be proposed;from whom do they normally seek advice on such matters;are their any groups or organisations which influence them insuch matters;what is their main source of information on such matters;do they view the extension organisation as a reliable sourceof information;how do they normally take decisions on such matters; and,is the infrastructure of roads, transport, etc. appropriate

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10.3 Guidelines f or planning ex t ension campaIgns

Some simple steps in the process of planning extension campaigns are as fol loHS.

10.3 . 1 fu,alysis of the current situation

Important ques tions to be asked and answered at the initial stage, by questionaires or surveys, by discussion with informed persons, or by study of official records, are as folloH8.

Topic :

- hOl,;'l famil iar are the target audience "'lith the matter; can the problem be seen by them or demonstrated to them

easi ly; - is enough knmffi about the problem to determine its causes

precisel y and to offer realistic solutions; - to what extent is the problem the result of firmly held views

or the operation of traditional practices by the public; - what benefits Hill the people derive from a solution to the

problem; can it be solved mainly by their Q{ffi resources or will

significant assistance be required; - have they the necessary understanding or skills to solve it;

and, -- can it be so l ved in one stage or only by a series of steps?

Situation :

hm-l serious is the problem or hOH great the opportunity; - hOl" has it arisen; - have any previous attempts been made to solve it; if so, - \'lhat was the result of these?

Population:

- hOl-' many people are a ffected by the problem; llm'1 are they distributed geographically;

- Hhat is the"tr composit ion by age, sex, level of education, occupation, resources, facilities, etc.;

- what do they lenO(; about the topic; - have they shm"n any previous interest In it; - do they consider it i mportant in their lives;

has their way of life contributed, or given rise, to the problem;

-. do they have the necessary knm>1ledge or skill to solve It; - have they any Hish to solve it; - have the vie't'lS of their fami lies and friends any influence on

,;hat they might be Hilling to do to solve the problem; _. have their customs or habits any effect on solutions 1.]hich

might be proposed; - from v1hom do they normally seek advice on such matters;

are their any groups or ofsanisatlons {",hlch influence them in s uch matters; '\o]hat is their main source of information on such matters;

- do they vie\" the extension organisation as a reliable source of informat 1.on;

- hOl;o] do they normally take decisions on such matters; and, - is the infrastruc ture of roads, transport, etc. appropriate

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to the suggested solution?

Organiser

why is there official concern about the matter;is it considered to be a matter of great urgency;does it require priority in extension activities;what resources in staff, materials and funds are avilable toapply to the campaign; and,

will any external assistance be required and, if so, can it beassured from an appropriate development programme?

Such information as can be obtained on these points will assist inreaching a decision on whether or not a campaign approach would be

appropriate, at whom it should be directed, by what means it should becarried out, how long it might last and whether it should be limited to aparticular season of the year. A campaign aimed at action is unlikely to besuccessful if people are not aware of a problem, are not interested in it, orare likely to resist attempts to remedy it because these appear to conflictwith strongly held views or customs. In such a case, a campaign aimed atgeneral education on the topic would be the most suitable initial step.

10.3.2 Determining objectives

Consult widely with representativescommunity groups, local leaders who havesome knowledge or interest in the situation,local extension staff, subject-matterspecialists and administrators, to determinethe possible broad objectives of a canpaignand then to define certain more specificobjectives.

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i5Luups dad loco.' staff

must be closely involved indetermining campaign objectives

A broad statement of objectives should cover these main aspects:

the type and amount of change required;who should make the change;how they should make it; and,

over what period of time should it be made?

The type of change required might be in one or more of the followingareas of knowledge or skill:

awareness or understanding of the problem by the people;their technical knowledge or skills to tackle the problem;their attitudes, interests or values in the matter;what, if anything, the people think should be done about it;what they are willing to do about it; and,

what they realistically can be expected do about it.

A campaign should first define what type of change is desired and thentry to quantify what degree of change should be aimed for, e.g. what

to the suggested s olution?

Organiser

- \vhy is there official concern about the mat t er ; - is it considered to be a matter of great urgency; .- does it r equire pri ority i n extens ion activities; - what resources i n staff, materials and f unds are avilable to

apply to t he campaign; and, will any external as.'3istance be required and , if so, can it be assured .from an appropriate development programme?

Such information as can be obtained on these point s vIi l1 assist in reaching a decision on whether or not a campaign approach would be appropriate, at "hom it should be di r ected, by ,.,hat means it should be carried out, hO\; long it might last and ,.,hether it should be limited to a particular season of the year. A campaign aimed at action i s unlike ly to be successful if people are not atola re of a problem, a re not inte res t e d in it, or are likely to resist attempts to r eme dy it because these appear t o conflict ,,·lith strongly held vie\oIs or customs . In s uch a case, a campaign aimed at general education on the topic \vould be the most s ui t able i nitial step .

10.3.2 Determining object ives

Consult widely with representatives of connnunity groups, local leaders 'l:oIho have some knowledge or interest in the si tuation, local extension s taff, subject-matter specialists and administrators, t o de termine the possible broad objectives of a campaign and then to define certain more specific objectives .

;"';OllllllU,li.ty ;5fO Up .s ..lad locc:l.l staf [ mus t be closely involved in

determining campa iBn objectives

A broad statement of objective8 should cover these maln aspects:

the type and amount of change required; - who should make the change; - how they should make .it; and, - over what period of t ime should it be made?

The type of change requlred might be in one or more of the (a llowing areas of knm·r1edge or skill :

-- awar-eness or unders tanding of the problem by the people; - their technical knO\.,ledge or skil ls to t ackle the problem;

their atti tudes, interests or values i n the ma tter; - what, if anything, the people think should be done about it; - 'l:Jhat they are wi lling to do about it; and, - what they realisti cally can be expected do about it.

A campaign should fi r s t define .. hat t ype of change is desired and then try to quantify vlhat degree of change should be aimed for , e.g . t.;rhat

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percentage of the people should make a change or what area of land should besubject to change. Throughout all this discussion, however, it must be keptin mind that no matter how desirable the planners think the change to be, itis the people themselves who will, or will not, make it, and then only ifthey are satisfied that it will be to their benefit, and not materiallyoffend their customs or beliefs. Rigid targets formulated before the publichave been sufficiently involved have been the downfall of many attempts inthe past to spread desirable ideas.

10.3.3 Planning phase

At this stage the campaign organisers must, in relation to the

objectives they have selected;

establish a formal committee or group with strong local rep-resentation to guide the preparation and execution of the

campaign;define the message to be communicated;identify the target audience more precisely in terms of geog-raphical area, age, sex, occupation, as relevant;select the most appropriate methods of communication, in rel-ation to their availability, staff resources and cost;decide on the type and amount of material to be used;fix a time schedule for the various phases of the campaign;plan the type of feedback expected, and how it is to be used;prepare a budget for the campaign, identify the source offunds and evaluate the benefits in relation to the expectedcosts.

Any committee entrusted with the task of organising an extensioncampaign must either have very strong representation of the target populationor some means of ensuring that their views are available and properlypresented at all stages of decision making.

The message to be communicated is now frequently associated with acampaign slogan and a logo, with which the target group can identify. Thoughit is unrealistic to assume that a message of any great importance can besatisfactorily condensed into a few words, the use of the slogan and logoshould be adopted to attract people to look, read or listen more, to explorethe objectives of the campaign and what opportunities it offers to them.

The target audience must be identified clearly as their composition andgeographical distribution will greatly affect the means of communicationselected. The timing of the campaign will be affected both by the nature ofthe message and the target audience.

The type and amount of material to be used must inevitably be a

compromise between what could be used, and what is affordable in thecircumstances. In many cases the ultimate benefits of a successful extensioncampaign could be so great that a considerable investment would be justified,but in practice the current availability of resources often falls short ofwhat is desired and great cace must be exercised in planning their use.

It is essential to build into a campaign programme a method of

monitoring its effect on the target population, and even on others notdirectly concerned but who, as taxpayers, may have strong views on its formand use. Those closely associated with the campaign are likely to have afavourable view of its progress and a more objective assessment byindependent surveys or questionnaires should be sought. The monitoringactivity should not be an end in itself but should lead to a critical review

percentage of the people should make a change or what area of land should be subject to chan8e. Throughout all this discussion, ho\vever, it must be kept in mind that no matter how desirable the planners think the change to be, i t is the people themselves who will, oor will not, make it. and then only if they are sa tisfied that it will be to their benefit, and not materially offend their customs or beliefs. Rigid targets formulated before tbe public have been sufficiently involved have been the downfall of many attempts i n the past to spread desirable oideas.

10.3.3 Planning pha:3e

At this stage the campaign organisers must, in relation to the objectives they have selected:

- establish a formal committee or group with strong local representation to guide the preparation and execution of the campaign;

- define the message to be communicated; identify the target audience more precisely in terms of geographical area, age, sex, occupation, as relevant; select the most appropriate methods of communication, in relation to their availability, staff resources and cost; decide on the type and amount of material to be used;

- fix a time schedule for the various phases of the campaign; - plan the type of feedback expected, and how it is to be used; - prepare a budget for the campaign, identify the source of

f unds and evaluate the benefits in relation to the expected costs.

Any committee entrusted with the task of campaign must either have very strong representation or s ome means of ensuring that their views are presented at all stages of decision making.

organlslng an extension of the target population available and properly

The message to be communicated is now frequently associated with a campaign slogan and a logo, "ith "hich the target group can identify. Though it is unreali stic to assume that a message of any great importance can be satisfactorily condensed into a fe" I'ords, the use of the slogan and logo should be adopted to attract people to look, read or listen more, to explor e the objectives of the campaign and what opportunities it offers to them.

The target audience must be identified clearly as their composition and geographical distribut lon wi.ll greatly affect the means of communication selected. The timing of the campaign "ill be affected both by the nature of the message and the target audience .

The type and amount of material to be used must inevitably be a compromise between what could be used, and what is affordable in the circumstances . In many cases the ultimate benefits of a successful extension campaign could be so great that a considerable investment would be justified , but in practice the current availability of resources often falls short of what is desired and great c~ce must be exercised in planning their use.

It is essential to build into a campaign programme a method of monitoring its effect on the target population, and even on others not directly concerned but who, ~s taxpayers, may have strong vie«s on its form and use. Those closely associated "ith the campaign are likely to have a favourable view of its progress and a more objective assessment by independent surveys or questionnaires should be sought. The monitoring activity should not be an end in itself but shonld lead to a critical review

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of the activities as each phase is implemented to correct any defects andstrengthen any favourable responses. This topic is dealt with further inSection 11.

At this stage it is appropriate to prepare a campaign guide coveringall the proposed steps in the campaign, to be supplied, as required, to allinvolved in implementing the campaign.

10.3.4 Timing the campaign

The programme for implementing the campaign must be related to the wayin which the target audience makes decisions and carries out activitiesrelated to the campaign topic. If the campaign is intended to perform thecombined roles of creating awareness, followed by some positive action toovercome the problem highlighted, the awareness stage must be scheduledsufficiently early for the public to absorb the idea and discuss it amongstthemselves before the effort switches to promoting the detailed steps theyshould take to overcome it. This is turn must allow people to make thenecessary decisions and prepare to take action at the most appropriateseason.

10.3.5 Preparing the material

The choice of media and the

preparation of the material to be usedshould be undertaken sufficiently well in

advance of launching the campaign to enablematerial to be pre-tested on groups similarto the main target group. The choice ofmedia to be used will depend primarily onthe type of message, but also on theresources, particularly the personnel,available to implement it. A generalawareness and information campaign requiringthe extensive use of mass media, the

preparation of radio and TV broadcasts,press releases and feature articles, postersand pamphlets, it is likely to involvemainly the central organisation, incollaboration with appropriate mediaexperts.

Material to be used in extensioncampaigns should be pre-testedon suitable persons or groups

If the objective is to translate ideas into action, local extensionstaff must be used to promote meetings, discussions, and demonstrations toinvolve the people and prepare them to make decisions. Staff numbers andavailable resources must be matched to the task required of them. This mayrequire the preparation of training pamphlets, films or videos, anddemonstration techniques to convey the methods in a suitably standardisedmanner. During the adoption stage, training may be required to enable localleaders to pass on the necessary skills to their communities. During thisphase, more attention may have to be paid to localised publicity to motivatespecific groups of people to adopt the recommended practices.

At all stages in the decision-making process the organising group musttake fully into account the views of local staff and the community leaderswho will ultimately have to implement the decisions in the field.

of the activities as each phase is strengthen any favourable responses. Section ll.

implemented to correct any defects and This topic is dealt with further in

At this stage it is appropriate to prepare a campaign guide covering all the proposed steps in the campaign, to be supplied, as required, to all involved in implementing the campaign.

10.3.4 Timing the campaign

The programme for implementing the campaign must be related to the way in which the target audience makes decisions and carries out activities related to the campaign topic. If the campaign is intended to perform the combined roles of creating awareness, followed by some posi ti ve action to overcome the problem highlighted, the awareness stage must be scheduled sufficiently early for the public to absorb the idea and discuss it amongst themselves before the effort switches to promoting the detailed steps they should take to overcome it. This is turn must allow people to make the necessary decisions and prepare to take action at the most appropriate season.

10.3.5 Preparing the material

The choice of media and the preparation of the material to be used should be undertaken sufficiently well in advance of launching the campaign to enable material to be pre-tested on groups similar to the main target group. The choice of media to be used will depend primarily on the type of message, but also on the resources, particularly the personnel, available to implement it. A general ~ awareness and information campaign requiring the extensive use of mass media, the preparation of radio and TV broadcasts, press releases and feature articles, posters and pamphlets, it is likely to involve mainly the central organisat i on, in collaboration with appropriate media experts.

Material to be used in extens ion campaigns should be pre-tested on suitable persons or group s

If the objective is to translate ideas into action, local extens ion staff must be used to promote meetings, discussions, and demonstrations to involve the people and prepare them to make decisions. Staff numbe rs and available resources must be matched to the task required of them. TIlls may require the preparation of training pamphlets, films or videos, and demonstration techniques to convey the methods in a s uitably s tanda r di sed manner. During the adoption stage, training may be required to enable local leaders to pass on the necessary skills to their communities. During this phase, more attention may have to be paid to loca lised publicity to motivate specific groups of people to adopt the recommended practices.

At all stages in the decision-making process the organising group must take fully into account the views of local staff and the community leaders who will ultimately have to implement the decisions in the field.

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10.3.6 Training phase

To ensure the proper implementation of the campaign all staff who maybe involved, even remotely with it, should be thoroughly briefed on theobjectives, methods and scheduling of the effort. For those directlyinvolved, proper training programmes must be devised and implemented toensure that they have the necessary knowledge and operational skills to carryit out fully. Training should be continued throughout the campaign, asrequired, both to keep staff up-to-date with any changes in emphasis ordetail and to maintain their interest and enthusiasm for the task.

Problems that may arise during training, particularly the training ofvolunteers, may suggest points at which methods should be modified beforewide-scale use.

10.3.7 Production phase

During this phase:

list all the items and services needed and the financial requ-irements of each; confirm that this falls within the agreedbudget;prepare a schedule for obtaining and distributing any factualinformation required;confirm that any external assistance will be available onschedule, particularly personnel required;assign responsibilities to individuals; prepare an action planindicating what activities are to be carried out within whattime limits and nominate the person responsible;prepare a calendar and work-chart to monitor the progress ofthe activities;fix dates for checking and co-ordinating materials; and,

define who is responsible for making technical and financialdecisions and giving approval for acquiring materials and

include this information in the action plan.

10.3.8 Implementation phase

This covers, in practice, four main stages: launch, build-up, climaxand follow-through. Correct timing and duration is crucial to each of thesestages and should be planned in advance. The performance should be carefullymonitored and adjustments made by the organising group, if these appear to benecessary for success.

Launch

Steps required at this stage are:

information and other materials to be distributed throughoutthe target area as necessary;communication outlets, i.e. press, radio and TV to be alertedand supplied with advance information;staff to be in post to carry out the initial tasks; and,a rally or major public function should be organised tolaunch the campaign with the maximum possible impact.

10.3.6 Training phase

To ensure the proper implementation of the campaign all staff who may be involved, even remotely with it, should be thoroughly briefed on the objectives, methods and scheduling of the effort. For those directly involved, proper training programmes must be devised and implemented to ensure that they have the necessary knowledge and operational skills to carry it out fully. Training should be continued throughout the campaign, as required, both to keep staff up-to-date with any changes in emphasis or detail and to maintain their interest and enthusiasm for the task.

Problems that may arise during training, particularl y the training of vo l unteers, may suggest points at which methods should be modified before wide-scale use.

10.3.7 production phase

During this phase:

list all the items and services needed and the financial requirements of each; confirm that this falls within the agreed budget;

- prepare a schedule for obtaining and distributing any factual information required;

- confirm that any external assistance will be available on schedule, particularly personnel required;

- assign responsibilities to individuals; prepare an action plan indicating what activities are to be carried out within what time limits and nominate the person responsible;

- prepare a calendar and work-chart to monitor the progress of the activities;

- fix dates for checking and co-ordinating materials; and, - define who is responsible for making technical and financial

decisions and giving approval for acqu1r1ng materials and include this information in the action plan.

10.3.8 Implementation phase

This covers, in practice, four main stages: launch, build-up, climax and follow-through. Correct timing and duration is crucial to each of these stages and should be planned in advance. The performance should be carefully monitored and adjustments made by the organising group, if these appear to be necessary for success.

Launch

Steps required at this stage are:

- information and other materials to be distributed throughout the target area as necessary;

- communication outlets, i.e. press, radio and TV to be alerted and supplied with advance information;

- staff to be in post to carry out the initial tasks; and, a rally or major public function should be organised to launch the campaign with the maximum possible impact.

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Build-up

Appropriate activities at this stage are:

ensure that all communication channels operate smoothly tospread the campaign message to the target audience;try to obtain the maximum coverage of all speeches and centralactivities during the launching ceremonies;arrange launch activities by local leaders within the targetarea;introduce the local staff to the community;organise local meetings or demonstrations as appropriate andsecure the widest possible distribution of any campaignliterature or publicity materials; and,

arrange a steady flow of information to press, radio and TV tosustain interest in the campaign.

Climax

This phase should be scheduled to precede Che period at which it ishoped people will take action to carry out the activities promoted by thecampaign.

direct attention and publicity to urging the people to takethe action suggested by the campaign;aim for the maximum public participation in reaching decisionsto adopt the recommended practice;make facilities available for people to see and, if necessary,practice the suggested activities; and,obtain the maximum coverage for all positive suggestions andcontributions.

