FOR ENGINEERING -1958

Once a year, businessmen total their assets and liabilities,and prepare a final balance. This determines financial success,and suggests avenues of improvement for the coming year.

One of the largest assets of an engineering and manufactur-ing company like Westinghouse is engineering and scientificknow-how. This entry cannot show up on the financial state-ment per se, but its effects are evident. Engineering accom-plishment is a vital necessity-in fact, the backbone of finan-cial success-in companies with such a large stake in industrialand military progress. Why? The increasing complexity ofmodern civilization demands a continuing and increasing pacein technological development; the world situation, man'srealization of the earth's declining fuel resources, the con-stant struggle for a better standard of living-these are but afew of the factors that spur advancement.

Significantly, results of these three motivations can be il-lustrated with a single example -Shippingport, the firstlarge-scale nuclear -fueled power generating station, whichwas dedicated early in 1958. Tremendous technologicalprogress was made during World War II on nuclear fission,and this knowledge has been applied to useful, peacetime pur-poses in the period following the war. Thus, nuclear energywill stretch energy reserves many times-which certainlycontributes to improvement of our future standard of living.Many other examples, perhaps less spectacular, but nonethe-less essential to the overall picture, could be drawn.

This Annual Review is our "entry" of scientific and engin-eering accomplishment for the preceding year. True, it is notcomplete-space does not permit-but it is representative ofthe technological problems being attacked and solved. Theyrange from nuclear science, man's newest knowledge, toimprovements in such ancient arts as metal working.

Scientists and engineers, like businessmen, will pausebriefly to review their accomplishments, plot their future,and then resume their efforts to make each year's balancesheet better than the last.

J. A. HUTCHESON

Vice President

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COVER DESIGN: Mathematics is thebackbone of modern research andengineering accomplishment-hencean appropriate subject for the issuedevoted to the year's engineeringaccomplishments. This month's coverdesign by the R. G. Marsh Associates isan artistic pattern of geometric shapes.

RICHARD W. DODGE, editorMATT MATTHEWS, managing editorDANIEL E. UDELL, assistant editorEDWARD X. REDINGS, design and

productionJ. A. HUTCHESON, J. H. JEWELL,

DALE MCFEATTERS, editorial advisors

Published bimonthly (January, March, MaJuly, September, and November) byWestinghouse Electric Corporation,Pittsburgh, Pa.

SUBSCRIPTIONS: Annual subscription price toUnited States and possessions is $2.50; inCanada, $3.00; other countries, $3.00. Singlecopy, 500. Address all communications toWestinghouse ENGINEER, P.O. Box 2278,,3 Gateway Center, Pittsburgh 30, Pa.

INDEXING AND MICROFILM: WestinghouseENGINEER contents are regularly indexed inIndustrial Arts Index. Reproductions of themagazine by years are available on positivemicrofilm from University Microfilms,313 N. First Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

THE WESTINGHOUSE ENGINEER IS PRINTED INTHE UNITED STATES BY THE LAKESIDE PRESS,CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

The following terms, which appear in this issue,are trademarks of the Westinghouse ElectricCorporation and its subsidiaries:

Linestarter, Visicode, Saf-T-Vue, Lifeguard,Weather Duty, Mainstreeter, Silverliner,Fashion Plate, Guardistor, Insuldur,Shelterfor-M, Cypak, Mag-A-Stat, AutotroMagamp, Prodac, Quicklag, Micarta,Thermalastic, Reactifier

ANNUAL ENGINEERING REVIEWof the year 1958

1 ATOMIC POWER

Naval Reactor Program-PWR Plant-Yankee Plant- Aque-ous Homogeneous Reactor Project-Carolinas Virginia Proj-ect-Reactor Design Uses Floating Fuel-Belgian Reactor-WTR-Liquid Level Device

2 POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION, DISTRIBUTION

TURBINES AND GENERATORS: Waterwheel Generators-Mag-A-Stat Regulator-Turbine Improvements-FlashEvaporators-More Kilowatts on Single Shaft-Steel forSuper Pressure-Turbine CondenserTRANSFORMERS: New Insulation System-TransformerInner Cooling-380-MVA Generator Transformer-Designfor Convenience-Vapor Cooling-Better Coils for Distribu-tion Transformers-Pole-Mounted TransformersSWITCHGEAR: SF6 Circuit Breaker - Outdoor Switch-boards-Shelterfor-M Service Area-Standard CondenserBushing-Switch for Disconnect Switches-Recloser-Ca-pacitors-SF6 RecloserMEASUREMENTS, DISPATCH, PROTECTION: Auto-matic Dispatching System-Hall Multiplier Wattmeter-Taut-Band Suspension-New Features for Meters-Relays-Potential Transformers-Instrument Transformer Test-Cypak for Boiler Purge and Shutdown-KA Tone Equipment-Limit Switch for Indicating Instruments

3 APPLICATIONS OF POWER

DRIVES AND CONTROL: Standardized Speed Regulator-Variable-Voltage Control-Prodac Control-Cypak ControlledBag Palletizer-Cypak Ticket Dispenser-A-C AdjustableSpeed Drive-Tire Testing Dynamometer-Unattended Pipe-line Pumping-Mill Drive Test-Auditorium Dome Drive-Electric Governor-Medium Turbines-Emigrant Gas Tur-binesCONTROL AND DISTRIBUTION DEVICES: Low -Volt-age Control-Steel Instrument PanelsMOTORS: F/A Motor-Motors and Generators for OffshoreDrilling-Submersible Motor-For The Home-SwitchingThermistors-Thermalastic InsulationARC WELDINGLAMPS AND LIGHTING: High Output, Color Correction-Mercury Gets New Life-Incandescents Improved-LostLight Reduced-Surfliner-Truck Headlamps-Universal Bal-last-One-Way Lighting-Find The Ballast-FluorescentLamp Holder-Wall SwitchSEMICONDUCTORS AND ELECTRONICS: Infrared De-tector - High -Speed Dynistors - Electronic Tubes - HighPower Amplifier-Mobilex X -RayAVIATION AND MARINE: J34 Jet Engine-Aircraft Elec-trical Systems Improved-Airborne Components-Wind Tun-nels-High Temperature Test Facilities-Digitalized TestData-Navy Switchgear-Torpedoes-Military Communica-tions-Remote Control for Missiles-Cargo Ship and IceBreaker-Search Radar

4 RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING

Electroluminescence-Aluminum-Iron Alloys-Computer inReactor Design-Polyethylene Plate-Shaking Atoms-RedHot Motor-Taping Harmonic Strains-Objects Cause SonarNoise-Thermoelectricity-Cleaning With Sound-AutomaticPhotometer

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SOLAR POWER IN SPACE: Solar Sail for Space Travel-Moon Power Plant Inside Back Cover

volume Nineteen, Number One, January 1959

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The dedication of the ShippingportAtomic Power Station and the launchingof the USS Skipjack on the same day-May 26, 1958-are symbolic of progressin nuclear power for both peacetime usesand defense purposes. The PWR plantat Shippingport is the United States'first full-scale central station atomicpower plant devoted exclusively forcivilian use; the Skipjack is the first ofa class of high-speed, high-performanceattack -type nuclear -powered submarinesnow scheduled for construction by theNavy.

These milestones in nuclear progressare separate achievements; however,they are also mutually dependent. Bothare built around nuclear power plants ofthe pressurized -water type.

the naval reactor program

Submarines-Nuclear submarines con-tinue to set new records. Probably themost spectacular feat during 1958 wasthe submerged run of the Nautilus overthe- North Pole. A few days later theSkate duplicated the feat, while gather-ing substantial amounts of scientific in-formation during a more extensive ex-ploration of the polar region.

On her shakedown cruise, the Skateestablished an east -to -west speed recordof 8% days for a submerged Atlanticcrossing. On August 25, the Navy an-nounced that the Nautilus had betteredthe Atlantic crossing record of the Skateby two days.

While these record -breaking feats weretaking place, more nuclear submarineswere being readied. Two new nuclearsubmarines of the fleet reactor type-the Sargo and the Swordfish-went tosea, while a fourth, the Sea Dragon, waslaunched. The Navy's second atomicsubmarine, the Seawolf,, will be refittedwith a Nautilus type pressurized -waterreactor plant.

The Skipjack slid down the ways atGroton, Connecticut on May 26, 1958-the first of a class of ships with under-water characteristics superior to theNautilus and other previously con-structed submarines. The Skipjack willbe the first marriage of nuclear power tothe advanced hull form developed withthe Albacore (SS569), a diesel batterypowered development submarine.

Currently, Westinghouse is workingon power plants for 20 additional nu-clear submarines that will go to sea inthe next few years. The nuclear Navy istaking shape.

Submarine Prototype -S1W, the proto-type plant for the Nautilus, built at theNational Reactor Testing Station in

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Idaho, has produced much valuable in-formation since it first went critical onMarch 30, 1953. Tests made on thesecond loading of nuclear fuel confirmedmany theoretical and experimental pre-dictions. During 1958, the second corewas removed. Many subassemblies wereexamined, and a program of testing wasinitiated for this expended core, includ-ing detailed investigations into the core'smetallurgical, chemical, physical, andmechanical conditions.

On March 31, 1958, the third core wasinstalled. The third -core test programencompasses the areas of design verifica-tion, limited proof testing of special sub-assemblies, and extended thermal -hy-draulic studies. A prime objective willbe the correlation of nuclear analysesand experimental data.

Surface Ships-The first of the twonuclear reactors of the land -based proto-type power plant for large naval surfaceships achieved criticality October 21,1958. Eight such reactors will power theNavy's first atomic powered aircraft car-rier, the USS Enterprise. Two reactors ofa similar type will also be used to powerthe Navy's first guided missile firingcruiser, the USS Long Beach.

Westinghouse is responsible for the de-sign and development of the reactors forall of the above projects, under the direc-tion of, and in technical cooperation withthe Naval Reactors Branch, U.S. AtomicEnergy Commission.

PWR plantThe Shippingport Atomic Power Sta-

tion, producing power since late 1957is demonstrating its capability to operateas an integral part of an electric -utilitysystem with flexibility and reliability ofthe highest order.

In addition, the plant is serving anequally important role as an operating"laboratory." The test program hasalready provided invaluable information-information that could not be obtainedin any other way.

In general, the emphasis of the currenttest program is on exploring the perform-ance of a seed and blanket type core anda pressurized -water plant as a functionof time, determining capabilities both atsteady-state full power conditions and intransient situations. To this end, a seriesof full -power runs of 1000 hours dura-tion are in progress; spaced between theextended runs are periods of approxi-mately six weeks devoted to testing atconditions other than full power. In mid -August, when the reactor system wasshut down after its first 1000 -hour testrun, the plant had logged a total of

The USS Skipjack slides dawn theways at Groton, Connecticut.(Photo from Electric Boat Diz.ision,General Dynamics Corporation)

The Nautilus enters New York har-bor after her submerged runover the North Pole.

nearly 1700 effective full -power hours.In September, the plant started on itssecond 1000 -hour run.

Because of the nature of the testprogram, the plant has been operated fora considerable time as a peak -load sta-tion in the Duquesne Light Companysystem. It has met these requirements.Load changes at the rate of 3 mw perminute can be made over the entire oper-ating range, and load changes of 3 mwper second can be made for incrementsof 15 mw.

Particularly impressive has been thesimplicity with which this nuclear stationcan be operated after it is on the line.In manual control, the operator's onlyregular action is periodic addition ofmake-up water to the reactor coolantsystem, and the movement of controlrods to maintain average system tem-perature at the desired value. These twooperations require the manipulation ofbut three control switches located in thecontrol room. Under automatic control,the operator has but to add make-upwater, and monitor plant instruments.The reliability and self -regulation of theplant was amply demonstrated when,with the plant operating at 60 -mw netoutput and three coolant loops in service,the turbine throttle valves were trippedby a condition in the secondary system.This meant almost instantaneous loss ofload on the reactor. Conventional sta-tions would require considerable adjust-ment of fuel feed control and the reliefvalves on the boilers would probably belifted. In the PWR plant, the operatordid not even have to insert the controlrods. A pressure and temperature tran-sient was followed for about 10 minuteswithout control -rod motion; the tran-sients subsided without oscillation orother indication of instability.

Experience to date has shown thatsome mail- plant maintenance can beaccomplished with the station at fullpower. Well -trained maintenance forcesand proper radiation safety proceduresare required.

Of considerable interest to the powerreactor field is the power oscillationphenomenon found to exist under certainconditions in the PWR core. The powerdensity in one region of the core willslowly increase while the power in an-other region slowly decreases at the samerate. The variations are sinusoidal withtime and can be observed with normalnuclear instrumentation. The period ofthe oscillation is about 24 hours. Themagnitude can be controlled by slightinsertions of control rods in the regionsthat are increasing in power.

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These are but a small sampling of theresults obtained thus far from the Ship-pingport Station. The test program iscontinuing, and each new test periodyields a mass of information that willbe of inestimable value to designers offuture plants. The station is a jointproject of the Atomic Energy Commis-sion and the Duquesne Light Company;the nuclear portion of the plant was de-signed and developed by Westinghouseunder the direction of and in technicalcooperation with the Naval ReactorsBranch of the AEC.

Yankee progressAt Rowe, Massachusetts, the buildings

for the 134 -mw nuclear power stationfor Yankee Atomic Electric Companyare taking shape. The foundation and allgrading is completed, the plant is "underroof," and the steel of the spherical vaporcontainer is being erected.

Meanwhile, engineering of the pres-surized -water reactor system and con-struction of components are reaching latestages. All major components except thecontrol -rod drive mechanism and thecore are on order. Nuclear componentswill begin to reach the plant site in mid -1959, with steam generators and pumpsscheduled to arrive in late summer, andthe reactor vessel in the fall. Initial sys-tem testing is scheduled for the spring of1960, with the plant going critical in latesummer. Regular operation of the plantis scheduled for January 1961.

Many innovations are being consideredin this plant, most with the aim of simplerconstruction for pressurized -water plants.For example, the fuel for this reactor con-sists of uranium -oxide pellets, which arecontained in long stainless -steel tubes.For nuclear reasons, these pellets must fitsnugly in tubes, and changes in longitudi-nal spacing should be avoided. One methodexplored is to place the pellets in thetube, then stretch the tube to close upthe space between tube wall and pellet.Another process being investigated is theinsertion of spacers between pellets andthen stretch forming the tube. This notonly assures that clearance space be-tween pellets is evenly distributed alongthe rod, but also helps distribution offission gases.

aqueous homogeneous reactor projectThe single -region, homogeneous reac-

tor project, while still in Phase I, or the"feasibility" study stage, has moved intoa new area, the design and constructionof large-scale prototype components.

The prototypes serve two importantpurposes. First of all, they enable engi-

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This is a mockup of the main con-trol console for a large atomicpower plant. Engineers are usingthis mockup to determine ar-rangement of instruments.

Symbolic of the active researchand development program now inprogress is this test loop built byWestinghouse for insertion in theOak Ridge test reactor. Believedto be the first slurry circulatingloop for use in a test reactor, thisunit will provide important an-swers in the development of thehomogeneous reactor.

This scale model of a homogene-ous reactor plant is used to helpPAR designers study methods forremote handling procedures. Atcenter is the reactor, and leadingfrom it are the four primary loops.

neers to work out the remote maintenanceprocedures that will be necessary in thisplant. Already being tested are remotemaintenance procedures for pumps, andremote welding. Procedures such as thisrequire design of jigs and fixtures, as wellas planning for actual step-by-step dis-assembly and assembly.

The second important purpose of thelarge-scale prototypes is in studyingfluid -flow problems of the slurry -fuel mix-ture. Loop D, which circulates slurry atthe rate of 4000 gpm, has logged close to2000 hours of high -temperature service.It has yielded considerable informationto supplement that obtained in about30 000 hours of experience in four 200-gpm loops. Several new systems havebeen added to Loop D, including a high-pressure drain system, a slurry concen-tration control system, and a high-pres-sure makeup and letdown system, allprototypes of systems planned for thefinal plant. During 1959, a reactor vesselmodel and a steam generator will beadded to the loop, so that it will closelyresemble the eventual reactor system.

