Division 45Agriculture, Fisheries and Food

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Land in Mali

COOPERATIONS DRIVING FACTORS WEAKNESSES IMPACTSMALI MALI MALI MALI MALI MALI MALI MAL MALI MALI MALI MALI MALI MALI MALI MALI MALI MALI MALI MALI MALI KEYFACTS COUNTRY PROFILE CURRENT SITUATION INVESTMENTS OPPORTUNITIES

Imprint

Published by:

Deutsche Gesellschaft

für Technische Zusammenarbeit

(GTZ) GmbH

P.O. Box 5180

65726 Eschborn

Germany

T +49 6196 79 - 0

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E info@gtz.de

I www.gtz.de

Work of Division 45 - Agriculture, fisheries and food, GTZ, Eschborn:

Sector Project “Land Management” (Dorith v. Behaim)

Sector Project “Agricultural Policy and Food Security“ (Dr. Marlis Lindecke)

Future Initiative “AgroInvest” (Dr. Christian Henckes)

Responsible, contact:

Dorith v. Behaim, Martina Römer, Sector Project “Land Management”

Dr. Thomas Breuer, Planning Officer

Authors:

Aly Diallo, Dr. Godihald Mushinzimana

With contributions by Dr. Babette Wehrmann and Alfons Üllenberg

Source & Copyright of pictures:

© GTZ / Dr. Babette Wehrmann, Dr. Godihald Mushinzimana

Contact to the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development

Karin Foljanty

Design:

Jeanette Geppert,

www.jeanette-geppert.de

Eschborn, December 2009

ContentAbbreviations

1. Summary 6

2. Introduction 8

3. Country Profile 10

4. Land Tenure and Land Markets 12

4.1 Land tenure systems in Mali 12

4.2 Legal and institutional frame governing access to land 12

4.3 Land Market and Land Prices 13

4.4 Land conflicts 14

5. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Landholdings 15

5.1 Regulations regarding FDI in land 15

5.2 Overview of FDI in Mali 15

5.3 Key drivers and motives for investors 17

5.4 Key drivers and motives for beneficiaries 17

5.5 Linkage between FDI and national food security policy 17

6. Case Studies of FDI in Malian landholdings 18

6.1 Example 1: Malibya Agriculture 18

6.2 Example 2: Markala Sugar Project by SoSuMar, CaneCo and CommCo 21

7. Opportunities and risks of FDI in Land 26

7.1 Economic and socio-economic opportunities and risks 27

7.2 Social and socio-cultural opportunities and risks 28

7.3 Environmental opportunities and risks 29

7.4 Opportunities and risks in respect to food security 29

8. Links between FDI in land and concepts/support strategies of

development cooperation to promote rural development 30

8.1 Existing support to successfully deal with FDI 30

8.2 Potential additional areas of support 31

9. Conclusions and Recommendations 32

References 34

3

Acknowledgement:4

ADB – AsianDevelopmentBankAOPP – AssociationofProfessional Farmers’Organisations (AssociationdesOrganisations PaysannesProfessionnelles)APCAM – PermanentAssemblyofMalian ChambersofAgriculture (AssembléePermanentedes Chambresd’Agriculturedu Mali)BMZ – FederalMinistryforEconomic CooperationandDevelopmentCaneCo – CaneCompanyCDF – LandAct(CodeDomanialet Foncier)CEN-SAD– CommunityofSahel-Saharan StatesCFC – ChlorofluorocarbonsCMDT – MalianTextilesDevelopment Company(Compagnie MalienneduDéveloppement desTextiles)CNOP – NationalCoordinatorfor Farmers’Organisations (CoordinationNationaledes OrganisationsPaysannes)CNRS – NationalScientificResearch Centre(CentreNationalde RechercheScientifique)DC – DevelopmentCooperationDNA – NationalDirectoratfor Agriculture(Direction Nationaledel’Agriculture)DNPIA – NationalDirectoratfor IndustrialAnimalRearing (DirectionNationaledela ProductionIndustrielle Animale)

DNSI – NationalDirectoratfor StatisticsandInformation Technologies(Direction NationaledelaStatistiqueet del’Informatique)DPS – DetailedPilotStudyDRA – RegionalDirectoratfor Agriculture(Direction Régionaledel’Agriculture)ECOWAS – EconomicCommunityofWest AfricanStatesESIA – EnvironmentalandSocial ImpactAssessmentFAO – FoodandAgriculture OrganisationFCFA – FrancsCFA(Franc CommunautéFinancière Africaine)–currencyinMali andothercountriesofthe AfricanFinancialCommunityFDI – ForeignDirectInvestmentsFEBIVIM – MalianFederationofCross- ProfessionalOrganisationsfor theCattleRearingandMeat Industries(Fédérationdes GroupementsInter-Professionnels delaFilièreBétail-Viandedu Mali)GDP – GrossDomesticProductGMO – GeneticallymodifiedorganismsHUICOMA– MaliCottonOilMill(Huilerie CotonnièreduMali)ICRAF – InternationalCentrefor ResearchinAgroforestryICRISAT – InternationalCropsResearch InstitutefortheSemi-Arid Tropics

Abbreviations

Rural housing The Niger river during dry seasonWatering cattle Fertile land

IER – RuralEconomicInstitute (Institutd’EconomieRurale)IFAD – InternationalFundfor AgriculturalDevelopmentLOA – AgriculturalOrientationLaw (Loid’OrientationAgricole)MCA-Mali– MillenniumChallenge Account-MaliMSP – MarkalaSugarProjectNGO – Non-GovernmentalOrganisationON – NigerBasinAuthority(Office duNiger)–stateagency responsibleforthemanagement ofapprox.1millionhaof irrigation/irrigablelandalong theriverNigerOPIB – BaguinedaIrrigatedZone Office(OfficeduPérimètre IrriguédeBaguineda)PACT – ProgrammetoSupportLocal Governments(Programme d’AppuiauxCollectivités Territoriales)PANGIRE– NationalActionPlanfor CombinedManagementof WaterResources(Pland’Action NationaldeGestionIntégrée desRessourcesenEau)PASSIP – CommunityIrrigationSystem SupportProgramme(Pro- grammed’AppuiauSous Secteurdel’Irrigationde Proximité)

PDES – EconomicandSocial DevelopmentProgramme (ProgrammedeDéveloppement EconomiqueetSocial)PDESC – Economic,SocialandCultural DevelopmentProgramme (ProgrammedeDéveloppement Economique,SocialetCulturel)PNSA – NationalFoodSecurity Programme(Programme NationaldeSécurité Alimentaire)PPP – Private-Public-PartnershipPRMC – CerealsMarketRestructuring Programme(Programmede RestructurationduMarché Céréalier)SNDI – NationalIrrigationDevelop- mentStrategy(Stratégie NationaleduDéveloppementde l’Irrigation)SNF – N’DiayeandBrothersCompany (SociétéN’DiayeetFrères)SoSuMar – MarkalaSugarCompany (SociétéSucrièredeMarkala)

SPS – SummaryPilotStudySTI – SexuallyTransmittedInfectionsUNTM – MaliNationalWorkers’Union (UnionNationaledes TravailleursduMali)UEMOA – UnionEconomiqueet MonétaireOuestAfricaineWAEMU – WestAfricanEconomicand MonetaryUnion

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Since2007foreigndirectinvestments(FDI)inlandhavedramaticallyincreased.Themainreasonsarethesearchforalternativesforfossilfuelandtheglobalfoodcrisisin2008.Foreigngovernmentsandprivatecompanieshaveintensi-fiedinvestmentsinagriculturallandinpoorcountriesfortheproductionofoil-producingcropsaswellasfortheproductionoffood.Onecansurmisethatthemajorityofthisproduceisboundforexport.Inlightofthesefacts,andtohelppartnercountriesderivemaximumbenefitfromFDI,Germandevelopmentcooperationundertookaseriesofstudiesonforeignland-holdinginvestments.TheresultsoftheMalistudyarepresentedinthisreport.

SituatedinWestAfrica,theRepublicofMalicoversanareaof1,241,238km2.Ofthisin2002,35.2%wasdesignatedarablelandand11.6%wascultivatedland.Malihaslargeconservationareas(4.6%),forests(26.1%)andpastureland(24.16%).EachyearitisestimatedthatMaliloses150,000haoffertilelandduetolanddegradation,equivalentto0.12%ofthetotalnationalsurfacearea.In2008,thepopulationofMaliwasestimatedtobe13millionandtheGDPpercapita(atPPP)hasbeencalculatedaboutUSD657.Theagriculturalsectorcontributes33%tothetotalGDP.

InMalitodate,FDIhavesecured130,105 ha of land,comprising:• Malibya-Agriculture:Followinganinvestment

agreementsignedbetweenMaliandLibya,100,000haintheNigerBasinAuthorityareahavebeengrantedtoMalibya-Agriculture.

• Markala Sugar Project by SoSuMar, CaneCo and CommCo:Theareacoveredbytheagree-mentofthisprivate-public-partnershipis14,100haintheNigerBasinAuthorityareadesignatedforsugarandethanolproduction.

• UEMOA:AcontracthasbeensignedwiththeUEMOAforabout11,288ha,alsointheNigerBasinAuthorityarea.ThelandshallbegiventoprivatefarmerscomingfromtheUEMOAortolocalfarmers.Itisforeseentoproducerice,fruitsandvegetablesforthenationalmarket.Theprojectstartedin2008.

• Agro Energy Développement:StudiesareabouttobecompletedforaFrenchinvestmentin2,605hatobecultivatedwithsunflowersinthegrowingseasonandwheatintheoff-season.Theproductionisdesignatedforthenationalmarket.

• Mali Biocarburant:80%ofthiscompany’scapitalisretainedbyKIT(aDutchresearchinstitute)withtheremaining20%heldbyMalianjatrophafarmers.MaliBiocarburantfinancesjatrophaproductioncoststhroughinternationalcarboncredittrading(2,112haplannedfor2009/10intheKoulikororegion).

1. Summary

Summary6

Transportation

FDIoffermanyadvantages,particularlyintermsofagriculturalmodernisationthroughmechanisationandtheintroductionofnewandmoreresource-efficientirrigationsystems.However,thesocialandenvironmentalproblemsthatengenderaresignificant.

TheinvestmentagreementsignedinJune2008betweenMaliandLibyaisaconcreteexampleofaFDI.Throughthisagreement,Malihasmade100,000haoflandavailabletoMalibya-Agricul-tureforthedevelopmentofirrigationfarming,agroindustriesandcattle-rearing.Thelandshavebeengrantedona50-yearrenewableleasewithoutpreliminarystudiesorpublicconsultationsperformedtoascertainandtakeaccountoflocalinterestsandconcerns.Waterprovisionintheoff-seasonisnotablyproblematicforlong-cyclecultivationandtheMalianGovernmenthasnotsofarmadeanyarrangementstocoverthereloca-tioncostsforthepeoplewhowillbedisplacedbecauseoftheagreement.

ThesecondexamplepresentedisadifferenttypeofFDIasitinvolvesapublic-private-partnership.AsMalibya-Agriculture,theMarkalaSugarProjectislocatedintheirrigablezoneoftheNigerBasinAuthorityarea.AlsotheinvestmentwillhavesimilarnegativesocialandenvironmentalimpactsastheMalibyaproject;theyseemtobebettermitigatedbyaccompanyingmeasures.Therewillprobablyalsobemoreemploymentopportunitiesforthelocalpopulationthanintheotherexample.However,itisstilltooearlytojudgethelong-termimpactsofbothprojects.

ThisstudybyGTZonbehalfofBMZaboutFDIinlandhasidentifiednumerousproblemsthattheMalianGovernmentneedstotackle.Notableamongsttheseareissuessurroundingthegrantingoflandsandthecommencementofworkswithoutenvironmentalandsocialimpactassessmentorpublicconsultationbeingundertakenandthefailuretotakethelandrequirementsoflocalcommunitiesorlocalcustomarylandrightsintoaccountthatregulateaccesstofarmland,grazingareas,transhumanceroutes,settlement,herderaccommodation,water,forestsetc.

ToensurethatMalianditslocalcommunitiesderivethebestpossiblebenefitsfromFDIingeneralandtheMalibyaAgricultureProjectaswellastheMarkalaSugarProjectinparticular,weofferthefollowingrecommendations:

1. Contractsandagreementsshouldbereviewedandamendedtakingintoaccount:

• locallandrequirements(habitats,fields, pastureland,transhumanceroutes,herders’ accommodation,wateringholes,forestsetc.)

• thetradeinfoodtoavoidfoodshortages • theneedsofdisplacedorre-housedlocal populations.2. InanyFDI,thelandrightsofoccupantswho

derivedtheiruserights(forsettlement,agricul-ture,pasture,water,forestsetc.)fromcustom-arytenureneedtoberecognised–nomatterifthelandunderquestionisregisteredornot.Toachievethisobjective,theLandAct(CDP)shouldbereviewedtoensuretherecognitionofallinformalland(use)rightswhicharebasedonthecustomarylandallocationsystem.