Follow-through

Sustain the initial impetus by scheduling the following activities:

arrange follow-up visits or meetings with groups who haveadopted the recommended practice;provide any technical or material assistance promised;give maximum publicity to their successes;sustain the campaign activities on a limited scale in areaswhere people may adopt the practice the following season; and,

- continue any necessary support and encouragement to people orgroups who have adopted the recommended practices.

10.4 Monitoring and evaluation

Monitoring and evaluation procedures for extension campaigns are

discussed at length in Section U. A major extension campaign will almostcertainly warrant a formal continuous or periodic surveillance of its

implementation to ensure that the activities are proceeding according to

plan. This will lead to a better evaluation of the campaign to improve itseffectiveness, relevance and impact. It will also help to design futurecampaigns to be more effective. People not directly responsible for theplanning and implementation of the campaign will normally be involved in thisprocess. A basis for their work can be the action plan for the campaign. At

each stage the achievements or performance of each unit or person can becompared with the target set out in the plan. The adequacy of resources,personnel, finance and the suitability of the campaign message, slogan orlogo can be assessed. Surveys can be used to assess the reaction of the

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Build-up

Appropriate activities at this stage are:

- ensure that all communication channels operate smoothly to spread the campaign message to the target audience;

- try to obtain the maximum coverage of all speeches and central activities during the launching ceremonies;

- arrange launch activities by local leaders within the target area;

- introduce the local staff to the community; - organise local meetings or demonstrations as appropriate and

secure the 'rldest possible distribution of any campaign literature or publicity materials; and,

- arrange a steady flow of information to press, radio and TV to sustain interest in the campaign.

Climax

This phase should be scheduled to precede the period at which it is hoped people will take action to carry out the activities promoted by the campaign.

direct attention and publicity to urging the people to take the action suggested by the campaign;

- aim for the maximum public participation in reaching decisions to adopt the recommended practice;

- make facilities available for people to see and, if necessary, practice the suggested activities; and,

- obtain the maximum coverage for all positive suggestions and contributions.

Follow-through

Sustain the initial impetus by scheduling the following activities:

- arrange follow-up visits or meetings with groups who have adopted the recommended practice;

- provide any technical or material assistance promised; - give maximum publicity to their successes; - sustain the campaign activities on a limited scale in areas

where people may adopt the practice the following season; and, continue any · necessary support and encouragement to people or groups who have adopted the recommended practices.

10.4 Monitoring and evaluation

Monitoring and evaluation procedures for extension campaigns are discussed at length in Section 11. A major extension campaign will almost certainly warrant . a formal contInuous or periodic surveillance of its implementation to ensure that the activities are proceeding according to plan. This will lead to a better evaluation of the campaign to improve its effectiveness, relevance and impact. It will also help to design future campaigns to be more effective. People not directly responsible for the planning and implementation of the campaign will normally be involved in this process. A basis for their work can be the action plan for the campaign. At each stage the achievements or performance of each unit or person can be compared with the target set out in the plan. The adequacy of resources, personnel , finance and the suitability of the campaign message, slogan or logo can be assessed. . Surveys can be used to assess the reaction of the

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target group to the message. While it would be wrong to suggest that theorganising committee should change course at every minor criticism, theyshould be alert to any significant trends in opinion and be ready to takeaction to modify the message or the targets if this is clearly necessary.

Extension goals

----Objectives

Selection and development ofextension programme/campaign content

Selection of extension methods

Feedback

Development/selection ofextension materials

Implementation ofextension programms/campaign

Monitoring and evaluation

Figure 10.1 Stages in the development of extension campaigns.

target group to the message. lfuile it would be wrong to suggest that the organising committee should change course at every minor criticism, they should be alert to any s ignificant trends in opinion and be ready to take action to modify the mes sage or the' targets if this is clearly necessary.

Feedback

Figure 10.1

Extension goals

I __ ---.~Objectives

I Selection and development of

extension programme/campaign content I

Selection of extension methods

Development/selection of extension materials

lmPlemenlation of extension programms/campaign

I l1onitoring and evaluation

Stages in the development of extension campaigns.

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11. EXTENSTON PROGRAMME MONITORING, EVALUATION AND FEEDBACK

11.1 General principies

Three essential features of a forestry extension programme aremonitoring, evaluation and feedback.

Monitoring has been defined as a continuous or periodic surveillanceover the implementation of a project to ensure that input deliveries, workschedules, targeted outputs and other required actions are proceedingaccording to plan. (1)

Evaluation is a systematic approach to assessing as objectively aspossible the relevance, effectiveness and impact of a project in the contextof the project activities and the needs of the people. Evaluationessentially analyses the rational and logic of the project (objective ordesign), reviews the implementation process (inputs, activities, outputs andimplementation management) and the emerging results (output, effect, impact).It assesses, in the light of the foregoing, the validity and relevance ofproject objectives and design, and the project effectiveness and efficiencyin achieving the intended results. (2)

Feedback can be defined as applying promptly and effectivelyinformation gathered by the monitoring or evaluation processes to promote theachievement of the project objectives, or to rectify factors impeding itsachievement. It may also alter the emphasis or direction of the projectactivities where these are found to be out of line with the requirements ofthe situation or the wishes and needs of tbe people.

The principal functions of monitoring and evaluation are to enable thepeople and the staff involved in extension programmes to learn from theachievements and problems of each programme, in order to devise methods ofplanning and implementing subsequent programmes more effectively. The widerdefinition of evaluation given above, to a certain extent merges the

activities of monitoring and evaluation into five major elements: operation,performance, effect, impact and context. These are dealt withcomprehensively, mainly with reference to. major extension and communityforestry projects, in the FAO publication cited below (2). This sectionaims to deal with the problem at the level of minor project activities wherethe evaluation is essentially participatory, as it is presumed that the localcommunity will already have been closely involved in both the preparation andimplementation of the project.

Monitoring and evaluation are based on information gathered from theparticipants and intended beniflcaries of a project, at all levels. There is

a need, therefore, to co-ordinate information gathering for these two

functions to avoid overlap and waste of time of both staff and clients inanswering repeated enquiries. There is a limit to the time, effort (andpatience) they can devote to answering questions.

Monitoring should continue throughout the duration of a project andform an essential management process to measure and adjust performanceagainst planned activity. The particular items to be monitored will differ

IFAD (1984). Guiding principles for the design and use of monitoringand evaluation in rural development projects/programmes. A panel on

monitoring and evaluation for rural development. ACC Task Force on RuralDevelopment. Rome.

Monitoring and evaluation of participatory forestry projects. ForestryPaper No. 60. FAO, Rome, 1985.

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11. EXTENSION PROGRAMME MONITORING, EVALUATION AND FEEDBACK

11.1 General principles

Three essential features of a forestry extension programme are monitoring, evaluation and feedback.

Monitoring has been defined as a continuous or periodic surveillance over the implementation of a project to ensure that input deliveries, work schedules, targeted outputs and other required actions are proceeding according to plan. (1)

Evaluation is a systematic approach to assessing as objectively as possible the relevance, effectiveness and impact of a project in the context of the project activities and the needs of the people. Evaluation essentially analyses the rational and logic of the project (objective or design), reviews the implementation process (inputs, activities, outputs and implementation management) and the emerging results (output, effect, impact). It assesses, in the light of the foregoing, the validity and relevance of project objectives and design, and the project effectiveness and efficiency in achieving the intended results. (2)

Feedback can be defined as applying promptly and effectively information gathered by the monitoring or evaluation processes to promote the achievement of the project objectives, or to rectify factors impeding its achievement. It may also alter the emphasis or direction of the project activities where these are found to be out of line with the requirements of the situation or the ,nshes and needs of the people.

The principal functions of monitoring and evaluation are to enable the people and the staff involved in extension programmes to learn from the achievements and problems of each programme, in order to devise methods of planning and implementing subsequ~nt programmes more effectively. The 'nder definition of evaluation given above, to a certain extent merges the activities of monitoring and evaluation into five major elements: operation, performance, effect, impact and context. These are dealt with comprehensively, mainly with reference to · major extension and community forestry projects, in the FAO publication cited below (2). This section aims to deal with the problem at the level of minor project activities where the evaluation is essentially participatory, as it is presumed that the local community will already have been closely involved in both the preparation and implementation of the project.

Monitoring and evaluation are based on information gathered from the participants and intended benificaries of a project, at all levels . There is a need, therefore, to co-ordinate information gathering for these two functions to avoid overlap and waste of time of both staff and clients in answering repeated enquiries. There is a limit to the time , effort (and patience) they can devote to answering questions.

Monitoring should continue throughout the duration of a project and form an essential management process to measure and adjust performance against planned activity. The particular items to be monitored will differ

(1) IFAD (1984). Guiding principles for the design and use of monitoring and evaluation in rural development projects/programmes. A panel on moni toring and evaluation for rural development. ACC Task Force on Rural Development. Rome. (2) Monitoring and evaluation of participatory forestry projects. Paper No. 60. FAO, Rome, 1985.

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Forestry

in each project but these can be defined initially from the project documentand subsequently from the annual or semi-annual plans of operations.Monitoring, if it is to be effective, should give attention both to sucessesand shortcomings. It is equally important to look critically at areas whichhave been successful, or even over-run targets, to identify factors whichcontributed to this, so that their importance in developing future programmescan be properly recognised. In the case of shortfalls in performance, it isnecessary to follow these back to determine their underlying causes. Some ofthe specific questions which may have to be aSked to elicit this informationare dealt with in the following sections on evaluation procedures.

Evaluation procedures have recently focused much attention on therelevance of a project during, or even after, its implementation. This wouldsuggest that insufficient attention may have been paid to evaluation of theproject concept during the formulation and planning stages. In majorprojects, formal baseline surveys to determine the precise status of supplyand demand in an area, as distinct from informal estimates, are necessary,followed by subsequent surveys to measure to what extent these needs havebeen met. For minor projects, the process of discussion implicit in the"bottom up" process of project development advocated by Compton should leadto a set of proposals much more closely aligned to the needs of the people.Though this will not eliminate the need for evaluation, either during orafter the programme, if only to measure the value gained in relation to theeffort expended, it should reduce the need for considerable changes in

objectives during the life of a project unless external conditions on whichdecisions were made have altered considerably.

Evaluation should be an ongoing activity throughout all programmes, andshould involve everyone concerned with the programme. It should look beyondthe limited question of the extent to which a series of planned activitieshas been carried out, to examine the real relevance of the programme to thepeople and the area, its origins and development, its beneficiaries and howuseful it has been to them. It should encourage a process of personalevaluation where both the people and staff consider at frequent intervals"what I hoped to do" against "what I did", and determine objectively why anytargets or expectations were not fully achieved.

Evaluation must be applied to a whole programme, and not as has oftenhappened in the past, to the performance of the field or operational staff.In particular, it should not be regarded as a form of staff assessment, atask which should be tackled in an entirely different way. Evaluation has inthe past often provoked a negative reaction amongst programme administratorsand field staff, as it has tended to concentrate on "what went wrong", ratherthan on balancing the achievements of the programme with any noted

shortcomings. Determination of all the external circumstances or factorswhich may have prevented the full achievement of the objectives are anessential feature of evaluation.

The question of who should carry out evaluation is discussed in

Forestry Paper 60, which notes the importance of collaboration of projectstaff and a specialised monitoring unit in this activity. More emphasisneeds, perhaps, to be given to involving in this task local people who areboth the main executors and intended beneficiaries of forestry extensionprojects. The suggestions on evaluation given below aim to involve thepeople and staff at both field and headquarters level in expressing theirviews on the performance and value of any project. Such a task may be"administered" by an independent monitoring and evaluation unit within aforestry organisation but the "evaluation" as such is what those concerned,particularly the people, think of it. The extent of the evaluation mustdepend on the scale of the project. Since the emphasis in this publication

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in each project but these can be defined initially from the project document and subsequently from the annual or semi-annual plans of operations. Monitoring, if it is to be effective, should give attention both to sucesses and shortcomings . It is equally important to look critically at areas which have been successful, or even over-run targets, to identify factors which contributed to this, so that their importance in developing future programmes can be properly recognised. In the case of shortfalls in performance, it is necessary to follow these back to determine their underlying causes. Some of the specific questions which may have to be asked to elicit this information are dealt with in the following sections on evaluation procedures.

Evaluation procedures have recently focused much attention on the relevance of a project during, or even after, its implementation. This would suggest that insufficient attention may have been paid to evaluation of the project concept during the formulation and planning stages. In major projects, formal baseline surveys to determine the precise status of supply and demand in an area, as distinct from informal estimates, are necessary, followed by subsequent surveys to measure to what extent these needs have been met. For minor projects, the process of discussion implicit in the "bottom up" process of project development advocated by Compton should lead to a set of proposals much more closely aligned to the needs of the people. Though this will not eliminate the need for evaluation, either during or after the programme, if only to measure the value gained in relation to the effort expended, it should reduce the need for considerable changes in objectives during the life of a project unless external conditions on which decisions were made have altered considerably.

Evaluation should be an ongoing activity throughout all programmes, and should involve everyone concerned with the programme. It should look beyond the limited question of the extent to which a series of planned activities has been carried out, to examine the real relevance of the programme to the people and the area, its origins and development, its beneficiaries and how useful it has been to them. It should encourage a process of personal evaluation where both the people and staff consider at frequent intervals "what I hoped to do" against "what I did", and determine objectively why any targets or expectations were not fully achieved.

Evaluation must be applied to a whole programme, and not as has often happened in the past, to the performance of the field or operational staff. In particular, it should not be regarded as a form of staff assessment, a task which should be tackled in an entirely different way. Evaluation has in the past often provoked a negative reaction amongst programme administrators and field staff, as it has tended to concentrate on "what went wrong", rather than on balancing the achievements of the programme with any noted shortcomings. Determination of all the external circumstances or factors which may have prevented the full achievement of the objectives are an essential feature of evaluation .

The question of who should carry out evaluation is discussed in Forestry Paper 60, which notes the importance of collaboration of project s taff and a specialised monitoring unit in this activity. More emphasis needs, perhaps, to be given to involving in this task local people who are both the main executors and intended beneficiaries of forestry extension projects. The suggestions on evaluation given below aim to involve the people and staff at both field and headquarters level in expressing their views on the perfonnance and value of any pro ject. Such a task may be "administered" by an independent monitoring and evaluation unit within a f orestry organisation but the "evaluation" as such is what those concerned, particularly the people, think of it. The extent of the evaluation must depend on the scale of the project. Since the emphasis in this publication

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has been on the process of working up from minor projects identified bypeople as of importance to them locally, the suggestions on monitoring andevaluation may appear to be much too exhaustive. They represent, however, aseries of questions which, from experience, have been found to be importantin the effective execution of projects, but which have not necessarily beenextensively probed in evaluations in the past. The group carrying out theevaluation task can select, judiciously, a range of questions appropriate tothe particular situation, which ensures that the persons concerned get a

proper opportunity to express there views while not being harassed byirrelevant questions.

The process can be carried out in a number of ways but, for simplicitywhere minor projects are concerned, it can be considered in three phases:

programme foLmulation and planning;programme implementation; and,

post-programme evaluation.

11.2 Evaluation of programme formulation and planning

Some questions which should be asked during the formulation andplanning phase of a programme, and particularly before it is approved forimplementation, are suggested below.

Conception

how did the proposal arise;who first suggested the activity;how did it develop before it was formally put forward as aprogramme;

- how closely were the local people involved;how did they make their views known;did it arise initially from felt needs or suggestions by thepeople, or in order to meet official work or expendituretargets?

Relevance

is the programme relevant to local needs; what are the needs;how were these needs determined;how do they affect the present living conditions, markets,transport systems, etc. of the area;will the programme have any impact on related activities suchas agriculture, animal husbandry, health or communitydevelopment;are the proposals in keeping with local culture or socialorganisation;how do they fit into overall government planning, i.e. arethey likely to gain and retain the support of the government;to what extent was the programme the outcome of a desire toutilise a grant or loan opportunity, to balance the work loadover an area, or to develop a programme that would attractexternal support?

Feasibility

what are the people's prior attitudes, knowledge, skills, andresources of energy, time, and land available for the

programme;is there adequate provision in the programme for motivating

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has been on the process of working up from minor projects identified by people as of importance to them locally, the suggestions on monitoring and evaluation may appear to be much too exhaustive. TIley represent, however, a series of questions which, from experience, have been found to be important in the effective execution of projects, but which have not necessarily been extensively probed in evaluations in the past. The group carrying out the evaluation task can select, judiciously, a range of questions appropriate to the particular situation, which ensures that the persons concerned get a proper opportunity to express there views while not being harassed by irrelevant questions.

The process can be carried out in a [lumber of ways but, for simplicity where minor projects are concerned, it can be considered in three phases:

programme formulation and planning; programme implementation; and,

- post-programme evaluation.

11.2 Evaluation of programme formulation and planning

Some questions which should planning phase of a programme, and implementation, are suggested below.

conception

- how did the proposal arise;

be asked during the formulation and particularly before it is approved for

- who first suggested the activity; how did it develop before it was formally put forward as a programme; how closely were the local people involved; how did they make their views known;

- did it arise initially from felt needs or suggestions by the people, or in order to meet official work or expendIture targets?

Relevance

is the programme relevant to local needs; what are the needs; how were these needs determined;

- how do they affect the present living conditions, markets, transport systems, etc. of the area; will the programme have any impact on related activities such as agriculture, animal husbandry, health or community development;

- are the proposals in keeping 'rl th local culture or social organisation;

- how do they fit into overall government planning, i.e. are they likely to gain and retain the support of the government;

- to what extent was the programme the outcome of a desire to utilise a grant or loan opportunity, to balance the work load over an area, or to develop a programme that ,muld attract external support?

Feasibility

- what are the people's prior attitudes, knowledge , skills, and resources of energy, time, and land available for the programme;

- is there adequate provision in the programme for motivating

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and training local leaders and participants;- are the resources of staff, funds and equipment of the assist-ing organisation adequate for the programme;have the edaphic and biotic requirements of the proposed act-ivity been matched to the local conditions;do the proposals comply with guidelines set up by any agencieswhich might offer material support?

Acceptance

have the people, in prior discussion, indicated a willingnessto participate actively and develop an organisation to takeover full implementation of the activities at an appropriatetime;has the programme been adequately discussed with, and acceptedby, the local administration and other public or voluntaryorganisations which may be affected by it.

These questions are, in no way, intended to discourage initiative inbringing forward proposals for forestry extension programmes. They should,however, help to ensure that proposals are based on sound justificationswhich have been closely examined.

11.3 Evaluation of programme implementation

It is suggested that the evaluation process should be based oninformation drawn from three main sources, the participating public, thefield staff up to the district level and the central organisation, which mayinclude public or voluntary organisations concerned with, but not directlyinvolved in, implementation.

Some questions, which could usefully be asked of such groups at regularintervals during the programme, are suggested below.