The PAR project, initiated in 1955 asa joint development of PennsylvaniaPower and Light Company and Westing-house, has since seen the Baltimore Gas& Electric Company join the projectgroup. Recently, Congress has approvedthe basis of a contract under which theAEC would support research and devel-opment programs for the years 1958-1959. The study phase of the project isnow expected to end in January 1960,after which the decision as to the con-struction of the plant will be made.

Carolinas Virginia projectA new proposal, approved by the Joint

Congressional Committee on Atomic En-ergy in May, involves a substantiallydifferent approach to a pressurized -waterreactor. Instead of one large pressurevessel to contain the coolant, moderator,and fuel elements, the reactor will, in asense, be broken into separate pressureelements. The idea, in general, is this:fuel elements will be contained in pres-sure tubes of about 3.5 inches in diam-eter. As presently contemplated, heavywater at 1500 psia will flow through thesetubes and act as the coolant. The mod-erator will also be heavy water, but willflow outside the pressure tubes and playno part as a coolant. The moderator willbe maintained at slightly above atmos-pheric pressure. One obvious advantageof this design is the elimination of alarge, heavy -walled pressure vessel. Smalltubes to withstand the same pressuresare simpler and less expensive to build.

Belgian Reactor-The Belgian reactorplant, being constructed for the Bureaud'Etudes Nucleaire, moved into its latestages in 1958. Of the major plant com-ponents, the steam generator, wasshipped in August, and turbines andpumps were expected to be shippedbefore the end of the year. The reactorcore is scheduled for shipment in late1959, so that operation of the plantcan begin later in 1959 or early in 1960.Photo shows fuel pellets and rods.

When scientists and engineers firststarted working on nuclear power plantdesigns, they were faced with manyunknowns-but among the largest wasthe effect that radiation would have onmaterials. Much has been learnedsince that time, but a tremendousamount of work remains. Toward thisend, the Westinghouse Testing Reactorhas been constructed. The WTR isscheduled for completion early in 1959,and for operation in May.

Facilities of this plant will be avail-able to industry for testing purposes.Also 3000 cubic inches of irradiationspace will be reserved for the exclusiveuse of colleges and universities. Thiswill be available free of charge to anyresearch or study program completelyfinanced by a college or university.

The objective of this project, initiatedin 1957 by Westinghouse and the Caro-linas Virginia Nuclear Power Associates,Inc., is to design and construct a nuclearplant that will produce the steam neededto develop 19 000 kw of electricity. Thissteam will be fed into an existing steamheader at the South Carolina Electric andGas Station at Parr Shoals. The programis in three phases: research and develop-ment, construction, and a post -construc-tion research and development period ofseveral years. The nuclear plant is sched-uled for completion in 1962, and is in-tended as a prototype for an eventual200 000 -kw or larger station.

reactor design uses "floating" fuelThe vast majority of nuclear power

plants built to date have used movablecontrol rods and fuel elements that werefixed in position. A different concept, nowbeing studied by Westinghouse for theCity of Burlington, Vermont, uses smallfuel pellets that are loose, within limits,within the reactor. No control rods-atleast in the usual sense-are needed. Thetechnical name for this reactor-theorganic moderated fluid bed reactor.

The fuel pellets for this reactor lie ina large cylindrical container, open at thetop, and with fluid flow holes in thebottom. The fluid-a hydrocarbon oil-enters the reactor vessel near the top ofthe fuel container, flows down throughthe annulus between vessel and con-tainer, and up through the container.

Before startup, the fuel pellets rest in asettled, packed bed. By proper choice offuel enrichment and pellet size, no chainreaction would occur in this conditionbecause of the close spacing of the pellets;or, to put it another way, no moderationtakes place, because of the lack of suffi-cient moderator fluid between pellets.To start the reaction, fluid flow is in-creased. The flow lifts the partides anddisperses them uniformly through thefluid, thus providing a moderation me-dium between pellets. Thus fast neutronscan be slowed to thermal speed by themoderator, so that a chain reaction canbe sustained. Increase of fluid flow in-creases the chain reaction, i.e., producesmore heat-up to a point. After the bedexpands beyond a predetermined pointthe neutron absorption of the hydrogenin the fluid exceeds the moderation ef-fects, and the reactivity and heat outputdecrease with further expansion.

In the reference design, a heat outputof 120 mw is proposed. The organiccoolant, circulated by main coolantpumps, enters the reactor at 574 degreesF and leaves at 680 degrees.

Several points about this type of re-actor are worth noting. For one thing, thefuel burnup in such a system would beessentially uniform, and the ratio ofmaximum to average burnup will be es-sentially unity. Because of the initialhigh conversion ratio, an extremely longcriticality lifetime results. This meansthat the limitation on fuel lifetime isbased on mechanical and physical con-siderations rather than on nuclear design.While this reactor design is still in theconceptual stage, it holds promise foreconomic power production.

detectaire-a liquid level deviceThe proper function of a canned motor

pump in either a pressurized -water reactoror a forced -circulation boiler applicationdepends upon the pump being solidlyfilled with water. However, since the rotorcavity forms a high spot in the system, en-trapped gases that may be in the watertend to migrate up into the rotor cavity.When this occurs, the internal circulationin the pump is interrupted, thus starvingthe bearings of their cooling and lubricat-ing water. To assure proper operation ofthe pump, some means must be availableof detecting gas at the top of the her-metically sealed 2000 -psi system.

A new device, called Detectaire, fillsthis need. It consists of a small chamberattached to the top -most point in thepump and into which the gas can mi-grate. In this chamber are two thermo-couple wells and a heater well, with oneof the thermocouple wells and the heatwell being connected together at theirlower extremity by a small metal bridge.

The function of the device dependsupon the difference in thermal conductiv-ity between liquid and gas. When thechamber is filled with liquid, because ofthe good thermal conductivity the heaterwell and thermocouple wells all maintaina uniform temperature, and thus the out-put voltage of the two thermocouples areidentical. By connecting the two thermo-couples differentially opposing, there isno net output voltage. However, whenthe chamber is filled with gas, the bridgebetween the heater well and the onethermocouple well causes this thermo-couple to produce a higher voltage thanthe thermocouple in the other well. In thiscase, there is a net output voltage.

Hooking the thermocouples in a differ-ential manner makes the device inde-pendent of the ambient temperature andresponsive only to the difference in ther-mal conductivity of the gas and liquid.The net output voltage can be used toactuate alarm signals and lights, and/orto take corrective action if desirable.

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TURBINES AND GENERATORS

At the beginning of 1958, some 87million kw of potential unused waterpower was estimated for the UnitedStates. The largest single bite out of thisreserve will be taken by thirteen 167 000-kva generators now in preliminary con-struction stages for the New York StatePower Authority's Niagara Power proj-ect. The first machine is scheduled fordelivery in mid -1959. The huge projectwas made possible by a 1950 treaty be-tween the U.S. and Canada, which basi-cally provides: the normal flow in theNiagara River is about 270 000 cfs;100 000 cfs must flow over the falls dur-ing the daylight hours in the tourist sea-son, and 50 000 cfs must flow during win-ter and night periods; all water in excessis divided between the U.S. and Canadafor power purposes.

To take full advantage of the waterallocated to the U.S., the New YorkState Power Authority will store water,during excess -water periods in a reser-voir with storage capacity of some 60 000acre feet. Water will be drawn from thisartificial lake during daylight hours.

The 167 000-kva generators are 120 -rpm machines, operating at 90 percentpower factor. The machines are of um-brella -type construction (thrust andguide bearing below the rotor), and thestator frame is 40 feet in diameter.

The initial phase of the Chief JosephPowerhouse was completed last year withthe installation of sixteen 67 368-kva100 -rpm waterwheel generators. Spacehas been provided for extension of thepowerhouse to include an additional 11units in the future.

Two 75 000-kva vertical waterwheelgenerators, operated at 400 rpm, havebeen installed in the Haas Powerhouse ofthe Pacific Gas and Electric Companysystem. This is an unusually high speedfor such large machines. This is broughtabout by an operating head of more than2300 feet. Water to drive the turbines isbrought through a six -mile tunnel and a4600 -foot penstock. The plant is the onlymajor underground station in the UnitedStates, and is located 2000 feet back in agranite mountain and 500 feet below thesurface. It was placed under round forreasons of economy. The gene?ators willbe of two -bearing type construction.They will be driven by vertical -shaftmulti -jet impulse -type waterwheels.

On the nearby San Joaquin Riverabout 50 miles northeast of Fresno, two66 000-kva waterwheel generators willbe installed at the Southern CaliforniaEdison Company's Mammoth Pool sla-

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lion. The generators and other electricaland mechanical apparatus will be con-trolled remotely by microwave fromanother of the utility's Big Creek power-houses. Mammoth Pool will be the firstlarge outdoor hydro -electric plant on theSouthern California Edison system.

At the Idaho Power Company's HellsCanyon development on the Snake River,four 100 111-kva waterwheel machines atthe Brownlee Dam were put on the line in1958. These are outdoor units and willoperate at 128 rpm, 90 percent powerfactor. Four more 52 778-kva machineswill be installed in 1959-1960 at theOxbow Dam, which is a few miles downthe river from the Brownlee Dam.

On the Columbia River, seven 107 000-kva waterwheel generators are scheduledfor installation on the Rocky Reach Siteof the Public Utility District No. 1 ofChelan County, Washington. The ma-chines will operate at 90 rpm with a headless than 100 feet. Because of the slowspeed but large rating, the machines willbe approximately the same physical sizeas the Niagara machines.

The 20 generators for the Rocky Reachand Niagara sites will be the largest ma-chines, both physically and electrically,that have been built by Westinghouse.

improvements in Mag-A-Stat regulatorThree major improvements have been

made in the type WMA Mag-A-Stat, thevoltage regulator and excitation systemfor turbo and waterwheel generators:First, the equipment has been redesignedin "building-block" form. This facilitatestesting, components are more accessible,and individual panels are available formultiple applications. Secondly, a newand improved excitation limiter circuit

is used. A greater range of settings isprovided, and theory and operation issimplified. Settings can be made easilyand directly from "per -unit" quantities.The greater range was desirable becausemodern practice permits generator oper-ation well into the under -excited region;stable machine operation is possible be-low steady-state pull-out values withproper regulator operation. The limitsetting is the same ideal circular kvacharacteristic, purposely made to followthe steady-state pull-out characteristicof the machine. Third, regulator controlcircuitry has been improved. Basically,the major change involves a transitionfrom a "stay -put" to a "spring -return"control switch. Spring -return switchescontrol circuit breakers that switch theincoming a -c power to the regulator, andswitch the d -c output power from theregulator to the exciter control fields.

turbine improvementsEach year, increased turbine ratings

with higher steam conditions are an-nounced. But to make these increasespossible, a multitude of turbine designdetail improvements are required.

Shrink Fitting Discs Scientifically-When turbine discs are shrunk on a shaft,the shaft elongates. The cumulative elon-gation resulting from shrinking six discson the turbine shaft can total as much as

inch. This is a sizable figure whenturbines are being built to accuracies ofthousandths of an inch, and in the past,this elongation was compensated by ac-curate machining of the shaft after eachdisc was shrunk in place. By accuratelyprecalculating this elongation, turbinedesigners have considerably simplifiedthis assembly procedure.

At the lc aho PowerCompany's HellsCanyon develop-ment on the SnakeRiver, three of thefour 100 111-kvawaterwhel gener-ators at 3rownleeDam are shown dur-ing construction.

Reducing Thermal Stress in CylinderWalls-With conventional high-pressuresteam inlet conditions of 2400 psi, 1050degrees F, the temperature drop betweenthe inner and outer cylinder walls shouldbe kept to a minimum to reduce thermalgradient stresses and possible resultantdistortion of the inner wall. In the past,steam was passed through the entireblade path, then between the inner andouter cylinders, and finally exhausted.Turbine designers have found that by re-designing the element so that the steamfirst runs through two-thirds of theblading, then between the inner and outercylinder walls, and back through the lastthird of the blading, a lower temperaturedifference results across the inner cylinderwall. A reduction of balance piston diam-eters is obtained at the same time, asblading thrusts are balanced, so that abetter overall leakage efficiency is alsoobtained. This new design will be used onhigh-pressure elements for a wide range ofturbine ratings from 170 to 325 mw.

Fabricated Low -Pressure Blade Ring-By 1960, almost all Westinghouse 3600 -rpm turbines will have fabricated low-pressure blade rings, replacing the castblade rings presently in use. This will pro-vide a ring consisting of more homogene-ous material, since the steel plate thatmakes up the fabrication has had consid-erable working during the rolling process,and voids and porosity are thereby re-duced. Stress relief can also be more ef-fective since less metal will be removedafter annealing. And last but not least,the fabricated structure can be made inless time and more economically.

more kilowatts on a single shaftA new champion is being groomed for

the title of "largest" in the tandem -compound 3600 -rpm turbine class. Theturbine will have a rating of 325 mega-watts with initial steam conditions of2000 psig, 1000 degrees F, with reheatto 1000 degrees F, and inches hgabsolute exhaust back pressure; it willrequire a maximum of over two millionpounds of steam per hour. This will bethe first tandem -compound machine withfour exhausts, previous four -exhaustunits having been of the cross -compoundtype. It will be the longest unit everdesigned; overall length, including gen-erator, is about 126 feet.

The inner -cooled generator driven bythe turbine will be rated at 384 mva, 0.85power factor.

The turbine -generator unit is scheduledfor shipment to the Helena, Arkansasstation of the Arkansas Power and LightCompany in 1960.

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Tandem -Compound For Nuclear Serv-ice-Turbines designed for use with nu-clear power plants to date have operatedwith saturated steam at relatively lowtemperature; an exception to this is the250 -mw, 1800 -rpm turbine being builtfor the Indian Point Station of the Con-solidated Edison Company of New York.This unit will operate with separately-

fired superheater. Inlet steam conditionsto the turbine are 355 psig, 1000 degreesF, and 1 inch hg absolute exhaust pres-sure. In general, the characteristics ofthis turbine are similar to those of theintermediate- and low-pressure elementsof large conventional cross -compoundreheat turbines. Because of the largevolumetric flow to the turbine exhaust,two rows of 44 -inch exhaust blades areused. This will be the largest tandem -compound 1800 -rpm turbine Westing-house has built.

steel for super pressureThe super -critical pressure turbine ele-

ment being built for the Cleveland Elec-tric Illuminating Company is unique inone respect. The super -pressure elementwill be constructed from a ferritic ratherthan an austenitic steel alloy because ofthis customer's desire to utilize all-ferri-tic materials for turbine parts. Steaminlet conditions of 3500 psig at 1100 de-grees F with reheating at 1050 degrees Fwere selected after studies indicated thiscombination to be a practical one for fer-

ritic materials. The super -pressure ele-ment is similar to that of the Philadel-phia Electric Company's Eddystone unit.The other turbine elements are similarto a conventional tandem -compound,triple -exhaust, single -shaft machine.

TRANSFORMERS

The limiting factor on the life of oil -filled transformers, particularly atabove -normal temperatures, has beenthe deterioration of insulating paper.Gradually it loses its strength and be-comes brittle. A new insulating systemchanges all this. By adding an organicstabilizing compound that reacts chemi-cally with the cellulose fibers of the pa-per, the paper is made stronger and long-er lasting.

Development of the new insulationsystem had several immediate results.In distribution transformers, where itwas initially applied, the system per-mitted breaker trip settings for CSPunits to be raised; the new settings boostnormal overload capacity by about 25percent over 1954 settings, and an addi-tional 15 percent is available on an emer-gency overload basis.

Thus a 25-kva unit with 1954 settings,assuming 75 percent preload and 35 de-gree C ambient, would trip off the line in90 minutes when carrying about 47 kva.Equipped with the Insuldur system a 25-kva transformer, for the same period oftime, would carry about 60 kva. Or, if

the load is kept constant at the initialvalue of 47 kva, the trip time is in-creased from 90 minutes to 31/1 hours.