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3. Takeadvantageoftheongoingreview(“EtatsGénéraux”)ofthelegalframeworkonland

tenure(LandAct,AgriculturalOrientationLawetc.)inordertodevelopclearandtransparentproceduresforforeigndirectinvestmentsinland.

4. Agreementsandcontractsshallonlybesignedafterconsultingthelocalpopulationandwithgreatertransparencyandrespectforthelaw.Localpopulationshouldbeinformedbycivilsocietyorganisations(ruralbodiesandunions)abouttheimplementationofsuchprojects.Theaffectedpopulationshouldbeempoweredtoasserttheirrights.

5. Accesstofoodhastobesecured.FDIcontractsandagreementsshouldcontributetoanincreaseinlocalfoodsecurity.Therefore,theyshouldincludeobjectivesandcommitmentsinagreementsandcontractsfortheproductionoffood(cereals,milk,meatandfruits)forthenationalmarketinordertocoverMali’sownfoodrequirements.

6. Usecivilsocietyorganisations(farmingandtradeunionorganisations)toinformlocalcommunitiessotheyareabletoasserttheirrightsandtoobligesignatoriestooperatetransparentlyandwithinthelaw.

7. Rethinkthecurrentpracticeofexhaustivetaxexemptionforforeigninvestorsasincometaxfromtheseinvestmentscouldpresentamajorincomeforthenationalbudget.

8. Instituteareasonableannualhectare-basedlandtaxforcommercialinvestors(notnecessarilyforsmallfarmers)toprovidenewincomeforthenationalbudget.

9. Undertakefinancial,technical,socialandenvironmentalfeasibilitystudiesbeforeenter-ingintoanagreementorsigningacontract.

10.Respectlocalconventionsthatregulateaccessandusetothelandinquestionastheyaretheoutcomeoflocalnegotiationssettlinglong-termconflictsovertheuseoflandandhavebeenofficiallyrecognisedbythestate.

11.Introduceaparticipatorylanduseplanningfortheareainquestiontoidentifysustainableresourceusesandtominimisethenumberoflocalpeopletoberesettledaswellastoensurethattheywillreceiveadequatefertilelandsascompensationforthoselandsgiventoforeigninvestors.

12.Defineatransparentandfairpolicytocompensatelocalpopulationwhoneedstoberesettled.

13.Makeitaprerequisiteforforeigninvestorstopresentaconvincingcorporatesocialresponsibilitystrategyaspartoftheirinvest-ment.

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2. Introduction

Thefallincottonpricesonworldmarkets–incombinationwiththehighproductioncostsinMaliduetostateownershipofthecottonsector-hashadprofoundeffectsontheMaliancottonindustrysincethebeginningofthepresentdecade.Thiscrisisledtoanoticeablereductionincottonseedproduction,fromrecordharvestsof600,000tonsinthe1980sto190,000tonsin2009.ThisdropinproductionhasresultedinthevirtualclosureofMali’soilmills(HUICOMA,SNFandsmall-scalepresses)duetothelackofrawmaterial.Asanalternativetocotton,someoperators(GroupeTomotaandSNF)arelookingtocreatelargeplantationsofoilseedcrops(sunflowers,groundnutsandsoya)intheNigerBasinAuthor-ityareawherewaterfromtheriverNigerisavailableandirrigationeitherinplaceorforeseen.Theexplosioninglobalcrudeoilpricespromptednationalandforeignoperatorstoproduceagro-fuelsfromjatrophaandmaize(GroupeTomota,MaliBiocarburantinKoulikoro,ProducteursdePourghèreinKoulikoro,HuileriesAbouWoroYacoubaTraoréinSikasso).

The2008globalfoodcrisisbroughtwithitanexponentialgrowthinthepurchaseofagriculturalland.Foreigngovernmentsandprivatecompanies

haveintensifiedinvestmentactivitiesinagricul-turallandinpoorcountries,notonlyfortheproductionofoil-producingcropsbut,aboveall,fortheproductionoffood.Themajorityofthisproduceisboundforexport.TakeforexampleLibya,whichisgrowingriceandrearingcattleinMalithroughthemediumofitsstate-runenter-priseMalibyaAgriculture.Crashingstockmarketsareanothercausalfactorfortheso-called“landgrab”.Propertyinvestmentisnolongerasafeoptionandcrudeoilpricesarelow.Onlythepricesoffoodlooktobeontherise.

InthelightofincreasingFDIinlandthroughouttheworld,GTZonbehalfofBMZhasundertakenastudyaboutFDIinlandincludingfourcountrycasestudies.Resultsofthestudyaresupposedtogivebetterinsightonthetopicandtoprovideabasisfordiscussionsanddecision-makingconcerningGermaninterventionsinruraldevel-opmentingeneralandatcountrylevel.ThestudyshoulddevelopanoverviewonFDIinlandworldwideandinparticularpartnercountries.ThisreportistheMalicasestudyperformedincollaborationwiththeProgrammetoSupportLocalGovernments(PACT),Mali.

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House that has to give way to an investor`s project, so far without compensation for the residents

National overviewSituatedinWestAfrica,theRepublicofMalicoversanareaof1,241,238km2.In2002,35.2%ofthisareawasdesignatedarablelandand11.6%cultivatedland.Malihaslargeconservationareas(4.6%),forests(26.1%)andpastureland(24.2%).ItisestimatedthatinMaliabout150,000haoflandaredegradingeveryyear,whichisequivalentto0.1%ofthetotalnationalsurface.In2008,thepopulationofMaliwasestimatedtobe13million,theGDPintotaltobeUSD5.571billionandpercapita(atPPP)USD657.Theagriculturalsectorcontributes33%tothetotalGDP:

Soil quality and climateMaliisdividedintofiveagro-ecologicalzones:1. theSaharanzone,whichischaracterisedby

poorsoil,waterscarcityandanannualpre-cipitationofbetween50mmto200mm,

2. theSahelzonewithaveragesoil,fairtogoodwateravailabilityandannualrainfalllevels

between200mmand600mm,3. theSudanesezonewithgoodsoil,goodwater

availabilityandannualrainfalllevelsbetween 600mmand1,000mm,4. theSudano-Guineanzonecharacterisedby

goodsoilandwateravailabilityandannualrainfalllevelsabove1,000mm,and

5. theActiveDeltazonewithaveragetogood soil,fairtogoodwateravailabilityandannual

rainfalllevelsofbetween200mmand800mm.

Food and cash cropsThemainfoodcropsproducedinMaliarerice,wheat,maize,sorghum,millet,fonio,niebebeans,vouandzou(earthpea),soyaandsesame.Thefourhighestyieldingcropsin2008/09arerice(1,624,246tons),millet(1,463,183tons),sorghum(1,063,000tons)andmaize(719,296tons).Themostimportantcashcropsarecotton(190,000

tonsin2008/09),sugarcane(35,000tonsofsugarin2008/09)andmango(10,905tonsin2001),whereasbanana,peanutsandtobaccoaresoldonnationalmarkets.

Farming systems and practicesIntensivefarmingisgenerallycarriedoutinirrigationareaswherewatersupplyiseitherfullyorpartiallycontrolled.Outsidetheseareas,farmerspracticeitinerantcultivationsuchasclearances(400,000haperyear)orslash-and-burntechniques(9,191,400haperyear).Burningtechniquesreducetheproductivityof14.5millionhaofpastureannually.

The current scale of farmingIn2004,thecultivatedlandperinhabitantratiostoodat0.44haperperson.Inwell-developedcultivatedareas,farmsaresmallduetotheintensepressureofthepropertymarket.Inthefarmingyear2009/10,smallholdersindevelopedareaswithgravityirrigationsystemsarefarmingonaverage2haintheNigerBasinAuthorityarea.Inthefarmingyear2000/2001,agriculturalholdingsinprimarilyundevelopedareasrelyingonrainfallandNigerfloodingtomeetwaterneedsaveraged4.61haintheMoptiregionand14.22haintheKoulikororegion.

Food Security SituationTheprojectedgrosssurplus1in2008/09ofriceis100,703tonsandofdrycereals,1,144,600tons.Thesefiguresindicatethatfoodstocksaresecure.However,ricewasimportedin2009becauseofinformalexportstoneighbouringcountriesandtheretentionofricestocksbyproducersseekingtoensurecorporatesecurityandtoachievepricesabovethoseonnationalmarkets.Furthermore,thesestatisticsareoftenpoorlygatheredanddonotreflectreality.

3. Country Profile

Country Profile10

1 The projected gross surplus is the difference between the projected production and the country’s projected consumption requirements (food and seed).

Pressure on existing land resourcesPressureonlandresourcesderivefromlivestockkeeping(thecountryhasatotalof33,583,060headsofcattle,whichconstitutes0.76headofcattleperha),mining(amongothersMalidis-posesofimportantgoldreserves),extensionofirrigatedagricultureandtheextensionofsettle-mentareasintorainfedcultivationareas.Pressureonlandresourcesdependsalotonthelocation,asconditionsforagricultureandlivestockkeepingvarysignificantlywithinthecountry.Accordingly,populationdensityvariesfrom0to50inhabitantsperkm2.

Inrespecttopressureonlandresources,threetypesofareascanbeidentified:

1. areaswithhighpressureonlandsuchasperi-urbanareas,areaswithahighagriculturalpotential,areaswitheasyaccesstowater,areasrichinminerals,agriculturallandssituatedclosetomajornationalroadnetworksetc.;

2. areaswherepressurecanbeperceivedbutisstillmoderatesuchasruralareascharacterisedbyrainfedcultivationandagro-sylvo-pastoral-ismwherepopulationincreases(oftenduetoin-migrationfromareaswithdeterioratelands)orwhereresourcesstarttobeextractedonacommercialbase;

3. areaswithlittlepressureonland,generallylocatedinremotedryandsemi-aridareasthatdonotpossesssignificantresourcessuchasforests,mineralsorwater.Pressureontheselandsaregenerallyonlyduetothedegradationofpartsofthelandduetomisuse,overuseorclimatechangewhichresultsinincreasingpressureontheremainingland.

Inconclusion,pressureonlandinruralareasisthehighestinirrigatedorirrigableareas.FDIinlandwillfurtherincreasethispressureasinvestorsgenerallylookforthistypeof(rare)land.FDIinMaliis,therefore,asmuchaboutaccesstowaterasitisaboutaccesstoland.

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Harvest

4.1 Land tenure systems in MaliLandtenureinMaliischaracterisedbylegalpluralism.Accesstolandiseitherprovidedundercustomarylawwhichgrantstherighttouseorbylaw,whichgivesrightstouse(contracts,permits,leases)ortoownland(landconcessionsorlandtitles).Whilethestateallocateslandonthebaseofstatutorylawtoinvestorsorpeoplerichenoughtoleaseorbuyland,traditionalchiefsallocatelanduserightstolocalfarmersbasedoncustom-aryrules(pricesdependonthelocation,thetraditionalchiefsattitude,thewealthofthebuyer,therelationbetweenchiefandbuyeretc.andrangefromasymbolicpricetomarketprice).Customaryrightsareonlyrecognisedbythestateaslongastheyrefertounregisteredland.Thismeansthatthelandisregisteredneitherasstateprivateorstatepubliclandnorasprivatepropertybutisconsideredtobenationaldomain.Theserightscanbeformalisedonrequestbylegalprocedureswhicharesupposedtoverifythevalidityoftraditionalrights.Onagriculturalland,ownerswillthenreceivearuralconcessionwhichcanbeup-gradedintoatitle.However,proceduresarelongandexpensive.Dejure,customaryrightsinunregisteredareascanonlyberescindedwhereapublicneedisidentifiedanduponprovisionofcompensationforthedevelopmentoftheland(structure,cropsetc.)butnotforthelanditselfasoccupants(farmers)areconsideredtobetraditionallyusersandnotownersoftheland.Amajorproblemisthatonlywrittendocumentsareconsideredbythestatewhilecustomarylandtenureisbasedonoralagreements.Farmerswhohaveunwrittencustomarylandrightshavenolegalguarantee.People,therefore,increasinglyprepareprivatecontracts–so-called“petitspapiers”–signedandapprovedbythemayor,whentheytransferland(informally).Suchwrittencustomarylandrightsorfarmingpermitshaveanindefinitedurationandaretransmittabletorights-holdersaslongastheconditionsofusearemet.

Theordinaryleasingcontractandtheleaseholdallocatedbythestatelastrespectivelyarenewableperiodof30and50yearsifthefarmersrespecttheclausesandconditionsofthecontract.Otherrightsofuse(annualcontracts,farmingpermits,leasingcontractsorleasehold)allocatedbythestatearesecuredandvalidfortheperiodaccord-ingtothecontractclause.