The public

how much do they know about the programme overall;does it affect only those directly participating, or canothers expect to benefit in some ways;how much is known about the achievements to date;how much is known about current work or plans for the immed-iate future;how much effort by the people has the programme involved;how much have they contributed in cash or resources;do the results to date justify this;have they received all the necessary training, information,or material support promised;can the participants see how this will help them in future;has a local planaing or co-operation group been established;has the group had any effect on the implementation of theprogramme;have any official or voluntary aid funds been well used;how would they like to see the programme develop;how do other organisations e.g. agriculture, animal husbandry,water supplies, public health and community development viewthe project?

and training local leaders and participants; - are the resources of stafE, funds and equipment of the assist

ing organisation adequate for the programme; - have the edaphic and biotic requirements of the proposed act

ivity been matched to the local conditions; - do the proposals comply ,.itl! guidelines set up by any agencies

which might offer material support?

Acceptance

- have the people, in prior discussion, indicated a willingness to participate actively and develop an organisation to take over full implementation of the activities at an appropriate time;

- has the programme been adequately discussed with, and accepted by, the local administration and other public or voluntary organisations which may be affected by it.

These questions are) in no way, intended to discourage bringing forward proposals for forestry extension programmes. however, help to ensure that proposals are based on sound which have been closely examined.

11.3 Evaluation of programme implementation

initiative in They should,

justifications

It is suggested that the evaluation process should be based on information drawn from three main sources, the participating public, the field staff up to the district level and the central organisation, which may include public or voluntary organisations concerned with, but not directly involved in, implementation.

Some questions, which could usefully be asked of such groups at regular intervals during the programme, are suggested below.

The public

hOH much do they know about the programme overall; - does it affect only those directly participating, or can

others expect to benefit in some ways; - how much is known about the achievements to date; - hm' much is known about current work or plans for the immed-

iate future; - how much effort by the people has the programme involved; - how much have they contributed in cash or resources;

do the results to date justify this; have they received all the necessary training, information, or material support promised; can the participants see how this will help them in future;

- has a local planning or co-operation group been established; has the group had any effect on the implementation of the programme;

- have any official or voluntary aid funds been well used ; - hm. would they like to see the programme develop;

how do other organisations e.g. agriculture, animal husbandry, water supplies, public health and community development view the project?

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Field staff

physical targets: plants produced, established, areas covered,other works undertaken, success rates after 6 months, 19

months, 2 years; state of general maintenance; do resultsindicate any need for change in techniques or policy?

financial targets: actual costs of each phase of the operationin relation to planned costs; reasons for variations, localperformance or external factors, e.g. increased cost of fueletc.; can positive features be further developed or appliedelsewhere; can negative features be rectified by local action?

communication support: has a satisfactory flow of communic-ations, vertically and horizontally, been established; is

this relevant to other activities; do reports or requestsfrom all levels receive prompt attention; are publicitymaterials readily available; have any been producedspecifically for this programme or target group; is the helpof mobile units available when necessary; are communicationsystems, e.g. postal services, telephones, radios, effective;have any useful improvisations been devised to overcomeproblems?

staff: have both local or aid staff been made available asplanned; are they of the right mix of age, sex, experience,and qualifications; were they properly trained or briefed intheir responsibilities before arrival; has any programmeslippage resulted from late availability of staff; can it bemeasured and directly related to this factor; have anyextraneous activities, e.g. participation in politicalcampaigns Or election arrangements, reduced staffavailability; are salary scales and allowances appropriate totheir tasks; are housing, transport and domestic arrangmentssatisfactory; have staff a proper understanding of the cultureand values of the participants; have they had adequate supportfrom the public and the central level of the organisation tocarry out their task?

equipment and supplies: what items are currently available;have the types selected proved satisfactory; have they beenmade available as planned; are spares and replacementsavailable; were field staff involved in the selection andprocurement procedures; can any modifications of procedures besuggested; were delivery procedures and dates notified to

field staff in advance and suitably monitored; were clearanceand distribution procedures satisfactory; can local productsbe substituted in future? -

transport: what items are currently available; were the needsrealistically assessed; are the means of transport availablesuitable to the task; are any vehicles provided of the correcttype and capacity; has suitable provision been made for thecosts of operation and maintenance; are adequate records beingmaintained of their operation; are these being used

effectively to plan improvements in staff mobility andeconomy?

construction: has any construction been carried out

specifically for the programme; have the local people been

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Field staff

physical targets: plants produced, established, areas covered, other works undertaken, success rates after 6 months, 12 months, 2 years; state of general maintenance; do results indicate any need for change in techniques or policy?

- financial targets: actual costs of each phase of the operation in relation to planned costs; rea30ns for variations, local performance or external factors, e.g. increased cost of fuel etc.; can positive features be further developed or applied elsewhere; can negative features be rectified by local action?

- communication support: has a satisfactory flow of communications, vertically and horizontally, been established; is this relevant to other activities; do reports or requests from all levels receive prompt attention; are publicity materials readily available; have any been produced specifically for this programme or target group; is the help of mobile units available when necessary; are communication systems, e.g. postal services, telephones, radios, effective; have any useful improvisations been devised to overcome problems?

- staff: have both local or aid staff been made available as planned; are they of the right mix of age, sex, experience, and qualifications; were they properly trained or briefed in their responsibilities before arrival; has any programme slippage resulted from late availability of staff; can it be measured and directly related to this factor; have any extraneous activities, e.g. participation in political campaigns or election arrangements, reduced staff availability; are salary scales and allowances appropriate to their tasks; are housing, transport and domestic arrangments satisfactory; have staff a proper understanding of the culture and values of the participants; have they had adequate support from the public and the central level of the organisation to carry out their task?

equipment and supplies: what items are currently available; have the types selected proved satisfactory; have they been made available as planned; are spares and replacements available; were field staff involved in the selection and procurement procedures; can any modifications of procedures be suggested; were delivery procedures and dates notified to field staff in advance and suitably monitored; were clearance and di stribution procedures satisfactory; can local products be substituted in future? -

transport: what items are currently available; were the needs realistically assessed; are the means of transport available suitable to the task; are any vehicles provided of the correct type and capacity; has suitable provision been made for the costs of operation and maintenance; are adequate records being maintained of their operation; are these being -used effect~vely to plan improvements in staff mobility and economy?

construction: has any construction specifically for the programme; have the

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been carried out local people been

involved in any way; do the local staff and the people

consider it adequate; have the long-term use and maintenanceof the facilities been considered; were the needsrealistically assessed; was adequate financial provision made;have the users had any influence on design or location of thebuildings; was construction efficient and within cost

estimates; were sufficient funds provided for furnishing,equipment and maintenance; could any slippage in programmeperformance be attributed to delays in the provision of

buildings; could their designs be recommended, or modified,for use in other areas?

general factors: did the weather follow the normal pattern;was the local financial and political situation stable andconducive to good progress; were there any unexpectedshortages, such as fuel; did the staff enjoy good relationsand co-operation with that of other public and voluntaryorganisations in the area?

Central level

physical targets: is there a full understanding of what hasbeen planned; a knowledge of the results to date; has thesuccess rate after 6 or 12 months been considered; are theresults considered satisfactory in relation to the resourcescommitted; have any differences in performance, positive ornegative, been sufficiently explained; has anything beenlearned from this; should the targets be revised upwards ordownwards; what would be the implications in staff, resourcesor morale of such a change?

financial targets: how much is known about the cost of eachstage of the operation; does this agree with the field staff'sassessment of the costs; have adequate explanations of costover- or under-runs been obtained; have these been related to

availability of staff, equipment or transport; is this

information applicable to other programmes; are any changes of

financial targets desirable; can this be done by internaladjustments, or do they need reference to central sources offunds or donors?

communication support: are all involved at the central levelfully aware of the philosophy of extension practices; havethey fully utilised the resources available in the media, orthe central information services, to support the programme;has any information material been produced, or planned,

specifically for the programme; have they been fully suppliedwith information by the participants and field staff; havethey identified and publicised the positive features; havethey offered suggestions, or taken any necessary action, toovercome negative aspects; have they tried to utilise

communication channels to the best advantage?

staff: how many staff are engaged, full or part time, on theprogramme; are staff at the central level fully aware of thefield staff levels vs. the planned staffing at this time; ifthere is any under-staffing, can they offer any explanation;are the problems being tackled; have they assessed the

implications of this on the physical performance or cost ofthe programme; is there a plan to meet future staff

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involved in any way; do the local staff and the people consider it adequate; have the long-term use and maintenance of the facilities been considered; were the needs realistically assessed; was adequate financial provision made; have the users had any influence on design or location of the buildings; was construction efficient and within cost estimates; were sufficient funds provided for furnishing, equipment and maintenance; could any slippage in programme performance be attributed to delays in the provision ~f

buildings; could their designs be recommended, or modified, for use in other areas?

- general factors : did the weather follow the normal pattern; was the local financial and political situation stable and conducive to good progress; were there any unexpected shortages , such as fuel; did the staff enjoy good relations and co-operation with that of other public and voluntary organisations in the area?

Cent ral level

- physical targets: is there a full understanding of what has been planned; a knowledge of the results to date; has the success rate after 6 or 12 months been considered; are the results considered satisfactory in relation to the resources committed; have any differences in performance, positive or negative, been sufficiently explained; has anything been learned from this; should the targets be revised upwards or dotmwards; what would be the implications in staff, resources or morale of such a change?

- financial targets: how much is known about the cost of each stage of the operation; does this agree with the field staff's assessment of the costs; have adequate explanations of cost over- or under-runs been obtained; have these been related to avai1abili ty of staff, equipment or transport; is this information applicable to other programmes; are any changes of financial targets desirable; can this be done by internal adjustments, or do they need reference to central sources of · funds or donors?

- communication support: are all involved at the central level fully aware of the philosophy of extension practices; have they fully utilised the resource s available in the media, or the central information services , to support the programme; has any information material been produced, or planned, specifically for the programme; have they been fully supplied with information by the participants and field staff; have they identified and publicised the positive features; have they offered suggestions , or taken any necessary action, to overcome negative aspects; have they tried to utilise communication channels to the best advantage?

- staff: how many staff are engaged, full or part time, on the programme; are staff at the central level fully aware of the field staff levels vs. the planned staffing at this time; if there is any under-staffing, can they offer any explanation; are the problems being t ackled; have they assessed the implications of this on the physical performance or cost of the programme; is there a plan to meet future staff

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requirements; is the training programme adequate to the need;have they asked for, or received, any comments or suggestionsfrom field staff on their working or living conditions; canthey, or do they think it necessary to, insulate field staffagainst other calls on their time e.g. political activitiesor assisting with elections; are staff matters the

responsibility of one person, or a group?

equipment and supplies: are equipment requests processed asnormal activities or given special treatment; who has the maininfluence on specifications, field staff, central staff, or anexternal agency; who makes the final decisions; how long doesprocessing a request take; are the field staff fully aware ofthis time scale; are local availability of spares, trainingand technical back-up taken into account, as well as price, inprocurement decisions; are procurement procedures formalisedand individually monitored; are field staff kept informed ofprogress, particularly of any possible delay in delivery; isthere a procedure for collecting users' opinions on the

suitability of equipment supplied; has this influenced furtherorders; has any assessment been made of the effects of delaysin delivery on overall performance of the programme?

transport: what means of transport have been provided to date;have all requests been in accordance with the programme and atthe correct time; were field staff informed of the reasons forany delays in approval or delivery; how were decisions ontypes and models made; by individuals, according to an overallpurchasing programme, or in accordance with donor wishes; haveany comments been asked for, and received, on suitability andperformance, servicing or spares; have operating andmaintenance programmes been adhered to and been kept withinthe budget; has an assessment of the effect of transportavailability on overall performance of the programme beenmade?

administrative support: do the programme activities have asignificant effect on the work-load at central level; are thestaff able to meet all reasonable requests promptly; are theymaking use of all available resources?

construction: what construction has been undertaken to date;how can any constuction carried out under the programmefacilitate further extension work in the area; has there beenany local invlovement in the provision of accommodation; haveany problems arisen due to unforseen requirements or

insufficient financial provision; if so, how did this

situation arise; has it affected programme implementation; canany slippage be overcome; are any additional resources neededto overcome this; can they be provided by reallocation ofexistin.a resources or by additional resources?

general factors: have any general factors e.g. the weather hadan effect on implementation; are they sufficiently importantto affect the achievement of physical or financial targets;have any adjustments been made or are planned because of

these; have they appeared in the reports from the centrallevel to government or other donor organisations?.

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requirements; is the training programme adequate to the need; have they asked for, or received, any comments or suggestions from field staff on their working or living conditions; can they, or do they think it necessary to, insulate field staff against other calls on their time, e.g. political activities or assisting with elections; are staff matters the responsibility of one person, or a group?

- equipment and supplies: are equipment requests processed as normal activities or given special treatment; who has the main influence on specifications, field staff, central staff, or an external agency; who makes the final decisions; how long does processing a request take; are the field staff fully aware of this time scale; are local availability of spares, training and technical back-up taken into account, as well as price, in procurement decisions; are procurement procedures formalised and individually monitored; are field staff kept informed of progress, particularly of any possible delay in delivery; is there a procedure for collecting users' op1n10ns on the suitability of equipment supplied; has this influenced further orders; has any assessment been made of the effects of delays in delivery on overall "performance of the programme?

transport: what means of transport have been provided to date; have all requests been in accordance with the programme and at the correct time; were field staff informed of the reasons for any delays in approval or delivery; how were decisions on types and models made; by individuals, according to an overall purchasing programme, or in accordance with donor wishes; have any comments been asked for, and received, on suitability and performance, servicing or spares; have operating and maintenance programmes been adhered to and been kept within the budget; has an assessment of the effect of transport availability on overall performance of the programme been made?

administrative support: do the programme activities have a significant effect on the work-load a t central level; are the staff able to meet all reasonable requests promptly; are they making use of all available resources?

- construction: what construction has been undertaken to date; how can any constuction carried out under the programme facilitate further extension work in the area; has there been any local invlovement in the provision of accommodation; have any problems arisen due to unforseen requirements or insufficient financial provision; if so, how did this situation arise; has it affected programme implementation; can any slippage be overcome; are any additional resources needed to overcome this; can they be provided by reallocation of existing resources or by additional resources?

general factors: have any general factors e.g. the weather had an effect on implementation; are they sufficiently important to affect the achievement of physical or financial targets; have any adjustments been made or are planned because of these; have they appeared in the reports from the central level to government or other donor organisations?

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local organisation: what steps have been taken to establish alocal organisation to continue the programme activities; is itan elected or an "ad hoc" body; is it the most suitable formof organisation for the purpose; is it receiving support andco-operation from the field staff; is any training of itsmembers in administration or forest technology required; canthis be provided under the programme; if not, how can it bearranged?

- relations with other organisations: how do other developmentorganisations view the programme; have they been kept informedof its progress; have they noted any opportunities for

co-operation; have any such suggestions been followed up?

The above lists involve asking somewhat similar questions at differentlevels in the organisation. Where this is done, the responses may indicatediifferent perceptions of the same situation or event at different levels ofstaff. This may indicate the need for better communications to explaincertain situations to those concerned. An evaluation report based on thisprocedure must balance the views of the groups and individuals whocontributed to it.

11.4 Post-programme evaluation

The function of post-programme evaluation is primarily to get an

overall view of the achievements of the programme and the benefits it hasgenerated in relation to the total resources employed. This, in a modestway, incorporates the impact and context evaluations desirable in majorprojects. An important objective is to identify positive factors which areseen to be of benefit to the people and which can contribute to the successof other programmes. In the natur-e of things some activities may have failedto achieve their targets. It should not be necessary, however, in a

post-programme evaluation to detail, step by step, all the problemsidentified and corrected during the planning and implementation stages. It

may be relevant, however, to comment on how successful this process of

self-evaluation has been, and the extent to which sources other than thoseimmediately involved in the programme activities have contributed to theevaluation.

The organisation and-composition of evaluation groups are discussed inSection 11.5 below. The process of evaluation must, however, draw on theexperience of those who have been involved in the project, in a constructiveway, and identify any features or procedures which could enhance programmeperformances and avoid unnecessary expense. Some questions on which a post-programme evaluation may be based are suggested below.

The public

what has been achieved in material terms, e.g. in trees orareas planted, water supplies or grazing areas improved, etc.;have any measurable benefits come from it so far, e.g. asupply of poles or fuelwood, fruits, improved grass, etc.;do the benefits now, or expected in future, meet the needs ofthe people;was the effort required justified by the benefits available;have the people acquired sufficient skills to continue a sim-ilar programme on their own;do they feel their views or suggestions were fully consideredby the extension organisation, particularly during earlierevaluations;

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- local organisation: what steps have been taken to establish a local organisation to continue the programme activities; is it an elected or an "ad hoc" ·body; is it the most suitable form of organisation for the purpose; is it receiving support and co-operation from the field staff; is any training of its members in administration or forest technology required; can this be provided under the programme; if not, how can it be arranged?

relations with other organisations: how do other development organisations view the programme; have they been kept informed of its progress; have they noted any opportunities for co-operation; have any such suggestions been followed up?

The above lists involve asking somewhat similar ques tions a t different levels in the organisation. ffi1ere this is done, the responses may indicate diifferent perceptions of the same situation or event at different levels of staff. This may indicate the need for better communications to explain certain situations to those concerned. An evaluation report based on this procedure must balance the views of t he groups and individuals who contributed to i t.

11.4 post-programme evaluation

The function of post-programme evaluation is primarily to get an overall view of the achievements of the programme and the benefits it has generated in relation to the total resources employed. This, in a modest way, incorporates the impact and context evaluations desirable in major pr ojects . An important objective is to identify positive factors which are seen to be of benefit to the people and which can contribute to the success of other programmes. In the nature of things some activities may have failed to achieve their targets . It should not be necessary , however, in a post-programme evaluation to detail, step by step, all the problems identified and corrected during the planning and impl ementation stages. It may be relevant, however, to comment on how successful this process of self-evaluation has been, and the extent to which sources other than those immediately involved in the programme activities have contributed to the evaluation .

The organisation and · composition of evaluation groups are discussed in Section 11 . 5 below. The process of evaluation must, however, draw on the experience of those who have been involved in the project, in a constructive way, and identify any features or procedures which could enhance programme performances and avoid unnecessary expense. Some questions on which a postprogramme evaluation may be based are suggested below.