In addition to fewer breaker trip -outsand more emergency capacity, utilitieswill have greater flexibility in schedulingchange -outs. While the breaker trip set-ting will be raised, the setting at whichthe overload signal light operates will re-main the same. With this increased bandwidth between overload signal and tripoperation, a greater time can elapse be-fore change -outs are necessary in areaswhere load is growing.

The Insuldur system was also adoptedthis year for oil -filled substation andpower transformers. In this case, it per-mits power transformers to operate at10 percent higher overloads without ad-ditional loss of life. The system is not ameans of increasing name -plate rating,since current -carrying parts have beendesigned for that rating. However, itdoes offer a means of obtaining overloadwhen economically justified.

inner cooling for transformersWith power transformers continuing

to grow in rating, a new technique called"inner cooling" provides a major assistto transformer engineers. In this designoil is circulated between the strands ofparallel conductors at the same potential-rather than through oil ducts betweencoils and windings. The new method al-lows use of materials with higher insula-

Left--Power transformers continued their phenomenal rise in rating, the record thisyear being chalked up by a 380-mva generator transformer delivered to CommonwealthEdison Company early in 1958. But more interesting than the size of its rating is thatthis unit provides greater capacity in less space than any other ever built. This trans-former is lighter, lower, and narrower than similar units with only 80 percent as muchcapacity. The 554 000 -pound unit was shipped in a single piece (without high -voltagebushings and cooling equipment) on a conventional depressed center car.

Center-This 7500-kva vapor cooled transformer was installed in mid -1958.

Right --Engineers are continuing to pack more kva into pole -mounted transformers.The newest version is a 250-kva unit only a little larger than the 167-kva transformer,previously the largest unit manufactured. The new unit weighs only 1700 pounds orabout 300 pounds more than the 167-kva unit. As a gauge to the accomplishmentwrapped up in the above words, the new 250-kva transformer weighs about 600 poundsless than the 167-kva unit that was common but three years ago; and it weighs a good800 pounds less than the previous 250-kva substation unit.

v.

woccieulp. la,b_srot

tion strength than oil at points of voltagestress. The net effect is that units can bebuilt smaller, lighter, and with highercapacity, with the same design marginsas units with conventional construction.

The first transformer of this design wasa three-phase substation unit rated 30/40/50 mva, 115 kv, built for New YorkState Electric and Gas Co. Low voltageis 34.5 kv and the transformer is in the550-kv BIL insulation class. Three otherinner -cooled transformers were scheduledfor shipment in 1958, including a125 000-kva autotransformer.

design for convenience

Improving a basically good designusually involves improvement of details-seemingly small changes that nonethe-less add up to significant net results.Such has happened to the standard lineof power transformers for the 750- to10 000-kva range, up to 69 kv.

The first thing engineers did waschange the way the transformer is placedin the tank. The core and coils are nowbolted to the base plate. Then the tankis lowered over the unit and welded tothe base plate. The transformer would beuntanked in the reverse manner, whichmeans less unloading weight, because thetank is lifted off the transformer, ratherthan vice versa. Also, less headroom isneeded for untanking.

While they were about it, engineersalso took a critical look at the instru-

Left-Model of 325 -mw single -shaft, tandem -compound quadruple -flow turbine.

Center-An unusual turbine -condenser arrangement in a power plant is illustratedby this model. Basement space limitations in an existing plant made it desirablethat the condensers be located on the turbine operating floor level. Instead of ex-hausting steam to the condenser in the conventional manner from the bottom ofthe turbine casing, the steam exhausts through two openings in the turbine casinglocated above the horizontal joint and on both sides of the longitudinal centerlineof the unit. Engineers used a plastic model to determine the optimum arrangementof structural members in the low-pressure turbine casing. The unit is for installa-tion in the Crawford Avenue Station of the Commonwealth Edison Company.

Right- Fou r -stage flash evaporators shown during installation in Kuwait, Arabia.Four of these units are producing over 21/2 million gallons of pure water per day.

ments that have traditionally been scat-tered all over the side of the transform-ers. In the new unit they are all locatedin a compact instrument center, whichmakes them easily accessible for reading,as well as lending a neater appearance tothe unit. Room for added control is al-lowed in the instrument center.

vapor coaling

In mid -1957, the first vapor -cooledtransformer, a 500-kva network unit,went into operation on the ConsolidatedEdison Company System off New York.In mid -1958, after almost a year's serv-ice, the transformer was removed fromthe line and returned to Westinghousefor examination, after which it will bereturned to service.

For a "first of its kind," the unit hadperformed admirably. No major dif-ficulties were encountered, and most im-portant, operational tests verified thecalculated performance.

Since the advantages of vapor -cooledunits increase with size, the next logicalstep was a power transformer-and itwas not long in coming. In July 1958, a7500-kva, 34.5-kv, vapor -cooled unit,with 200-kv BIL, was installed on thesystem of the Baltimore Gas and ElectricCompany. Like its predecessor, this unitcontains a mixture of sulfur-hexafluoridegas and fluorocarbon vapor, which serveas both insulating medium and coolingagent. The vaporizable liquid is pumped

from a sump at the bottom of the tankand flowed over the coil and winding.Here it absorbs heat, evaporates, thencondenses on the tank and cooler sur-faces, and returns to the bottom of thetank as a liquid. The cycle then repeats.The sole purpose of the SF6 is to main-tain dielectric strength until the trans-former reaches operating temperatureand pressure. At operating pressures,the fluorocarbon vapor has nearly twicethe dielectric strength of SF's.

The new 7500-kva vapor -cooled powertransformer requires no fan cooling up torated load, and will carry 10 000 kva us-ing external fan coolers. The unit is ap-proximately the same size as a conven-tional oil -immersed transformer.

The prime advantage of gas insulationis safety. The vapor -gas mixture is non-flammable and nontoxic, and thus avapor -cooled transformer requires no ex-pensive precautions regardless of whereit is located.

better coils, better transformersDual results frequently accrue from

design improvements. In distributiontransformers, for example, engineershave come up with a better method ofwinding coils from a manufacturingstandpoint, and this method also resultsin improved performance of the trans-formers. The new method, called progres-sive winding, enables the continuouswinding of high and low voltage coils in

one setup of winding machines. Actuallythis method, used for transformers of 50kva and less, winds five or six coils at atime, all on the same mandrel, and allcontinuously. The operation starts withan insulating tube; then as the mandrelrotates, wire, spacers, and layer insula-tion are wound on progressively as thecoil is built up.

Because of this winding method andother design changes, the impedance ofthese distribution transformers has beenreduced to the range of 1.8 to 2 percent,compared to a previous average of 2.7percent. Yet, because of the greaterstrength inherent in this type winding,these coils are mechanically strongerunder short circuit.

A similar method is being used on dis-tribution transformers of 75 kva andabove. Here, however, instead of a groupof copper straps, a wide copper stripserves as the conductor for the low -voltage winding. The net effect of thesenew winding methods is better coils thatcan be produced faster.

SWITCH GEAR

After several years in the lower arc-.interrupting classes, sulfur hexafluoridegas has moved up with the heavyweights-the large high -voltage, high -power cir-cuit breakers. A new 230 kv, 15 000 mvaSF6 breaker is the first of a line of high -capacity sulfur-hexafluoride-filled circuitbreakers. The unusual arc -interruptingability of sulfur hexafluoride gas hasmade it possible to design a breaker thatcombines the best features of insulatingoil and compressed air designs. From oilbreaker designs, the new breaker has bor-rowed dead -tank construction, positivemechanical connection between all con-tacts and operating mechanisms, andbushing -type current transformers. Likeair breakers, the SF6 breaker has light-weight, low -impact loading of founda-,tions, and consequently light -foundationrequirements. Since the unit is self-con-tained and does not exhaust to atmos-phere, the breaker does not make thenoise of an air breaker. Auxiliary appa-ratus normally required with air breakershas been held to a minimum.

Basically, each pole of the breaker con-sists of a round horizontal tank, with abushing rising vertically from each end,and the interrupter mounted axially with-in the tank between bushings. Minimumdimensions are made possible by the highdielectric properties of sulfur hexafluor-ide. The gas readily recombines after arcextinction, resulting in negligible gas de-composition and extending time betweenmaintenance periods. Being a ground -

10

level tank, platforms are not requiredduring installation and service work onthe breaker. The interrupter consists ofmultiple -break contacts, tied togethermechanically to a single operator, assur-ing simultaneous making and breaking ofcontacts.

The first breaker in this new line willbe installed on the Pennsylvania Powerand Light Company's system in mid1960.

shelter for switchboardsDesigners of switchboard equipment

feel that with increasing constructioncosts, more and more utilities will belocating switchboards outside. To furtherimprove the economics of outdoor switch-boards, a new weatherproof enclosure hasbeen developed. It provides completeweather protection for both operatingpersonnel and equipment.

Previous weatherproof enclosures foroutdoor type switchboards have con-sisted of a number of double -door units,placed in a row, so that each unit had anoutside door both front and back. As anumber of units increased, the result wasa maze of weatherproof outside doors.Designers have therefore been looking fora new arrangement that would meetsafety code requirements, but minimizethe number of expensive weatherproofoutside doors. They have come up with asingle -unit design, which consists of abasic unit with an outside door at eachend. As additional units are added, theend trim is removed, the additional unitsinserted, and the end trim replaced on thelast unit. Hence, for each integral sectionof switchboard, only two outside doorsare required.

Inside, the switchboards are located oneach side of a center aisle. The switch-board equipment is mounted on insidedoors, which swing into the aisle to allowaccess to the rear of the switchboard.Fluorescent lighting across the top of theunit provides shadowless lighting. Crash -proof hardware is provided on the doors,so that although they are locked from theoutside, only a push is needed on a releasebar to unlatch the door from inside.

service area for Shelterfor-MSwitchgear designers have come up

with a service area that is an integralpart of the Shelterfor-M outdoor metal -clad switchgear structure. The servicework area is obtained by extending theend enclosure of the Shelterfor-M hous-ing. Standard three-foot sections provideflexibility and no vertical center supportsare needed for extension widths up to ninefeet. Normally, the standard nine -foot

Top-Approximately a year ago, the ASAstandardized dimensions and certain designdetails for high -voltage bushings, so thatbushings off various manufacturers couldbe used in both circuit breakers and trans-formers interchangeably. Shown here is thenew Westinghouse Type 0 ASA standardcondenser bushing being installed in a 230-kv power circuit breaker. The bushing islifted from the top rather than from theflange. which gives a balanced load andavoids possible damage due to cable contactwith the porcelain. The bushing design ismechanically adequate to support the lift-ing strains of this arrangement. The newbushing is now made in ratings from 115 to196 kv.

Bottom-A new weatherproof enclosure foroutdoor switchboards improves the eco-nomics of outdoor switchboards and pro-vides complete weather protection for bothoperating personnel and equipment.

Top-Shelterfor-M weatherproof, metal -clad switchgear installed in the substationof Shenango Furnace in Sharpsville, Penn-sylvania.

Bottom -First announced last year, this 46-kv recloser. employing sulfur hexafluoridegas as the arc -interrupting medium, is nowinstalled on the Consumers Power Com-pany System at the utility's Quincy Sub-station in Michigan. The unit operatesmuch like a conventional low -voltage re -closer; the device operates with three re -closures and four trips, with lockout afterthe fourth trip. Recloser tripping is adjust-able from 150 to 400 amperes. The recloserhas a 250-mva interrupting rating.

Each of the three porcelain -clad poleunits contains an interrupter and singlebushing. These pole units are assembled ona supporting frame. The solenoid operatingmechanism, mounted at one end of thesupporting frame, operates the three poleunits simultaneously through horizontalconnecting rods.

The interrupter assembly is a separateremovable component consisting of theupper terminal, two -break interrupter,puffer, drive shaft, and moving contacts.The assembly is easily accessible; a specialdrive shaft coupling and current -carryingconnector make possible its removal as acomplete subassembly without the aid of acrane or hoist. The puffer, which is attachedto the interrupter, is operated during clos-ing, forcing fresh gas into the interrupterchamber after each operation.

addition provides ample space for stationcontrol batteries, tools, storage andother facilities. Location of control bat-teries near the breakers eliminates con-duit runs and reduces voltage dropsassociated with long leads.

The service area eliminates the needfor a separate structure-often a blockbuilding erected in a corner of thestation plot-and improves the overallsubstation appearance, simplifying land-scaping in crowded urban areas.

switch for disconnect switchesA special type of disconnect switch has

been designed for grounding the line sideof de -energized disconnect switches. Openduring normal line operation, the newswitch is closed to provide a ground pointand drain off static charges that might beon an open de -energized line.

A second application of the new dis-connect switch might be for sleet melt-ing, to prevent overburdening of trans-mission lines with an ice load. The switch,connected to ground and coordinatedwith various schemes to limit the flow ofcurrent, is closed (with the line disconnectclosed) to draw an overload of current.This current flow heats the transmissionline and prevents an accumulation of ice.

The new disconnect uses a high-pres-sure contact employing silvered sponge-like copper ribbon. Three switches can beganged for three-phase operation. Theswitch has a 600- and 1200 -ampere cur-rent rating for 69 through 196 kv. Theswitch is remotely operated by mechani-cal linkage, and counterbalanced so thatthe operator has only to supply effort toovercome friction. Normally, the newswitch is mounted on high -voltage dis-connect switches or air -break switches.

big extension for recloser rangePrevious interrupting ratings of the

automatic circuit recloser provided 6000amperes up to 400 amperes load current.The new recloser extends the range to8000- and 12 000 -ampere interrupting ca-pacity with a load -current capability upto 560 amperes.

When used on 15- or 5-kv class dis-tribution systems, the recloser detectsand operates to interrupt a fault on thesystem beyond the recloser. After adefinite brief pause, the unit recloses torestore power. If the fault has beencleared by this momentary voltage in-terruption, the recloser remains closedand returns to normal readiness. If thefault remains on the system, the reclosertrips once again and recloses until a pre-determined cycle of operations is com-pleted, when it locks in the open position.

Coordination with other protective de-vices is obtained with a preset sequenceof instantaneous and delayed trippingoperations. -more kvar per package

Progress in low -loss paper with highdielectric strength has made practical anew 100-kvar power capacitor. Coupledwith the size increase are some uniqueinternal design features that reducetemperature gradients and permit longerheat paths. As a result, the 100-kvardesign has dimensions practical for polecrossarm mounting and for Autotrol as-semblies. The larger capacitor size re-duces installation cost per kvar for pole -mounted banks, and in some cases per-mits more kvar on a single pole. Since thehigh rating doubles the minimum practi-cal size of large high -voltage banks, theunit will be used primarily on relativelylarge banks. The 100-kvar capacitor hasratings in the 5 and 8.67 kv classes.

MEASUREMENTS, DISPATCH,

PROTECTION

The key feature of a new automaticdispatching system developed by switch -gear engineers is the integration of eco-nomics into the control of system genera-tion to match load. New theories andtechniques were developed and engineersare presently building a simulating sys-tem to test the principles involved. Actualdispatching equipment will be used, withsimulated inputs to the equipment, andthe output fed to a simulated power sys-tem. For example, a feature of the testequipment is a device that simulates thedaily load curve of an electric utility;hence, problems of changes in load de-mand, variable in both amplitude andfrequency, can be introduced into the dis-patching equipment under test. The dis-patching equipment feeds its controlsignals to equipment that represents thesystem's generators, so that accuracy andstability of the dispatch control systemcan be demonstrated. These laboratorytests on the new dispatching equipmentare being run in parallel with analyticalstudies to prove the new automatic dis-patching system.