Thegovernment’swillingnesstograntlandtitlestofarmersisrelativelynewthroughouttherestofKoumounaandtheirrigationprojectinAlatonawithintheNigerBasinAuthorityarea.Inbothcases,itisexpectedtogivelandtitlesoncefarmershavepaidthecostsforthedevelopmentofparcels.

Asbothsystems–statutoryandcustomary–existinparallelandbothareaffectedbycorruption,theyarenot100%reliableandlandrightsreceivedonacustomarybasisarenotsecured.Wherelandpressureincreases,people,therefore,preferformalrecognitionoftheirrights,butareoftenhinderedtodosoduetohighcostsortohigherinterests.Forthemajorityofruralpoor,tenureinsecurityisincreasing.

4.2 Legal and institutional frame governing access to land Accesstolandisregulatedbythefollowinglawsanddecrees:

• Code Domanial et Foncier(CDF)[LandAct],• Loi d’Orientation Agricole(LOA)[Agricultural

OrientationLaw],• Code Forestier[ForestLaw],and• Charte Pastorale[LawonPastoralism] aswellasbytheirimplementingprovisions.

4. Land Tenure and Land Markets

Land Tenure System and Legal Framework12

TheCDFandtheLOAprovideforannualcontracts,cultivationpermissions,ruralconces-sions,leasesandlandtitles.Thelandtitlecanbeholdonlybynationalfarmers.Foreignoperatorsareentitledtoleasesonly–accompaniedbyastatementofrequirements.Theseleasescanhaveadurationofupto50yearsandcanberenewed.

TheCDFandtheLOArecognisecustomarylandrightsforunregisteredlandsunderconditionsfixedintheCDF.Asmentionedabove,customaryrightsneedtobeapprovedbythelocalauthoritytoberecognisedbythestate.Insecurityoftenurebasedoncustomaryrightsiscurrentlyincreasinginareaswithhighpressureonlandsuchasirrigationandirrigablezones.FDIincreasepressureonlandandtherebyinsecurityforsmallfarmers.

InMali,landmanagementissuesaresubjecttotheMinistryofHousing,LandAffairsandPlanning(Ministère du Logement, des Affaires Foncières et de l’Urbanisme)andareentrustedtotheNationalDirectorateofLandAffairswhichisrepresentedintheeightregionsbytheRegionalDirectorates.TheRegionalDirectorateshavebranchesinthedistricts(cercle).

Thelawondecentralisationandlocaladministra-tivebodiesforeseesthetransferofresponsibilitiesinlandmanagementandlandtenuretothecommunes.Detailsstillneedtobeclarifiedbyby-laws.Sofar,communesarelittleawareoftheirnewcompetencesandlackthequalificationtotakethemover.TheGTZ-supportedProgrammetoSupportLocalGovernments(PACT)incooperationwithlocalcommunitiesiscurrentlydevelopingsimplelandtenureandlandmanage-menttoolstobeappliedbylocalmunicipalitiestosecuretenureandtomanagetheirlandresources.

4.3 Land Market and Land PricesMali’slandmarketisnotyetformalised.Outsidegovernmentdistributionandsales,themarketmainlyconsistsofcustomaryand/orinformaltransactions,especiallyinperi-urbanareas.Oncelandhasbeenacquiredthroughcustomarychannels,buyersstarttoformalisetheirowner-ship.Alternatively,landcanbereceivedbythestatebutthisrefersmainlytobuildingplotsindevelopmentareas.Asthereisnolegalmarketforpurchasingorsellingland,officiallytherehasnotyetbeenasalepricedeterminedforstatelandsetasidefordevelopment.Observationsinsettlementareas,however,showthatlandpricesareincreasingwithanincreaseinsecurity.Whileaparcelofaround30x30metersis(informally)soldbyacustomaryownerfor150.000to350.000FCFA(USD289to674),itcaneasilyberesoldfor600.000FCFA(USD1,155)andgoesfor2.5–3million(USD4,813to5,775)onceatitlehasbeenacquired.Maincostsforthelandarehencethoseforformalisationofownership.

TheMCA-Maliprojectislookingfordeveloping15,000haandtosellthesetofarmersatcostprice–around3to4millionFCFA(approximatelyUSD5,775to7,700)perha.Furthermore,thereexistsablackmarketwherelandissold.IntheareaoftheOfficeduNiger,pricesperhaforricegrowinglandrangefrom200,000to500,000FCFA(USD385toUSD963).

GiventhelandpressureintheareamanagedbytheNigerBasinAuthority2,farmerswhowanttogrowricepayanannualrenttothosewhopossessthelanduserights.Thepriceforannualleasesisfrom125,000to150,000FCFAperha(ca.USD271to326)intheNigerBasinAuthorityareaand150,000to200,000FCFA(ca.USD326to434)intheBaguinedaIrrigatedZoneArea.Pricesincludefeesforwater.

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2 The Niger Office is a public institution responsible for the management of approximately 1,000,000 ha of registered and unregistered land. The current area cultivated with rice and sugarcane is estimated at 100,000 ha.

Inrespecttomarketpressureonlandresources,threetypesofareascanbeidentified:

1. areaswithhighmarketpressureonland(e.g.irrigationzonesandirrigablelands,peri-urbanlands);

2. areaswheremarketpressurecanbeperceivedbutisstillmoderate(e.g.areaswithmoderateinfrastructure,goodaccesstomarketsand/orresourcesthatstarttobeexploited);

3. areaswithlittlemarketpressureonland(e.g.remoteareaswithlittleeconomicactivity).

Inareaswithlittlepressureonland,customarylandrightsgenerallydefineaccesstoanduseofland.Wherepressureincreases,formalproceduresstarttobeappliedoftenincontradictiontocustomaryarrangements.Inareaswithhigh(market)pressureonland,accesstolandismainlydistributedinaccordancewithofficialprocedures,notablytheLandAct(CodeDomanial)andtheAgriculturalOrientationLaw.Theagriculturaloperatinglicence,theruralconcessiontitleandtheleasingcontractallowtheholdertoworkthelandforadesignatedperiod.Thepropertydeed(title)grantstheholderfullpropertyrights,notablytherighttosellortolease.However,evenintheseareas,customarylandallocationstillcontinuestobethemain/onlywaytoaccesslandforthemajorityofpoorpeople.Legalpluralism,therefore,constitutesamajorchallengeforanyinvestoraswellasforthelocalcommunities.Especiallywomensufferalotfromtheincreasingcommercialisationofagriculturallandsastheyarethelasttobeconsideredwhenlandisallocatedand,therefore,thefirsttoreceivenothingwhenlandbecomesscarce.

4.4 Land conflictsSincetimesimmemorial–asMalianswouldcallit–themanagementandallocationoflandresourceshasbeendoneatthelocallevelbycustomaryauthorities.Colonialismresultedinthelossofthispowerandfunctiontofirstthecolonialpowerandlater–afterindependence–tothecentralgovernment.Itisonlynowthatinthecourseofdecentralisation,certainfunctionsareslowlyre-decentralised.Inthemeantime,manyconflictsoverlandhavebeencreated.Someareduetocompetinglandusesatthelocallevelsuchasthewidelyspreadconflictsbetweenfarmersandpastoralistsfortheuseoflandasfarmlandandpasture.Theselocalconflictsarenowincreasinglypreventedandsolvedby“localconventions”–defininguseandaccesstowell-definedlandareasorcommonpoolresources,negotiatedbyallstake-holdersandapprovedbythestate.Otherconflictswhichareduetolegalpluralismremainandseemfarfrombeingresolved.Thecoreproblemisthefactthatstatutorylawconsidersalllandtobestateland(nationaldomain)ofwhichthecentralgovernmentcandispose–neglectingunwrittencustomaryrights.ThisphenomenonmakesFDIamajorthreattolocalpeopleastheirlandscanbeleasedtoaforeigninvestoratanytime–leavingthemwithoutfertilelandandnoorlittlecompen-sation.Inaddition,climatechangeandenviron-mentaldegradationduetomisuseoroveruseoflandarecontributingtolandconflictsastheyreducetheareasuitableforagricultureandpastoralism.Togiveanexample,transhumantherdersmustnowheadfurthersouththerebycreatinglanduseconflictswithfarmersthere.

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Water collection

5.1 Regulations regarding FDI in landTheAgriculturalOrientationLaw(LOA)andthenationalEconomicandSocialDevelopmentProgramme(PDES),definingtheroadmapforthenationaldevelopment,expressMali’spoliticaldesiretobecomeanagriculturalforceforthebenefitoffarmersandthewiderpopulation.Despitethisexplicitintentbythegovernment,itisobviousthattheinterestsoflocalpeopleinrespecttoruraldevelopmentingeneralandtoFDIinparticulararenotsufficientlytakenintoaccountinpractice.

Accordingtoofficialregulations,allpeopleconcernedmustbeinformedinpublicconsulta-tionsundertakenaspartoftheEnvironmentalandSocialImpactAssessment(ESIA).Thedecisiontograntlandsmustthentaketheoutcomeoftheseconsultationsintoaccount.

ImpactassessmentsarecompulsoryandmustbecarriedoutaccordingtoDecreeNo.08-346/P-RM.TheESIAareperformedbyspecialistresearchunitsandvalidatedbyagovernmentcross-depart-mentalcommission,whichissupposedtoactanddecideindependentlyfromsectorinterests.

ThedecreeregardingESIAsstatesthatrelevantfarmingassociationsandthelocalpopulationcaninfluencedevelopmentprojectssubstantiallyasthedeveloperisdutyboundtotakeonboardtheobjectiveconcernsofthesegroups.Furthermore,accordingtolaw,thedevelopermustprovethattheprojectwillhaveapositiveimpactonthefarmingcommunity.

Thelawalsostatesthatthedeveloperisboundtotakeintoaccountexistingrightsiftheserightsarelegallysound.This,however,onlyappliestocustomaryrightsonunregisteredlandandnottoregisteredlands,suchasthelandwithintheNigerBasinAuthorityareawheremostFDIaremade.

Malianlawdoesnotentirelyregulatecompen-sationprocessesforcustomarylandowners/users–evennotonunregisteredlands.Ascustom-aryrightsareconsideredtobeuserightsonly,thegovernmentdoesnotforeseeanycompensationfortheland.Itonlycompensatestheaddedvaluebroughttothelandwhichincludesconstructionsandcropsetc.

FDIaresubjecttoagreementssignedbytheinvestorandthestate.Currently,checksandbalancestocountercorruptionareperformedbytheOfficeoftheAuditorGeneral.However,withdecisionsbeingtakenatahighlevelandwithoutconsultationoftheconcernedpopulation,thisanti-corruptionmechanismisineffectual.

5.2 Overview of FDI in MaliFDIprogrammesinMalidirectlyorindirectlyinvolveagro-fuel,cashcropsandfood.Thetotalareacountsfor130,105ha.ThefollowingfiveprojectsofFDIcontractsarealreadysignedandtheprojecthasstarted(inorderoflandsurface/sizeinvolved):

• Malibya-Agriculture:FollowinganinvestmentagreementsignedbetweenMaliandLibya,100,000haintheNigerBasinAuthorityareahavebeengrantedtoMalibya-Agriculture.

• Markala Sugar Project by SoSuMar, CaneCo and CommCo:Theareacoveredbytheagree-mentofthisprivate-public-partnershipis14,100haintheNigerBasinAuthorityareadesignatedforsugarandethanolproduction.

• UEMOA:AcontracthasbeensignedwiththeUEMOAforabout11,288ha,alsointheNigerBasinAuthorityarea.ThelandshallbegiventoprivatefarmerscomingfromtheUEMOAortolocalfarmers.Itisforeseentoproducerice,fruitsandvegetablesforthenationalmarket.Theprojectstartedin2008.

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5. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Landholdings

• Agro Energy Développement:StudiesareabouttobecompletedforaFrenchinvestmentin2,605hatobecultivatedwithsunflowersinthegrowingseasonandwheatintheoff-season.Theproductionisdesignatedforthenationalmarket.

• Mali Biocarburant:80%ofthiscompany’scapitalisretainedbyKIT(aDutchresearchinstitute)withtheremaining20%heldbyMalianjatrophafarmers.MaliBiocarburantfinancesjatrophaproductioncoststhroughinternationalcarboncredittrading(2,112haplannedfor2009/10intheKoulikororegion).

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a) The following table gives an overview of additional projects currently being studied or planned.