The public

what has been achieved i n material terms, e.g. i n trees or areas planted, water supplies or grazing areas improved, etc.; have any measurable benefits come from it so far, e.g. a supply of poles or fuelwood, fruits, improved grass, etc . ;

- do the benefits now, or expected in future , meet the needs of the people ;

- was the effort required justified by the benefits available; have the people acquired sufficient skills to continue a similar programme on their own;

- do they feel their views or suggestions were fully considered by the extension organisation, particularly during earlier evaluations;

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do they feel they were able to participate fully in decision-making;has the programme affected _their traditional way of life orworking practices;is the degree of change acceptable;

- is the co-operating group willing to continue similar exten-sion work;are they willing to introduce others to improved practices;

- can they generate enough resources from their present progr-amme to implement additional work;

- can they now mobilise any additional resources for develop-ment;

- if additional support is required, can they now secure thisfrom voluntary agencies or direct from government without theintervention of the extension organisation;have any buildings, equipment or transport used during theprogramme been transferred to their control;

- if not, can they continue to operate successfully without thissupport;have they the necessary organisation, skills and funds tomaintain and operate all the items transferred to them;have they any proposals to replace these items as they becomeunserviceable;did they feel the funds supplied by government or othersources, well used;

- did they form good working relations with the extension staff;would they welcome their advice or assistance in future?

Field staff

physical targets: were the targets selected for the programmerelevant to the needs of the people; how are they benefittingfrom their achievements; will the benefits increase or

decrease in future; how long can they be expected to last; arethey sufficient to alleviate the needs on which the targetswere based; will they generate resources or income to supportfurther programmes; are there any additional resources theycould devote to extension programmes in Future?

- financial targets: was the target achieved withia the

estimated cost; were any factors identified which could

increase the local contribution to the cost or reduce supportexpenditure in future; did any unforeseen circumstances arisewhich affected costs favourably or unfavourably; did both thepublic and the field staff receive sufficient information onfinancial matters throughout the programe; did they respondto this information; were the financial achievementssufficiently well publicised?

communication support: has a good communication system beenestablished between the central level, field level and the

people; will it continue to function after the programme ends;can it be used for any other purpose or programme; did theprogramme lead to better communication systems with similargovernment or voluntary organisations; is there now a betterunderstanding of each other's contribution to development;can any of the communication skills or materials be used forother purposes; are the local leaders and people more able tocommunicate effectively; were the communication systems or

equipment used suitable and adequate for the particular

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- do they feel they were able to participate fully in decisionmaking; has the programme affected their traditional way of life or working practices;

- is the degree of change acceptable; - is the co-operating group willing to continue similar exten-

sion ~vork; are they willing to introduce others to improved practices;

- can they generate enough resources from their present programme to implement additional work;

- can they not< mobilise any additional resources for development; if additional support is required, can they now secure this from voluntary aeencies or direct from government without the intervention of the extension organisation;

- have any buildings, equipment or transport used during the programme been transferred to their control; if not, can they continue to operate successfully without this support; have they the necessary organisation, skills and funds to maintain and operate all the items transferred to them; have they any proposals to replace these items as they become unserviceable;

- did they feel the funds supplied by government or other sources, well used; did they form good .,or~dng relations with the exten~ LO<1 staff; ,wuld they welcome their advice or assistance in future?

Field staff

physical targets: were the targets selected for the programme relevant to the needs of the people; how are they benefitting from their achievements; will the benefits Increase or decrease in future; how long can they be expected to last; are they sufficient to alleviate the needs on which the targets were based ; will they genecat" resources or income to support further programmes; are there any additional resources they could devote to extension progra~nes in future?

- financial targets: was the target achieved within the estimated cost; were any factors identified which could increase the local contribution to the cost or reduce support expenditure in future; did any unforeseen circumstances arise which affected costs favourably or unfavourably; did both the public and the field staff receive sufficient information on financial matters throughout the programme; did they respond to this information; ~ere the financial achievements sufficiently well publicised?

- connnunication support: has a good communIcation system been established between the central level, field level and the people; will it continue to function after the programme ends; can it be used for any other purpose or programme; did the programme lead to hetter communication systems with similar government or voluntary organisations; is there now a better unders tanding of each other's contribution to development; can any of the co~nunication skills or materials be used for other purposes; are the local leaders and people more able to communicate effectively; were the communication systems or equipment used suitable and adequate for the particular

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situation?

staff: how have the staff increased their skills in extensionwork during the programme; have they gained a better insightinto the needs or ways of thinking of the people; have theycommunicated this knowledge to others; did they feel theyreceived all the training or advice they needed; would they bewilling to continue working with this group; if they started asimilar programme with a different group, what would they liketo do better; did they feel fairly treated in respect of hoursand conditions of work, housing, transport etc.; which oneaspect, if changed, would increase their efficiency or job-satisfaction, at least cost; how many staff members servedduring the programme; what percentage turn-over was there; whydid staff leave or were replaced; is .service with the

programme considered to have improved or harmed their careerprospects?

- equipment and supplies: did the quantities, suitability andarrival times agree with the programme planning; was it theright material at the right time; have any favourable orunfavourable observations been publicised on the equipment orits use; could any economies have been made in any of theitems; did the people learn to value and care for equipmentmade available to them; could the programme have beenaccomplished without the equipment; what effect would it havehad on staff efficiency, local co-operation and overallperformance.

transport: have local transport facilities improved during theprogramme period, e.g. better roads, more buses, more vehiclesavailable for hire; will this affect future planning; what wasthe transport mainly used for, movement of materials or

personnel; can any alternative method of moving materials nowbe employed; to what extent did transport (or the lack of it)affect work out-put of field staff; how would any increasedout-put -relate to the cost of providing additional transport;were the means of transport provided suitable for the task;

were they sufficiently robust for field work; did their usecause any comment (or envy) amongst the local people or staffin other organisations; were they transferred to otherprogrammes, or to the organising group, in good condition?

construction: were the buildings available, or supplied,suitable in construction, facilities, and location for theirpurpose; could the local people construct similar, or

adequate, replacement buildings if necessary; were they wellmaintained throughout; did they present a favourable image ofthe programme; could they be adapted to other uses when nolonger required, (e.g. an office become a clinic); did the

local people regard them as essential to the programme or as aluxury?

general factors: were problems of weather, distance,communications, health and educational facilities for familiestaken into account sufficiently in planning and allocatingstaff for the programme?

situation?

- staff: how have the staff increased their skills in extension work during the programme; have they gained a better insight into the needs or "ays of thinking of the people; have they communica ted this knowledge to others; did they feel they received all the training or advice they needed; would they be willing to continue working with this group; if they started a similar programme ~th a different group, what would they like to do better; did they feel fai rly treated in respect of hours and conditions of work, housing, transport etc.; 'tvhich one aspect, if changed, would increase their efficiency or jobsatisfaction, at least cost; how many staff members served during the programme; what percentage turn-over was there; why did staff leave or were replaced; is .. service ~th the programme considered to have improved or harmed their career pros.pects?

equipment and supplies: did the quantities, suitability and arrival times agree with the prograllll1le planning; was it the right material at the right time; have any favourable or unfavourable observations been publicised on the equipment or its use; could any economies have been made in any of the items; did the people learn to value and care for equipment made available to them; could the prograwne have been accomplished without the equipment; what effect would it have had on staff efficiency, local co-operation and overall performance.

- transport: have local transport facilities improved during the programme period, e.g. better roads, more buses, more vehicles available for hire; will this affect future planning; what was the transport mainly used for, movement of materials or personnel; can any alternative method of moving materials now be employed; to what extent did transport (or the lack of it) affect work out-put of field staff; ho" would any increased out-put ·relate to the cost of providing additional transport; were the means of transport provided suitable for the task; were they sufficiently robust for field work; did their use cause any comment (or envy) amongst the local people or staff in other organisations; were they transferred to other programmes, or to the organising group, in good condition?

- construction: were the buildings available, or supplied, suitable in construction, facilities, and location for their purpose; could the local people construct similar, or adequate, replacement buildings if necessary; were they well maintained throughout; did they present a favourable image of the programme; could they be adapted to other uses when no longer required, (e.g. an office become a clinic); did the local people regard them as essential to the programme or as a luxury?

- general factors: "ere problems of weather, distance, communications, health and educational facilities for families taken into account sufficiently in planning and allocating staff for the programme?

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Central level

physical targets: what was accomplished during the programmein terms of trees or areas planted, grazing areas improved,etc.; how does the cost compare with similar work done bydirect labour; what additional benefits did the people get intraining, new skills and technology, organisation andaccounting, decision-making, confidence; are the direct or

indirect benefits of most value at this stage; can the groupbe expected to continue or expand their activities with

minimal help?

financial targets: were estimates of costs realistic; have anyimproved methods of cost estimating or control emerged fromthis programme; is the system suitable for adoption by otherlocal groups; are the participants sufficiently conscious ofthe importance of cost factors in decision-making; has anybuild-up of financial resources, by the people, occurrecn

communication support: are staff at central level now moreaware of local aspirations and work practices; has the localculture and technology been an aid or a barrier to

implementation; can anything be learned from this informulating and implementing new programmes; were the localpeople regularly informed why certain decisions had to be

made; were their views considered to be helpful to planning ordecision-making at central level; was the programme consideredto be fully in keeping with government policy; did the

achievements receive appropriate recognition from highofficials; were there any spill-over benefits to otherorganisations; will the communication systems or equipment

established be of peLmanent value to extension activities;have any useful links been established with other governmentor voluntary organisations, research or educationalfacilities; have the people now a better understanding ofgovernment procedures and requirements in formulatingextension programmes?

- staff: has the overall staff position been strengthened ineither numbers or skills as a result of the programme; haveuseful linkages been established with educational institutes;have any improved procedures of staff management emerged fromthe programme; has any degree of specialisation been seen tobe required; can this be incorporated into the staffstructure; can the work-load at central level be quantified todetermine staff requirements for similar new programmes; canany field supervision tasks be handed over to local people ona part-time or honorarium basis?

equipment and supplies: are any items of equipment acquiredfor the programme of long-term benefit to the extensionorganisation, or to the co-operating group; can they be

re-deployed to other programmes; did the procurement,clearance, receipt and issuing procedures meet therequirements of the programme; have any useful new materialsor sources of supply been identified; have staff skills inhandling procurements and issues been improved; has propertycontrol and usage been satisfactory; has any usefulinformation been gathered on the service life, spares and

servicing requirements or operating costs of equipment; has

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Central level

- physical targets: what was accomplished during the programme in terms of trees or areas planted, grazing areas improved, etc.; how does the cost compare with similar work done by direct labour; what additional benefits did the people get in training , new skills and technology, organisation and accounting, decision-making, confidence; are the direct or indirect benefits of most value at this stage; can the group be expected to continue or expand their activities with minimal help?

financial targets: were estimates of costs realistic; have any -improved methods of cost estimating or control emerged from this programme; is the system suitable for adoption by other local groups; are the participants sufficiently conscious of the importance of cost factors in decision-making; has any build-up of financial resources, by the people, occurred~

communication support: are staff at central level now more aware of local aspirations and work practices; has the local culture and technology been an aid or a barrier to implementation; can anything be learned from this in formulating and implementing new programmes; were the local people regularly informed '1hy certain decisions had to be made; were their views considered to be helpful to planning or decision-making at central level; was the programme considered to be fully in keeping with government policy; did the achievements receive appropriate recognition from high officials; were there any spill-over benefits to other organisations; will the communication systems or equipment established be of permanent value to extension activities; have any useful links been established with other government or voluntary organisations, research or educational facilities; have the people now a better understanding of government procedures and requirements in formulating extension programmes?

staff: has the overall staff position been strengthened in either numbers or skills as a result of the programme; have useful linkages been established with educational institutes; have any improved procedures of staff management emerged from the programme; has any degree of specialisation been seen to be required; can this be incorporated into the staff structure; can the work-load at central level be quantified to determine staff requirements for similar new programmes; can any field supervision tasks be handed over to local people on a part-time or honorarium has is?

- equipment and supplies: are any items of equipment acquired for the programme of long-term benefit to the extension organisation, or to the co-operating group; can they be re-deployed to other programmes; did the procurement, clearance, receipt and issuing procedures meet the requirements of the programme; have any useful new materials or sources of supply been identified; have staff skills in handling procurements and issues been improved; has property control and usage been satisfactory; has any useful information been gathered on the service life, spares and servicing requirements or operating costs of equipment; has

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this been made available to all users?

construction: what construction was carried out under the

programme; could the requirements have been met in any otherway e.g. by temporary or portable accommodation; have any newdesigns or construction techniques been developed during theprogramme; have any useful information on costs been obtained;can standard plans and costings be applied to other areas;would an expansion of the programme create accommodationproblems at central level?

general factors: were exceptional factors noted which couldhave had a markedly favourable or unfavourable influence onthe programme?

11.5 Organisation of evaluation activities

11.5.1 Evaluation of programme formulation and planning

This must normally be organised at the central level as it is essentialthat any programme which is supported by a public organisation is in keepingwith government policies and guidelines for planning. It is important,

however, that these guidelines should not be set so rigidly that they stifleinitiative from the field staff or the community. It is from this level thatmany valuable innovations are likely to arise.

Evaluation must, however, involve the field staff and communityleaders, on whom responsibility for initiating and carrying out the workfall, Discussion should play a large part in the process to allow the staffand community members to explain or defend the suggestions they have made.Their "defence" of the proposals Will involve them in thinking deeply aboutthe objectives and methods they have suggested and may evoke a strongercommitment to success.

Staff from the central level involved at this stage should preferablyhave had field experience in the area in question, or be prepared to spendsome time getting to know the area and the people before attempting toevaluate the proposals. Voluntary agencies who may be giving support to theprogramme will normally expect to be involved at this stage. It is importantto be quite clear about their objectives or aspirations in supporting theprogramme. These may not always be identical to those of the community. Anymodifications of the programme which the evaluating group may require must behandled sensitively and fully discussed with the participating group or theymay lose enthusiasm for a programme they do not feel they have determined forthemselves.

11.5.2. Evaluation of programme implementation

Generally this should be done at district level and involve fieldstaff, the community and representatives of any voluntary agencies supportingthe programme as well as representatives of the central level and supportingagencies. In cases where the programme activities have implications forother work, such as agriculture or animal husbandry, it is necessary toinvolve representatives of these organisations in the discussions. Theprocess, however, requires considerable assistance, and access to data, fromstaff of the central level and the structure of the evaluation group must bedevised to achieve this. It is desirable for the evaluation group to beheaded by a representative from the central level, or by a senior staffmember from another area to monitor the validity of the information and theviews on which the evaluation is based.

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this been made available to all users?

- construction: what construction was carried out under the programme; could the requirements have been met in any other way e.g . by temporary or portable accommodation; have any new designs or construction techniques been developed during the programme; have any useful information on costs been obtained; can standard plans and costings be applied to other areas; would an expansion of the programme create accommodation problems at central level?

- general factors: were exceptional factors noted which could have had a markedly favourable or unfavourable influence on the programme?

11 .5 Organisation of evaluation activities

ll.5.1 Evaluation of programme formulation and planning

This must no~mally be organised at the central level as it is essential that any programme which is supported by a public organisation is in keeping with government policies and guidelines for planning. It is important, however, that these guidelines should not be set so rigidly that they stifle initiative from the field staff or the community. It is from this level that many valuable innovations are likely to arise.

Evaluation must, however, involve the field staff and community leaders, on whom responsibility for initiating and carrying out the work fall. Discussion should play a large part in the process to allow the staff and communi ty members to explain or defend the suggestions they have made. Their "defence" of the proposals will involve them in thinking deeply about the objectives and methods they have suggested and may evoke a stronger commitment to success.

Staff from the central level involved at this stage should preferably have had field experience in the area in question, or be prepared to spend some time getting to know the area and the people before attempting to evaluate the proposals. Voluntary agencies who may be giving support- to the programme will normally expect to be involved at this stage. It is important to be quite clear about their objectives or aspirations in supporting the programme. These may not always be identical to those of the community. Any modifications of the programme which the evaluating group may require must be handled sensitively and fully discussed with the participating group or they may lose enthusiasm for a programme they do not feel they have determined for themselves.

ll.5.2. Evaluation of programme implementation

Generally this should be done at district level and involve field staff, the community and representatives of any voluntary agencies supporting the programme as well as representatives of the central level and supporting agencies. In cases where the programme activities have implications for other work, such as agriculture or animal husbandry, it is necessary to involve representatives of these organisations in the discussions. The process, however, requires considerable assistance, and access to data, from staff of the central level and the structure of the evaluation group must be devised to achieve this. It is desirable for the evaluation group to be headed by a representative from the central level, or by a senior staff member from another area to monitor the validity of the information and the views on which the evaluation is based.

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Evaluation may be combined at first with a monitoring procedure and maytake place at intervals of six months initially, the monitoring activitybeing extended to one year or longer, as a programme settles down. As far aspracticable an agreed report on the programme should be prepared, but thisshould not preclude any individual or group attaching a minority orsupplementary report if they consider the main report does not adequatelyrepresent their views or that it can only be fully understood in the light ofthe additional information. In particular, field discussions and a closereview of results in the field should be carried out in relation to the datarecorded in reports and returns.

An essential feature of programme implementation evaluation is to

ensure that appropriate action is taken on it. In some cases programmeslippages may be attributed to the inability of the central level to meettargets for staff, release of funds, or the supply of equipment or transport.Such details may tend to be glossed over at the central level, but it isessential that a measure be maintained of the effects on field performance onsuch problems. Conversely, any improvisations to overcome these difficultiesshould be noted and publicised as these may, in time, lead to less dependenceon the central level for such support.

11.5.3 Post-programme evaluation

If a constructive programme of implementation evaluation has beencarried out, there should be little need for an in-depth post-programmeevaluation. Most of the information on which this can be based will alreadybe available and action will have been taken on it. A post-programmeevaluation would then consist of collating the existing information,summarising the achievements and benefits in relation to the costs andhighlighting useful developments or areas in which improved procedures couldbe adopted. It is important not to overlook the effect of existingadministrative procedures on field activities and to suggest areas in whichflexibility is required to meet the need for quick responses to changingsituations in the field, e.g. the need to bring forward, or delay, operationsin response to weather conditions.

Where a formal in-depth evaluation is required the work should be givendue importance. By its nature it may require some people who have not beendirectly involved in the programme, to secure an independent view of itsachievements. For preference, these should currently be involved in somerelated field of work and have a good knowledge and understanding both of thearea and the people who participated in the programme. The evaluators shouldallow themselves sufficient time to acquaint themselves fully with thebackground of the programme as well as reviewing in detail the actualachievements and the circumstances in which they were secured. Mostcountries can now find within their own personnel people of sufficientstanding and experience in administration or academic fields to undertakethis work.

Where evaluation by one or more people from outside the country isproposed a careful cost/benefit assessment of the proposed evaluation shouldbe made. Because of the high costs of remuneration and travel, and the workcommitments of such persons, an external group are frequently required toconduct the evaluation within a very limited time. Because of protocol andformal meetings with ministers and other officials, they can seldom spend anadequate period in the field. In the selection of external evaluators, it isalso important to ensure that their views and recommendations are not undulycoloured by their experiences in other areas which are not directly relatedto the current situation.