The first complete Westinghouse Auto-matic Dispatching System will go intooperation on the Southwestern ElectricPower Company System in Shreveport,Louisiana in mid -1959. Controlling twostations, which is a large percentage ofthe total system generation, the systemwill automatically control swings andkeep the system in economic dispatch.An automatic transmission loss computer

11

Left-New tone equipment (Type KA) for telegraphic functionshas been completely transistorized. The new tone equipmentuses three basic systems for transmitting intelligence: carrier on -off, amplitude modulation, or frequency shift. The equipmentwill use 18 frequencies in the audio spectrum. The transmitterconverts the information to be transmitted into an audible tone,which can be sent over carrier, microwave, or wire -line circuits.The receiver converts the tone back into control signals to per-form some telegraphic function, such as operating a remotemotor, a teletypewriter, or for impulse -rate and impulse -dura-tion telemetering. The first application of the new equipmentwill be on the Consolidated Edison system.

Right-This new transistorized device is designed for use withan indicating or recording instrument where a signal is desiredwhen a limit is reached, either high or low, without imposingany load on the instrument. Fundamentally, the device consistsof a transistor oscillator and two closely coupled oscillator coils,which have their mutual inductance changed when the movingelement of the instrument causes a metal vane to move betweenthe coils. The vane stops oscillation, causing a change in tran-sistor current, which operates a relay. These limit switches areadjustable over the full -range of the instrument.

is used so that accurate values of bus -barcost can be calculated. In addition, bymeans of a selector switch, the worth ofpower at all tie points and bus -bar cost ofpower at controlled and uncontrolled sta-tions can be determined. This will enablethe dispatcher to keep uncontrolledmachines in economic dispatch, andevaluate interchange transactions. Withthis new dispatching system, the cost ofgeneration can be kept to an absoluteminimum.

hall multiplier measures wattsA brand new type of wattmeter uses a

principle-the so-called Hall Effect-firstdiscovered in 1879. As a result, the sensi-tive moving coil elements of the conven-tional electrodynamometer type can bereplaced with a static transducer and ad -c indicating element. By using the newtaut -band d -c instrument, the resultingwattmeter meets high shock standards.

Key to the new watt -measuring deviceis a tiny semiconductor crystal. A single-phase element is formed by placing one ofthese crystals in a magnetic field gener-ated by the current being measured; thevoltage being measured is placed oncrystal surfaces to circulate a currentthrough the crystal at right angles to themagnetic field. A charge difference, pro-portional to the product of current andvoltage, is generated on the surface of thecrystal in a direction mutually perpen-dicular to both magnetic field and cur-rent. The instrument voltage output isobtained by locating contacts on thecharged surfaces.

Previous to the development of thesemiconductor crystal, the Hall Effectoutput voltage was not enough to poweran indicating element. The first applica-tion of the new watt -measuring devicewill be in a self-contained, circular -scale,250 -degree instrument.

12

no pivots, no bearings!A hair -like metal band replaces con-

ventional pivots and bearings in a newline of circular -scale switchboard instru-ments. This taut -band suspension systemeliminates rolling or sliding friction, sothat the only frictional loss is an in-finitesimal amount of molecular frictionwithin the taut metal bands. Further-more, the shock resistance of the suspen-sion mounting surpasses most stringentspecifications for instrument perform-ance. The new instruments are ideal forshipboard or locomotive applications, ormounting near large rotating equipmentwhere severe vibration exists.

The moving element of the new instru-ment is supported at each end by a shorthair -like band of a special high -strengthalloy drawn to rectangular cross section.Measuring 0.005 inch wide and 0.0005inch thick, the bands are dimensionallycontrolled to less than 5 millionths of aninch. The bands are permanently an-chored to the moving element and to U-shaped springs that maintain proper bandtension and contribute to immunity toshock and vibration. The taut -bands alsocarry current to the moving coil and, byproviding restoring torque, eliminate theneed for spiral springs. Sensitivity of anunusual degree is inherent-full-scale 250 -degree deflection can be obtained withcurrents of only 50 microamperes.

Switchboard instruments making upthe KX-241 line consist of d -c ammeters,milliammeters, and microammeters, andvoltmeters and millivoltmeters. Fre-quency meters with transducers and a -cvoltmeters of the rectifier type are alsoincluded.

new features for metersNew metal finishes and the use of a

single -metal register design have given

single-phase meters from two to five timesmore corrosion resistance than conven-tional units.

Essentially all components of the reg-ister are made of aluminum alloys, finishedwith a chromate -type conversion finish.The elimination of dissimilar metals andthe use of a compatible finish on all com-ponents of the register removes the possi-bility of electrochemical corrosion underextreme environmental conditions.

Corrosion has been minimized by use ofa thermosetting epoxy ester enamel. Thisis the first effective use of an organiccoating on aluminum meter frames.

inrush intelligence for relaysA new high-speed relay for differential

protection of transformers recognizesdifferences between fault currents oc-curring within the transformer's differ-ential zone, faults, outside that zone, andthe inrush currents that occur whentransformers are first energized. Forfaults within the zone, the relay initiatestripping of the transformer breaker; itdoes not take action when it senses inrushcurrents or faults outside the zone.

Ability of the relay to discriminate be-tween the three conditions results fromthe use of two circuit elements. A differ-ential unit supervises the trip circuit onexternal faults, whereas a harmonic re-straint unit takes over tripping responsi-bility when magnetizing inrush currentsare involved.

Operation of the harmonic restraintunit is based upon the fact that inrushcurrents contain even and odd harmonics,with second harmonics (120 cycles) as amajor constituent. When inrush currentsare encountered, tuned circuits direct120 -cycle current to the restraint unit. Ifthis second harmonic represents 15 per-cent of the inrush wave, the restraintunit perceives that inrush currents are

involved and acts to block tripping.The new relay is the consequence of de-

velopment work involving relay, trans-former, switchgear, and utility engineers,all of whom played a part as the designprogressed from stipulation of design ob-jectives to field testing for data on theproperties of the Kentucky Utilities Com-pany and Cleveland Electric IlluminatingCompany.

for relaying, meteringTwo new transformers have checked in

for relaying and metering applications-one a new high -voltage potential trans-former, the other a molded current trans-former. The potential transformer (typeAPT) is smaller and lighter than previousunits; for example, the 115-kv unit is 100inches high to the tip of the bushing, hasabout 30. by 31 inch dimensions at thebase, and weighs only 1950 pounds; thiscompares with about 108 inches in height,about 32 by 40 base dimensions and 3100pounds for the previous unit. But theseare not the only distinguishing featuresof the APT. An all -impregnated solid in-sulation system is used between high andlow voltage coils, which among otherthings eliminates the possibility of elec-trical creepage paths. Another feature isthe narrow spread of error over a widerange of burden; for example, it is lessthan 0.2 percent over the range from zeroto 400 va, 85 percent power factor bur-den. The APT is built in ratings from 92to 196 kv, with 450- to 900-kv BIL.

Tape -insulated current transformersare replaced by a new molded -insulationcurrent transformer (type ECT) in the2500 -volt class. The core, coils, and frameof this new group of transformers aremolded over completely with a newpolyester elastomer material that has lowpower factor and high dielectric strengthand is suitable for operation in oil. The

process is a "one shot" proposition, withcore, secondary coil and frames held inposition by their base, and the primarycoil by the primary bars. This method ofholding aures accurate positioning ofunits within the molded plastic.

The new ECT units, in general, willcarry 1.5 times their continuous currentrating, as compared to the previous unitswhich could carry no more than theircontinuous current rating.

carousel for transformersThe public utilitycommissions of many

states require that instrument trans-formers far metering applications betested for accuracy before installation.These tests must be performed and re-corded by the user or by a certified test-ing laboratory, all at the user's expense.

Now automatic testing equipment notonly makes all the necessary tests of theindividual molded current transformers,but records these results on a card, whichis furnished with each transformer. Trans-formers are placed on a carousel -type con-veyor and moved to five different teststations where the individual tests aremade. The position in which the trans-former is initially mounted in the carouselreceptacle determines the programmingof the tests.

The transformer then moves automati-cally from station to station where im-pulse, primary applied potential, second-ary applied potential, induced potentialtests are all automatically performed andthe transformer then moved to the ratioand phase angle test station where thesetests are performed manually.

The results of the individual tests arestored in the master reader for futuretabulation. After the ratio and phaseangle tests have been performed, thecomplete test results are automaticallytyped on a card, certified by the tester

Left-This is a new APTpotential transformer,which is considerablysmaller and lighter thanits predecessor.

Right-This "carousel"tests instrument trans-formers automatically;the results are tabulatedfor the user.

and attached to the transformer for ship-ment to the user.

Cypak for boiler purge and shutdown

Nearly all the virtues of Cypak controlcan be covered in one word-reliability.But this one word takes precedence overall others where control of the shutdownand purge cycle in a utility plant is con-cerned. Any failure to annunciate a faultor shut off fuel supply promptly can re-sult in serious damage to the plant.

For two units at the Sterlington Plantof Louisiana Power and Light Company,separate Cypak systems are designed tocontinuously monitor a total of sevenboiler conditions for the number five unit,and five boiler conditions for the numbersix unit. Among these are: gas valve open-ing, fan operation, fuel pressure, windboxdifferential, and furnace draft pressure. Afault in any of these is immediately indi-cated by panel lights and the fuel supplyis automatically shut off.

After the fuel has been shut off, eithermanually or by a fault, the Cypak systemprevents the purge cycle from beingstarted until all faults are cleared, mini-mum ignition pressure and air flow areobtained, all registers are opened and allgas valves are closed. Having met theseconditions, an indicating lamp on the con-trol board shows that the purge cycle canbe started. A purge timer is set for a min-imum time of a few minutes to assurethat all gases are out of the system. Afterthe purge is completed, the fault lightturns off, the master fuel trip relay is re-set, and a light indicates that normaloperation can be resumed. Only thendoes Cypak permit the operator to closeall air registers to relight the boiler.

Ebasco Services Incorporated were con-sulting engineers and managed the con-struction work for Louisiana Power &bight Company.

13

DRIVES AND CONTROL

To the already proven merits of theMagamp speed regulator for ignitron-powered motors is added another feature-standardization. In doing this, engi-neers have made other significant changes.First, a standard field exciter is used sothat the Magamp regulator is madeindependent of the size of the motor.Secondly, a two -stage push-pull 400 -cycleMagamp controls the field exciter, re-sulting in higher gain, faster response,and ± percent regulation. Now onestandard speed regulator can be appliedto any ignitron-powered motor.

Much space has also been saved withthe new design; the stand cubicle hasbeen reduced from 72 inches to 44 inchesin depth. Main circuit meters are locatedon the front door, relays on the insidepanel, and regulators on the rear door.With the rear door open, all voltagepoints for a given motor control areavailable for test and measurement.

completely static variable -

voltage control

Moving parts shorten a motor con-trol's useful life. In view of this, en-gineers have developed a static three-some of silicon rectifiers, power reactors,and Magamp regulators for variable-voltage control of d -c motors (Reactifierdrive). Its response is just as fast as itsrotating predecessor-the m -g set.

The operation of the new control issimple. The motor can be started andstopped by an a -c contactor in the three-phase line. The reactor power windingsand silicon diodes are connected in amodified three-phase bridge to controlthe motor armature supply. The silicondiodes provide self -saturation of thepower reactor in addition to their usualjob of rectifying the a -c power. Thearmature current and voltage are ob-tained by varying the d -c current in thecontrol windings of the power reactorswith Magamp regulators. The degree ofreactor saturation then determines theoutput voltage to the motor. Armaturevoltage and current signals are fed to theMagamp windings to provide a counter-emf type regulator with current limit dur-ing acceleration.

The new Reactifier drive has been madefor 1 to 200 -hp motors, operating oneither 50 or 60 cycles. A supply of three-phase 208/220 or 440 -volt power can beused. The unit can provide constanttorque over an 8 to 1 speed range, but aconstant -horsepower speed range canbe obtained with motor -field control.

14

Prodac controlSince its first application in the Jones

and Laughlin's Alliquippa Works inPennsylvania, Prodac control has lost notime in finding other applications in themetal -working industry.

At the Jones and Laughlin's reversingroughing mill, a single IBM punched cardcontains all information needed for asingle schedule, from the time the billetenters the mill, passes through a maxi-mum of nine reversing roughing opera-tions, and exits to the following hot -strip mill.

A similar system to be shipped to theNippon Kokan K. K.'s Mizue Worksnear Tokyo will be the first overseasapplication of Prodac control and Japan'sfirst automatic steel mill. When com-pleted in 1959, the reversing rougher willbe part of a new 68 -inch semi -continuoushot -strip mill designed to roll hot carbon -steel strip. The 6000 -hp main mill motorswill rough billets at speeds up to 1100feet per minute.

By far the largest installations ofProdac control to date are a slabbing millat the Gary Works and a blooming millat the South Works of the United StatesSteel Corporation. The 46 -inch universal"slabbing mill at the Gary Works preparesincoming billets for a hot -strip mill. In-formation from the cards then auto-matically controls the screwdown, rolltables, edger opening, manipulators, andfingers for turning the steel billets. Alsothe direction and speed of the mill is auto-matically controlled. Due to the amountof information needed for each schedule,magnetic core planes are used to storeinformation from the punched cards.

A 52 -inch reversing roughing mill atEmpire Reeves Steel's Mansfield Planthas its screwdown control automaticallyadjusted by Prodac control for a total ofnine passes in any one schedule. This5000 -hp mill feeds a hot -strip mill.

Prodac control also appeared in thealuminum industry. This year saw the160 -inch reversing mill go into operationat Alcoa's Davenport plant. Here Prodaccontrol maintains the screwdown andmill speed settings for any one scheduleof up to 25 passes. Also provided is ascoreboard for the operator that displays:the alloy number, ingot size, pass num-ber, rolled width, and an indication tolengthen or widen the slab as it is rolledboth broadside and longitudinally.

new a -c adjustable -speed driveLast year engineers did a sleight of

hand that would put the best of parlortricksters to shame. The props-a wound -

rotor motor, d -c motor, and semiconduc-tor rectifiers. A pass of the wand and-anew a -c adjustable -speed drive-its per-formance useful and unique but notcharacteristic of either motor. Thispackaged Rectiflow drive provides con-tinuously variable speed control overspeed ranges of 1% to 1, 2 to 1, or 3 to 1with a maximum speed of 1690 rpm. Theunit has a characteristic constant horse-power over the entire speed range, butcan also be made for constant torque.

Here's the secret. A wound -rotor mo-tor and d -c motor are coupled on asingle shaft. A set of semiconductor recti-fiers then converts the slip power of theinduction motor to d -c, which is thensupplied to the armature of the d -c mo-tor-putting the slip power to usefulwork. An additional set of rectifiers con-verts power from the a -c line to directcurrent for the d -c motor shunt field,allowing the package to be operated onany standard a -c voltage and frequency-hence the name a -c adjustable -speeddrive. A rheostat in the d -c field makesit possible to control speed simply byadjusting the field strength of the d -cmotor. If, for instance, the d -c field isopen and the Linestarter closed, the in-duction motor attains synchronous speed.But by applying a field on the d -c mo-tor, the counter -emf in the d -c armatureblocks the small current through therectifiers and d -c armature that wasnecessary to overcome friction. The drivethen slows down, the slip voltage in-creases, and the counter-emf voltage ofthe armature decreases until the slipvoltage is just high enough to circulatecurrent through the a -c rotor and d -carmature to again overcome friction. Ifwhen operating under a constant load, anincrease appears, the slip voltage also in-creases and armature counter-emf de-creases, to permit more current to flowuntil the required torque is obtained.

tire testing dynamometerAs jet planes clock up higher speeds,

engineers are faced with a "tire" as wellas a heat barrier. With longer runwaysneeded for take off and landing, andhigher speeds required to get the planealoft, airplane tires have to survive anunusual amount of punishment.

To improve tires for planes of the fu-ture, the U.S. Rubber Company sub-jects them to a grueling test on an Adam-son United Company dynamometer,which is controlled with a Magamp regu-lator. Instead of making flight tests,which might be dangerous with experi-mental models, the tire is kept stationaryand the "runway" moved. The runway is

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Though bags make a handy container, the fullbags are difficult to handle. But this Cypakcontrolled Miller bag palletizer automaticallystacks interlocking layers of bags into a neateasily handled pile. The Miller EngineeringCorporation is located in Louisville, Kentucky.