Investor Country Surface (ha) Crops

Manuel Estepa Gonzalez Ivory Coast (Private Sector) 5,000 Jatropha curcas

SUDAN Ivory Coast (Private Sector) 5,000 Jatropha curcas

ASSIL Ivory Coast (Private Sector) 5,000 Jatropha curcas

CAMEX UK (Private Sector) 20,000 Rice and vegetables

Burkina Faso Burkina Faso 2,500 Rice and vegetables

FORAS Saudi Arabia 5,000 Rice and vegetables

CO-ENTREPRISE West African Countries 1,000 Rice and vegetables

Total 43,500

Source: Office du Niger

Togetherwiththemoreadvancedprojectsmen-tionedaboveinMali,thedemandedlandofallknownprojectscountsforabout173,600ha.Mostofthedemandedarea,142,500ha,shallbeusedforfoodproduction,only17,000haisdefinitivelydesignatedforagro-fuelproduction.The14,100haofSoSuMararedesignatedfortheproductionofeithersugarorethanol.

InSeptember2009,GRAIN3informedaboutanotherFDIprojectinMali.Itconcernsaninvest-mentoftheSaudiArabiancompanyForasInter-nationalin200,000hafarmland.Unfortunately,thisinformationcouldnotbeenverifiedyet.Likewise,itisknownthatChineseinvestorsareinterestedinirrigablelandalongtheriverNigerwheretheyalreadystartedapilotprojectandannouncedtheirplanstothelocalcommunitypromisingsocialandtechnicalinfrastructure.However,detailsontheseinvestmentshavenotbeenavailable.

AllFDIprojectsarelocatedintheNigerBasinAuthorityarea,excepttheJatrophaprojects.Foodproductioninthemostcasesisprobablyfortheinvestingcountry’smarket,exceptinthecaseoftheFrenchinvestmentofAgroEnergyDévelop-pementandtheprivate-public-partnershipinMarkalaforsugarproductionforthenationalmarket.Thatmeansthatcompetitionwithlandforlocal/nationalfoodproductionintheNigerBasinAuthorityareaisincreasingandalreadyleadingtolandconflicts(seetheexampleonMalibya-Agriculture).Accordingtopublicinformation,theNigerBasinAuthorityareaof1millionhaispotentiallyarableandirrigable.Ifthisisthecase,theknownprojectscountforabout1/5ofthecultivableareaonly.Butthereareothersourcessayingthatonly250,000haarecultivableintheNigerBasinAuthorityarea.Therestrictionisnotduetothetopographybutthemaximumquantityofwaterwhichcanbere-movedfromtheriverNiger.Thisbottleneckwillprobablyresultinincreasingwaterconflicts.

3 http://www.grain.org/articles/?id=52

5.3 Key drivers and motives for investorsKeydriversandmotivesforinvestorsare:

• availabilityoflandresources(incl.anticipatinglandscarcityandincreaseinlandprices),

• availabilityofwaterresources,• increasingself-sufficiencyandfoodsecurityfor

theinvestor’scountry,• gainingadditionalmarketsharesinthe

internationalagro-fuelandfoodmarket,• increasingshareholdervalue(withrisingfood

andagro-fuelmarkets),• strengtheningeconomictiesbetweenMaliand

foreigndirectinvestorcountries,• availabilityofcheaplabourforce,• absenceofeffectivecontrolonenvironmental

obligations,• establishingagro-industries,• establishingstock-farming.

5.4 Key drivers and motives for beneficiaries4 ThekeydriversandmotivestoattractFDIinlandforbeneficiariesare:

• developmentofinfrastructure(irrigationanddrainagesystems,roads),

• modernisationofthefarmingsector,improvingfarmingtechniquesandproductivity,

• ruraljobcreation,• improvementofruralincomes,• self-sufficiencyandfoodsecurity,• developmentofagriculturalvaluechains.

Thesemotivesare,however,notnecessarilyreflectedbythecontractsagreeduponbytheMalianandtheforeigngovernmentandevenlessbytheirimplementation(seecaseofMalibya).

5.5 Linkage between FDI and national food security policyMalihasdevelopedanationalfoodsecurityprogramme(PNSA)fortheperiod2006to2015.ThePNSAcomprisesthefollowingeightcompo-nents:

1. improvementofbasicnaturalresources(watermanagementandimprovingsoilfertility),

2. farmintensification(increasingoutput),3. diversificationofproductionsystems,4. marketingandprocessingrawproducts

(storage,preserving,processingandmarketing),

5. healthandnutrition,6. monitoringandalertmechanisms,andcrisis

managementstrategies,7. peripheralmeasures(fundingdistribution,

developingruralfinance,undertakingresearch,improvingcapacitybuildingandmakingthismoreaccessible),

8. supportintheroll-outofthePNSAandpreparinginstitutionsaccordingly.ItcouldbeexpectedthatFDIhavetobeinlinewiththispolicy.Intheofficialdiscoursetheymoreorlessdo.Whenitcomestothecontractagree-ment,specificproject/investmentobjectivesmighthoweverdifferfromthoseofthePNSA.ThetwocasestudiespresentedbelowwillillustratetheratherinconsistentalignmentofFDItowardsfoodsecurityobjectives.ThereareFDIthatwillcontributetothestabilisationoffoodavailabilitywhilethereareothersthatmainlyservetheinterestsofafewprivilegedpeople–supposedlybyunpublishedsideagreements.

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4 Beneficiaries are the government, the affected population, farmers and all other stakeholders who may benefit from FDI-funded project activities.

Fishermen

Forthecasestudies,theinvestmentsbyMalibya-AgricultureandtheconsortiumofSoSuMar,CaneCoandCommCohavebeenselectedastheyarethetwomostimportantonesintermsofthelandsurfaceinvolved.TheyalsorepresenttwodifferenttypesofFDI.WhiletheengagementofMalibyaisaclassicalFDI,theprojectundertakenbySoSuMar,CaneCoandCommCoisaspecialandrathernewformofFDIasitactuallyisaprivate-public-partnershipwhichinvolvesfinancialmeansprovidedbytheAfricanDevelopmentBank.

6.1 Example 1: Malibya AgricultureProject area, project objective and project agreementMalibyaAgricultureisaLibyancompanyfoundedtoproducericeandotheragriculturalproductsinMaliforexporttoLibyaandfortheimprovementoffoodsecurityoftheLibyanpopulation.InJune2009,abilateralinvestmenttreatywassignedbetweenMaliandLibya.TheprojectissituatedintheNigerBasinAuthorityareaaroundMacina,anagro-pastoralareawiththepotentialforirrigation.ItisthemostimportantriceproductionzoneofMali.Currentlymorethan75,000peoplearelivingintheprojectarea.ApartfromthoselivinginthetownMacinawhohaveformallandrightsovertheirlandasthetownhasbeencreatedbythestate,peopledonothaveformallyrecognisedlandrightsastheymovedintotheareaonlyafterthelandwasregisteredaspropertyoftheNigerBasinAuthorityinthemid20thcentury.Andcustomaryrights–ifatall–areonlyrecognisedonunregisteredlands.PeoplemovedherebecausemostpartsofthelandhadnotbeendevelopedbytheNigerBasinAuthority.Theysettledthere,builtvillages,workedthelandandlivedfromtheforests.Pastoralistsarealsousingmajorpartsofthelandtograzetheircattle.Inaddition,amaintranshumanceroutepassesthroughthearea.

Accordingtotherenewableinvestmenttreaty,MalibyaAgricultureisleasing100,000haofirrigateland“freefromanyjuridicalconstraintsorindividualorcollectivepropertythathinderstheexploitationoftheland”for50yearstodevelopfarmingactivities,agro-industriesandcattlerearing.Thecontractcanbereneweduptoatotalof99years.ThecontractprovidesMalibyawithunrestrictedaccesstowaterfromtheMacinacanalaswellasgroundwateragainstafixedfeethatcanberenegotiatedannually.Ifundergroundmineralsarefoundinthearea,theywillremainMalianpropertyandexploitedbytheMaliangovernment.Malibya,ontheotherhand,hastherighttoexploitallsandsandordinarystonesonthesurfacefortherequiredconstructionworks.Malibya’srightsarelimitedtotheuseofthesurfacelandandtheundergroundwater.Thecompanyisnotallowedtotransferthelandtoathirdparty.IthastorespectMalianlawsontheenvironment.

ApartfromthewaterfeesandtheobligationtorespecttheMalianlawandregulationsontheenvironment,thecontractdoesnotsayanythingelseaboutanydutiesorobligationsoftheLibyanside.Notaxes,feesorotherpaymentsaremen-tioned.Article17statesthatthetwopartiesagreeduponthe“gratuitédelaterre”(nopaymentfortheland).TherealsoisnoobligationtohirelocalemployeesortoproducefortheMalianmarket.Concerninginfrastructuredevelopment,thecontractonlystatesthatMaliauthorisesMalibyatorealiseaccessroadswhicharenecessaryforthefunctioningoftheproject.ItisimplicitlysaidthatMalibyaputsinplacetheinfrastructureneededfortheproject.TheGovern-mentofMalican“ifitdesires”[sic]developanykindofpublicinfrastructureinaccordancewithMalibya.AccordingtoinformationprovidedbytheNigerBasinAuthority,Malibya-AgricultureiscurrentlyfundinginfrastructuredevelopmentsbecausetheMaliangovernmentdoesnothavethe

6. Case Studies of FDI in Malian landholdings

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financialmeanstodoitnow.MalibyawilllaterbereimbursedbytheMalianGovernment.TheLibyaninvestorsonlyhavetofinancethedevelop-mentofland(estimatedtobebetweenUSD6,514to8,686/ha),constructionoffactories,cultivationoftheland(seeds,fertiliser,wateretc.)andagricul-turaladvisoryservices–investmentsthatonlyservetheirownproductionbutneithertheMalianstatenorthelocalpopulation.MainobjectiveoftheLibyanprojectisfoodself-sufficiency.In2005,Libyaimported177,000tonsofrice.Withregardtoincreasingfoodprices,Libyawantstobecomeindependentoftheworldfoodmarket.Additionalobjectivesare,therefore,theestablishmentofagro-industryandstock-farminginMali.Differ-entagriculturalactivitiesareenvisagedsuchastheproductionof200,000tonsofriceand25,000tonsofmeatannually.Agro-industrialplantsshallbeconstructedforthetransformationofagricul-turalproducts,forinstanceconcentratedtoma-toes.Theinvestmentsforthefirstblockof25,000hafocusonirrigationinfrastructure,humansettlementsforemployeesandcattlerearing.Thetotalinvestmentrequiredforthisfirstblock,excludingre-housingandnegativeimpactmitiga-tioncosts,isestimatedatUSD297,871,706.Accordingtothefundingagreement,re-housingandnegativeimpactmitigationcostsaretheresponsibilityoftheMalianGovernment.

Theprojectcomprisestheconstructionoftwomajorinfrastructuredevelopments:

- Theconstructionofawaterchannelinalengthof40km,fromKolongotomototheprojectareainBoky-Wèrè.Thecapacityofthechannelshallbe130m3whichallowsdrainingdaily11millionm3orannually4billionm3.

- Theconstructionofaroadinalengthof40km(for25billionFCFA,appr.USD48million).

Malibyaintendstocultivatetheareawithitsownemployees,engaginglocalfarmersasagriculturalworkers.Toreachthetargetof8to9tonsofriceperha,modernagriculturaltechniquesshallbeintroducedincludinghighyieldingvarieties(hybridrice),chemicalfertiliserandpesticides.Toinsuremodernriceproductiontechnologies,ChineselabourfamiliarwithChineseproductiontechniquesshallbeusedforjobsrequiringskilledlabour.Chineseemployeeswillprobablyactassupervisorswhilelocalpeoplewilldothelow-skilled(andlowpaid)labour.Chineseworkerswillalsobeinvolvedintheconstructionofthesite.

Workstartedseveralmonthsagoand,meanwhile,farmers’associationswhosemembersarevictimsofthecommencedworkhavecalledtheNationalCoordinatorforFarmers’Organisations(CNOP)tosafeguardthevictims’interest.

Involvement of local population in the decision processInOctober2008,MalibyaAgriculturestarteditsfirstoperationswithouthavingcarriedouttheEnvironmentalandSocialImpactAssessment(ESIA)first.Theinhabitantsaffectedbythedecisionwereneitherprimarilyinformednorinvolvedinaconsultationprocessasdemandedbythelaw.Thepeoplewereinformedlongaftertheagreementwassignedandthuscustomarylandrightswereignored.

Whenconflictswiththelocalpopulationoccurredinthebeginningof2009,firstmeetingsbetweenvillagersandtheprojectwereheld.Accordingtolocalauthorities(sous-préfet),thesemeetingswith30villagesandhamletsweretransformedintopublicconsultationsandtherebyofficiallysubsti-tutedtheESIA.NorealESIAhasbeenconducted.