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Evaluation may be combined at first with a monitoring procedure and may take place at intervals of six months initially, the monitoring activity being extended to one year or longer, as a programme settles down . As far as practicable an agreed report on the programme should be prepared, but this should not preclude any individual or group attaching a minority or supplementary report if they consider the main report does not adequately represent their views or that it can only be fully understood in the light of the additional information. In particular, field discussions and a close review of results in the field should be carried out in relation to the data recorded in reports and returns.

An essential feature of programme implementation evaluation is to ensure that appropriate action is taken on it. In some cases programme slippages may be attributed to the inability of the central level to meet targets for staff, release of funds, or the supply of equipment or transport. Such details may tend to be glossed over at the central level, but it is essential that a measure be maintained of the effects on field performance on such problems. Conversely, any improvisations to overcome these difficulties should be noted and publicised as these may, in time, lead to less dependence on the central level for such support. .

n.S.3 Post-programme evaluation

If a constructive programme of implementation evaluation has been carried out, there should be little need for an in-depth post-programme evaluation. Most of the information on which this can be based will already be available and action will have been taken on it. A post-programme evaluation would then consist of collating the existing information, summarising the achievements and benefits in relation to the costs and highlighting useful developments or areas in which improved procedures could be adopted. It is important not to overlook the effect of existing administrative procedures on field activities and to suggest areas in which flexibility is required to meet the need for quick responses to changing situations in the field, e.g. the need to bring forward, or delay, operations in response to weather conditions.

Where a formal in-depth evaluation is required the work should be given due importance. By its nature it may require some people who have not been directly involved in the programme, to secure an independent view of its achievements. For preference, these should currently be involved in some related field of work and have a good knowledge and understanding both of the area and the people who participated in the programme. The evaluators should allow themselves sufficient time to acquaint themselves fully with the background of the programme as well as reviewing in detail the actual achievements and the circumstances in which they were secured. Most countries can now find within their own personnel people of sufficient s tanding and experience in adminisJ:ration or academic fields to undertake this work.

Where evaluation by one or more people from outside the country is proposed a careful cost/benefit assessment of the proposed evaluation should be made. Because of the high costs of remuneration and travel, and the work commi tments of such persons, an external group are frequently required to conduct the evaluation within a very limited time. Because of protocol and formal meetings with ministers and other officials, they can seldom spend an adequate period in the field. In the selection of external evaluators, it is also import ant to ensure that their views and recommendations are not unduly coloured by their experiences in other areas which are not directly related to the current situation.

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11.6 Feedback

No matter how carefully monitoring and evaluation activities arecarried out, they are of no value unless their contents and recommendationsare carefully considered, and where appropriate, implemented by the peopleand the staff concerned. This involves full, frank and friendly discussions,and a willingness to listen as well as to talk, by all taking part.

Extension is for the benefit of the people, and improvements suggestedin the system of supporting it must take this fully into account. The peoplemay not yet be sufficiently experienced to adopt a neat, formal system ofadministration while the staffs of government administrations, or evenvoluntary agencies, may not be attuned to the informal way in which manylocal decisions are made and successfully implemented.

Monitoring and evaluation, at all stages, must be widely discussed withall the partners concerned with a view to developing the positive featuresidentified in the programme and finding a solution to the problems which havearisen. In most cases some degree of compromise is essential to ensure thatthe benefits of the programme are not lost in recriminations about thingswhich may not have proved satisfactory. In general, the outcome of anymonitoring or evaluation exercise should be a brief, clear statement of whataction has been agreed. The success in implementing this statement couldform the starting point for any subsequent evaluation.

11.6 Feedback

No matter how carefully monitoring and evaluation activities are carried out, they are of no value unless their contents and recommendations are carefully considered, and where appropriate, implemented by the people and the staff concerned. This involves full, frank and friendly di scussions, and a willingness to listen as well as to talk, by all taking part .

Extension is for the benefit of the people, and improvements suggested in the system of supporting it must take this fully into account. The people may not yet be sufficiently experienced to adopt a neat, formal system of administration while the staffs of government administrations, or even voluntary agencies, may not be attuned to the informal way in which many local decisions are made and successfully implemented.

Monitoring and evaluation, at all stages, must be widely discussed with all the partners concerned with a view to developing the positive features identified in the programme and finding a solution to the problems which have arisen. In most cases some degree of compromise is essential to ensure that the benefits of the programme are not lost in recriminations about things which may not have proved satisfactory. In general, the outcome of any monitoring or evaluation exercise should be a brief, clear statement of what action has been agreed. The success in implementing this statement could form the starting point for any subsequent evaluation.

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12. ORGANISING AN EXTENSION TRAINING PROGRAMME

Training forms a major element in the establishment and implementationof a forestry extension programme. Training, in these circumstances, may,for convenience, be considered under two main headings:

- formal staff education and training in extension; and,

- informal extension information and training programmes.

There must, however, be close co-ordination between all forms andlevels of training to ensure that they serve common objectives and seek toreach these by compatible means. Responsibility for ensuring thisco-ordination should rest on a senior staff member at the central level ofthe forestry authority who should have the responsibility for establishingeffective channels of consultation and co-operation between the variousorganisations involved in extension eduction and training. This sectionseeks to bring together material covered in the earlier sections of thispublication to develop suitable training programmes within this context.

12.1 Staff education and training programmes

A paper presented to the Fourteenth Session of the FAO AdvisoryCommittee on Forestry Education in September 1986 suggested appropriatecurricula and training programmes for staff engaged in forestry extension atthe graduate, technical and vocational levels.

It was proposed that professional forestry staff engaged in extensionservices should undertake a course lasting one academic year in subjectsrelated specifically to forestry extension activities. The programme shouldbe located at an academic institution which would award a recognised higherqualification or degree to successful candidates. The fields of study wouldcover areas of communications, professional studies and research, andplanning and organisation of extension activities. Considerable emphasiswould be placed on viewing forestry extension as one aspect of an overallrural development programme and of integrating forestry programmes into theestablished patterns of rural life in an area. The staffing and academicrequirements of the course would be determined by the institution undertakingthe programme.

Technical level education envisaged a programme of three months' studyfor staff who have completed a two year post-secondary course in forestrytechnology and who have, for preference, some subsequent field experience.The training would be located at an agricultural or forestry collegeproviding post-secondary education in forestry and would involve extensivefield and practical training components. Considerable emphasis would beplaced on understanding the joint roles of forestry, agriculture, animalhusbandry, water supplies, health and education in rural development and inintegrating forestry extension activities into overall rural developmentprogrammes. The staffing and academic requirements in this case would also bedetermined by the college or institution organising the course.

The vocational training programme could run at a number of locationssimultaneously, if staff requirements or environmental conditions in the areajustified it. The training would focus on skills of communication anddemonstration to produce extension assistants who could, in addition to theirresponsibilities for promoting extension programmes, provide training inextension techniques to large numbers of people participating in these, or inother development programmes where a forestry component would prove of value.These vocational training programmes would be organised and, in general, bestaffed by the forestry extension organisation which would have the

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12. ORGANISING AN EXTENSION TRAINING PROGRAMME

Training forms a major element in the establishment and implementation of a forestry extension programme. Training , in these circumstances, may, for convenience, be considered under two main headings:

- formal staff education and training in extension; and, - informal extension information and training programmes.

There must, however, be close co-ordination between all forms and levels of training to ensure that they serve common objectives and seek to reach these by compatible means. Responsibility for ensuring this co-ordination should rest on a senior staff member at the central level of the forestry authority who should have the responsibility for establishing effective channels of consultation and co-operation between the various organisations involved in extension eduction and training. This section seeks to bring together material covered in the earlier sections of this

. publication to develop suitable training programmes within this context.

12.1 Staff education and training programmes

A paper presented to the Fourteenth Session of the FAO Advisory Committee on Forestry Education in September 1986 suggested appropriate curricula and training programmes for staff engaged in forestry extension at the graduate, technical and vocational levels.

It was proposed that professional forestry staff engaged in extension services should undertake a course lasting one academic year in subjects related specifically to forestry extension activities. The programme should be located at an academic institution which would award a recognised higher qualification or degree to successful candidates. The fields of study would cover areas of communications, professional studies and research, and planning and organisation of extension activities. Considerable emphasis would be placed on viewing forestry extension as one aspect of an overall rural development programme and of integrating forestry programmes into the established patterns of rural life in an area. The staffing and academic requirements of the course would be determined by the institution undertaking the programme.

Technical level education envisaged a programme of three months' study for staff who have completed a two year post-secondary course in Iorestry technology and who have, for preference, some subsequent field experience. The training would be located at an agricultural or forestry college providing post-secondary education in forestry and would involve extensive field and practical training components. Considerable emphasis would be placed on understanding the joint roles of forestry, agriculture, animal husbandry, water supplies, health and education in rural development and in integrating forestry extension activities into overall rural development programmes. The staffing and academic requirements in this case would also be determined by the college or institution organising the course.

The vocational training programme could run at a number of locations simultaneously, if staff requirements or environmental conditions in the area justified it. The training would focus on skills of communication and demonstration to produce extension assistants who could, in addition to their responsibilities for promoting extension programmes, provide training in extension techniques to large numbers of people participating in these, or in other development programmes where a forestry component would prove of value. These vocational training programmes would be organised and, in general, be staffed by the forestry extension organisation which would have the

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responsibility for ensuring satisfactory standardsat the various centres. Where such programmesprimary function is some other fOrm or levelmanagement structure for organising a programmebelow.

12.2 Public information and training programmes

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of teaching and assessmentare run at centres whoseof training, a suggestedis given in Section 12.6

Public information programmes are required at the central level toacquaint government ministers and officials, senior representatives of otherpublic organisations and of voluntary agencies, academics, cultural andreligious leaders and leaders of business organisations with the philosophy,requirements, and proposals of the forestry extension organisation, in orderto secure an understanding at the higher levels of government and thecommunity, of such a programme. An important objective is to secure atwo-way flow of information, which will promote the understanding of, andsupport by, influential persons for the objectives and methods of forestryextension, while at the same time giving the forestry extension organisationaccess to the views of this strata of the public on their objectives andperformance.

At the operational level, (district level and below), the publicinformation and training pogrammes tend to place more emphasis on thetraining aspects of the work. Information plays an important role at theawareness and interest phases of an extension programme while a decision toimplement a specific programme may generate a considerable need for traininglocal voluntary leaders to motivate and instruct their communities to carryout the agreed tasks.

A basic requirement of all public information and training programmesis a clear determination of the objectives of each particular activity. Theobjectives should be expressed in specific terms, such as a change inknowledge, attitudes or skills relevant to the topic. To achieve this it isdesirable to link audiences more closely to the specific objectives of aprogramme. While a general lecture on forestry extension requirements orproposals to an audience of government officials may appear to have beensuccessful, it may be of little practical value unless it has established howmembers of the audience are expected to show their practical support for theproposals and how their subsequent actions can be measured. An instructionalprogramme for religious leaders, linking extension concepts to the tenets oftheir faiths, with its success measured by how many favourable pronouncementsthey make on it in future, might be effective in that area.

12.3 Nature of training activities

Some appropriate forms of public information and training programmesfor use in forestry extension activities are as follows.

Conferences

Conferences frequently involve the narticipation of representatives ofgroups outside the immediate organisation promoting the conference. Theirfunction may be to promote a pooling of information or ideas and to develop acommon stand on a particular topic. They consist of one or more sessions atwhich new ideas or information are presented in a stimulating way forsubsequent discussion by the participants. In some cases, they may involvefield visits to illustrate particular points. The participants may, in somecases, form a number of working parties to study particular aspects of thetopic in greater detail and subsequently report to the full conference. Theoutcome is normally an agreed report by the participants. Conferences are a

responsibility for ensuring satisfactory standards of teaching and assessment at the various centres. Where such programmes are run at centres' whose primary function is some other form or level of training, a suggested management structure for organising a programme is given in Section 12.6 below.

12.2 Public information and training programmes

. Public information programmes are required at the central level to acquaint government ministers and officials, senior representatives of other public organisations and of voluntary agencies, academics, cultural and religious leaders and leaders of business organisations with the philosophy, requirements, and proposals of the forestry extension organisation, in order to secure an understanding at the higher levels of government and the community, of such a programme. An important objective is to secure a two-way flow of information, which will promote the understanding of, and support by, influential persons for the objectives and methods of forestry extension, while at the same time giving the forestry extension organisation access to the views of this strata of the public on their objectives and performance.

At the operational level, (district level and below), the public information and training pogrammes tend to place more emphasis on the training aspects of the work. Information plays an important role at the awareness and interest phases of an extension programme while a decision to implement a specific programme may generate a considerable need for training local voluntary leaders to motivate and instruct their communities to carry out the agreed tasks .

A basic requirement of all public information and training programmes is a clear determination of the objectives of each particular activity. The objectives should be expressed in specific terms, such as a change in knowledge, attitudes or skills relevant to the topic. To achieve this it is desirable to link audiences more closely to the specific objectives of a programme. lfuile a general lecture on forestry extension requirements or proposals to an audience of government officials may appear to have been successful, it may be of little practical value unless it has established how members of the audience are expected to show their practical support ·for the proposals and how their subsequent actions can be measured. An instructional programme for religious leaders, linking extension concepts to the tenets of their faiths, with its success measured by how many favourable pronouncements they make on it i n future, might be effective in that area.

12.3 Nature of training activities

Some appropriate forms of public information and training programmes for use in forestry extension activities are as follows.

Conferences

Conferences frequent ly involve the participation of representatives of groups outside the immediate organisation promoting the conference. Their function may be to promote a pooling of information or ideas and to develop a common stand on a particular topic. They consist of one or more sessions at which new ideas or information are presented · in a stimulating way for subsequent discussion by the participants. In some cases, they may involve field visits to illustrate particular points. The participants may, in some cases, form a number of working parties to study particular aspects of the topic in greater detail and subsequently report t o the full conference. The outcome is normally an agreed report by the participants. Conferences are a

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very attractive form of informational or educational activity and are verypopular especially where they involve travel and some entertainment providedby the hosts. They tend to give the organising body a high profile and wideexposure to press and TV coverage. It is doubtful, however, if the test ofmeasurable results is always strictly applied to conferences, or if it were,if it would suggest a high return on Che effort and expense involved. This,however, should not be taken as a reason for dismissing conferences as

. unimportant, but a justification for organising them more effectively andwith closer attention to the desired outcome and subsequent implementation ofthe recommendations.

Training meetings

Training meetings can be organised at many different levels in aninformation or training programme. They normally require the participationof persons in activities leading to the acquisition of knowledge and skills.At the upper levels of an extension organisation, they can be used to presentthe organisation's views on a particular problem or promote a suitable lineof approach to solving it. At the operational level they may concentrate onthe development of skills in organisation and leadership amongst technicalstaff and voluntary leaders. They are usually of short duration, though totransfer a range of useful skills, a series of training meetings may berequired.

Short courses

These may last from a few days to about three weeks and are designed togive more in-depth training and adequate practical experience to participantson some important technical matters. These may cover topics such as

establishing forest nurseries or simple techniques of contouring land beforeplanting. The participants, however, may mainly be confined to employees ofagencies involved in development activities as individual farmers and herdowners may not be able to absent themselves from their normal activities forsuch lengthy periods, even though their living and travel expenses are met.

Workshops

These are a series of meetings organised around specific problem areasidentified as important by those participating in the workshop. While theycan be applied to matters of a purely technical nature they may also be usedfor analysing social or administrative problems, and making use ofcontributions from other participants, to devise solutions to them. They maydeal with problems such as motivation, communication, programme planning andfinancial responsibility. They may also be used to explore differentattitudes or approaches to development in a number of participatingorganisations, in order to establish a better understanding of each other'sposition and, if possible, reconcile existing differences. They should havesome specific objective, though this my be modified during the discussion asdiffering points of view emerge.

Field trips

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These have already been discussed in detail in Sections 8.11 and 8.12. Theirfunction is to provide participants with opportunities to observe and studyat first hand specific problems or achievements relevant to a particularextension or developmental situation. Again, they must have some specificobjective. An informative and entertaining tour is of little value unlessthe information gained is not only recorded and disseminated to others butapplied in some effective way.

very attractive form of informational or educational activity and are very popular especially where they involve travel and some entertainment provided by the hosts. They tend to give the organising body a high profile and wide exposure to press and TV coverage. It is doubtful, however, if the test of measurable results is always strictly applied to conferences, or if it were , if it would suggest a high return on the effort and expense involved. This, however, should not be taken as a reason for dismissing conferences a s unimportant, but a justification for organising them more effectively and with closer attention to the desired outcome and subsequent implementation of the recommendations.

Training meetings

Training meetings can be organised at many different levels in an information or training programme. They normally require the participation of persons in activities leading to the acquisition of knowledge and skills. At the upper levels of an extension organisation, they can be used to present the organisation's views on a particular problem or promote a suitable line of approach to solving it. At the operational level they may concentrate on the development of skills in organisation and leadership amongst technical staff and voluntary leaders. They are usually of short duration, though to transfer a range of useful skills, a series of training meetings may be required.

Short courses

These may last from a few days to about three weeks and are designed to give more in-depth training and adequate practical experience to participants on SOme important technical matters. These may cover topics such as establishing forest nurseries or simple techniques of contouring land before planting . The participants, however, may mainly be confined to employees of agencies involved in development activities as individual farmers and herd owners may not be able to absent themselves from their normal activities for such lengthy periods, even though their living and travel expenses are met.

Workshops

These are a series of meetings organised around specific problem areas identified as important by those participating in the workshop. While they can be applied to matters of a purely technical nature they may atso be used for analysing social or administrative problems, and making use of

·contributions from other participants, to devise solutions to them. They may deal with problems such as motivation, communication, programme planning and financial responsibility. They may also be used to explore different atti tudes or approaches to development in a number of participating organisations, in order to establish a better understanding of each other's position and, if possible, reconcile existing differences. They should have some specific objective, though this may be modified during the discussion as differing points of view emerge.

Field trips

These have already been discussed in detail in Sections 8.11 and 8.12. Their function is to provide participants with opportunities to observe and study at firs t hand specific problems or achievements relevant to a particular extension or developmental situation. Again, they must have some specific objective. An informative and entertaining tour is of little value unless the information gained i s not only recorded and disseminated to others but applied in some effective way .

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Exchange visits

These are carefully organised visits between participants in differentfields of work. They may also include short exchanges of workresponsibilities. The main outcome should be a higher degree ofunderstanding and co-operation between the individuals and organisationsinvolved. They can normally only be implemented when a certain degree ofunderstanding and co-operation already exists between the differentorganisations involved in the exchange.