Above-An offbeat but appropriate Cypak con-trol application this year is at New York In-ternational Airport's parking lot. As a driverapproaches the lot, a magnetic cail beneaththe road causes the ticket dispenser to stampthe date and time on a ticket. As the drivertakes the ticket from the machine, the parkinglot gate raises. The gate closes as the car passesover a second coil.

Below-A static control for d -c motors (Reac-tifier drive).

an 8 -foot diameter flywheel driven by a1250 -hp motor. During a "take off" thetire is pressed against the wheel with aforce equal to the weight of the plane; themotor is started, moving the flywheel.Simultaneously the pressure on the tire isdecreased to simulate the lift of the plane.

Control of the motor is especially in-teresting during landing. The flywheelis rotated at a peripheral speed of 300mph; the tire is not rotating. Then tosimulate the impact of landing, the tireis pressed against the flywheel with aforce that may reach 80 000 pounds. Al-most immediately the tire attains topspeed, putting a severe brake on themotor. The Magamp regulator however,keeps the motor running at its prede-termined speed.

unattended pipeline pumping

An eight -inch petroleum products linefrom Salt Lake City to Spokane, Wash-ington is now running smoothly withonly two supervisory control points.Fuel oils are pumped through two paral-lel lines from Salt Lake to Boise, Idaho.One line has four unattended pumpingstations along its length. The other hasone. The supervision for these stations isin the Salt Lake dispatching office. Thesupervision for the two unattended sta-tions between Boise and Spokane is atthe Boise pumping station. Because ofstorage tanks at Boise, the two sectionscan be operated independently.

To give a constant check on the un-attended stations, both the suction anddischarge pressure of each station andthe discharge pressure of each pump aretelemetered to the supervisory location.In addition, equipment condition is mon-itored and such abnormal conditions asexcess pump seal leakage, high motortemperatures, high transformer tem-peratures, incomplete sequencing of auto-matic operations, and power failure areautomatically reported at the respectivedispatching office. Telemetering is doneusing pulse -duration techniques, the in-formation being given to the telephonecompany in the form of audio -frequencytone pulses for transmission and repro-duction at the far end of the circuit. Cer-tain essential conditions are continuouslytelemetered; each is assigned a specificaudio frequency.

Each station, and each pump unit,can be controlled remotely. Pumps canbe started and stopped on demand andpressure set points can be adjusted. Theequipment at each pump station is self -protecting and if operating conditions go"out of bounds" the unit or station willautomatically shut down. If the condi-

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tion is transient in nature (e.g., low suc-tion pressure), the equipment can berestarted remotely; however, if the off -limit condition is indicative of an equip-ment failure (e.g., excess seal leakage),the equipment is "locked out" and thestarting circuits must be reset locally.

Remote control and supervision iseffected by Visicode supervisory control.This system represents point of super-vision or control by a two -digit number.If an operator must adjust pressures orstop or start a pump unit, the operatorpresses the pushbutton on his controlpanel corresponding to the device. Thecontrol system automatically sends trainsof pulses to select and check the selectionof the device. The operator then pressesthe pushbutton corresponding to thedesired operation. Again the equipmentsends a train of pulses initiating the con-trol action. When the control action hasbeen completed a final train of pulses isreturned, which causes an indication toappear on the control panel.

new electric governorAfter several years of concentrated

engineering, a new electric governor hasbeen unveiled. The new model (EFG)consists of two major components: anelectric control unit, and an electro-hydraulic actuator. The governor oper-ates solely by electrical frequency (speed)sensing. The heart of the system is an ad-vanced magnetic -amplifier element thatgreatly reduces the time response re-quired by the magnetic amplifier, pro-viding increased sensitivity and stabilityto the system. Tests on various sizes andtypes of engine -generator sets indicateconsiderably improved performance overearlier models without the requirementof load sensing. Advanced design tech-niques also provide a much smaller andlighter unit than earlier models.

high steam conditions for

medium turbines

The City of Detroit, through theirPublic Lighting Commission, can layclaim to the "biggest little" turbine inthe world, a 50 -mw steam turbine withexceptionally high -steam conditions fora turbine of this rating-steam inlet at1800 psig, 1050 degrees F, and 1000 de-grees F reheat. Six stages of feedwaterheating are utilized, as compared to fivestages normally employed for a unittwice this size. As a result, exceptionalperformance will be realized for a unit ofthis size.

A 9375 -kw turbine will use steam at1425 psig and 950 degrees F, with 400

The equipment shown is a completemill drive with all the components forone stand of a 66 -inch hot -strip mill.To make steady-state and transienttests on the complete combination ofequipment for the stand at EastPittsburgh, all the components weregathered from the many manufac-turing centers, assembled and com-pletely wired as though being in-stalled in the customer's plant. Thisunusual combination test of all standcomponents was taken on equipmentfor a four -stand mill of Aceros Pianosde Monterey, SA. in Mexico.

Model of Pittsourgh's civic auditor-ium, which will be capped with theworld's largest movable dome -415feet in diameter. At the touch of asingle control button, six roof leaveswill move at differential speeds toarrive at the open or closed positionin the same time -21/2 minutes! Theleaves will move at predetermined,synchronized speeds, governed byspeed and horsepower of each leaf'sfive electric drive motors and by indi-vidual reactor controls for each leaf.

psig extraction and 130 psig exhaustpressure. This unit is being installed bythe Rhinelander Paper Company. Thisset of steam conditions fitted in withsteam conditions in the RhinelanderMill; the turbine acts as a topping unitfor others already in service.

emigrant gas turbinesIndustrial gas turbines are migrating

to some interesting applications. InMexico, an 8500 -kw turbine will generateelectric power for use in the steel plantof Altos Hornos de Mexico. The exhaustgas from the unit will pass through aboiler, which will produce steam to drivea steam -turbine air blower for the blastfurnace. This is the first time a gas tur-bine has been so applied, and will resultin high overall plant efficiency.

Four 5000 -kw gas turbines will gen-erate electricity for a state-owned munici-pality in a remote mountainous part ofBrazil. The turbines will burn a residualoil with a high percentage of vanadium,calcium, and sodium salts, which if leftuntreated can be extremely harmful tothe engine. Therefore, along with theturbine, a treating system will be sup-plied to neutralize these harmful salts.

In Venezuela, Westinghouse will buildthe first gas -turbine power station withcompletely automatic remote controls forCompania Shell de Venezuela to poweran oil storage and tanker -loading facilityon Lake Maracaibo. The station consistsof two 5000 -kw turbine -generator units,which will power nine 1500 -hp pumpingmotors. Capacity of the installation willallow handling initially 700 000 barrelsdaily and eventually well over one millionbarrels per day. By using remote controls,the same man can run the turbine and theoil -distribution system from a singlepoint. To assure continuous operation,the turbines can switch to diesel fuelshould there be a failure in the gas supply.

Also on Lake Maracaibo, the CreolePetroleum Corporation has completedtheir third, and are now building theirfourth, "island" to add fiirther capacityto their gas conservation plant, whichmaintains pressure on their undergroundoil fields. Seven turbine -compressor unitswill be located on each platform withprovisions for seven more when needed.Each gas turbine is an 8000 -hp unit andwill drive a centrifugal compressor. Nat-ural gas, which has come out of solutionfrom the crude petroleum that has beenbrought up from the oil reservoir, willenter the pumping plant at a pressure of30 pounds, go through the compressors inseries, and return to the oil reservoir at2000 pounds pressure. Hence, the pump-

ing stations serve two purposes-the oilfields are kept under pressure and gas isconserved for future use.

CONTROL AND DISTRIBUTION DEVICES

As usual the field of devices for low -voltage circuit control shows a long listof improvements and first appearances.Here are a few from last year:

Select-O-Lite-By combining the func-tions of a two -position selector switchand indicating light, the Select-O-Litemakes possible a 50 percent saving inpanel mounting space. The light is locatedin the head of the selector switch. Atypical application would be an on -offswitch with the light indicating power on.The switch has ratings of 120- to 480 -volts a -c and 6- and 125 -volts a -c or d -c.

Vinyl -Insulated Low Impedance Bus-way-Low impedance buswork can nowstep into a number of new jobs becauseof a new insulating material-a tightfitting vinyl tubing. This makes venti-lated outdoor busway a practical reality,as the vinyl tubing is completely water-proof. Also, the vinyl easily resists acidsand alkalies. Previous bus bars coatedwith varnished cloth and other tapes wereextremely limited in these areas.

This development was made possibleby a new manufacturing technique. Thevinyl tubing is stretched as it is formedand "frozen" in its enlarged state. Afterit is fitted on the bus bar, heat is appliedand the tubing returns to its original size.The insulation is applied to buswayswith ratings from 600 to 5000 amperes.

Saf-T-Vue Interlock-Saf-T-Vue andother standard breakers can now receivean added measure of safety with an inter-lock that prevents the breaker from beingthrown on when the cover is open.

When the cover is opened the interlockautomatically moves in front of thebreaker handle, and to prevent tamper-ing, provision is made for several pad-locks. When the cover is closed, a camautomatically moves the interlock fromthe breaker handle. The interlock can beapplied to any breaker operated by afront -mounted toggle -type handle.

Three -Pole Quicklag Breakers-Thefamily of Quicklag breakers is now com-plete with the addition of the three -poleunit, bringing circuit protection to one-two- or three-phase lighting or light in-dustrial systems. Triple -pole breakershave been obtained in the past by linkingthe handles together by means of handleties and obtaining single -pole tripping.But now, because of a newly developedcradle tie bar assembly, simultaneoustripping of all poles can be obtained.

The unit protects three-phase 240 -volt

systems with maximum fault currents of5000 amperes. Inverse time delay is pro-vided on overloads and high resistancefaults from the current rating to 5000amperes. Ratings of 15, 20, 30, 40, and 50amperes are provided in both bolted typeC and stab -in type P construction.

control panels made of steel

For years d -c control panels for steelmills have been made of ebony, asbestos,or slate. While these materials providedadequate insulation between controls, allwere on the heavy side and could bebroken in shipment. The lighter andstronger steel could not be used becausea bushing was not available for insulationbetween the control studs and panel.

The use of steel has now been madepossible with the perfection of a glasspolyester bushing. This device, which fitsbetween the stud and panel, has been de-signed with several different diametersections. While iron and slag dust cancollect on the top surfaces of each section,none is found on the vertical surfaces.Thus electrical creepage is eliminated asthere is no continuous layer of dustacross the surface of the bushing.

Not only has the panel been strength-ened and lightened with steel, but severalother advantages have been incorporatedin the new design. All control connectionsare made on the front of the panel, andcontrol wiring has been neatly tuckedaway in Micarta channels. If controlchanges must be made, the cover can besnapped off, and wires easily traced. Thisfront -wiring scheme leaves only maincopper connections on the rear of thepanel, providing access to the main con-nections, shunts, and small resistors.

MOTORS

If ever a device had hidden talentsit's a new submersible pump motor. Itoperates deep in a well, "over its head"in water, driving a pump just above it.

The new motor takes to water like askin diver. Not only does it operate sub-merged, but also (unlike a skin diver)literally full of water; moreover it useswater as a lubricant for its thrust andguide bearings.

All this required a bit of doing. In thefirst place it required a special water-proof insulation system. Each wire in thewinding is plastic covered, and the jointsare potted with epoxy resin. This systemmaintains an insulation resistance ofhundreds of megohms. At the same timeit permits the water to serve as a heattransfer medium.

The water -lubricated thrust bearingeasily handles extremely high -thrust

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These 8000 -hp gas to -bines purr gas back nto underground oi reservoirs undera pressure o: 2000 psi.

Electrical control pane s for the new U. S. Steel electrolytic nning line installedby Columbia -Geneva Civision at Fittsburg, California. Thousands of controls areused to cperate the new equiprser7., which cal produce tin plate for the canningindustry at steeds uc to 1250 feat a minute.

The new F/A -rotor was introduced in mid -1958. Utilizing a new concept in large a -cmotor design the wcu id stator i3 a com-ponent independent e the motor housing.Hence, the wound stator is fully accessiblefor inspection and maintenance. Alreadyon the drawl -ig board or in tte ;hcp arepractically every type and size of motor thatwill be bu It; this includes horizon -U.1 squir-rel -cage, wand -rotor, and serchronousmotors from 250 to 7000 hp. -Ile largestmotors completed to date are three 4000 -hpsquirrel -cage 2600 -rpm motors, 3 pe ra7ed at4000 volts.. They are teing instzllec in theAlabama Power Company's Bar- y Steamplant, and will drive to ler feed pumps.

Instead of hauling a line of box-cars, three traetio-l-type d -c mo-torsand genera:oracl i m bed aboardthe Dixilyn Drilling Corporation'soffshore drilling rig, "Julie Ann,"to hunt for oi . The drawworks ofthis 25 000 -foot rig is powered bytwo 1000/1600 -hp traction -type1-c motors which receive theirenergy from tires traction -typegenerators. The use of these mo-tors and generators specifically de-signed for off-si-oredrilling, allowsthe highest arailaole horsepowerper pound equipment to be packedinto a minimum; deck space.

loads; it has been tested at 4500 psi, butengineers believe that it is capable ofhandling even higher loads. The bearingis made of a special "wettable" materialthat enables water lubrication.

The motor has several other advan-tages. For one thing any noise is literallydrowned. Line -shaft losses associatedwith most other pump motors areeliminated. Since windings are not sealedlike other submersible motors, no prob-lems can arise on this score. As far as isknown, this is the only fully wet, largemotor being produced in this country.Present sizes are 40 to 75 hp, but motorsup to 450 hp are contemplated.

for the home .

Sometimes overlooked is the increas-ing number of jobs performed by electricmotors in the home. The design problemsin these motors are of the same magni-tude as for any industrial application.

One new motor designed last year is forhome appliances, such as washers anddryers. This replaces a motor designedfor wider application. The advantages ofdesign for specific application accrue inlighter weight, better starting perform-ance, shorter length, and better ventila-tion, among other things. The motor isdesigned for operation in any position.

The new motor is being built in one -sixth, one-fourth, and one-third horse-power ratings for either split phase orcapacitor start. Both single -speed (1725rpm) and two -speed (1725/1140 rpm)motors will be built. Motors are rated at115 or 230 volts, 50 or 60 cycles.

Another new motor is designed for air -moving equipment, such as domesticfurnace blowers. This is actually a largermotor, electrically speaking, on an exist-ing frame size (42). Refinements in de-sign techniques and manufacturing meth-ods have made it possible to obtainshaded -pole motors on this frame sizewith higher efficiency (lower losses)than previous units. The motor is in-tended for low starting torque, air -overapplications. Technically, it is a shaded -pole motor, and the present ratings ex-tend from one -twelfth to one -sixth horse-power, six poles.

new class of switching thermistorsA new family of ceramic solid-state de-

vices that can be used as contactlessthermal switches are being developed bythe Materials Engineering Department.They will be the first such componentssuitable for industrial use. There aremany opportunities for applying the newdevices, particularly in applications whereit has been impractical to use bimetallic

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temperature -sensing elements.Motor engineers have used these

"switching" thermistors to develop a newGuardistor system for protecting motorsagainst overheating. In this system-the first new approach to motor over -temperature protection in many years-thermistors installed directly in the mo-tor windings operate a small external re-lay, which de -energizes the motor orgives a signal when overheating occurs.

Such applications of the new positivetemperature coefficient (PTC) thermistorare made possible by its unique abilityto display a sudden, substantial increasein resistance when its temperature risesto a characteristic switching level, and itsability to return to normal resistancewhen it cools below that level. Thus,when operated above its switching tem-perature, it acts as a high resistance;when below it, as a low resistance.

By varying the composition of thePTC thermistor during manufacture, itis possible to precontrol both its residualresistance and the temperature level atwhich switching occurs. Thermistorsbeing designed for motor over -tempera-ture protection can switch at specifictemperature ranges between 100 and 125degrees C, and can function in controlcircuits taking advantage of its over 20 -to 1 ratio of maximum to residual re-sistance.