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Meanwhile,theprojectiscontinuing,withoutanagreementbetweenlocalcommunitiesandtheprojectandwithoutanycompensation.Projectactivitiesinclude:

• Theconstructionofanoffice(tocontrolthework)inBoky-wèrè;

• Startingthechannelconstruction.

Bothactivitiesdemonstratetheignorancetowardslocalrealitiesandareproofofthelackoflocalparticipation.TheMalibyaofficehasbeencon-structedonatranshumanceroutewhichhasbeendelimitatedasaresultofaparticipatoryprocesssettlinglong-lastinglanduseconflictsbetweenherdersandfarmersandresultinginalocalconventionformallyapprovedbytheMalianstate.Thechannellikewiseiscuttingthroughatrans-humanceroute.Altogether,sofar7kmofthetraditionalanimaltrespassingrouteareblockedfromKolongotoBoky-wèrè.

First impacts and expected/potential future impacts:Potential positive impacts:Fromanationalperspective:• Goodpoliticalrelationswiththegovernmentof

theneighbouringstateLibya.ThelanddealhastobeseeninthebroadercontextofMalian-Libyanrelationsandcooperation.Libyaalsoisastrongpartnerintheregion.

Fromalocalperspective:• Sofar,thelocalpopulationandtheirrepresenta-

tivessuchasthemayorsanddeputiesdonotseeanypossibleorpotentialpositiveimpactfortheminthefutureresultingfromthisinvestment.

• Therewillbesomeemploymentcreatedforlocalworkers.Itcanhoweverbeexpectedthatthiswillnotcounterbalancethelossofincomegenerationopportunitiesdestroyedbytheproject.

Already visible negative impacts:• Peopleareexpropriatedandevictedoftheir

houses.• Houses,villages,gardensandfieldsarede-

stroyedbytheconstructionoftheroadandthechannel.

• Manyvillagesarefloodedanddestroyed.• Allforestsintheareahavebeentakenby

Malibya,manyarealreadyflooded.Localpeoplethereforelostaccesstoproductscrucialfortheirlivelihoodsuchasfood,medicine,fuelwood,buildingmaterial,animalfodderetc.

• Blockageoftranshumanceroutes.• Fortheconstructionoftheroads,localquarries

andevencemeteriesareexploitedanddestroyed(withoutapprovalofthelocalcommunities).

• Dustpollutionproducedbytheheavylorriesusedfortheprovisionofconstructionmaterialshasbecomeaseriousproblemforthevillagers.

Therearenopositiveimpactssofar.

Expected and potential negative impacts:• Lackofirrigationwaterforfieldswithinthe

NigerBasinAuthorityarealeasedtolocalfarmers(thenewchannelhasbeenconstructedatalowerlevelthantheMacinacanalwhichmayresultinthefactthatattimesoflowwatertheareaswateredbyMacinacanalwillnotreceivesufficientwateranymore);

• Lossoffarmlandscurrentlyusedbythelocalpopulationfordryfarmingandaspasture;

• Displacementofthelocalpopulationprimarilydependingonagricultureandforestproductsresultinginadeteriorationoflivelihoodduetosoilsoflowerqualityandmoredifficultaccesstowater;

• Riskofdesertificationandsalinisation;• Negativecarbonbalance.

Finally,therewillbeaninfluenceofforeigncultures(ChineseandLibyan)thatcaneitherbepositiveornegative.Theproject,involving100,000ha,effecting75,000peopleandintroduc-ingforeignlifestylehabitsandtechnologieswilldefinitelyalterthewaypeoplelive–inonewayoranother.

Contribution to food securityTheobjectiveofMalibyaAgricultureistoexportthewholeproduction.Therefore,theproductionwillnothelptoimprovefoodsecurityofthelocalpeople.Itcouldbedifficultforresettledpeople,whohavelosttheirfields,toachieveself-

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sufficiencyinfoodproductionassoilswillbeoflowerqualityandaccesstowaterwillbecomemoredifficult.Theprojectmayeventuallyim-provetheincomesituationforpartofthepopula-tionbycreatingnewjobsandthusprovidingmeansforthelocalpopulationtobuyfoodonthelocalmarkets.Thequestion,however,remainshowmanyfarmerswillbeemployedbyMalibyaandwhowillproduceandwhereforthelocalmarket.

Compensation measuresThelandsupforleasearecurrentlyusedorhavebeenuseduntilrecentlybythelocalpopulationforrainfedcultivation(millet,sorghum,maize,peanuts,fonio,pumpkin,watermelon,vegetablesandothers).Thelandsarealsousedforpastureandcattlecrossings.Inaddition,forestsprovidedalotofresourcesfordailylifeaswellassourcesofrevenue(e.g.firewoodandcharcoal).Now,allforestshavebeentakenbyMalibya,partsofthefarmlandandsettlementareasarealreadyfloodedandtranshumanceroutesareblocked.

Alltheseactivitiesarecarriedoutwithoutanycompensationofthelocalpopulation.MalibyaAgriculturehasmadenoprovisiontocompensatepeoplewhowillbedisplacedorharmedbytheproject,asthisistheresponsibilityoftheMalianGovernment.Whensigningtheinvestmentagreement,theMalianGovernmentmadenoprovisionstocompensatethepeoplewhowillbedisplaced.ThiscompensationisoneoftheissuestoberesolvedintheleasethatwillbesignedbytheNigerBasinAuthorityandMalibyaAgriculture.ItisstillnotknownhowMalibyaAgricultureortheMalianGovernmentwillapproachmattersofcompensation.ItisdoubtfulthatMalibyawillfeelresponsibleasaccordingtothecontracttheyreceivedland“freefromanyjuridicalconstraintsorindividualorcollectivepropertythathinderstheexploitationoftheland.”Astheprojectmakesprogress,allpeoplelivingintheprojectareawillbeaffected.Farmersaswellasherderswillbeexpulsedfromtheirlandsanditwillbemoredifficultforthemtogetaccesstowaterespeciallyinthedryseason.

6.2 Example 2: Markala Sugar Project by SoSuMar, CaneCo and CommCo5 Project area, project objective and project agreementTheMarkalaSugarProject(MSP)isanagro-industrialprojectproposedintheformofpublic-privatepartnership(PPP),tobeestablishedintheNigerBasinAuthorityareatotheNorth-EastofSegou.Itisthefirstpublic-privatepartnershipdevelopmentprojectinMaliandthefirstPPPdevelopmentprojectintheagro-industrialsectorsubmittedforfinancingtotheAfricanDevelop-mentBank.Overall,theproject’simpactareacomprisestheterritoriesof6municipalitiesforalandareaof2,087km2andapopulationofabout155,902.

Theprojectcomprisesanagriculturalcomponentwhichinvolvestheplantingandirrigationof14,100haofsugarcanefieldsandanindustrialcomponentconsistingintheconstructionandoperationofasugarcaneextractionplantwithannualproductioncapacityof190,000tonsofsugarandanotherplantfortheproductionof15,000klofethanolfromaby-productoftheprocess.ThesugarwillbemainlyproducedforthenationalmarketasMalihasanannualshortfallofaround120,000tonsofsugar.Theprojectwillalsoproduce30MWofelectricitybyco-genera-tion,the3MWsurplusofwhichwillbetrans-ferredtotheelectricitynetworkoftheMalianEnergyCompany(SociétéÉnergieduMali-EDM).Therearealsoplanstoproduceabout95,886tonsofcompostperyear.

Theagriculturalcomponentoftheprojectentailstheirrigationanddevelopmentofslightlyover14,000hadividedintotwodistinctblocks.Thewatersupplysystemsarebasedontheexistingirrigationinfrastructure.Inthefirstblock,wateruptakeshallbethroughtheexistingCostesOngoïbacanalwhilethesecondblockwillbeirrigatedfromtheexistingMacinacanal.Theirrigationmethodisbyrotarysprinkler(centralpivotsystem),chosenmainlytosavewater.Basedonthewaterneedsforsugarcanecultivationandtheabove-mentionedlandarea,thetotalvolumeofwateruptakeisestimatedat14.5m3/ha,

5 Most of the information on this project is taken from the memorandum by the African Development Bank and the African Development Fund on the environmental and social impact assessment of the Markala Sugar Project (September 2009).

correspondingtoahypotheticalcontinuousflowofabout1litre/s/ha.

Exceptfor894haforwhichalandtitleisgrantedtoSoSuMarascontributionoftheMaliangovern-menttothePPPproject,aleasingcontractwillbeconcludedwiththeNigerBasinAuthority.

Inthelongrun,theeconomicactivitygeneratedbytheprojectissupposedtocreate5,000directand20,000indirectjobs.However,theMSPwillentailthedisplacementandresettlementof1,644inhabitants.Italsoinvolvestheclearingofnaturalvegetationandtheconversionoffarmlandscurrentlyusedbythelocalpopulationfordryfarmingandaspastureintosugarcaneplanta-tions.

TheProjectismainlytheinitiativeoftwoinde-pendententities:

a) SoSuMar:MarkalaSugarCompany(Société SucrièredeMarkala),responsibleforthe

Project’sindustrialandprivatecomponent.TheshareholdersofSoSuMarare:Illovo6:70%;Schaffer7:4%;Malianprivatesector:22%;GovernmentofMali:4%.

b) CaneCo:SugarCaneProductionCompany(Sociétédeproductiondecanneàsucre),responsiblefortheagriculturalcomponent.TheStateofMaliisthemajorityshareholderofCaneCo,holding90%oftheshares(whileSoSuMarwillholdtheremaining10%).CaneCoisthepubliccomponentoftheProject.

c) Athirdentityknownas“CommCo”willbe createdforthebenefitofthecommunity.It

willberesponsiblefordeveloping5,600hatobeusedentirelybythespecificcommunitytowhichtheywillbeallocated.Theestablish-mentofthisentityactuallymakestheMSPaPPPProjectwithathree-prongedpartnershipstructure:MalianGovernment/SoSuMar/Community.

Inaccordancewithnationalpolicies,lawsandregulations,theprojectmustharmonisewithninepolicies,complywiththerequirementsof35decreesandfulfilconditionsforobtainingeightpermits.Anin-depthEnvironmentalandSocialImpactAssessment(ESIA),includingthedesignofanEnvironmentalandSocialManagementPlan(ESMP)andaResettlementActionPlan(RAP)forpopulationstobedisplaced,wasconductedaswellasapovertyreductionstudyasrequiredbyMalianregulationsandenvironmentalproceduresoftheAfricanDevelopmentBank.

Involvement of local population in the decision-making processInformationontheinvolvementoflocalpopula-tionisslightlycontradictory.Whileitwasstatedduringthefieldworkforthisstudythatnoopportunitywasgiventothelocalpopulationtoparticipateinthedecision-makingprocesses,thedocumentspreparedbytheAfricanDevelopmentBankontheESIAdescribeindetailthepublicconsultationprocess.ItseemsthatthereasonforthiscontradictionliesinthefactthatSoSuMarstartedthedevelopmentworksonthesitebeforetheESIAwascarriedoutandfarmers’associationswereinformed.OncetheESIAstarted,thelocalpopulationgotinvolved.Itremains,however,unclearifthiswasstillearlyenoughforthemtogetinvolvedinbasicdecisionsoriftheyhaveonlybeinformedandcouldratherchosebetweendifferentoptionsconcerningminorissuesthandecideonthewholeconceptoftheproject.

IntheBank’sdocumentitsays:“ThepublicconsultationprocesswasconductedfollowingtheguidelinesofDecreeNo.03-594of31December2003(asamendedbyDecreesNo.08-346PRMof26June2008andNo.09-PRM-318of26June2009),principallyinthemonthsofMay2007,JanuarytoApril2009aswellasinAugust2009duringthepre-appraisalmeeting.Consultationswereheldwiththepopulationsofvillagessituatedintheirrigationareas,thoseofadjacentvillages,

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6 ILLOVO Sugar, main shareholder of SoSuMar, is a South African company and the continent’s leading producer of sugar. It has operations in six African countries. The company is quoted on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange and is controlled mainly by Associated British Foods Ltd, which holds 51% of the capital.7 Schaffer Global Group is a US-based private corporation which offers world-class services.

thoseofvillagesinpotentialhostareasandalsowithGovernmentdepartmentsandtechnicalservicesatnational,regionalandlocallevels.Theconsultationwasintendedtoinformandsensitisethevariousaffectedand/orconcernedpartiesaboutthecomponentsandoperationofthefutureprojectandtoobtaintheirviews,concernsandproposedsolutionsforeradicating,mitigatingand/oroffsettingpotentialnegativeimpactsandstrengtheningpositiveones.TheviewsthusobtainedwereconsideredduringtheconductoftheremainingpartoftheESIAandtheResettle-mentActionPlan.WiththehelpofLTSC,far-reachingconsultationswereheldwiththepopulationaffectedbytheproject.Theseconsulta-tionswereroundedoffbyaworkshoptovalidatethefindingsofthedifferentstudies.Thiswork-shopbroughttogetherallprojectstakeholdersforthreedaystobetterincorporatetheconcernsofallpartiesinvolvedespeciallyindesigningaResettle-mentActionPlan.“

Expected impacts“TheMarkalaSugarProjecthasmajorpositiveimpactsandlikeanylarge-scaledevelopmentproject,italsogeneratesmajorsocialandenviron-mentaldisruptionsandchangesduetoitssheersize,theaffectedpopulationsandthescaleofworks”(afrIcan Development Bank,2009).