12.4 Selection of training methods

Training programmes frequently call for a combination of a number oftraining situations and the employment of various training methods.

The choice of methods of training may be based on the followingassumptions:

participants bring to the training situation their pastknowledge and work experience which can be a significantcontribution to the learning process both of themselves and ofothers;people learn most effectively in situations which encourageactive participation in the learning process;no one method of learning can be singled out as the best;normally a combination of methods is most likely to bringabout desired behavioural changes; and,

the more senses involved in the learning task, the moreeffective the learning is likely to be.

The choice of the particular method or methods to be used will dependon what specifically is to be learned, as defined in the training objectives,on the particular circumstances prevailing at the time, and on the resourcesat the disposal of the staff. While learning planting techniques bypractical demonstration may be most efficient in the planting season, the useof slide/tape presentations, videos or cine films may play a larger part ifthe instruction must be done during the dry season. In every situation,however, opportunities for active participation will greatly enhance thepossibility of effective learning.

12.4.1 The lecture method

This term, "lecture", is, at least in business matters, tending to fallout of use. A lecture, unsupported by visual aids of any sort, is not highlyeffective and is now seldom employed. The term "presentation" is now morewidely used for situations in which information given orally, by diagrams,charts, and illustrations is used to convey a series of ideas or suggestionsto stimulate desired actions. However, the basic principles of preparing andpresenting such a presentation still apply. The use of additional aids willsimply enhance the performance.

A lecture, so enhanced, is still a useful method of giving backgroundinformation to a large audience. If a suitable situation for its use doesarise, the following points should make it as effective as circumstancespermit.

A good lecture consists of two phases: preparation and presentation.

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Exchange visits

These are carefully organised visits between participants in different fields of work. They may also include short exchanges of work responsibilities. The main outcome should be a higher degree of understanding and co-operation between the individuals and organisations involved. They can normally only be implemented when a certain degree of understanding and co-operation already exists between the different organisations involved in the exchange.

12.4 Selection of training methods

Training programmes frequently cal l for a combination of a number of training situations and the employment of various training methods.

The choice of methods of training may be based on the following assumptions:

- participants bring to the training situation their past knowledge and work experience which can be a significant contribution to the learning process both of themselves and of others;

- people learn most effectively in situations which encourage active participation in the learning process;

- no one method of learning can be singled out as the best; normally a combination of methods is most likely to bring about desired behavioural changes; and,

- the more senses involved in the learning task, the more effective the learning is likely to be.

The choice of the particular method or methods to be used will depend on what specifically is to be learned, as defined in the training objectives, on the particular circumstances prevailing at the time, and on the resources at the disposal of the staff. While learning planting techniques by practical demonstration may be most efficient in the planting season, the use of slide/tape presentations, videos or cine films may playa larger part if the instruction must be done during the dry season. In every situation, however, opportunities for active participation will greatly enhance the possibility of effective learning.

12.4.1 The lecture method

This term, "lecture", is, at least in business matters, t ending to fall out of use. A lecture, unsupported by visual aids of any sort, is not highly effective and is now seldom employed. The term "presentation" is now more widely used for situations in which information given orally, by diagrams, charts, and illustrations is used to convey a series of ideas or suggestions to stimulate desired actions. However, the basic principles of preparing and presenting such a presentation still apply. The use of additional aids will simply enhance the performance.

A lecture, so enhanced, is still a useful method of giving background information to a large audience. If a suitable situation for its use does arise, the following points should make it as ,effective as circumstances permit .

A good lecture consists of two phases: preparation and presentation.

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Preparation

It takes considerably longer to prepare a lecture than it does todeliver it, even if the lecturer knows the subject thoroughly. This leads tothe unfortunate tendency on the part of some speakers to use the samematerial repeatedly without regard co the particular circumstances or theaudience.

Some important points to consider are:

Audience

find out all there is to be known about the audience; theirage and educational levels; their knowledge of the topic andtheir particular interests in it.

Objective

determine the nature and extent of the knowledge the audienceis expected to acquire as a result of the lecture and thegeneral impressions you want them to take away.

Specific points

consider the specific points of knowledge you think are

necessary to establish the objectives; limit these to 4 or 5points as an audience may not be able to comprehend and retainmany important ideas in one session.

Material

gather available material to support the points you wish toestablish; classify it into "must know", "should know" and"could know" categories, and select the material to presentwithin the time available in the correct order of importance.

AV Aids

review the type and range of AV aids which are appropriatero use in relation to the topic and the location of the

lecture and the specific points these aids can be used toreinforce in the presentation.

Organise the available material into a structure to support the majorpoints of the lecture. Review and regroup this as necessary until it appearsto form a well organised flow of information. Devise a suitable introductionto gain the attention of the audience and a short conclusion to sumnarise themain points of the talk.

Presentation

A lecturer must adjust his manner of presentation to the subjectmatter, the audience and the location. The tone and pitch of the voice mustsuit the topic, whether it requires carefully argued statements on particularpoints or a more vigorous, general exposition of a theme. The number andtype of the audience will also determine whether the speaker can use a wellmodulated, almost conversational, tone or a loud, forceful, perhaps almoststrident, approach. The location of the lecture, the acoustics of the

building, the time of day, the temperature and humidity will all influencethe presentation of the material. The pace of presentation will depend both

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Preparation

It takes considerably longer to prepare a lecture than it does to deliver it, even if the lecturer knows the subject thoroughly. This leads to the unfortunate tendency on the part of some speakers to use the same material repeatedly without regard to the particular circumstances or the audience.

Some important points to consider are:

Audience

- find out all there is to be known about the audience; their age and educational levels; their knowledge of the topic and their particular interests in it.

Objective

- determine the nature and extent of the knowledge the audience is expected to acquire as a result of the lecture and the general impressions you ,want them to take away.

Specific points

- consider the specific points of knowledge you think are necessary to establish the objectives; limit these to 4 or 5 points as an audience may not be able to comprehend and retain many important ideas in one session.

Material

- gather available material to support ' the points you wish to establish; classify it into "must know", "should know" and "could know" categories, and select the material to present within the time available in the correct order of importance.

AV Aids

- review the type and range of AV aids which are appropriate to use in relation to the topic and the location of the lecture and the specific points these aids can be used to reinforce in the presentation.

Organise the available material into a structure to support the major points of the lecture. Review and regroup this as necessary until it appears to form a well organised flow of in~ormation. Devise a suitable introduction to gain the attention of the audience and a short conclusion to summarise the main points of the talk.

Presentation

A lecturer must adjust his manner of presentation to the subject matter, the audience and the location. The tone and pitch of the voice must suit the topic, whether it requires carefully argued statements on particular points or a more vigorous, general exposition of a theme. The number and type of the audience will also determine whether the speaker can use a well modulated, almost conversational, tone or a loud , forceful, perhaps almost strident, approach. The location of the lecture, the acoustics of the building, the time of day, the temperature and humidity will all influence the presentation of the material. The pace of presentation will depend both

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on the size of the audience and on their familiarity with the topic. Goodeye contact and the avoidance of distracting mannerisms by the presenter arevital. The presentation of any projected or static visual aids must bepractised to ensure they complement the flow of information and not disruptit. Clues-from the audience in the form of restlessness or signs of boredomshould alert a speaker either to vary his presentation or, preferably, towind-up his talk as soon as practicable.

The decision whether or not to use a public address system is

important. Too often this is a status symbol for presenters, rather than anaid to understanding. A poor quality p.a. system may in fact distort soundand make a talk harder to follow. A speaker who can hold the attention of anaudience by good voice projection and make himself clear by careful dictionand phasing of his words presents a much more impressive figure than someonewhose natural intonations, if any, are lost in electronic amplification.

Questions after the presentation provide an opportunity to assess howmuch interest it has aroused and enable the speaker to clear up any pointswhich may not have been fully understood by the audience. Questions forwhich a speaker has no immediate answer can be handled by throwing them opento the audience to discuss or, if they are on a more precise point, bypromising the questioner a written answer as soon as possible.

12.4.2 Group discussion methods

It is important for extension staff to acquire skills in the use of thediscussion technique. A number of other training methods depend on aperson's ability to lead discassions. The technique should, however, be usedwith discretion. It will only produce effective conclusions if theparticipants already have sufficient knowledge or experience of a topic tomake a constructive contribution to the discussion.

Preparations for discussions

select a suitable topic for discussion;prepare an outline of the main points that are likely to beraised and allocate a period of time, provisionally, to each;consider any additional problems or objections which might beraised and how these might possibly be dealt with during thediscussion.

Conduct of a discussion

To open a discussion try to tie the topic up with some matter which haspreviously been discussed or with a matter of some relevance to the groupmembers.

The role of the discussion leader is to assist the group members to putforward, and examine critically, points of view which will serve to achievethe objective of the discussion. It is not to limit or control the viewsexpressed or the flow of discussion for any other reasons. However, it isimportant to ensure that the main line of discussion does not stray from themajor topic, as may sometimes happen when one member, who may have stronglyheld views on a particular topic, tends to divert the dtscussion to his orher main interest. A leader can guide a discussion back to its main theme bythe Skilful use of questions.

Points raised during a discussion can be recorded on a flipchart, achalkboard, or on cards on a feltboard, which will allow them to be

re-arranged and developed into a possible final conclusion. Irrelevant

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on the size of the audience and on their familiarIty with the topic. Good eye contact and the avoidance of distracting mannerisms by the presenter are vital. The presentation of any projected or static visual aids must be practised to ensure they complement the flow of information and not disrupt it. Clues' from the audience tn the form of restlessness or signs of boredom should alert a speaker either to vary his presentation or, preferably, to wind-up his talk as soon as practicable.

The decision whether or not to use a public address system is important. Too often this is a status symbol for presenters, rather than an aid to understanding. A poor quality p.a. system may in fact distort sound and make a talk harder to follow. A speaker who can hold the attention of an audience by good voice projection and make himself clear by careful diction and phasing of his IJords presents a much more impressive figure than someone whose natural intonations, if any, are lost in electronic amplification.

Questions after the presentation provide an opportuni ty to assess how much interest it has aroused and enable the speaker to clear up any points which may not have been fully understood by the audience. Questions for which a speaker has no immediate answer can be handled by throwing them open to the audience to discuss or, if they are on a more precise point, by promising the questioner a wr.itten answer as soon as possible.

12.4.2 Group discussion methods

It is important for extens i on staff to acquire skills in the use of the discussion technique. A number of other training methods depend on a person's ability to lead discuss ·ions. The technique should, howeve r , be used with discretion. It will only produce effective conclusions i f the participants already have sufficient knowledge or experience of a topic to make a constructive contribution to the discussion.

Preparations for discuss i ons

- select a suitable topic for discussion; - prepare an outline of t he main points that are likely to be

raised and a l locate a period of time, provisionally, to each; - consider any addit i onal problems or objections which might be

raised and . how these mi gh t possibly be dealt with during the discussion .

Conduct of a discuss i on

To open a discuss i on try to tie the topic up with some matter which has previously been discussed or with a matter of some relevance to the group members.

The role of the discussion leader is to assist the group members to put forward, and examine critical ly , points of view which will serve t o achieve the objective of the discuss ion . It is not to limit or control t he views expressed or the flow of di s cussion " or any other reasons. However, 1 t is important to ensure that the main Hne of discussion does not stray f rom the major topic, as may sometimes happen when one member, who may have strongly held views on a particular topic, tends to divert the d i scussion to his or her main interest. A leader can guide a discussion back to its main t heme by the skilful use of: questions.

Points raised during a dIscussion can chalkboard, or on cards on a feltboard, re-arranged and developed into a possible

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be recorded on a flipchart, a which will allow them to be final conclusion. Irrelevant

material can in this way be identified and set aside during the discussion.All members should be encouraged to participate as fully as possible toensure a sense of involvement in the outcome. Sufficient control of thediscussion should be exercised by the leader to easure that all the importantpoints are properly considered and sufficient time allowed for review andconclusions. All the points expressed should be summarised at the end,Including opposing viewpoints, and the group should be encouraged or guidedto move towards a conclusion based on a consensus, rather than oa a vote.

Group discussions are suitable for exploring matters of policy or oftactics in pursuing extension objecttves and may lead to adopting liaes ofadvance which have already taken possible objections fully intoconsideration.

Case-study method

The case-study method is important in training staff to handleadministrative problems which may arise in the course of their work. Tt canplay an important role in in-service training For staff moving from technicalor clerical to administrative functions. It serves to provide experience inproblem analysis and decision making. Before asking a group to work on acase it Ls necessary to "set the scene" by establishing some assumptions,such as the structure of the organisation, staffing, resources, capacity toexpand, policy constraints, etc.

A case can then be presented as a set of facts concerning tasks, funds,staff or resources requiring the best available solution within the limitsimposed. It is useful to introduce a case study before the end of a day sothe group members can think it over and, if necessary, discuss it amongstthemselves in their free time. The case presented should be closely relatedto the members' normal work and care must be taken to establLsh the relevanceof the discussioas aad conclusions to the members' real-life situation. In

extension activities, problems concerning the allocation of equipment,transport, staff or funds are relevant and could provide suitable points forstudy. During the actual discussion of the case the procedures referred toin discussion /eading should apply to the group.

Role-playing techniques

Role-playing techniques are an. extension of the case-study method,where the studeats act out specific roles in a situation. The technique isapplicable to operational level staff of an extension orgaatsation whorequire to improve their skills in dealing with the public.

Role-playing is useful for:

- developing the participants! communication skills;building staff members' confidence in iealing with real-lifesituations; and,enabling leaders to give advice and, where necessary, some

criticism, based on the handling of a simulated situation.

Two types of approach can be used, structured or spontaneous role-playing. In structured role-playing, the scene is set by the leader who may,in fact, provide a script or at least an outline of what each charactershould contribute. This procedure is helpful in studying different patterasof leadership, communication of information or interpretion of a report. In

spontaneous role-playing, the participants act out roles, which are selectedfor them, in a simple situation without advance planning.

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material can in this way be identified and set aside during t he discussion . All members should be encouraged to particI pate as f ully as possible to ensure a sense of involvement in the outcome. Sufficient control of the discussion should be exercised by the leader to e nsure that all the important points are properly considered and sufficient time allowed ior re"iew and conclusi.ons. All the points expressed should be summarised at the end , including opposing viewpoint s, and the group should be encouraged or guided to move t owards a conclusion based on a consensus, rather than 01.1 a vote.

Group discussions are suItable tor exploring matters of policy or of t actics in pursuing extension objectl"es and may lead to adopting lines of advance which have already taken possible objections fully into considerat ion.

Case-study metho,j

The case-study method is important ill t rain i ng s taff t o handle adminis trative problems wh ich may arise in t he course of their work. I t can play an important role in i n-service tratning for staff moving from technical or clerical to adminis trative f unctions. It serves to provide experience in problem analysis and decisIon making. Before a sking a group to work on a case it is necessary to "set the scene" by establishing some assumptions , such as the structure of the organisation, staffing, resource .c;, capacity to expand, policy constraints , etc .

A case can then be presented as a set of facts concerning tasks, funds, staff or resources requiring the best availabl e so lution within the limits imposed. It is useful to introduce a case study before the end of a day so the group members can think it over and, if necessary, discuss it amongst themselves in their free time. The case presented should be close l y related to the members' normal work and care mus t be taken to establish the relevance of the discussions and conclusions to the members ' real-life situation. In extension activities, proble1us concerning the allocation of equipment, transport, staff or funds are relevant and could provide suitable points (or study. During the actual discussion of the case the procedures referred to in discussion leading should apply to the group.

Role-playing techniques

Role-playing techniques a r e an extension of the case-study method, where the stuuer,ts act out specific roles in a situation. The technique is applicable to operational level staff of an extension orgarllsation who require to improve their skills in n"aling "ith the public .

Role - playing is useful for:

developing the participant s" communic",tion skills; building staff members' confidence in dealing with real-life situations; and, enabling leaders to give advice and, where nec2.ssary, some criticism, based on the handling of a simulated situation.

Two types of approach can be used, structured or spontaneous roleplaying. In s tructured role-playing, the scene is set by the leader " ho may, in fact, provide a script or at least an outline of what each character should contribute. This procedure is helpfu l in studying different patterns of leadership, communication of Information or interpretion of a report. In spontaneous role- playing, the participants act out roles, which are selected for them, in a simpl e situation without advance planning.

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The general procedure for initiating a role-playing session is:

describe the situation, usually in brief notes for each part-icipant; these may instruct one or more members to behave in a"difficult" or unco-operative way to determine the reaction ofothers to this situation;allow time for the players to think how they are to respond tothe information given and the role assigned to them;

- set the process in operation but wind it up if it appears tobe degenerating into a genuine dispute situation amongstParticipants; and,

review the performance of the participants; evaluate theirstrong and weak points, their reaction to conflict situations,their skill and tact in handling difficult situatioas.

The members of the group not actively participating in role-playing maybe told in confidence of the role each player is expected to take and askedto observe closely how they handle the situation so they can participate inthe subsequeat discussion of the performance.

Management games

Management games are useful in motivating the trainees by injectingvariety into the sessions. An instructor should build up a number oEsituations, all based more or less on real eveats, on which problems can beset, to be solved, in this case, by the combined activities of a number ofparticipants each taking the part of a member of a management team, e.g.production manager, financial controller, personnel offficer, storescontroller, etc. The participants should be set certain limits of resourcesand time within which they must act in order to produce a solution. The gamebecomes an exercise in team-work and co-operation, adjusting individual"ideal" solutions to the requirements or limitations of other members of theteam.

12.5 Steps in organising a training programme

12.5.1 Determining training needs

Before resources are committed to training, a clear need for a trainingprogramme must be established. Two questions which must be asked are:

who is to be trained; and,

for what purpose are they to be trained?

In practice, it is often necessary to answer the second question firstin order to determine the training objectives, the subject-matter contentand, to some extent, the methods to be employed. The question of who is tobe trained is not always one over which the training organisation can havemuch influence but they should, at least, be given detailed information onthe background and experience of the members of each course sufficiently wellin advance to modify both objectives and standard training programmes to meettheir particular needs.

The development of a training programme requires a careful andsystematic analysis and evaluation of the areas of study to be included inthe programme. These needs may be expressed by the employing organisation,or by potential employers of the participants. In some cases, they may beexpressed by the general public who have to rely on the persons trained forassistance in developmental matters. In many circumstances, they may bedetermined, to a large extent, by the participants' felt needs or the views

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rne general procedure for initiating a role-playing session is:

describe the situation, usually in brief notes for each participant; these may instruct one or more members to behave in a "difficult" or unco-operative way to determine the r.eaction of others to this situation; allow time for the players to think ho" they are to respond to the information given and the role assigned to them; set the process in operation but wind it up if it appears to be degenerating into a genuine dispute situation amongst ·participants; and,

- review the performance of the participants; evaluate their strong and weak points, their reaction to conflict situations, their skill and tact in handling difficult situations.