Although designated as PTC thermis-tors, the new devices differ from com-mercially available thermistors in thattheir temperature coefficient of resistanceis positive, whereas that of the commoncommercial NTC thermistor is negative.This positive characteristic permits asimple temperature -protection controlthat has maximum fail-safe protection.Other contrasts are these: Within theirrespective operating ranges, the sensi-tivity of PTC thermistors is many timesthat of the NTC thermistors; and opera-tional temperature ranges for PTCthermistors are very sharply defined andare controllable.

epoxy linkages in thermalasticNew tape bonds and impregnating

resins, which contain epoxy -like molecu-lar linkages, have been coupled with thebasic Thermalastic insulation concept,resulting in improved stator coil insula-tion for hydrogen -cooled turbine -genera-tor windings. Improved resins haveraised permissible temperature for equallife by more than 20 degrees C, and thecellulose backing for the mica tape be-came the limiting factor for temperatureclassification and thermal endurance.

New sources of supply were developed

to provide a thin glass fabric equal to thethickness of rope paper. This permittedthe creation of a new Thermalastic in-sulation combination consisting entirelyof mica splitting, thin glass fabric, andthe high thermal endurance resins. Sev-eral windings employing the advancedform of Thermalastic insulation werebuilt during 1956 and more in 1957. In-stallation and service experience hasproved the new form, and it is being ex-tended to other machines.

For Motors-Resistance of Therma-lastic insulation to weather, moisture,and other contaminants that have ad-verse effects on conventional insulationshave been the outstanding advantage formotor application. Proof of this has beenexperienced with motors that have pro-vided satisfactory operation under severeambient conditions, where contaminationis a limiting factor. As a result, motorswith only dripproof frames are now beingapplied in many places where totally en-closed designs are required with conven-tional insulations.

Functional Evaluation Tests-New in-dustry standards have presented newconcepts of insulation classification, in-volving functional evaluation of insulat-ing materials and systems in the "as used"condition on actual equipment. This per-mits insulation designers to make a morerealistic appraisal of insulation in thelaboratory. A wide variety of materialsare presently undergoing evaluation, toprovide insulation engineers with a widebackground knowledge. The Thermalas-tic insulation concept was one of the basicdevelopments that came out of this con-tinuing study.

WELDING

Research into the electromechanics ofweld -metal transfer in gas -shielded weld-ing processes has led to a new type ofpower supply equipment, bringing theadvantages of CO2 welding to many newindustrial applications. Suitable for usewith any standard constant potential,constant wire -speed system of metallic -inert gas welding, the new Dynamic Re-actors are compact, static, two -terminalpackages that can be connected in serieswith either of the current leads.

By limiting the rate of rise of weldcurrent, the new reactors permit the useof lower weld currents and the trans-fer of weld metal in droplet form. In turn,lower currents and droplet transfer per-mit the use of larger and less expensivewire sizes, effective depth control of weldpenetration, and, for the first time, theuse of the CO2 process for vertical andoverhead welding.

Basically, the new development grewfrom recognition that the high weldingcurrents normally characteristic of theCO2 process were necessary to preventcreation of globules of molten metalcapable of short-circuiting the arc. Whensuch short circuits occur, the constant -potential power source produces veryhigh currents, whose magnetic forces candisrupt the globules and throw them fromthe arc region as spatter.

The dynamic reactor inhibits growthof these short circuit currents and allowsweld metal to be melted for smoothtransfer to the pool on the workpiece.

When applied to automatic and semi-automatic welding equipment, the newreactor makes it possible to reduce mini-mum welding current by a factor of morethan two to one. And in existing applica-tions, savings in wire costs will usually

End product of PTC thermistor: thermis-tors with metallic contact surfaces appliedand with leads attached. Black wishbone atupper left is unit in one variety of ther-mistor encapsulation.

be significant since direct substitution ofwire at least one size larger is possiblewith little or no change in current, volt-age, and travel speed.

Reductions in weld current ranges givethe CO2 process ability to join thinnermetal than formerly was practical.

Dynamic Reactors are of two sizes:The smaller-dual-rated at 150/300 am-peres, 100 -percent duty cycle-is fornominal gauge materials in semiauto-matic setups and for semiautomatic orfull -automatic welding of thin gauge ma-terials. The larger unit-dual-rated at300/600 amperes, 100 -percent duty cycle-is for high-speed automatic or high -current semiautomatic applications.

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LAMPS AND LIGHTINGSeveral years ago, research engineers

developed a new phosphor that, coatedon the inside of a mercury lamp bulb,converted much of the invisible ultra-violet to visible red light. This resultedin a color -corrected mercury lamp (J -H1),which produced white light instead of thecharacteristic blue-green of ordinarymercury lamps. For places where highoutput and white light are highly desir-able, lamps of this type, in various sizesand shapes, have proved a real success.This method of color correction, however,means a slight reduction in lumen outputcompared to clear -bulb mercury lamps.

Lamp engineers soon recognized theneed for an "in-between" lamp, one thatafforded somewhat less color correctionbut somewhat greater lumen output. Inthe new Colortone high -output whitelamps they came up with the answer theywere looking for. A new phosphor not onlyadds red to the lamp's output but alsoadds light throughout the entire visiblerange-so the net result is a higher lumenoutput than for either the clear E -H1 orcolor corrected J -H1. For example, the400 watt J-Hl/SW produces 23 000lumens compared to 21 000 lumens for thecorresponding clear lamp-or a 10 per-cent improvement. The new mercurylamps are now available in sizes from 100to 1000 watts, in regular, semi -reflector,and Weather Duty bulbs.

mercury gets new lifeIn mercury lamps, the end of economic

life comes when light output diminishespast a certain point. Beyond this pointthe lamp will still produce light, but insteadily decreasing quantity. Cause ofthis lowered light output is the "boilingoff" of electrode material, which depositson the glass arc tube, eventually build-ing up to the point where it blocks largeamounts of light.

A new arc tube for mercury lamps,aptly called the "Lifeguard" tube, greatlyreduces this effect, thereby giving thelamp much longer useful life. The trickhere was to find a way to have an electrodewith good electron emission character-istics but at the same time lessen thevaporization. To accomplish this, a pri-mary coil is treated with a special emis-sion material; then a second coil is screwedon over the first coil. This seals in theemission material as far as vaporization isconcerned, but still allows electrons to beemitted. As an added feature this elec-trode coil assembly is larger than previousunits, which means it runs cooler and hasless tendency to boil off bulb -blackening

20

materials. To round out their develop-ment, engineers also came up with a newend seal for the arc tube. This seal isformed by a "one-shot" method, ratherthan the more complicated several -stepoperation previously used, and thereforeis inherently more reliable.

Substantial improvement in economiclife is achieved by the new arc tube. Forexample, at the end its rated economiclife of 7000 hours, the standard 400 wattE -H1 has a lumen output of approxi-mately 70 percent of initial value. Thenew lamp, at the end of the same time, isstill producing close to 90 percent of itsinitial rated value.

As a result, the economic life of thenew Lifeguard mercury lamps has beenraised to 9000 hours. The new tube isbeing applied first to 400 -watt WeatherDuty varieties, but may eventually beextended to all mercury lamps.

incandescents also improveDespite their long history of develop-

ment, incandescent lamps are still beingimproved. Last year lamp engineers tooka long look at something that had beenconventional for many years, and decidedthey could improve it. This was the bulbshape. By making a section of the bulbcylindrical, the net area of the bulb wasincreased without changing either themaximum diameter or the length. This,plus an electrostatically deposited silicacoating on the inner surface of the bulb,gives better diffusion of light and elimi-nates any "hot spot." The difference be-tween this and the inside frosted bulb isstartling when they are compared.

In addition to this new bulb, improve-ments have been made to three -lightlamps. Coiled -coil filaments in the 50/-100/150 and 100/200/300 watt lamps,replacing single -coil filaments, has pro-vided an approximate increase of eightpercent in light output at each wattagelevel. Use of silica coating in these lampsalso provides essentially glareless light.On both of these three-way lamps, theuse of coiled -coil filaments permits re-duction in bulb size.

"lost" light reducedGlare is something streetlighting en-

gineers strive mightily to eliminate intheir luminaires. One reason, of course,is its annoyance factor to both pedes-trians and drivers. More than that, how-ever, it is usually an indication of"wasted" light that could be utilized tobetter advantage on the roadway. A newfluorescent street -lighting luminaire,called the Mainstreeter, effectively elim-inates glare.

Lighting engineers took a new ap-proach in this fluorescent luminaire. Inthe first place, they designed it to bemounted parallel to the curb, as con-trasted to other luminaires that aremounted at right angles to the roadway.To achieve even light distribution fromsidewalk to opposite curb, they first de-veloped a new reflector, which in endview looks like two adjoining parabolas.Mounted in each of these parabolas, atthe point determined to give the neces-sary light distribution, is a fluorescenttube. The prismatic refractor for thisluminaire is equally unusual. One por-tion is essentially parallel to the road-way, and directs most of the light strik-ing it in a downward spread, coveringthe near half of the roadway. The otherportion lies at an angle to the roadway,and throws most of its light to the farhalf of the road.

Control of stray light is effected byoptical louvers on the refractor. Lightthat leaves the refractor in other than thedesired direction is redirected downwardto the roadway by these louvers. Thiseffectively prevents glare.

The net result of these features is atleast 50 percent higher utilization of lightthan any previous fluorescent luminaire.

This is the first fluorescent street -lighting luminaire with an optical systemusing prismatic control, or a refractinglens. The new luminaire was developedwith cooperation of engineers of theHolophane Company.

SurflinerSometime in the future, flat, thin,

electroluminescent panels may be usedfor interior lighting. Meanwhile, how-ever, lighting engineers are steadily cut-

ting down the thickness of fluorescentfixtures. A new one, called the Surfliner,is but 3% inches in depth, yet light con-trol is not sacrificed.

The major part of the housings forthese luminaires is molded of acrylic orpolystyrene plastic. The unit is designedso that when mounted in lines, the endcap is not used. This, plus the interiorarrangement of the fixture, provides acontinuous line of light, as contrasted tomost fixtures, which have at least a one -inch dark area between units.

The new unit is designed for both sleekappearance and convenience. The hing-ing and latch are invisible; the spring -mounted basket opens by pushing oneside. The units are built for 2, 3, or4 lamps, and for 4- and 8 -foot lamps.

one-way lightingUltimately superhighways may be

lighted along their entire length, ratherthan only at interchanges. Toward thisend, lighting engineers have developed aunique new luminaire designed specifi-cally for this purpose.

Lighting superhighways is a specialproblem. Overhead lighting that is di-rected straight down would cause anannoying and repetitive "flash" of lightas the driver passed each pole; over along stretch this might also have ahypnotic effect.

The new lighting system is designedto throw light along each lane in thedirection the car is traveling. The lumin-aire designed to do this has sharp cutoffso that light does not shine in the op-posite lane, which would be directly inthe eyes of the oncoming motorist. Acombination of reflector, lens, and abuilt-in "egg crate," accomplish accu-

rate light throw and sharp beam cutoff.The system is designed for use on su-

perhighways built to Federal specifica-tions, one of which requires a minimum36 -foot medial strip between lanes. Onsuch highways, the luminaires can be de-signed to prevent glare to motorists inthe opposite lane even on curves. Whilestill in the development stage, this light-ing system may well be the answer toturnpike lighting in the future.

find the ballastSomeone unfamiliar with a new mer-

cury streetlighting luminaire would havetrouble locating the ballast. It is de-signed right into the unit itself, and insuch a way as to be completely incon-spicuous. This has several advantages,among which are the elimination ofseparate mounting fixtures for the ballastand simpler installation.

The housing for this unit is of onepiece die -east aluminum, which not onlyprovides sleek appearance, but excep-tional mechanical strength. The entireoptical system is sealed-including thesocket opening-which reduces the ne-cessity for cleaning and maintains lightoutput. The built-in ballast is located inthe "neck" of the luminaire, with ahinged access door at the bottom. Loca-tion of all elements is such that mountingadjustments, ballasts, capacitors, andwiring terminals all can be reached fromone ladder position.

Much attention to appearance hasbeen given this luminaire. The luminairegives a sleek horizontal look, eventhough the optical system is tilted. Thenew unit, called the Silverliner (0V-25)is made in two versions, with or withoutbuilt-in ballasts.

SEMICONDUCTORS AND ELECTRONICS

Germanium is well recognized for itsuse in transistors and rectifiers; butwhen given the "Midas Touch" anddoped with gold, it becomes photocon-ductive and its ability to conduct elec-tricity is changed as infrared radiationfalls upon it. As a result, changes in theintensity of infrared radiation reachingthe photoconductor are converted intochanges in the electric current passingthrough the germanium material.

This new team of gold and germaniumcan detect infrared radiation less thanone -twentieth of a billionth of a watt.The extreme sensitivity of the detectorallows it to be used in homing missiles,astronomical studies, and other temper-ature measurement and control jobs.

In addition, this p -type gold -dopedgermanium photoconductive cell re-sponds to the low -energy long wave-lengths in the infrared spectrum. Thedevice can sense wavelengths up to 10microns, which corresponds roughly tothe peak radiation at room temperature.But no other features are lost to gainthis, as response is 10 times faster thanany previously measured photoconduc-tive detectors. In fact its response is solightning fast, special laboratory appa-ratus had to be developed to test its speed.The apparatus, a mechanical light chop-per, breaks infrared radiation into pulsesonly a few billionths of a second long.The pulses, reflected to the surface of thedetector, show its time constant to betwo -tenths of a millionth of a second.

Since the sensitivity and frequencyresponse of a photoconductive infrareddetector is increased at low temperatures,the detector is cooled to minus 320 de-

Left-By limiting weld current, the Dynamic Reactor permits any-oosition welding with the CO, process, limits weld penetration foright gauge metals, and permits use of larger, less costly wire.

Center-Versatility is the keynote of this ballast for mercury light-ing. One tank design serves for pole -top, aerial, vault, or pole -basemounting. Adapters and different brackets convert the uni7 for dif-ferent mountings. Another advantage is the versatility of termina-tion methcds. Adapters enable use of conduit connection, taringsleeves, stud terminal connection and other methods. The unit isenclosed in an aluminum tank, with the transformer potted in com-pound. Ratings range from units suitable for 175 -watt mercurylamps to ur its for 1000 -watt mercury lamps.

Right --Truck headlamps withstand ten times more shock than anyprevious truck lamps as a result of a new filament wire, called "M"wire. In th s test, the truck headlamp was dropped 650 times perminute, yet continued to burn brightly. The new headlamp is de-signed for use in 12 -volt truck systems.

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grees F, by surrounding it with liquidnitrogen in a Dewar housing.

high-speed dynistorsTwo years ago a hybrid semiconductor

was developed-the germanium dynistor.This static device has the switching char-acteristics of a transistor and the power-handling capabilities of a rectifier. Itsreverse and forward voltage -currentcharacteristics are similar to a diode,except that when the rated voltage isexceeded in the reverse direction, theresistance breaks down, allowing theflow of large currents. Thus the dynistoris essentially an on -off switch that canbe controlled by varying the value of thereverse voltage. The first applications ofthis device were in high -power ranges.Units were developed that, rated at 250volts, could be operated with currentsup to 10 amperes.

Now this device has found use as alow -power switch-particularly in com-puters. Three units have been developedthat have breakdown voltages of 50 to150 volts. These low -power (200 milli-ampere) units have a very useful feature.They can switch from one state toanother in about 20 millimicroseconds.In computers, where millions of switchingoperations are required, any reduction inswitching time amounts to a sizablesaving over the course of a year. Whileread -in read-out time presently takesabout 6 microseconds, germanium dy-nistors can cut this down to 0.6 micro-seconds. Engineers estimate that thisdrastic reduction puts computer develop-ments three years ahead of schedule.

developments in electronic tubesMilitary needs spur development in

electronics. Many of these directly in-volve tubes. Space permits only a sam-pling of this year's developments.

"Match Box" Envelope-A new typeof receiving tube envelope, dubbed the"match box" design, uses the same elec-trode structure as conventionally de-signed receiving tubes. But reliability im-provements were realized because thetube stem is eliminated and all lead weldsto the mount structure are in one plane,making the welds more accessible.