Expected positive impacts:Fromanationalperspective:• ForeignexchangesavingsofoverFCFA31

billion,correspondingtoamountsinvestedeachyearonsugarimports–sumsthatcanbeinjectedintheeconomytodevelopothersectoractivities;

• FiscalrevenueofaroundFCFA4billionassalariesandtaxesunderthenationalbudgetannually(estimatedbySoSuMar);

• InaccordancewiththeAgriculturalOrientationLawqualitativeandquantitativechangeintheagriculturalsectorbyofferingtheopportunityoftransferringirrigationpivotstothelocalpopula-

tionwhowilloperatethemandsellthesugarcaneproducedtoSoSuMar.

Fromalocalperspective:• Creationof5,000directand20,000indirect

jobs,hencehigherhouseholdincomes,foodself-sufficiency(asincomewillallowtobuyfoodthroughouttheyear)andbetterlivingcondi-tions;

• Increaseinrevenue,particularlyforwomen;• Facilitatedelectrificationofvillagessituated

closetotheelectricitydistributionline;• Creationofhealthierlivingconditionsthanksto

drainageworks;• Rebuildvillagesprovidedwithdecenthousing,

educational,health,economicandroadinfra-structure.

Furthereventualpositiveimpacts:• Improvementinhealthinfrastructure;• Developmentoftheregionstouristpotential;• Capacitydevelopmentduetotrainingand

technicalassistanceforproducersandstock-breeders;

• Strengthenedcapacityoflocalmenandwomenthroughthecommunitydevelopmentpro-grammethatwillbeimplementedtofightpoverty.

Expected negative impacts: • Displacementnecessaryof1,644inhabitants

losingtheirfields,shelter,socio-economicinfrastructure,food,immediateeconomicincomeetc.atleastduringthephaseofresettle-ment;

• Conversionoffarmlandscurrentlyusedbythelocalpopulationfordryfarmingandaspastureintosugarcaneplantations;

• Atleastduringthefirstyears,localpopulationwillexperienceadecreaseinincomefromagriculture,animalraisingandfishing;

• Opportunitiesforlivestockkeepingaregone;• Blockageoftranshumanceroutes;• Lossofnaturalvegetationandforests;

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Transportation

• Destructionofligneousspecieswitheconomic,nutritionalandsocio-culturalvalue,e.g.sheabutter,balanzan,winepalm,tamarindtree,acacia,ferntree,jujubetree,sugarapple,wilddates,Africanlocust,baobab;

• Lossofforestproductsincludingnon-timberproductssuchasfood,medicine,fuelwood,buildingmaterial,animalfodderetc.;

• Increasedpressureontheremainingnaturalresourcesduetopopulationincrease(duetomassivemigration);

• Riskoferosion;• Irreversiblelossofwildlifeandplantresources;• Environmentalpollutionconcerningair,soiland

water;• Riskofinsufficientavailabilityof(irrigation)

water;• Potentialdisruptionoftheecologicalbalance;• IncreaseofHIV/AIDSduetotheinfluxof

seasonalandpermanentworkers;• Forcedchangeofproductionandlivelihoodas

thepopulationhadnochancetooptforanalter-nativeapproachtosugarcaneproduction(contractfarming);

• Lossofindependenceandtraditionalwayofliving;dependencyononecompany(SoSuMar).

Expected impact on food securityIntheshort-term,itcanbeexpectedthattheresettledpopulationwillsufferfromadeclineinfoodproductionatleastduringthetransitionalphaseuntiltheirnewfieldswillprovidesufficientfoodagain.Theremainingpopulationmayalsosuffertemporarilyfromadeclineinfoodproduc-tionduringthistimeastheywillhaveatleastpartlytogiveupfoodproductionforowncon-sumptionaswellasforthemarketandittakessomeyearsuntiltheywillbeabletoyieldsugarandsellittoSoSuMartohavethefinancialmeanstobuyfood.Asthisprojectisaprivate-public-partnershipitcanhoweverbeexpectedthatpeoplearetakencareofduringthistime.

Inthelongrun,themonoculturesugarprojectmightalsoweakenalloverfoodsecurityasitleadstothedestructionofdiversityandthepotentialself-sufficiencyofthelocalpopulation.Peoplewillprobablyearnsufficientmoneytobuyfood,butwhenfoodwillbeshort,theymaybeatdisadvan-tage.Afterall,theareawasoriginallyearmarkedasriceproductionareaasNigerBasinAuthorityhasmainlybeencreatedtoproducericetosatisfynationaldemandofthisstaplefood!

Compensation methods for farmersIntheareaofintervention,94,000peopleareaffectedlivingin85villages.23villageswithapopulationof1,644aretoberelocated.SinceMalianlawdoesnotregulatecompensationprocessesindetail–statingonlythattheaddedvaluehastobecompensatedbutnothowandonwhichbase–thecompensationisregulatedinthecontract.Accordingtothecontract,compensationmustbemadebasedonanassessmentofthevalueofoneyear’sharvestincome–oneyearbeingdeemedasuitabletimeframeforthefarmertosettleelsewhere.However,farmersaffectedbytheprojectwereonlyawardedcompensationat50,000FCFAperhaofmillet(equivalentofUSD96),eventhoughonetonneofmillet(thequantityproducedperha)wasworth100,000FCFA(USD192).Theremight,however,besomemorenon-monetarycompensationinthefutureastheResettlementActionPlanenvisagesanindemnifi-cationprocesswhichwillfavourlandandfoodsecuritytooffsettheotherlossescausedbytheproject.Detailsonthishavenotbeenavailable.Tothosefarmersremainingintheprojectarea,anareaof5,600hawillbeallocatedforproductionandsaleofsugarcanetoSoSuMar,20%oftheareawillbeallocatedtowomenforgrowingsugarcane.Another1,000irrigatedhawillbemadeavailableforthecommunitiestobeusedformarketgardeningtogenerateincomeandensurefoodsecurity.

24

25

Itiscurrentlytooearlytofinallycommentonthesufficiencyandfairnessofthecompensationasitwilldependontheimplementationoftheplans.

Other mitigative measuresApartfromthedesignandimplementationofaResettlementActionPlan,themainimpactmitigationmeasuresproposedbytheESIAaretheplantingofwoodproducingplantations,thedomesticationoffruitspeciesofeconomicvalue,thetransferoflivestocktoadevelopedsite,theestablishmentofaspecialwildlifesettlementranchandthepromotionofecotourism.ThecostoftheEnvironmentalandSocialManagementPlanwhichincludesenvironmentalmonitoring,

capacitybuilding,mitigativemeasuresoftheagriculturalsectorandmitigativemeasuresoftheindustrialsectorisestimatedFCFA1,663,753,000(USD3,202,728)overfiveyears.ThiscostdoesnotincludetheResettlementActionPlan.Inrespecttowateravailability,theNigerBasinAuthorityenvisagescertainmeasurestoimprovetheefficiencyofthewatersystembyrehabilitatingexistinginfrastructure,introducingmoreefficientequipmentandimprovingthemanagementofuseofwaterbyusers.Accordingtoitsnewplanimplementationagreement,theNigerBasinAuthorityalsoenvisagesobligingnewwaterstakeholderstolookforalternativewatersourcesduringthelowwaterperiod(April–June).

Field work with ox plough

Harvest

26

ThecasestudiesofMalibyaAgricultureandMarkalaSugarProjectshowalreadysomeimpactsalthoughtheyarestillintheirfirststepsofrealization.But,mostimpactswillbeshowninthelongtermrunonly.Theycanbeestimatedbutarenotyetproven.Therefore,itneedstobe

distinguishedbetweenfirstalreadyexistingimpactsandfuturerisksandopportunitiesoftheseinvestments.Astheprivate-public-partner-shipprojectoffersotheroptionsthantheclassicalFDI,thetwoapproachesarepresentedinacomparativeway.

7. Opportunities and Risks of FDI in Land

Foreign Direct Investment, the case of Malibya Agriculture

National level Local level

Already existing economic and socio-economic impact

Potential long term economic and socio-economic impact0?

----

Already existing socio-cultural impact

Potential long term socio-cultural impact?

+ or -

- - - - and +

Already existing environmental impact

Potential long term environmental impact0

- - ------

Already existing impact on food security

Potential long term impact on food security0

- - ?

---

Private-Public Partnership, the case of Markala Sugar Project

National level Local level

Already existing economic and socio-economic impact

Potential long term economic and socio-economic impact0

+++0

+ (++)

Already existing socio-cultural impact

Potential long term socio-cultural impact0+0

0 + and -

Already existing environmental impact

Potential long term environmental impact0-

----

Already existing impact on food security

Potential long term impact on food security0++

0-

Legend: + (positive impact), 0 (neutral impact/no impact), - (negative impact), ? (impact unknown); if a symbol appears several

times, it signifies a very positive or very negative impact.

Whilebothinvestmentsshowonlynegativeimpactsrightnowbrieflyaftertheyhavebeenstarted,thepublic-private-partnershipprojectismuchmorepromisingonwhatconcernspossiblefutureimpactsthantheFDI.

7.1 Economic and socio-economic opportunities and risksTheinvestmentsdonesofardidnotresultinashort-termpositiveeconomicandsocio-economicimpact,neitheratlocalnoratnationallevel.Generally,theinvestmentscreatecostsinthebeginning.

Inregardtolong-termimpacts,itcanbeexpectedthattherearepositiveeconomicandsocio-eco-nomicimpactsatleastatthenationallevelfromthoseinvestmentssuchastheprivate-public-partnershipwhichrespecttheMalianlawsandregulationsdealingwithtaxesandfeesforforeigninvestors.Thereare,however,dealswhicharenot100%clearonthefinancialdutiesoftheforeigninvestor.Thereforetheriskexists,thattheeco-nomicimpactfortheMalianstatewillbelowornull.

Long-termeconomicandsocio-economicimpactsatlocallevelwillprobablydifferaswelldependingonthetypeofcontractandthespecificarrange-ment.Thereseems,however,tobeonesadsimilarityinalltheseFDIwhichisthefactthatalthoughnewemploymentiscreated,traditionalincomegeneratingactivitiesarenolongerpossibleanditisnotyetpossibletosayifthenewjobswillprovidethesameorbetterlivelihoodthanthepreviouslifestyledid.Inaddition,newjobsmightbelimitedinnumberastheincreasedmechanisa-tiongoesalongwithareducedrequirementoflabour.Itisalsonotclearhowmanyofthenewjobswillactuallybegiventothelocalpopulationasmanyofthenewjobswillrequireskilledlabour.Forexample:MalibyawantstointroducemodernproductionmethodsandthusalsoChineselabourfamiliarwiththosetechniques.Formersmallhold-ersmightbereducedtolowpaidseasonworkershavingdifficultiesearningtheirlivingduringoff-season.

Theoretically,foralltheprojectactivities(con-structionwork,agriculture,processingandtransformation,transportetc.)labourisnecessary,meaningthatmanyjobshavetobecreated,especiallyduringtheinvestingperiod.Withnewjobs,moneycouldbegeneratedwithinthelocaleconomyimprovingthelivingconditionsofthelocalpeople.Thesejobopportunitiesalsocouldreducethemigrationtourbancentres.Unfortu-nately,thecreatedjobsareoftenspecialisedjobswhicharenotaccessibleforsmallholderswhoarelackingagoodeducation.Infact,incaseofMalibya,farmerswillprobablyberecruitedneitherinfactoriesnorforadministrativework.Noinitiativehasbeentakenorisplannedinrespectofcapacitydevelopmentandknowledgetransfer.ThisisdifferentincaseoftheMarkalaSugarProjectwhichwillbeaccompaniedbyapovertyreductionprogramme.

WhiletheextentofdirectemploymentcreatedbyFDIisuncertainandwilldefinitelyvaryfromoneprojecttoanother,itcanbeexpectedthatadditionalincome-generatingactivitieswillbetriggeredsimplybythepresenceofpaidworkers.Theseindirectjobswillincludelocalbusinesses,smalltraders,thecateringindustryandothers.