The members of the group not actively participating in role-playing may be told in confidence of the role each player is expected to take and asked to observe closely how they handle the situation so they can participate in the subsequent discussion of the performance.

Management games

Management games are useful in motivating the trainees by injecting variety into the sessions. An instructor should build up a number of situat:lons, all based more or less on real events, on which problems can be set, to be solved, in this case, by the combined activities of a number of partIcipants each taking the part of a member of a management team, e.g. production manager, financlal controller, personnel offficer, stores controller, etc. The participants should be set certain limits of resources and time within which they must act In order to produce a solution. The game becomes an exercise in team-work and co-operation, adjusting individual "ideal" solutions to the requirements or limitations . of other members of the team.

12.5 Steps in organising a training programme

12.5.1 Determining training needs

Before resources are committed t o training, a clear need for a training programme must be established. Two questions which must be asked are:

who is to be trained; and, - for what purpose are they to be trained?

In practice, it is often necessary to answer the second question first in order to determine the training objectives, the subject-matter content and, to some extent, the methods to be employed. The question of who is to be trained is not always one over which the training organisation can have much influence but they should, at least, be given detailed information on the background and experience of the members of each course sufficiently well in advance to modify both objectives and standard training programmes to meet their particular needs.

The development of a training programme requires a careful and systematic analysis and e.valuation of the areas of study to be included in the programme. These needs may be expressed by the employing organisation, or by potential employers of the participants. In some cases, they may be expressed by the general public who have to rely on the persons trained for assistance in de"elopmental mat ters. In many circumstances, they may be determined, to a large extent, by the participants' felt needs or the views

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of the people with whom the trainees must co-operate in their worksituations. A knowledge of the job requirements, the standard of performancerequired and the degree of supervision or assistance available in the worksituation is also important. Some system of priorities must be devised inlisting subject-matter areas to be included in the programme and determiningthe emphasis to be given to each of them.

The development of an effective training programme requires the

co-operation of both planners and participants in determining objectives andprogramme content, if the participants are to devote their full interest andenergies to the programme.

12.5.2 Determining the objectives of training

Training objectives must be stated specifically in terms of what aparticipant should be able to do as a result of the training. The morespecific the statement of obiectives, the easier it is to identify the stepsneeded to achieve these objectives and to evaluate how successfully they havebeen achieved.

12.5.3 Determining the training content

The training content must be directly related to the objectives whichhave been determined for the programme. The following steps may serve as aguide to determining the content of a programme:

consider what change in knowledge, attitudes or skills isexpected of each participant as a result of the trainingactivity;list the important aspects that make up the subject-mattercontent;given certain facilities, resources and a time frame, selectthe most important topics that should be included in the

programme;set up a priority list for topics for study;break down major topics into more specific components in termsof behavioural changes desired; and,

for each specific component make a list of the knowledge orskills a participant should develop.

12.5.4 Developing a final programme and teaching plan

A well organised training programme consists of the following:

a statement of the objectives of the training activity;a statement of the coverage of the subject matter to be pres-ented;lists of teaching aids, equipment and other materials

required;identification of the persons who are to be involved in thetraining;selection of the methods of training;a brief explanation of the manner in which the group is toparticipate in each training activity;a list of the learning activities to be assigned to the part-icipants; and,provision for evaluation of the participants before the startof training, during training, after training and a follow-upof performance aCter each participant has continued his normalactivities for some time.

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of the people with whom the trainees must co-operate in their work situations. A knowledge of the job requirements, the standard of performance required and the degree of supervision or assistance available in the work situation is also important. Some system of priorities must be devised in listing subject-matter areas to be included in the programme and determining the emphasis to be given to each of them.

The development of an effective training programme requires the co-operation of both planners and participants in determining objectives and programme content, if the participants are to devote their fu~l interest and energies to the programme.

12.5.2 Determi.ning the objectives of training

Training objectives must be stated sped Eically in t'lrms of what a participant should be able to do as a result of the training. The more specific the statement of objectives, the easier it is to identify the steps needed to achieve these objectives and to evaluate how successfully they have been achieved.

12.5.3 Determining the training content

The training content must be directly related to the objectives which have been determined for the programme. The following steps may serve as a guide to determining the content of a programme:

- consider expected activity;

- list the

what of

change in knowledge, attitudes each participant as a result of

or ski lIs is the training

important aspects that make 'lP the 8ubject--matter content;

- given certain facilities, resources and the most important topics that should programme;

a time frame, be included

- set up a priority list for topics for study;

select in the

- break down major topics into more specific components in terms of behavioural changes desired; and,

- for each spec [fic component make a list of the knowledge or skills a participant should develop.

12.5.4 Developing a final progra.nme and teaching plan

A well organised training programme consists of the following:

- a statement of the objectives of the training activity; - a statement of the coverage of the subject matter to be pres-

ented; lists of teaching aids, equ i pment and other materials

required; - identification of the persons who are to be iavolved in the

training; - selection oE the methods of training; - a brief explanation of the manner in which the group is to

participate in each training activity; - a list of the learning activities to be assigned to the part

icipants; and, - prOV1S.l0n Eor evaluation of the participants before the start

of training, during training, after training and a follow-up of performance a fter e ach participant has contin.ued his nor.nal activities for some time.

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12.5.5 Scheduling training activities

It is necessary to determine the extent of the training course. Thenumber, nature, frequency, time and duration of the sessions need to bespecified. There is oftea, in the case of relatively short courses, a

tendency to try to crowd a_ great deal Loto a short period without properregard for the students' ability to absorb all the material or acquire thenecessary skills. The preparation of the schedule must take [rito accountlocal. conditions, such as daily variations in weather, particularly wherepractical activities are involved. The time allotted for activities must berealistic and must provide appropriate time Cor moving between trainingareas, break periods, private study or practice and leisure. Theparticipants and others involved must he fully informed of the schedule.They shouli be given an opportunity to comment on it and their views shouldbe taken into account in implementLag it, as far as circumstances permit.

12.5.6 Organising for work

This stage draws attentioa the organisational problems inimplementiag a training programme. Depending on the aature and size of thetraining group, a number of fuactioas or services may be performed by asingle person, a training management committee, or by a number of committees.When several committees are involved, one person must always be designated asco-ordinator and have authority to ensure that all the arrangements made areconsistent. This topic is discussed in detail in Section 12.6 below.

12.5.7 implemeatiag the programme

During the implementation of the training programme, defects orweaknesses may appear in the training plan. Such defects should be correctedas quickly as possible. This can be done IF a suitably detailed writtenprogramme, or Scheme of Work, covering each session of the coarse, has beenprepared in advance and if reasonable allocations of time have been made forunforseen circumstance.s.

12.5.8 Evaluation and folloq-up

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Provision should be made for evaluation of the participants during andafter traintng. Aa initial evaluation may be administered at the start oftraining to determine the level of knowledge, skills or attitudes of thepersons. This must be handled very carefully as it can prove somewhatdisturbing to participants to be faced with a series of questions to whichthey may have very few answers.

Personal evaluation should be carried out throughout the course and theparticipants informed individually of the results to motivate them in theirwork and to give the instructors a measure of the achievement of theirobjectives.

The participants should be asked to comment oa the trataing sessions oractivities at frequent intervals. Suggestions or commeats recetved from themshould, as far as practicable, be used in making revisions or adjustments tothe training programan. AL the end of the course the participants should beevaluated ia terms of the specific objectives of the training and theirparticipation ia it and they should be informed of the results of theevaluation.

A programme For Following-up the participants in their normalactivities should be made to determine if what they have learned is relevantto their actual jobs. This is a vital step to obtaining inFormattoa on which

12.5.5 Scheduling training activities

It is necessary to deteOQLne ·the extent of the training course . The number, nature, frequency, time and duration of the sessions need to be specified. There.is often, in the case of relatively short courses, a tendency to try to crowd a great deal into a short period without proper res"rd for the students' ability to absorb ,,11 the material or acquire the necessary skills. The preparation of the schedule mus t take into account local . conditions, such as Jaily variations in weather, particularly where [, c,,"tical activities are involved. The time allotted for activities must be real LGtic and must provide appropriate t lIne fot" mo v ing between training areas J break periods, private study or prA.ct ice and leisure. The participants and others involved must be (ully lnformed of the schedule. They should he given an opportunity to comment on it and their views should be taken into account in lmplementtng i.t, 3B far as circumstances permit.

12.5.6 Organising for work

This stage draws at t(:!nt lOll tc) the organisational problems in implemen t tng .::t training programme. Depending on the nature and slze of the training group, a number of (llrlCi.: i.() J)s or i3e cvices may be performed by a single person, a training management committee, or by a number of committees. When several co!n,nttt~ei3 are involved, one person must always be designated as co-ordinator and have authority to ensure that all the arrangements made are consistent. This topic is discusAed in detail in Section 12.6 below.

12.5.7 Implement tl18 the programme

During the i.lTlplementation of the training programme, defects or we"k~esses may appear in the training plan. Such defects should be corrected as quickly as possible. This can he done if a suitably detailed written progr,qrnrne, or Scheme of Work, covering each session of. the course, has been prepared in advance and if reason.qb1e al1.oc.qtions of time have been made [or unforseen circUlllstarlCe,s.

12.5.8 Evaluatton and tollo'.-up

Provision should be made [or. e""lu.qtion of the participants during arId after trainins. An lnit lal evaluation may be administered at the start of training to detennine the, It?:'u~l of knowledge, skills or attitudes of the persons. Th ls must be handled very carefully as it can prove somewhat di.sturbing to participants to he [aced with a series of questions to "hlch they may have very few ans"ers.

Personal eval,jation should be carried out throughout the course and the particlpants informed individually of the results to motivate them in their work and to give the instructors a measu r e o[ the achievement of their objectives .

The participants should be asked to comment OIl the tra tntng sessions or activltL~s at frequent intervals. Suggestions or comments received from them should, as far as practicable, be u.sed in making revisions or adjustment " to the training progr"mme . At the end of the course the participants shoulrl be evaluated in tenns ot the specific objectives of the training and their participatioll t n it and they s hould be informed of the results of the evalua tion.

A progr.amme for following-up the participants itl their rla rmal activities should be made to detennine if what they have learned is relevant to their actl.l:tl jobs. This is a vital step to obtatnioe informati.on on which

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to base decisions for improving future training programmes.

12.6 Management of a training programme

According to the staff available, and the general pattern of workingadopted, the planning and implementation of training activities may be

assigned to individuals or to various working committees at a training

centre. In general, a committee should only be entrusted with the work wheresome obvious advantages can be seen in sharing the responsibilities fordecision making and that these advantages compensate for the additional staffburdens and possible delays of committee sessions and decisionS.

Where committees are used, their tasks should be clearly defined andassigned to members who are both willing and competent to undertake them.Care must be exercised to ensure that there is no overlapping of functionsbetween committees. A central contact person should be assigned to provideleadership and co-ordination of the work of the committees.

The number and organisation of working committees depends, amongstother things, on the size of the training group, the kind of trainingprogramme and activities to be undertaken, and whether the training

organisation has any prior experience of running such a programme.Experience will establish a pattern of organisation in which only a limitednumber of new decisions will have to be taken on each repetition of the

programme. Not all the committees mentioned below may be necessary but,wherever working committees are organised, it is important to keep in mindthat each member should feel he or she has an important role to play as amember of a team. Each member should be well acquainted with the objectivesof the training programme and the various activities planned. Moreover,committee members should be willing to accept the responsibilities involvedand to carry them out, even at some inconvenience to themselves. The

important link between these committees is an acceptable leader who may bereferred to as coordinator or director, or some other titlewa_c_hi h reflectshis central role in the programme.

The following is an example of a list of working committees and theirdesignated functions, suggested for one- to four-week training programmesinvolving about 30 participants.

12.6.1 Planning, steering and management committee

The leader of this committee will normally be designated as overallco-ordinator of the training programme and is likely to be an experiencedstaff member of the training organisation. This committee should have thefollowing functions:

to draw up plans and programmes for training, in consultationwith the instructors concerned, within the guidelines laiddown by the head of the training organisation;to formulate general procedural plans and guidelines fortraining and make these known to both staff and participants;to maintain liaison with the other working committees;to plan the sessions each day and brief guest staff aad re-source persons on the activities of the day;to provide the equipment needed for the various sessions;and,to arrange for custodial services for meeting rooms andtraining areas.

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to base decisions for improving future training programmes.

12.6 Management of a training programme

According to the staff available, and the general pattern of working adopted, the planning and implementation of training activities may be assigned to individuals or to various working committees at a training centre. In general, a committee should only be entrusted with the work «here some obvious advantages can be seen in sharing the responsibilities for decision making and that these advantages compensate for the additional staff burdens and possible delays of committee sessions and decis ions.

Where committees are used, their tasks should be clearly defined and assigned to members who are both willing and competent to undertake them. Care must be exercised to ensure that there is no overlapping of functions between committees. A central contact person should be assigned to provide leadership and co-ordination of the work ·of the committees.

The number and organisation of working committees depends, amongst other things, on the size of the training group, the kind of training programme and activities to be undertaken, and whether the training organisation has any prior experience of running such a programme. Experience will establish a pattern of organisation in which only a limited number of new decisions will have to be taken on each repetition of the programme. Not all the committees mentioned below may be necessary but, wherever working committees are organj.sed, it is important to ke ep in mind that each member s hould feel he or she has an important role to playas a member of a team. Each member should be well acquainted with the objectives of the training programme and tl,e various activities planned. Moreover, committee members should be willing to accept the responsibiliti.es involved and to carry them . out, even at some inconvenience t o themselves. The important link between these committees Is an acceptable leader who may be referred to as coordinator or director, or some other title which reflects his central role in the programme .

The following is an example of a list of working committees and their designated fnnctions , suggested for one- to four-week training programmes involving about 30 participants.

12.6.1 Planning, s teering and management committee

The leader of this committee will normally be designated as overall co-ordinator of the training programme and is likely to be an experienced staff member of the training organisation. This committee should have the following func tions:

- to draw up plans and programmes for training, in consultation with the instructors concerned, within the guidelines laid down by the head of the training organisat ion; to formulate general procedural plans and guidelines Eor

training and make these known to both staff and participants; - to maintain liaison with the other working committees; - to plan the sess ions each day and brief guest staff and re-

source persons on the activities of the day; to provide the equipment needed for the various s ess ions; and,

- to arrange for custodial services for meeting rooms and training areas.

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12.6.2 Accommodation, food and social committee

While there must be a basic framework of staff on this committee, it isnecessary that there should also be some representation from the participantsso that tileir views can influence the decisions of the committee. The

functions of this committee should be:

to arrange the housing of the participants;to arrange with the catering organisation for meals for the

.participants in the institute or in the field, as required;to arrange refreshments for participants during breaks; and,

to plan and implement a programme of social activities.

12.6.3 Registration, evaluation and information committee

The functions of this committee should be:

to arrange for receiving and registering the participants inthe programme;to keep records of any daily participants or guest staff;to design and administer procedures for evaluation of thedaily training sessions or activities, particularly whereguest lecturers or demonstrators are involved;to tabulate and interpret evaluation data aad prepare a reporton the results;to set-up and maintain an information centre and bulletinboard services for the duration of the course; and,

to arrange for photographic and press and TV coverage of thetraining activities as appropriate.

12.6.4 Travel arrangements, transport and tours committee


to maintain contact with travel agencies, and bus companies ortrain services, in connection with the arrival and departureof participants and guest staff.;to assist participants and guest staff in confirming travelarragements-;

to arrange transport of participants and guest staff to andfrom the nearest town or travel centre to the traininginstitution;to arrange transport services for the training activities forthe duration of the programme; and,

to arrange tours and field trips as required by the trainingprogramme.

12.6.5 Library committee

In some institutions the libararian and his staff may carry out all thefunctions of this committee. If one is formed, its duties should be:

to prepare a list of relevant references such as books,journals, charts, and maps for use by the participants andguest staff;to arrange for making these references, copies or reprintsavailable to participants for the duration of the course; and,to assist participants and guest staff to make the fullest useof the library services and learning resources during the

course.

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12.6.2 Accommodation, food and social committee

While there must be a basic framework of staff on this necessary· that there should also be some representation so that tlfeir views can influence the decisions of functions of this committee should be:

- to arrange the housing of the participants;

from the

committee, it is the participants committee. The

- to arrange with the catering organisation for meals for the .participants in the institute or in the field, as required;

- to arrange refreshments for participants during breaks; and, - to plan and implement a programme of social activities .

12.6.3 Registration, evaluation and information committee


to arrange for the programme;

- to keep records to design and daily training "guest lecturers

- to tabulate and on the results;

receiving and registering the participants in

of any daily participants or guest staff; administer procedures for evaluation of the sessions or activities, particularly where

or demonstrators are involved; interpret evaluation data and prepare a report

- to set-up and maintain an information centre and bulletin board services for the duration of the course; and,

- to arrange for photographic and press and TV coverage of the training activities as appropriate.

12.6.4 Travel arrangements, transport and tours committee


to maintain contact with travel agencies, and bus companies or train services, in connection with the arrival and departure of participants and guest staff; to assist participants and guest staff in confirming travel arragements·;

- to arrange transport of from the nearest town institution;

participants and guest staff to and or travel centre to the training

- to arrange transport services for the training activities for the duration of the programme; and,

- to arrange tours and field trips as required by the training programme.

12.6.5 Library committee

In some institutions the libararian and his staff may carry out all the functions of this committee. If one is formed, its duties should be:

to prepare a list of relevant references such as books, journals, charts, and maps for use by the participants and guest staff; to arrange f.or making these references, copies or reprints

available to participants for the duration of the course; and, - to assist participants and guest staff to make the fullest use

of the library services and learning resources during the course.

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12.6.6 Documentation and proceedings committee

The requirement for this committee will depend on the administrativestructure within the training organisation. Where it does function itsresponsibilities should be:

to prepare and distribute adequate supplies of paper and writ-ing materials for the use of participants and guest staff;to collate all the training materials prepared for the courseand arrange for their distribution, as required;to supply reports or information to groups in session at anytime during the training, as required;to record the proceedings of sessions of working groups;to prepare daily summaries of proceedings and be responsiblefor their reproduction and distribution; and,to collate, edit and prepare a final report on the trainingprogramme.