Basically, the new envelope consists oftwo "halves;" the preassembled electrodestructure is merely placed between thehalves, and the halves are glass weldedtogether. The rectangular envelope shapepermits greater flexibility for both tubedesigner and equipment designer. Forexample, the high -dimensional accuracyof the tube envelope and the protusionsfor locating the mica spacers permit the

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elimination of the mica serrations, thusreducing the possibility of loose particlesand gas. Since the mount structure islocked within the envelope, microphon-ism and resistance to severe vibrationand shock is greatly improved. The tubealso lends itself to recessing or strappingonto the printed circuit board. Since thetube socket is eliminated, noise and cir-cuit capacitance is reduced. Larger leadspacing is possible, which minimizes pick-up or feedback and allows simpler andmore reliable soldering. Although thedesign has future commercial applica-tion, development efforts are presentlyconcentrated on fulfilling military needs.

New Television Gun-A new "screen -grid amplifier" electron gun for all appli-cations of high -definition pictures for tvand radar systems has been developed.For a standard 525 -line tv picture, adrive voltage of only two to six volts isrequired, as compared to the 50 to 70volts required by conventional guns.This low drive eliminates an amplifierstage from the cathode-ray tube circuit.Picture tubes and radar display tubesequipped with the new gun can be drivenby transistors. A better total rendition ofthe pictures is made possible because anincreased number of half tones can be re-produced by the cathode ray tube.

Slow -Scan Vidicon- A new small -sizevidicon camera tube (WL-7290) designedfor slow -speed scanning operations ismost applicable where a narrow band-width signal is desired, and is obtainedby a very slow scan. For example, thenew tube is useful for transmitting high -resolution information over conventionalaudio circuits. In the ordinary vidicon, itis undesirable for the picture to remainon the storage surfaces for any appre-ciable length of time, since this wouldcause blurring or smearing of the image.The WL-7290, on the other hand, is ableto store or "freeze" the image for severalminutes, provided the surface is notscanned by the beam during this time.A high -quality picture, with 350 -lineresolution, can be held for two minutes.

Rugged Image Orthicon-The sensitiveimage orthicon television camera tubehas been considered a delicate device-but not so with a new ruggedized version(WL-7198) developed for military, in-dustrial, and scientific applications wherethe tube might be subjected to extremeenvironmental conditions of shock, vi-bration, temperature, and humidity. Thetube will operate through a range ofvibration with 10 G's acceleration up to500 cps. At 5 G's acceleration (50 to 500cps), the tube shows horizontal resolu-tion of at least 350 lines with only 0.03

This closeup of the new Mainstreeterfluorescent streetlighting luminaireshowsthe refractor. Note the prismat-ic louvers (top) that redirect "stray"light down to the road.

This new experimental luminaire isdesigned for lighting superhighways,with the light beam thrown along theroad in the direction of traffic flow.Interior louvers plus lens are de-signed to provide sharp cutoff of lightin other directions.

The ballast on this new mercury street -lighting luminaire is incorporated in thesame housing.

Above-This new fluorescent lamp -holder can provide for three differentlamp types-bi-pin, slimline, or recessedcontact types. Three different plungers,with identical external configurationsand mounting dimensions, fit inter-changeably into one basic bracket.Below-A new concept in light switchesuses a plate actuator instead of the usual'toggle handle. Lights are turned on oroff at the tap of a finger tip, or the nudgeof an elbow. The large actuator, whichis, in essence, a moving wall platewithin a frame, is easy to find; smallmovement and low actuating forcemake it easy to operate. Actuatorsfor the switch may be molded ofeither opaque or transparent plastic.With different colored inserts behind atransparent plate, any decor may be

" matched, to suit the user. The switch,called the Fashion Plate, will be furn-ished in two ratings of 15 and 20 am-peres, for use on 120/277 volt a -c circuits.

foot-candles illumination on the photo-cathode. Thirty G's shock does not im-pair subsequent tube performance. Al-though a rugged tube, the WL-7198 re-tains its sensitivity; at least 250 lineshorizontal resolution can be obtainedwith only 0.0003 foot-candles illumina-tion on the photocathode of the tube.

High Resolution Radar Picture Tube-A radar picture tube (5CEP11) has beenintroduced for use in radar and othermilitary and industrial systems. Theresolution has been greatly improvedover that of any previous tube. The5CEP11 produces 667 lines to the inch,or a scanning line only 0.0015 inch wideacross the 5 -inch faceplate. This is one-third the width of scanning lines pro-duced by earlier similar tubes. In addi-tion, the faceplate is optically flat andmade of gray glass to increase contrast.

Tube With A Memory-A storage tube(WL-7228) for use in radar will storeover 100 000 pieces of information. Ina fraction of a second, information re-ceived by radar can be committed to thememory of the storage tube for longperiods. When needed, information canbe displayed visibly on a fluorescentscreen long enough for the human ob-server to grasp. The tube contains threeelectron guns. One gun receives andwrites information on the memory unitat a rate of over 200 miles per hour; asecond gun. wipes out the stored informa-tion, or any part of it, at will. The thirdgun enables the information to be brightlydisplayed on a screen. Although de-veloped primarily for defense purposes,this new tube has peaceful applications.For example, it would be of use to airporttower operators, who could observe andrecord the course of approaching planes.

Flux Mapping Counter Tube-Thermalneutron flux mapping is made easier andfaster with a new miniature fission countertube (WL-7186). Readings can be takenin minutes as compared with hours in theactivation method of plotting neutronflux levels. The WL-7186 counter tube isa small fission chamber, 0.5 inch longand 0.25 inch in diameter, with an inte-gral rigid coaxial cable 4 feet long; how-ever variations have been made in lengthsup to 20 feet. Ionization pulses are pro-duced in the nitrogen -argon atmosphereof the chamber by fission fragments thatresult when thermal neutrons strike asensitive coating of uranium oxide, highlyenriched with the U-235 isotope. Thetube and cable are rugged in construc-tion, and the fission counter operates inany position at temperatures up to 220degrees F. Recent development work hasextended this temperature to 500 degrees

F for similar tubes. The exposed portionsof the chamber and integral cable aremade of stainless steel, permitting opera-tion under water.

I gnitrons For Fusion Experiments-The high peak current conduction capa-bilities of ignitron tubes has been putto use in atomic fusion power experi-ments, conducted at the University ofCalifornia Radiation Laboratory. A spe-cial version of Westinghouse 5550 ignitronis used to trigger the discharge of acapacitor bank, with currents rangingfrom 30 to 50 thousand amperes. Theignitron is also used to short circuit aninductive load. This combination of ca-pacitors and conductors supplies the highinstantaneous pulse currents needed infusion experiments. Tube designers work-ing closely with electronic engineers ofthe University of California RadiationLaboratory are experimenting with vari-ations of the ignitron to improve voltagewithstand ability before firing and toincrease tube life. Variations includethreaded anode connectors, epoxy coatedanode seals to increase external voltageflashover values, and different ignitorsand ignitor supporting structures.

high hi-fiA new line of super -power high-fidelity

amplifiers are "flat" from 5 cycles to 100kc, with distortion of less than 2 percent.The amplifiers come in power ratingsfrom 2 to 200 kw. These super -poweramplifiers are being applied to a varietyof jobs, primarily in the research fields.Typical examples are audio sound testchambers, ultrasonic work, sonar evalua-tion and research, and vibration and en-vironmental testing of aircraft and mis-siles. A 200 -kw amplifier built last yearis the largest in the world for driving anenvironmental shaker system.

AVIATION AND MARINEThe first Westinghouse J-34 jet engine

was produced in 1947. By mid -1958, theseventh model in the J-34 series receivedmilitary approval. This latest model, theJ34 -WE -46, will power North AmericanAviation's new T2J Navy jet trainer.

The J-34, in various models, has loggedsome 234 million flying hours. It has seenextended service in such applications asthe Navy's F2H Banshee and the F3DSkyknight fighters, and has been used insuch experimental concepts as the XF-85Goblin parasite fighter, and XF2Y SeaDart water -based fighter, and the X-3high-speed research aircraft.

The J34 -WE -46 engine is an axial -flow,fixed -exhaust -area, turbojet engine oper-ational to an altitude of 45 000 feet. Sea -

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level performance ratings at military oper-ation are 3400 pounds thrust and 1.063specific fuel consumption. The maximumdry weight of the engine is 1210 pounds.

The WE -46 version was designed toburn either of two primary jet fuels,JP -4 or JP -5. These fuels were developedby the armed forces to provide maximumjet engine performance at minimum cost.JP -5 is a kerosene -type fuel particularlysuited to high-speed, high -altitude opera-tion. The make-up of JP -4 ranges be-tween JP -5 and aviation gasoline. Byusing an engine that burns either of thesetwo regular jet engine fuels, the Navycan simplify its supply problems, espe-cially during carrier -based operation.

The initial engineering effort was ap-plied to designing a new combustionchamber to handle the JP fuels. This pro-gram was later expanded to include anoverall modernization of the J-34 engine.The engine went from drawing board toits first complete engine test in just oneyear; one month later, it completed a150 -hour endurance test. Six months laterit successfully passed the official U.S.Navy qualification tests on both fuels.

The engine incorporates a new com-pressor, combustion chamber, fuel systemand other modifications to permit use ofthe special jet -engine fuels. The com-pressor rotor was modernized from a one-piece aluminum forging in the earliermodels to a multi -disc steel construction.In the previous model, lubricating oil wascooled with inlet air. In the WE -46 ver-sion, fuel, on its way from the tank to thecombustors, cools the lubricant through aliquid -to -liquid cooler. The ignition sys-tem was changed from a low- to a high-energy system to give better air startingcharacteristics, and provide improvedoperation reliability. The new engine isequipped with an air turbine starter.

The fuel, lubrication, and electrical sys-tems insure complete power modulationof the engine within its rated flight andaltitude conditions by manipulation of asingle power lever.

aircraft electrical systems improvedThe aims of aircraft equipment de-

signers are to simultaneously make theirequipment: perform more functions, ac-complish them more accurately and reli-ably, and yet make that same equipmentsmaller and lighter. The task is made evenmore difficult by the severe environ-mental conditions under which the equip-ment must operate. Yet designers seemto come up with new ideas to take care ofa situation of ever-increasing complexity.For example, consider a few of this year'sdevelopments by the engineers who de -

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New match -box receiving tube en-velope design.

This new 200 -milliampere Mo-bilex x-ray unit can be movedfrom room to room in a hospitalto make radiographs of bedfastpatients, without moving the pa-tient from the bed. The unit is de-signed to provide maximum mo-bility and maneuverability withminimum effort. Two 10 -inchdiameter wheels are located at theunit's center of gravity to insureease of rolling. Two 4 -inch castersare used at the forward end, and a3 -inch caster at the rear, whichenables the unit to be tiltedslightly to clear door lintels andto enter elevators. All motions ofthe tubestand-vertical, rota-tional- and tubearm can be oper-ated with finger-tip effort. To pro-vide maximum x-ray picturequality, a milliampere -secondstiming device and an exposureassurance circuit are used. Thelatter is a sensing device thatmonitors line drop to deactivatethe unit if the drop reduceskilovoltage to an unsatisfactorylow level.

sign aircraft electrical equipment.Alternator Control Loses Weight-

Transistors have taken over the job ofmagnetic amplifiers and relays in a newcontrol unit for aircraft alternators. Thefunction of this control is to hold the a -cgenerator output to 115 volts plus orminus one volt, and to detect and protectthe generator and its feeders from faultconditions such as excessive overloads,short circuits, or open circuits. The pres-ent control unit uses magnetic -amplifiercircuitry and electromechanical relays forthese functions. Each of these units weighs14.5 pounds and occupies 730 cubic inches.

A newer design uses transistors, printedcircuit boards, and new circuitry to ac-complish the same functions in a fractionof the space. The transistorized unit(TACU) weighs but 7.5 pounds and oc-cupies only 392 cubic inches. In perform-ance, the transistor unit not only equalsthe performance of the previous control,but also has many new features to im-prove performance and reliability. Itsfirst application will be on an advanceddesign of a high-speed jet bomber.

Transistors have also been put to workin a new voltage regulator (AVR-62),and here again, they replace a magnetic -amplifier regulator, with attendant reduc-tion in size and weight. In this case thereductions are about 60 percent in weight,and 65 percent in volume. The new regu-lator holds steady-state voltage to withinplus or minus 2% percent over a range ofenvironmental temperatures from minus55 to plus 120 degrees C. The speed ofresponse to return system voltage tonormal after disturbances from fault con-ditions is improved at least 50 percent.

The new regulator will be applied firstin a system rated at 10 kva, 208/120volts. Subsequent units will be applied tosystems up to 90 kva.

Automatic Testing-As the control pan-els for aircraft electrical systems increasein complexity, their testing becomes adifficult and time-consuming process. Tohelp this situation, engineers have comeup with two new automatic test sets. Oneis a production device, which appliessimulated faults and control signals tothe control panel to check its reactions.A complete test of each unit is performedautomatically by this set, to assure thatit meets the stringent requirements im-posed on it. The new production test setmakes its test automatically in approx-imately five minutes, compared to abouttwo hours for the previous manual test-ing. Also, the automatic tester performsits tests more accurately and reliably.

A similar device is now at work per-forming reliability tests. This test set puts

the control through tests similar to theproduction unit, but runs through repeti-tive cycles. This is designed to detectmarginal components that operate ini-tially but tend to fail early in the lifespan of the control unit. Each panel iscycled to subject it to as many of thecontrol functions as it will perform in2.1A years when installed in an aircraft.

The records from these tests will betabulated on an IBM system, enablingthe data to serve several purposes con-veniently. Among other things, recordswill help establish the reliability of com-ponents as well as complete electricalsystems, and will provide a wealth ofinformation to help designers build morereliable equipment in the future.

improvements in airborne components

Many of the developments for modernaircraft and missile systems are de-pendent upon improvements in compon-ent equipment. Some examples are:

Hydraulic Servo Valve-These valvesare used in hydraulic drives such asantennas and autopilots, as a means forconverting an electrical signal to ahydraulic signal. The immediate applica-tion of a newly designed Westinghousevalve is in a missile antenna. Pressurederivative feedback provides improveddynamic frequency response character-istics, yet gives the high steady-statepressure gain of the conventional flowcontrol valve. This valve is designed tooperate in a 1000 -psi servo system.Another version of the pressure deriva-tive feedback valve has been designed tooperate in a 3000 -psi servo system.

Digitally Programmed Analog Com-puter-A new airborne computer will bea hybrid of two basic computing tech-niques, digital and analog. The standardanalog computer uses one element toperform a single function in a fixed-

wired design; digital computers, on theother hand, use only one basic arith-metic unit, with some elements foradding, others for multiplying. Conse-quently, the digital computer has con-siderable flexibility, and need merely beprogrammed to handle all types ofproblems. Design engineers are nowworking on an analog computer thatwill also be programmed. The computerwill accept inputs in analog form, whichcan be directed to a basic arithmetic unitthat can acid, multiply, etc. as instructed;the outputs are in analog form, ready foruse in the system. Errors per operationare only about 1/10 percent, and thecomputer will operate in ambient tem-peratures from minus 55 to plus 100degrees C. An immediate application forthe new computer is in track -while -scanequipment where multiple targets areinvolved.

Memory System-A new magnetic -corememory system with extreme speed isbeing developed for a computer systemthat will be used in a target -sorting capac-ity for airborne operation. The memorycycle must be extremely fast, and thesystem must work in a high -temperatureenvironment. In fact, the intended de-sign will operate in an environment inexcess of present magnetic -core limits.In computer language, the developmentis described as a linear -selection, co-incident -write, random-access magnetic -core memory system. The memory hasbeen separated into two parts-an in-struction memory and an operand (thenumber that is being stored) memory.The operand memory consists of bothdata and constant words. Hence, thesystem will provide a means for storageof both instruction and data.