Apartfromjobcreation,FDIcancontributetothedevelopmentoflocalinfrastructurethatcanbebeneficialtothelocaleconomy.Companiesneedaccesstotheirfieldsand,therefore,theyareconstructingroadsasshownabovewiththeexampleofMalibyaAgriculture.Thiscanhelpfarmers/villagerstogeteasieraccesstomarketsandgenerallycanfacilitatethetransportofgoods.Buttherearerisksthatotherinterestsarenottakenintoaccountasthealreadyoftenciteddestructionoftranshumanceroutesetc.TounderstandtheimpactofdestroyedtranshumanceroutesithastobeknownthatcattlerisingandtranshumanceisatthesametimethebackboneofMalianeconomy,pride,cultureandidentity!

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Also,FDIinlandoftengoalongwithre-housing.Thesituationofdisplacedfarmersisoftenworsethanbeforewithinadequatecompensationfortheirlossofland.

Crucialforpositiveimpactatthelocallevelishowtheformersmallholdersarecompensatedandhowtheywillparticipateinthenewenvironment.MalibyaAgriculture,forexample,hasmadenoplanstoallocateplotstosmallholdersortotrainsmallholdersinordertogivethembetterpaidjobswhilethisisforeseenintheMarkalaSugarProject.

7.2 Social and socio-cultural opportunities and risksThesocialimpactdependsmainlyontheamountofmoneyavailableeitherdirectlyfromtheforeigninvestororthenationalgovernmentorindirectlythroughaboostofthelocaleconomy.Asstatedabove,itisstilluncertainifandifsotowhatextenttherewillbeapositiveeconomicimpactatthelocallevel.Socialimprovementsduetoownlocalcapacitiesarethereforeuncertaintoo.ConcerningdirectsupportfromgovernmentandinvestoritcanbeobservedthatFDIcontractsoftencontainobligationstoinvestinsocialinfrastructuresuchasschools,healthcentresetc.MalibyaAgricultureisplanningtobuildaschoolandkindergartenintheworkers’settlement.Thiswill,however,havealimitedimpactonthecommunity–ifatall.Also,theESIAhavesetoutrequirementsforMalibyaandSoSuMartodeliversexualhealthandHIV/AIDScampaigns.Itremainstobedemonstratedtowhatextentthesesocialmeasureswillbeaccomplished.

Thesocio-culturalimpactdependsontheextentofchangestheFDIwillbring.Asbothcasestudiesshowthattheseinvestmentsbringmajorchangeswiththem,suchasrelocation,destructionofvillages,fields,forests,transhumanceroutesetc.thiswilltriggeracompletechangeoflivelihoodandlifestyle.Itcanbeexpectedthatmanyofthetraditionalhabitswillgetlostorreplacedbyforeign/exogenousones.Thiscanleadtoalossofidentificationandabreakupoffamilyunits.Ontheotherhand,therecurrentlyisatendencyto

leaveruralareas(ruralexodus)whichcouldbestoppedbyFDIcreatingnewjobs.ButitcanalsobeacceleratedbyFDIleadingtotheexpropriationofpeopleandthepushingawayfromfertileareas.Itishardtojudgeiftheexpectedchangeshouldbeconsideredaspositiveornegative.Peopleprobablyhavetofaceboth:negativeimpactsintheformoflossoftraditionandindigenouscultureandpositiveimpactsbytheintroductionofexogenouscultures.

Withdisregardofarchaeologicalheritageinordertodevelopandleaseareasinterestingforinvestors,importantnationalheritagecouldbedestroyed.

Thechangesinlivelihood,theimmigrationofworkersfromotherregions,neighbouringcoun-triesandevenforeignculturesaswellastheincreasingcompetitionfornaturalresources,resultingfromthispopulationincreaseandtheinvestmentitself,hasalreadyledtofirstconflictsandwillprobablyleadtomanymore.

Therealsoisariskofinvestorsoccupyinglandformerlyusedaspasturelandorhinderingaccesstoherders’accommodation.Thiswillendangerthetraditionaltranshumancepatternsinthearea,haveamajorimpactonthelocalcultureandaggravateconflictsbetweencattleherdersandarablefarmers8.

Also,conflictsarearisingbecauseofignoringtraditionalcattleroutes.InthecaseofMalibya,thelocalChamberofAgriculturehaswrittentotheMinistryofAgriculturetoexpressitsconcerninrelationtotheoccupationofcattlecrossingsandherders’accommodation.Furthermore,therightsofwateraccesswillbeseverelyaffectedbytheMalibyaproject,particularlyduringthedryseasonintheNigerBasinAuthorityareawhereoff-seasonfarmingispractised.ThefarmersassociationCNOPhasbeeninvolvedandistryingnowtosafeguardtheinterestsoftheconcernedpopulation.

Also,ethnicconflictsmayrisebetweenbetterpaidforeignersandlowpaidlocalpeoplehavingnoaccesstosuperiorjobs.

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8 For more information, see DNPIA/Conseil de Cercle/PACT: Rapport sur l’impact des aménagements Malibya sur les espaces agropastoraux de Macina, avril 2009 (National Executive for Animal Product Industries / District Council / Support Programme for Domestic Communities: Report on the impact of Malibya developments in Macina’s agropastoral areas, April 2009)

7.3 Environmental opportunities and risks Fromthecurrentpointofview,thealreadyvisibleenvironmentalimpactsaswellaspotentialfutureenvironmentalimpactsarenegativethroughout.Therisksasmentionedandexplainedinchapter6canbesummarisedasfollows:

• Lossofbiodiversityduetodeforestationandtheintroductionofvastmonocultures;

• Increasedpressureontheremainingnaturalresourcesduetopopulationincrease;

• Erosion,desertification,salinisationandconse-quentlylossofsoilfertility;

• Watershortageanddrawdown;• Destructionofcarbonsinks;• Increaseingreenhousegasemission;• Negativecarbonbalance;• Environmentalpollutionofair,soilandwater.

Conservationareas(protectedforestsornationalparks)arenotaffectedbytheplannedFDIprogrammes.However,theFDIascurrentlyplannedwillinevitablymeanlossesofnaturalvegetation,areaswithhighconservationvalue,culturallandscapes,grazingareasetc.

7.4 Opportunities and risks in respect to food securityFoodsecurityisnotyetaffectedbyFDIinlandprojects.However,whentheseschemesandproductionactivitiescommence,cerealproductionseemslikelytobehit.Forexample,Malibyareducestheamountoffertileirrigablefarmlandfornationalfoodproductionby100,000ha.SoSuMar’s14,100haformerlyearmarkedforriceproductionwillnowbecomewater-hungrysugarplantations,resultinginan85,000-tonnedropinriceoutput(sixtonsperha).Thisalsoposesrisksintermsofwatershortagesinthedryseason.

FDIinsugarcaneforinstancecouldposeprob-lemsforlong-termfoodsecuritystrategiesasthesecropscompeteforlandandwaterresources.Atpresent,foodproductionandagro-fuelproduc-tiondonotcompete.Infact,thefirstagro-fuelcropswillbejatropha,whichisinter-tilledwithmillet,maizeandsorghuminrowsspacedfivemetresapart.Jatrophaagro-fuelcropsdonotcompetewithrice-productionifjatrophaisgrowninharsherconditions.Competitionmayariseinfutureifagro-fuelsbecomemoreprofitablethanfoodduetohighoilprices.Inthatsituation,agro-fuelcropsmightreplacemillet,maizeorsorghumproduction.

FDIprogrammesarejustgettingofftheground;however,onehastoapprehendanincreaseinfoodinsecurityofvulnerablegroupswhomaybeaffectedwhentheseprojectsareimplemented,forinstancebyalackofrecognitionfortheircustom-aryrightsonland,bydisappearanceoftheirforesthabitatsorbyunavailabilityofsufficientwaterforagricultureaswellasforlivestockkeepingwhichwilldeprivethemoftheirproductionbase.

TheeffectofFDIintermsoffoodsecurityiscloselylinkedtotheeconomicimpact.ThemorelocalpeoplewillbenefiteconomicallyfromtheFDI,thebettertheywillbeabletoensuretheirfoodsecurity.However,eveninthecaseofahighpositiveimpactonthelocaleconomyandonpeople’sincomesituation,theirfoodsecuritymightbeatriskduetoinsufficientfoodproduc-tionforthenationalmarketwithinthecountryand,therefore,astrongdependenceonforeigncountrieswho–incaseofaregionalorglobalfoodcrisis–willfirstservetheirownneeds.

29

Cattle herd

8.1 Existing support to successfully deal with FDIGermandevelopmentcooperationsupportsruraldevelopmentinMalithroughseveralGerman-Maliantechnicalandfinancialcooperationprojects.NoneofthemexplicitlyfocusesonthesupportofFDIstrategies.However,astheyalldeal–inonewayoranother–withnaturalresourcesmanagementandlocalcapacitybuild-ing,someoftheiractivitiessupportlocalaswellasnationalinstitutionstodealmoresuccessfullywithforeigninvestorsdefendingtheirowninterests.TheGermanKreditanstaltfürWiederaufbau(KfW)assistsindevelopingtheinfrastructureintheNigerBasinAuthorityarea.KfWsupportedadetailedstudyanalysing‘thepotentialfordryseasonirrigationintheNigerBasinAuthorityarea’.Thestudy’sconclusionswerenotfavourableforFDIprogrammes,inparticularforsugarcanegrowing,asitmaythreatenwatersuppliesinthedryseason.

TheProgrammetoSupportLocalGovernment(PACT)dealswith,amongstotherthings,localcapacitybuilding,naturalresourcemanagementandlandmanagementatthelocallevel.GTZ’sinputthroughPACThasputMalibya’sactivitiesontheagendaoflocalelectedrepresentativesandtheyhavesinceputinplacestrategiestoprotecttheinterestsoflocalcommunities.GTZ/PACT’sactivitiesbuiltthecapacitiesofkeyplayers(com-munityauthorities,civilsociety)toalevelwheretheyareawareoftheirrightsinthedevelopmentoflocalagreementsandknowhowtoasserttheserightsintheFDIprocess.PACTcapacity

developmentactivitiesenabledrepresentativesfromtheMacinaDistricttogathersupportfromcivilsocietyandthentolobbynationalauthorities.ThecommunallandmanagementcomponentofPACTiscurrentlydevelopingsimpletoolstobeusedbycommunaladministrationtoincreasetenuresecurity.Italsorealisedastudyontheharmonisationofcustomaryandstatutorylandtenuretoidentifyandproposewaysinwhichthelandrightsofsmallfarmerswhicharebasedoncustomarytenurecouldbesecured.Thestudyisacontributiontotheongoingnationaldiscussion/review(“EtatsGénéraux”)ofthecurrentlegalframeforlandtenure(incl.theLandAct,theAgriculturalOrientationLaw,ForestLaw,LawonPastoralism).

Thecommunityirrigationsystemsupportprogramme(PASSIP)9iscurrentlydevelopinganationalcommunityirrigationprogramme(PNIP)aspartofthenationalinvestmentprogrammeforagriculture(PNISA).

GermandevelopmentcooperationisamemberoftheTechnicalandFundingPartnersgroupintheFarmingandRuralEconomiessectionandheadsuptheirrigationteam.Ithasexpressedreserva-tionsaboutthevast,FDI-fundedlargescaleirrigationholdingsthatarebeingdevelopedasitispossiblethatthesesystemswillbreakthefragilebalanceofirrigationwatersuppliesintheNigerValleyduringtheoff-season.

8. Links between FDI in land and concepts/ support strategies of development cooperation to promote rural development

30

9 PASSIP is working at two levels: governmental consultancy and support of the government in building up a national small scale irrigation program (PNIP). In a later phase, PASSIP will support the implementation of the PNIP in selected regions. The approach of PASSIP is a holistic approach in regard to small scale irrigation (bringing together from the beginning the set up of irrigation infrastructure and its future productive use).

8.2 Potential additional areas of supportToguaranteeFDIprogrammesareeconomically,sociallyandenvironmentallysustainable,itisimperative:

• TodevelopthenationalagriculturalpolicyassetoutintheLOA.Thispolicywillplaceanemphasisondevelopingstrategiesforbalancedirrigationschemeinvestmentsthattakeintoaccounttheactualcapacitiesofirrigableareasforprivatedevelopmentandforstateandcommunitydevelopment.

• Toharmoniseapproachestosmall-andlarge-scaleirrigationschemes.

• Toensuretheeconomicviabilityandsustain-abilityofsmall-andlarge-scaleschemesandundertakethenecessarystudieswellbeforeprojectworksbegintoavoidsocialandenviron-mentalissuesandproblemswithfinancialviability.

• Todocumenttheirintendedcommercialstrategies.