12.6.7 Finance committee

The relation of this committee with the finance officer or accountantprimarily responsible for the disbursement of funds should be carefullyworked out so that there is no weakening of this person's formalresponsibilities. Where a committee is formed its functions should be:

to allocate funds necessary for the operation of the trainingprogramme in accordance with an approved budget;to arrange for disbursements to be made at appropriate times;and,to prepare a financial report on the training programme asthe basis for drafting future budgets.

12.7 Estimating training costs

Organising and conducting an effective training programme takes time,effort and money. Unfortunately, money is not always available in theamounts organisers would like. It is, therefore, important that thoseresponsible for a training programme learn to budget accurately for anynecessary expenditure to ensure that they can justify fully the requests theymay make for funds.

The financial allocation for a training programme must be based on aproperly prepared budget which can stand up to close scrutiny and be defendedduring discussion. No overall amount per person can be suggested for atraining programme as the costs vary according to:

the type of training provided;the size of the training group;the administrative costs of training such as

supplies and classroom materials;equipment and field materials;travel expenses;number of training staff involved; and,honoraria and other staff expenses.

A framework within which estimated training costs may be allocated isgiven below.

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12.6.6 Documentation and proceedings committee

The requirement for this committee will depend on the administrative structure within the training organisation. Where it does function Its responsibilities should be:

to prepare and distribute adequate supplies of paper and writing materials for the use of p" rt.lcipants and guest s taff ; to collate all the training materials prepared for the course and arrange for their distribution, as required;

- to supply reports or information to groups in session at any time during the training, as required;

- to record the proceedings of sessions of working groups; - to prepare daily summaries of proceedings and be responsible

"for their reproduction and distribution; and, - to collate, edit and prepare a final report on the training

programme.

12.6.7 Finance committee

The r "elation of this committee with the finance officer or accountant primarily responsible for the disbursement of funds should be carefully worked out so that the re is no weakening of this person's formal responsibilities. Where a committee is formed its functions should be:

- to allocate funds necessary for the operation of the training programme in accordance with an approved budget;

- to arrange for disbursements to be made at appropriate times; and,

- to prepare a financial report on the training progl:amme as the basis fOI: drafting future budgets.

12.7 Estimating training costs

Organising and conducting an effective training programme takes time, effort and money. Unfortunately, money is not always available in the amounts organisers would like. It is, therefore, important that those responsible for a training programme learn to budget accurately for any necessary expenditure to ensure that they can justify fully the requests they may make for funds.

The financial allocation for a training programme must be based on a properly prepared budget which can stand up to close scrutiny and be defended dur ing discussion. No overall amount per person can be suggested for a training programme as the costs vary according to:

- the type of training provided; - the size of the training group; - the administrative costs of training such as

supplies and classroom materials; equipment and field materials; travel expenses; number of training staff involved; and, honoraria and other staff expenses.

A framework within which estimated tl:aini ng costs may be allocated is gi ven belm •.

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Item Cost

Transport

Numb'er of participants x cost of transport foreach round trip.Number of guest staff x cost of transport foreach round trip.

Per diem or subsistence allowance

Number of participants x amount per day x numberof days on course, plus an appropriate numberof days for travel to and from the course. -

Number of guest staff days required x appropriateallowances per day and for travel time.

Supplies and materials

Number of participants x cost of training materialsper participant.

The accuracy of this estimate can be improved steadily if records ofmaterials issued and unit costs are maintained by the Documentation andProceedings Committee.

Honoraria for lecturers

Number of hours (or teaching units) taught bylecturers x rate of honorarium per hour or unit.

Educational field trips

Determine the number of field trips planned.Compute costs on basis of vehicle distance coveredat the standard rate per kilometre for each vehicle used.Include overtime or any special payments for drivers.

Training fees

Where fees may be charged by an associated training organisationproviding facilities or instruction Eor part of the course provdsion must bemade for these on the basis,

Number of participants x fees charged per participant.

Overhead expenses

This item may be hard to determine precisely initially and it is oftensimply quoted as a percentage of the overall costs of the programme. It

should cover any additional secretarial or domestic staff requirements duringthe course. An allowance of 10 - 15% should be made initially in most cases.This can be adjusted for subsequent courses on the basis of records of theactual costs incurred.

Other expenses

Make provision for exceptional expenses such as special items of

equipment or supplies used in the training or special clothing or safetyequipment requirements.

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Item

Transport

Number of partlcipants x cost of transport for each round trip. Number of guest staff x cost of transport for each round trip.

Per diem or subsistence allowance

Number of participants x amount per day x number of days on course, plus an appropriate number of days for travel to and from the course. Number of guest staff days required x appropriate allowances per day and for travel time.

Supplies and materials

Number of participants x cost of training ~aterials per participant.

Cost

The accuracy of this estimate ·can be improved steadily if · records of materials issued and uni t costs are maintained by the Documentation and Proceedings Committee.

Honoraria f or lecturers

Number of hours (or teaching units) taught by lecturers x rate of honorarium per hour or unit.

Educational field trips

Determine the number of field tri ps planned. Compute costs on basis of vehicle distance covered at the standard rate pee '<.ilometre for each vehicle used. Include overtime or any special payments for drivers.

Training fees

Where fees may be charged providing facilities or instruction made for these on the basis ,

by an associated training organisation for part of the course provision must be

Number of participants x fees charged per participant.

Overhead expenses

This item may be hard to determine precisely initially and it is often simply quoted as a percentage of the overall costs of the programme. It should cover any additional secretarial or domestic staff requirements during the course. An allowance of 10 - 15% should be made inl.tially in most cases. This can be adjusted for subsequent courses on the basis of records of the actual costs incurred.

Other expenses

Hake provision for exceptional expenses equipment or supplies used in the training or equipment requirements.

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such ilS speC! tal special clothing

items of or safety

Miscellaneous

This is frequently computed on the basis of 10% of the total budgetaryrequirements, including overhead expenses. It should be held in reserve tofinance any item of expenditure which could not reasonably have been forseenand which, if not met, would seriously affect the standard of trainingoffered.

12.8 Checklist for organising and conducting a training programe

These notes will be of value mainly to those required to organise atraining programme for the first time. If detailed records are maintained oEeach programme implemented, and notes kept of observations made byparticipants and staff on the course content, teaching methods, programme ofwork and general living conditions, a much more specific checklist for aparticular organisation can be evolved. Initially, however, the followingoutline may be of value.

12.8.1 Purposes of training

Determine the training needs in relation to the organisation'sprogramme and the job requirements of the persons to be trained.

Consider the timeliness of the programme both in relation to theoverall needs of the organisation and to the seasonal relevanceof any topic.

Define the specific objectives of the training. (The morespecific this statement is, the more specific the statement ofintended behavioural changes can be.)

Define the changes expected in terms of knowledge, attitudes orskills.

Consider the most appropriate location for the training in

relation to the specific obiectives.

12.8.2 Selection of participants

Collect details of their background, i.e. their age, sex,

previous level of training or education, work experience, specialinterests or characteristics.

Consider what advance information they require about the trainingin order to prepare themselves properly; arrange to supply thisat an appropriate time.

Verify that the participants understand the objectives oE thetraining programme and accept the requirements in terms ofcommitment to the hours and nature of the work, etc.

Verify that they have been informed how the training will be ofvalue to them.

Consider if the programme appears to meet fully the needs of theparticipants.

Miscellaneous

This is frequently computed on the basis of 10% of the total budgetary requirements, including overhead expenses. It should be held in reserve to finance any item of expenditure which could not reasonably have been forseen and which, if not met, "ould seriously affect the standard of training offered.

12.8 Checklist for organising and conducting a training programme

These notes will be of value mainly to those required · to organise a training programme for the first time. If detailed records are maintained of each programme implemented, and notes kept of observations made by participants and staff on the course content, teaching methods, programme of work and general living conditions, a much more specific checklist for a particular organisation can be evolved. Initially, however, the follol<1ng outline may be of value.

12.8.1 PUrposes of training

Determine the training needs in relation to the organisation I s programme and the job requirements of the persons to be trained.

Consider the timeliness of the programme both in relation to the overall needs of the organisation and to the seasonal relevance of any topic.

Define the specific objectives of specific this statement is, the more intended behavioural changes can be.)

the training. (The more specific the statement of

Define the changes expected in terms of knowledge, attitudes or skills.

Consider the most appropriate location for the training in relation to the specific objectives.

12.8.2 Selection of participants

Collect details of their background, previous level of training or education, interests or characteristics.

i.e. their age, sex, work experience, special

Consider what advance information they require about the training in order to prepare themselves properly; arrange to supply this at an appropriate time.

Verify that the participants understand the objectives of the training programme and accept the requirements in terms of commitment to the hours and nature of the work, etc.

Verify that they have been informed ho" the training will be of value to them.

Consider if the programme appears to meet fully the needs of the participants.

- ISl -

12.8.3 Content of the training programme

Define the needs of training and then select the content of theprogramme to meet these needs.

Arrange the content and materials, in clear progressive units, so theywill facilitate effective teaching and learning.

12.8.4 Choice of instructors

Select instructors who are likely to prove the most effective teachersin the particular circumstances, (e.g. experienced technicians may bemore suited to teaching at certain levels or in certata topics thanhighly qualified graduates).

Brief the instructors well in advance oa the objectives of the trainingand on the participants, so they caa plan appropriate teaching materialsand methods.

The instructors should meet and discuss the overall teaching strategyand ensure that their particular classes fit into the total programme.

12.8.5 Training methods

Review the training methods available and choose the one most likely toachieve the objectives of the training.

List the behavioural changes desired as a result of the training andconsider it the methods selected are likely to achieve this, e.g.

to provide knowledge through lectures, assigned readings andfield trips;to influence attitades through group discussions, case

studies, demonstrations;to teach a skill by demonstrations and supervised practice.

The choice must be made in the light of practicability, economy,

availability of resources and the ability of the instructors to use themethod effectively..

12.8.6. Detailed arrangements

Verify that adequate arrangements for housiag and feeding thebarticipaats been made, and that all the necessary materials areavailable, or are on order.

Decide where and when the training sessions will be held and theareas and facilities required Cor practical exercises.

Prepare realistic and appropriate time schedules and follow themas closely as practicable. Allow reasonable time for privatestudy, or private practice where skills are involved.

Make the schedule known to all participants and staff as early aspossible.

Ensure the meeting places are appropriate to the topic and aswell arranged and comfortable as circumstances allow.

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12.8.3 Content of the training programme

Define the needs oE training and then select the content of the programme to meet these needs.

Arrange the content and materials) in clertt' pt:'ogressi ve units) so they will facilitate effective teaching and learning.

12.8.4 Choice of instructors

Select instructors who are likely to prove the most effective teachers in t he particular circumstances, (e.g. experienced technicians may be more suited to teaching at certain levels or in cert;l:i .. ll toplcs than highly qualified graduates).

Brief the instructors well in advance on the objectives of the training and on the participants, so they can plan appropriate teaching materials and methods .

The instructors should meet and discuss the overall teaching strategy and ensure that their particular classes fit into the total programme.

12.8.5 Training methods

Review the traIning luethods available and choose the one most lUc.ely to achieve the objectives of the training.

LIst the behavioural changes desired as a result of the training and consider it the methods selected are likely to achieve this, e.g.

- to provide knowledge through lectures, assigned read 1.ngs and field trips;

to influence attitudes through group discussions, case studies, demonstrations; to teach a skill by <lemonstrations and supervised praci:lc8.

lrle choice must be availability of resources method effectively. ·

made in the light and the ability of

12.8 . 6. Detailed arrangements

of practlcability, economy, the instructors to use the

Verify that adequate arrangements for housing and feeding the particip"nts been made, and that all the necessary materials are available, or are on order.

1)ecide where and when the training sessions will be held and the areas and facilities required [O( practical exercises.

Prepare realistic and appropriate time schedules and follow them as closely as practicable. Allow reasonable t-trne for private study, or private practice where skI lls are involved.

P.ake the schedule known to all participants and staU a·s early as possible.

Ensure the meeting places are appropriatel:-o the topic and as well arranged and comfortable as circumstances allow.

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Ensure che meeting places are properly prepared and that all theinstructional facilities and equipment are available.

Arrange for appropriate record keeping, recognition of theparticipants at the end of the training and any other necessaryactivities related to the training programme.

Arrange field trips well in advance; make the necessary contactswith the staff and visit the area to check things to be seen andthe times required for the visit.

Arrange for the use of library facilities to avoid clashing withother ongoing programmes.

Look out for details which may have been overlooked in the earlystages of planning, and correct these as sooi as noted.

Keep good, clear records of all the arrangements made, and thereasons for decisions, to improve planning procedures in future.

12.8.7 Provisions for evaluation during and after training

If appropriate, carry out an evaluation of the participants todetermine the level of knowledge, attitudes and skills at thecommencement of the training.

Find out the reactions of the participants to the sessions oractivities of the course as early as possible. Use a post-meeting reaction sheet to collect data, and discuss any problemsraised by the students.

Encourage suggestions or comments from the participants andinstructors. Make revisions or adjustments in the trainingprogramme, if necessary, as it proceeds. Always record thereasons for these changes. They may be applicable to only oneparticular group of participants.

Evaluate the training in relation to the specific objectives oftraining. (Collect objective evidence to determine to whatextent the behavioural changes specified for the training havebeen achieved.)

Let the participants and the instructors know the results of theevaluation. Consider whether this should be done privately orpublicly.

12.8.8 Post-training evaluation

Use a questionnaire, or personal interviews, to find out the

applicability of what the participants have learned to therequirements of the work they have to do.

Collect observations on which to base decisions For improvingfuture training programmes.

12.8.9 Feedback

Arrange detailed discussions amongst the training andadministrative staff of all the information gathered on theexecut ion of the training programme and ne 0.cmoleaLs by the

- 153-

Ensure the meeting places are properly prepared and that all the instructional facilities and equipment are available.

Arrange for appropriate record keeping, recognition of the participani:S at the end of the training and any other necessary activities related to the tr;llning programme.

Arrange field trips well in advance; make the nec".%ary contacts with the staff and visit the area to check things to be seen and the times required for the visit.

Arrange for the use of library facilities to avoid clashing with other ongoing programmes.

Look out for details which may have bee" o"erlooked in the early stages of planning, and correct these as soon as noted.

Keep good, clear records of all the arrangements made, and the reasons for decisions, to improve planning procedures in future.

12.8.7 Provisions for evaluation during and after training

If appropriate, carry out an evaluation of the participants to determine the level of knowledge, attitudes and skills at the commencement of the tralnLl1g.

Find out the reactions of the participants to the sessions or activities of the course as early as possible. Use a postmeeting reaction sheet to collect data , and discuss any problems raised by the students.

Encourage suggestions or. COl1l1nellts from the participants and instructors. Hake revisions or adjustments in the trainlng programme, if necessary, as it proceeds. Always record the reasons for these changes . They may be applicable to onlf o'le particular group oE participants.

Evaluate the tratning in relation to the specific objectives of training . (Collect objectiv" evIdence to determine to what extent t.he behavioural changes specified for the L (':;1 In log · have been achieved.)

Let the part.icipants and the instructors know the cesnlts of the evaluation. Consider whether this should be done privately or publicly.

12.8.8 Post-training evalu.:ltLon

Use a questionnaLf(:~) or personal interviews, to find out the applicability of what the participants have learned to the requirements O( the work they have to do.

Collect observations on which to base decisioTls (Of' tlnpcoving future training programmes.

12.8.9 Feedback

Arrange detailed discussions amongst the training ad,ntnistrative staff of all the information gathered on execllt-Lon of the training programme and the t~O'lli'llents by

- 153 -

and the the

parttcipants both during its progrese and on tts relevance andvalue to them in their subsequent activtties. Incorporate thelessons learned into future programmes.

12.8.10 Follow-up

Contact partLcLpants six or twelve months after the programmeends and collect their views on the relevance and value of thetopics covered to their actual duties. Take account of theseobservations in plant:U[1g Cnture programmes.

participants both during its progress and 011 its relevance and value to them in their subsequent acU"lties. Incorporate the lessons learned into futIH' f~ pr.oerammes.

12.S.10 Follow- up

Contact p:.trt tcipants six or twelve months a£ tel" the programme ends and collect their views on the reievance and value of the top Les covered to their actual dutie~. Take account of these observations in planalng future programmes.

- 154 -

REFERENCES

Compton, J.L. Linking scientist and farmer: rethinking extension's role.1984 World Food Issues edited by M. Drosdoff, Ithaca, NY.

Cornell University, International Agricultural Programme,1984.

FAO Agricultural extension: a reference manual. FAO, Rome, Italy,1973 1973.

FAO Forestry for local community development. FAO Forestry Paper1978 No. 7. FAO, Rome, Italy, 1978.

FAO Forestry and rural development. FAO Forestry Paper No. 26.

1982 FAO, Rome, Italy, 1981.

FAO Forest extension methods, Vols I & II. GCP/LES/026/SWE.1982 Forestry training and development. Vicente Magno, FAO, Maseru,

Lesotho, September, 1982.

FAO Agricultural extension: a reference manual, second edition.1984 FAO, Rome, Italy, 1984.

FAO Monitoring and evaluation of participatory forestry projects.1985 FAO Forestry Paper No. 60. FAO, Rome, Italy, 1985.

FAO Tree growing by rural people. FAO Forestry Paper No. 64.

1985 FAO, Rome, Italy, 1985.

FAO Forestry extension organisation. FAO Forestry Paper No. 66.1986 FAO, Rome, Italy, 1986.

Graham, H.T. Human Resources Management: MacDonald and Evans Ltd. London,1976 1976.

Compton, J.L. 1984

FAO 1973

FAO 1978

FAO 1982

FAO 1982

FAO 1984

FAO 1985

FAO 1985

FAO 1986

Graham, H.T. 1976

REFERENCES

Linking scientist and farmer: rethinking extension's role. World Food Issues edited by M. Drosdoff, Ithaca, NY.

Corne 11 Uni versity, International Agricultural Programme, 1984.

Agricultural extension: a reference manual. FAO, Rome, Italy, 1973.

Forestry for local community development. FAO Forestry Paper No.7. FAO, Rome, Italy, 1978.

Forestry and rural development. FAO Forestry Paper No. 26. FAO, Rome, Italy, 1981.

Forest extension methods, Vols I & II. GCP/LES/026/SWE. Forestry training and development. Vicente Magno, FAO, Maseru, Lesotho, September, 1982.

Agricultural extension: a reference manual, Beeond edition. FAO, Rome, Italy, 1984.

Monitoring and evaluation of participatory forestry projects. FAO Forestry Paper No. 60. FAO, Rome, Italy, 1985.

Tree growing by rural people. FAO, Rome, Italy, 1985.

FAO Forestry Paper No. 64.

Forestry extension organisation. FAO Forestry Paper No. 66. FAO, Rome, Italy, 1986.

Human Resources Management: MacDonald and Evans Ltd. London, 1976.

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