• Torigorouslyapplyexistinglegislation:-donottakehigh-leveldecisionswithoutfirst consultingwithallconcernedpeopleor representatives–thisincludeslocal communities

-respectestablishedstandardsandregulations onresearchandactiontopreventdisastrous environmentalimpacts

• Toaccountforthecommunities’Economic,SocialandCulturalDevelopmentProgramme

• Toensurecommunityauthoritiesaregivenallthepowerstheyaredue,particularlyintermsofpublicandprivateheritage

• ToinvolveengineersworkinginthefieldinFDIdecision-makingprocesses.

DevelopmentCooperationcouldcontributetothesemeasuresbyfurthercapacitydevelopmentoflocalgovernmentsandcivilsociety.Thiscouldinclude:• informinglocalcommunitiesabouttheirrights

inregardtoFDIprojectswhichderivefromnationallawsandregulationssuchastheAgriculturalOrientationLaw.

• providingthenecessaryplatformandsecurespacefornegotiationsbetweenthelocalcommu-nities,theMaliangovernmentandtheforeigninvestor(s).Ifdesired,theroleofDCprojectscouldalsoconsistofthefacilitationormodera-tionoftheprocess.Onewayofconductingthesenegotiationscouldbeinthecontextofapartici-patorylocal/regionallanduseplanningwhichcouldservetobalancelocal,nationalandtheinvestor’sinterests.TheroleofDCcouldconsistinthecapacitybuildingoflocalactorstoindependentlyconductsuchalargescalelanduseplanningcoveringtheareaofseveralcom-munes.

TheseactivitieswouldperfectlyfitintothePACTprogrammeandmightbeconsideredtobeaddedduringthenextphase.

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Fertile land

ThisstudyisbasedontheresultsofasurveyaboutForeignDirectInvestments(FDI)inlandinMali.Thedatagatheredarenotexhaustivebuttheyprovideaclearpictureoftwomajorprojects(MalibyaAgricultureandMarkalaSugarProject).Inspiteofthepossiblenegativeimpactslistedhere,theseprojectsaregloballyinterestingforMalianditspopulation,ifmeasuresaretakentomitigatetherisks.

Intermsoftheseprojects,themainproblemsidentifiedandrequiringregulationbytheGovern-mentofMaliare:

• thegrantingoflandswithoutundertakingtherelevantstudiesandpublicconsultationstoensurethesocialandtechnicalfeasibilityofagivenproject;

• nottakingintoaccountthelandrequirementsoflocalpeople;

• thecommencementofworksbeforethecom-pletionofESIAs,whichhasdrawnprotestfromlocalpeople;

• failuretorespectthecustomaryrightsoflocalpeoplesuchasgrazingpastures,transhumanceroutesandherders’accommodation;

• failuretotakeintoaccountlocalauthorities’Economic,SocialandCulturalDevelopmentProgrammes(PDESC);

• disregardforlocalagreements;• Malibya’sfailuretotakeintoaccountthe

cattle-rearingsectorwhenbuildingtheprincipalirrigationchannel;

• thecallingintoquestionoflocalauthorities’roleascontractors;

• Malibya’srefusaltopayquarryingtaxes;• thefailureoftheMali-Libyaagreementtoset

outprovisionsfortradingproduceorforprotect-ingfoodstocksincasefoodshortagesoccur;

• thelackofclearwater-useanddistributionstrategiesforirrigationprojects;

• deficienciesintradepolicywithregardtoFDIprogrammes;

• lackoftransparencyincontractualarrangementsandcorruptionresultinginbi-nationalcontractsbenefitingthosewhoareprivilegedduetotheirpositionbutnotprovidingconvincingbenefitsfortheMalianpopulationandevenworseningtheirlivelihoodsandendangeringtheirfoodsecurity.

ToensurethatMalianditslocalcommunitiesreapmaximumbenefitsfromFDIprogrammes,thefollowingrecommendationsshouldbefol-lowed:

1. Contractsandagreementsshouldbereviewedandamendedtakingintoaccount:

a)locallandrequirements(habitats,fields, pastureland,transhumanceroutes,herders’ accommodation,wateringholes,forestsetc.)

b)thetradeinfoodtoavoidfoodshortages c)theneedsofdisplacedorre-housedlocal

populations.2. InanyFDI,thelandrightsofoccupantswho

derivedtheiruserights(forsettlement,agricul-ture,pasture,water,forestsetc.)fromcustom-arytenureneedtoberecognised–nomatterifthelandunderquestionisregisteredornot.Toachievethisobjective,theLandAct(CDP)shouldbereviewedtoensuretherecognitionofallinformalland(use)rightswhicharebasedonthecustomarylandallocationsystem.

3. Takeadvantageoftheongoingreview(“EtatsGénéraux”)ofthelegalframeonlandtenure(LandAct,AgriculturalOrientationLawetc.)inordertodevelopclearandtransparentproceduresforforeigndirectinvestmentsinland.

9. Conclusions and Recommendations

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4. Agreementsandcontractsshallonlybesignedafterconsultingthelocalpopulationandwithgreatertransparencyandrespectforthelaw.Localpopulationshouldbeinformedbycivilsocietyorganisations(ruralbodiesandunions)abouttheimplementationofsuchprojects.Theaffectedpopulationshouldbeempoweredtoasserttheirrights.

5. Accesstofoodhastobesecured.FDIcontractsandagreementsshouldcontributetoanincreaseinlocalfoodsecurity.Therefore,theyshouldincludeobjectivesandcommitmentsinagreementsandcontractsfortheproductionoffood(cereals,milk,meatandfruit)forthenationalmarketinordertocoverMali’sownfoodrequirements.

6. Usecivilsocietyorganisations(farmingandtradeunionorganisations)toinformlocalcommunitiessotheyareabletoasserttheirrightsandtoobligesignatoriestooperatetrans-parentlyandwithinthelaw.

7. Rethinkthecurrentpracticeofexhaustivetaxexemptionforforeigninvestorsasincometaxfromtheseinvestmentscouldpresentamajorincomeforthenationalbudget.

8. Instituteareasonableannualhectare-basedlandtaxforcommercialinvestors(notneces-sarilyforsmallfarmers)toprovidenewincomeforthenationalbudget.

9. Undertakefinancial,technical,socialandenvironmentalfeasibilitystudiesbeforeenter-ingintoanagreementorsigningacontract.

10.Respectlocalconventionsthatregulateaccessandusetothelandinquestionastheyaretheoutcomeoflocalnegotiationssettlinglong-termconflictsovertheuseoflandandhavebeenofficiallyrecognisedbythestate.

11.Introduceaparticipatorylanduseplanningfortheareainquestiontoidentifysustainableresourcesusesandtominimisethenumberoflocalpeopletoberesettledaswellastoensure

thattheywillreceiveadequatefertilelandsascompensationforthoselandsgiventoforeigninvestors.

12.Defineatransparentandfairpolicytocom-pensatelocalpopulationwhoneedstoberesettled.

13.Makeitaprerequisiteforforeigninvestorstopresentaconvincingcorporatesocialresponsi-bilitystrategyaspartoftheirinvestment.

ThestudyhasshownthatFDIinMali,althoughonlyinitsbeginnings,mayhaveamajorimpactonruraldevelopment.Ifthisimpactwillratherbepositiveornegativedependsalotontheinvolve-mentofthelocalpopulationinthedraftingoftheprojectsaswellasontheextenttowhichcompen-sationispaidandmitigativemeasuresrealisedforthosenegativeimpactswhichcannotbeavoided.Asone-sidedagreementsresultingonlyormainlyinbenefitsfortheinvestor(‘scountry)willdefinitelyhaveanegativeinfluenceonruraldevelopment,DevelopmentCooperationneedstofollow-uponhowtheseFDIaredraftedandimplementedandshouldoffersupporttotheMaliangovernmentaswellastolocalcommuni-tiesandcivilsocietytoenablethemtobetterdefendtheirinterests.GermanDevelopmentCooperationinMalialreadystartedtogetinvolvedbycapacitydevelopmentoflocalgovernmentsandcivilsocietyaswellasbythefinancingand/orconductingofstudiesfocussingforexampleontheimpactsofFDIinirrigationareasoronpossibilitiestosecurelocalpeople’slandrights.

33

34

References

Item Publication title Translated title

1

Avant Projet Sommaire des travaux d’aménagement hydro-agricole de la 1ère tranche de 25 000 ha du projet de Malibya-Agriculture (rapport de synthèse, janvier 2009)

Summary pilot study of hydro-agricultural development works for the first 25,000-hectare stage of Malibya-Agriculture’s project (summary document, January 2009)

2 SoSuMar and CaneCo combined business plan (November 2007)

SoSuMar and CaneCo combined business plan (November 2007)

3

Convention d’investissement dans le domaine agricole entre la République du Mali et la Grande Jamahiriya arabe Libyenne populaire et socialiste (June 2008)

Agriculture sector investment agreement between The Republic of Mali and the Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (June 2008)

4Décret N°07-231/P-RM du 18 juillet 2007 fixant le cadre institutionnel de gestion de la sécurité alimentaire

Decree No. 07-231/R-PM of 18 July 2007 instituting the management framework for food security issues

5 Décret N°08-346/P-RM du 26 juin 2008 portant Etudes d’Impact Environnemental et Social

Decree No. 08-346/P-RM of 26 June 2008 for Environmental and Social Impact Assessments

6

Etude d’Impact Environnemental et Social des travaux d’aménagement hydro-agricole de la 1ère tranche de 25 000 ha du projet de Malibya-Agriculture (mai 2009)

Environmental and Social Impact Assessment for hydro-agricultural development works for the first 25,000-hectare stage of Malibya-Agriculture’s project (May 2009)

7 Lettre de la Chambre d’Agriculture de Macina au Ministre de l’Agriculture (février 2009)

Macina Chamber of Agriculture’s letter to the Ministry of Agriculture (February 2009)

8 Loi N°06-045 du 5 septembre 2006 portant Loi d’Orientation Agricole

Law No. 06-045 of 05 September 2006 instituting the Agricultural Guidelines Law (LOA)

9 Ordonnance N°027/P-RM du 22 Mars 2000 portant Code Domanial et Foncier

Edict No027/P-RM of 22 March 2000 instituting the private estates and property act (CDF)

10 Plan d’Action National de Gestion Intégrée des Ressources en Eau, Avril 2008

National action plan for combined water resource management, April 2008

11 Plan de financement indicatif de SoSuMar SoSuMar indicative finance plan

35

Item Publication title Translated title

12 Plan de campagne 2009/2010 de la Direction Nationale de l’Agriculture

National Agriculture Executive plan for the agricultural year 2009/10

13Programme de Gestion Environnementale et Sociale du Projet Sucrier de Markala (version provisoire, mai 2009)

Environmental and social management plan for the Markala Sugar-Producing Project (interim version, May 2009)

14Programme National de Sécurité Alimentaire (PNSA) de la période 2006-2015, 1ère phase quinquennale 2006-2010 (15 juin 2005)

National Programme for Food Security (PNSA) 2006-2015: year five review 2006-2010 (15 June 2005)

15 Projet pour le Développement Economique et Social (mars 2007) Economic and social development project (March 2007)

16Rapport bilan de campagne 2007/2008 et 2008/2009 de la Direction Nationale de l’Agriculture

National Agriculture Executive evaluation report for the agricultural years 2007/08 and 2008/09

17 Rapport bilan de campagne 2000/2001 des Directions Régionales de l’Agriculture

National Agriculture Executive evaluation report for the agricultural year 2000/01

18

Rapport de mission DNPIA/Conseil de Cercle de Macina/PACT sur l’impact des aménage-ments Malibya sur les espaces agropastoraux de Macina (avril 2009)

National Executive for Animal Product Industries mission report/ District Council / Support Programme for Domestic Communities report on the impact of Malibya developments in Macina’s agropastoral areas, April 2009

19

Rapport sur l’état des ressources génétiques animales dans le monde, rapport national du Mali (Ministère de l’Agriculture et de l’Elevage, septembre 2002)

Worldwide animal genetic resources, Malian national report (Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, September 2002)

20 Statistiques 2007 du Ministère de l’Agriculture, de l’Elevage et de la Pêche.

2007 statistics of the Ministry of Agriculture, Cattle Rearing and Fisheries

21

“Terres rizicoles de l’office du Niger: Grogne paysanne contre l’occupation libyenne” in: Le Republicain du 04-09-2009 (site web: http://www.maliweb.net/category php?NID=49888&intr=)

“Paddy fields in the Niger Basin Authority area: Grumbling farmers against Lybian occupation” in: Le Republicain of 04-09-2009 (site web: http://www.maliweb.net/category.php?NID=49888&intr=)

22

Banque de Développement Africain: Mali – Projet Sucre Markala. Résumé de l’étude d’impact environnemental et social (Septembre 2009)

African Development Bank/African Development Fund: Memorandum: Mali – Markala Sugar Project. Executive Summary of Environmental and Social Impact Assess-ment (September 2009)

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