Clutter Navigation Computer-A com-puter that was originally developed forimproving radar operation has also been

Installation of the new J34 -WE -46 engine in T2J Navy jet trainer gets under way at the West-inghouse Flight Test Center, N.A.S. Olathe.

made a navigational aid. In a movingaircraft, the radar signal frequency hittingthe ground is changed due to Dopplereffect, and shows up in the radar systemas unwanted noise, or "clutter." Once thefrequency of the clutter is determined, itcan be filtered out, thereby improvingradar reception. Hence, the computerdescribed was originally developed forcomputing the ground speed componentof velocity, which lies along the line of theradar antenna. The computer determinedapproximate ground speed from air speed,wind speed and direction, and trigo-nometry. This gives starting information,from which the radar can track, correctfor wind data, and determine clutter fre-quency. Designers have, in effect, "closedthe loop" by taking the clutter frequencydetermined by the computer and recom-puting true ground speed from Dopplereffect. Hence, the total system uses theairborne fire -control radar for both Dop-pler navigation and fire control.

Automatic Testing-The complexity ofthe modern missile is becoming fantastic.To aid in the myriad of tests that mustbe performed on a missile target seeker,a complete system of automatic and semi-automatic test stands have been devel-oped. Component parts are checked intheir preliminary stages to be sure thatminimum and maximum tolerances aremet; then as the equipment progresses,combined components are checked; afinal stand tests the complete system.The test equipment saves time, eliminateshuman errors, increases reliability, andreduces cost. Any fault or error in thesystem can be quickly pinpointed. Eachof the test stands have built-in self -testfeatures to insure correct operation. Thesame equipment could also be used inoverhaul centers and field locations. Itwould allow rapid checkout of missilereadiness by unskilled personnel.

Another automatic tester has beendeveloped for depot testing of the Aero13-F fire -control computer. The testequipment automatically programs 47test problems to the computer, monitorsand evaluates the computer's solutionswithout any interpretation required bythe operator. What the computer canaccomplish in less than 10 minutes wouldtake about 8 hours to do manually.

wind tunnel near completion

Sometime in mid -1959, the mammothcompressor blades of the propulsion windtunnel's supersonic loop will be kickingup a storm-about 3700 mph worth. Thiswill round out the Air Force TestingFacility at the Arnold Engineering De-velopment Center at Tullahoma, Tennes-

2 5

see, the wind tunnel center of the AirResearch and Development Command.The two loops, transonic and supersonic,can then subject missiles, airframes, andjet engines to air speeds from Mach 0.5to Mach 4.9. Also, pressure in the tunnelscan be changed from almost zero to 2.0atmospheres absolute.

A drive consisting of four motors-totaling 216 000 hp-will power bothloops. The drive can be split in the mid-dle, providing power for both tunnels,or all four can be combined to driveeither one.

The transonic tunnel was placed inoperation in 1956; the supersonic com-pressor was installed last year and nowawaits finishing touches to the tunnel.The supersonic loop is the big brother ofthe transonic loop in many ways-wherethe transonic compressor is a three -stageunit, the supersonic tunnel has 18 stagessplit into four rotors. Where the dis-charge temperature of the transonic com-pressor is 180 degrees F, its big brotherwill throw out air at more than 650degrees F.

Since the larger blades will be undersevere centrifugal and vibratory forces,an indication of superimposed vibratorystress is needed at all times. This is ob-viously a problem when the rotor is turn-ing at 600 rpm. But engineers solved thiswith precision slip rings and brushes.Strain gauges installed on the rotor bladessend electrical signals out through theslip rings, so blade stress can be indicatedon cathode ray oscilloscopes.

wind tunnel gets new lease on lifeAs goes the speed of aircraft, so goes

the speed of wind tunnels. And with thetopping of speed records an every dayoccurrence, many wind tunnels reachobsolescence before old age. But withsome major face-lifting, most can be re-juvenated and again put to useful work.The NASA's facility at Langley Field,Virginia has been so reworked from asubsonic to a transonic tunnel by replac-ing the old 8000 -hp motor with a 20 000 -hpdrive and installing a new compressor.

In the process engineers added severalinteresting features. The tunnel is tooperate in either air or Freon gas, allow-ing the Reynolds number of the modeland full-scale design to be matched overa wide range. Because of the lower speedof sound in Freon gas, the compressoroperates at lower speeds. The 20 000 -hpwound -rotor motor was then designedfor two speed ranges (235 and 470 rpm).This is accomplished by changing thenumber of poles of the motor-uniquefor this size. For driving Freon gas, the

26

motor is operated up to 235 rpm using 28poles, but in air, motor -operated switchesreduce the number of poles to half thisvalue, allowing the motor to run at abase speed up to 470 rpm. Over each ofthe speed ranges the speed is controlledwith a liquid rheostat and regulated withan eddy -current brake.

high -temperature test facilitiesLong before a missile is finally checked

out on the launching pad, a critical testmust be made. Can the structure with-stand the searing frictional heat en-countered in its escape and re-entry path?Because flight tests with models wouldbe difficult as well as costly, engineershave brought this problem to earth.

Elevated temperature test facilitieshave been developed that apply heat to afull-sized missile to simulate its flightthrough space. And while the missile"cooks," various strength tests are madeto determine the feasibility of a particu-lar design.

As a prelude to the test, the desiredfunction of temperature versus time isdrawn on a graph with electrolytic ink.In the test, a curve follower then readsthe graph and furnishes an electrical sig-nal proportional to temperature at everyinstant. A bank of tungsten -filamentlamps surrounding the missile then por-tion out radiant energy in accordancewith this signal. The electrical power tothe lamps is controlled with a computer -regulator. To assure that the correcttemperature is maintained at the missilesurface, thermocouples feed a tempera-ture signal to the computer -regulator.

During flight, the temperature is notthe same at all points on the surface ofthe missile; therefore, in the test arrange-ment a total of 15 regulators and powerchannels provide independent regulationof up to 15 areas of the surface. To givean idea of the response of the system, thetemperature can be made to rise at 1000degrees F per second to a total of 2650degrees F. The tungsten filament lampscan develop 7500 kw of power for 15minutes and 30 000 kw for short bursts.This high -temperature system is now be-ing used to test the Air Force Titan inter-continental ballistic missile at the MartinCompany Denver Division.

digitalized test dataObtaining useful test data consists

fundamentally of three steps; recordingthe variable quantity, converting it intosome meaningful form, and displayingthe result in some logical manner. Testengineers working with aviation gas tur-bines have assembled a combination of

units into a test arrangement in whichdata is automatically taken, converted toa digital number, and typed on a form foreasy inspection. The information is alsopunched on a tape for a permanentreproducible record.

The jet engine to be tested is placed inthe test cell and the test apparatus as-sembled in the normal manner. A total of60 imputs can be measured by the ap-paratus-air flows, temperatures, fuelconsumption, engine vibration, and en-gine speed to name a few.

Metallurgical engineers at the West-inghouse aviation gas turbine planthave developed similar equipment fortaking data from some 30 high -temper-ature, stress -rupture furnaces. They havefurther provided an extremely economi-cal system by using a centralized systemfor measuring and recording data fromeach of the 30 furnaces. An inexpensivemagnetic amplifier control programs theheating cycle for each furnace. The cen-tralized digital voltmeter periodicallytakes a reading directly from the speci-men in each furnace and feeds it to a con-verter, where the information is trans-lated for an electric typewriter. Readingsare taken every 15 minutes, 24 hours perday, 7 days per week. The equipmentcan be left completely unattended, sinceit has a built-in quality control feature.It analyzes its own readings, and if areading does not seem correct prints thequestioned reading in red. If five con-secutive questionable readings are ob-tained, standby equipment is automati-cally inserted. Likewise, in case of a type-writer key jam or other equipment mal-function, the equipment is turned off.

DB and DH-for the NavyA whole line of low -voltage air circuit

breakers have been developed for Navyuse. Primarily an extension of the com-mercial DB line, these Navy breakershave been designed to resist additionalshock and vibration that might be in-curred during their life aboard ship. Thenormal current -carrying capacity rangesfrom 600 to 4000 amperes, with inter-rupting ratings from 40 000 to 100 000amperes. The breakers are arranged in anew drawout design in a removable frame,which is built into a Navy switchboard.

One of the first applications of the newbreaker line will be in the nuclear carrierand cruiser being built by the Navy.

A new 2300 -volt breaker has been de-veloped for the Navy for shipboard use.This is a new voltage class for ,shipboarddistribution systems. Previously, even onthe largest vessels, 440 -volt distributionsystems were used. However, some of the

Engineer takes test data from anautomatic Computer Test Set.

The USNS Eltanin, a cross between acargo ship and ice breaker, has al-ready proven herself in Arctic man-euvers. Built by Avondale MarineWays, Inc., at New Orleans, the stOpis propelled by a diesel-electric vari-able -voltage system. Each of the two1350-shp, double armature d -c pro-pulsion motors is directly connectedto one of the twin propellers.

A new search radar developed for theNavy departs from previous radar de-signs in that it is crystal controlled,thereby achieving extremely highstability. Also, instead of the usualrectangular pulse, a shaped pulse hasbeen designed to decrease the re-quired bandwidth for operation; thisallows the high -power system towork in crowded environments with-out interfering with other electronicdevices. To simplify testing andmaintenance, the necessary testingequipment is built into the unit.

contemplated carriers are so large, andwill use power in such large blocks, thatthe low -voltage system may bow to ahigher voltage to reduce the size andweight of various electrical apparatus.

The new breaker, and extension of thecommercial DH design, is going throughstrict "Navy exams," which includespecial tests much more rigorous than re-quired for the "land lubber" variety.These include special shock tests, inter-rupting tests, calibration tests, andswitching tests. For example, the breakermust interrupt its continuous currentrating (2000 amperes) 1000 times andyet hold trip calibrations with strictlimits. It will interrupt 55 000 amperes.

reliable torpedoesThe probability that an anti-sub-

marine torpedo will operate correctlymust be high, lest the submarine be in theposition of Wyatt Earp with a misfire.New anti-submarine torpedoes musthave a probability of 95 percent, which isextremely high for the highly compli-cated equipment involved.

To achieve this high reliability intorpedoes, some 30 percent of the initialtorpedo contract money is going into re-liability programs. A Westinghouse engi-neering reliability group sample tests allpurchased parts and a significant numberof production assembly samples. Onenotable difference lies in their testphilosophy-they test everything tofailure, be it by temperature, vibration,or voltage. Another objective group ofengineers evaluates the various designsof other engineering departments andmakes recommendations or rejections.The torpedo reliability program is themost extensive reliability program of anywithin the company.

military communicationsMany military situations exist where

extremely limited -range communicationis desirable; for example, in-flight refuel-ing of aircraft or for convoy control. Toobtain such a secure communication de-vice, communication engineers are ex-perimenting with a device that will trans-mit by means of an induction field, ratherthan the conventional radiated field. Thisis equivalent to using a transformer, butpulling the windings far apart. An all -transistor device, about the size of a handi-talkie, has been developed with a loopantenna that can be built into a fieldjacket. Tests have obtained distances upto 200 feet, and means are being con-sidered for increasing this range from twoto five times.

Scatter Communications-Scatter corn-

munications, the method of beaming ahigh-powered microwave signal into theair and picking up the "scattered" signalmany miles away, has progressed fromtrial test links to tactical radio communi-cations equipment. Under an Air Forcecontract, Westinghouse will build radiocommunications equipment light enoughto be airlifted by helicopter and capableof transmitting and receiving 48 voiceconversations simultaneously. Most ofthe circuitry and techniques for the newequipment have already been proven inmore than a year's operation of a 100 -mile test link in Canada. The completeunits will weigh 2300 pounds and arepackaged in weatherproof shelters meas-uring six feet wide, six feet high, andeight feet long. They can be placed inoperation in about one hour after place-ment in a tactical area. The equipment isfm and operates at 4500-5000 mc. Theequipment can also be used at reducedpower for conventional line -of -sight mi-crowave relay systems. For these shorterranges, 241) channels can be handled withminor modifications.

remote controls for radar and missilesA militarized version of industrial

Visicode supervisory control equipment,normally used for such tasks as remotecontrol of electric utility substations,hydro stations, or oil pumping stations,is giving an assist to the U.S. Air ForceContinental Air Defense System. Oneelement of the defense system consists ofa ring of radar stations around theperiphery of the United States. To obtaincomplete coverage, it has been necessaryto plan on hundreds of unmanned "gap -filler" radar sites, which act as satellites tothe principal radar stations. These sitesfeed radar and other vital information tothe main radar station via telephone cir-cuits. The control -monitoring equipmentwill aid in remote operation of these gap -filler sites from the main radar stations.

Supervisory control equipment willalso aid in the remote control and indica-tion of the guided -missile test range thatextends from the launching site at thePatrick Air Force Base in Florida toPuerto Rico, some 1500 miles distant.The supervisory control equipment con-trols the ground radar and radio stationsthat guide, track, and record test data forthe missiles. These control stations arelocated on various islands along the testrange. The supervisory control operateson frequency multiplexed carrier channelsover a submarine cable. The control andindication equipment operates by meansof binary coded pulses with self -checkingfeatures to insure accuracy.

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Since the initial "breakthrough" inelectroluminescence several years ago,research scientists have been enthusias-tically delving into every aspect of thephenomenon. What they are finding outis bringing electroluminescence ever closerto wide application.

One interesting aspect explored lastyear is the effect of phosphor particle sizeon the characteristics of electrolumines-cent panels. Fine particles lead to a fasterincrease of brightness with increasingvoltage, give brighter emission at highvoltage. Importantly, fine particles alsogive a higher efficiency. They can also bemore easily incorporated into very thincells. Coarse particles, on the other hand,give brighter emission at low voltages.By taking advantage of these differentcharacteristics, cells can be tailor-madefor different requirements.

Unusual possibilities are also createdby the development of thin transparentphosphor films. These films, about oneten -thousandth inch thick, give off lightwhen excited by cathode rays, ultravioletlight, or electric fields. Such films excitedby cathode rays can be used whereverhigh resolution is required or where thesurrounding light level is high and thetrace on a normal tube would be invisible.Films excited by electric fields can beused where particularly low voltage ex-citation is required or where transparencyof the emitting area is required, such asa case in which both transmitted andemitted light contain information.

Some of the effects caused by combin-ations of a -c, d -c, and radiation (ultra-violet or blue) are startling. For example,the combination of a -c and d -c voltageson certain phosphor layers results in d -ccontrol of a -c light emission, and thebrightness obtained with both voltages ishundreds of times greater than witheither voltage alone. This combination,among other things, permits detection ofvery small a -c voltages.

In a somewhat similar manner, a com-bination of radiation and electric fieldson the same phosphor layer results inradiation control of light emission; withboth radiation and field applied, thebrightness can be many times greaterthan with either one. This effect might beuseful in light "amplifiers." Importantlythese combination effects can be achievedin large area layers using a phosphoralready available in large quantities.

Many strange and unusual aspects ofelectroluminescence ate being discovered,and many lack a complete theoretical ex-planation. For example, the original cellsmade by Destriau usually used a phos-phor containing considerable zinc oxide.

28

Later Westinghouse scientists found thatthey could make a better cell without thismaterial, and reasoned the "bad actor"was oxygen. This theory was borne outby subsequent experiments.

Despite the many questions still un-answered, the technology of electrolumi-nescence has advanced sufficiently toallow some practical applications. Oneproduct made last year was a map boardfor map makers, which consisted of anelectroluminescent panel that could beplugged into either 110 -volt circuits orpowered from a car battery. Anotherproduct is a digital display system. Manyothers are in late stages of development.

aluminum -iron alloysAlthough the present supply of nickel

is adequate to meet most immediate re-quirements, materials engineers are try-ing to develop substitute alloys in view ofthe metal's increased use as a base forhigh -temperature alloys. Most of theeffort is aimed at eliminating the use ofnickel in noncritical applications whereits use is dictated by custom, such as inresistance -heating elements.

As a result, a class of Hirox aluminum -iron alloys has been developed that canprobably replace the nickel -base heatingelements common in many consumer andindustrial products.

The initial requirements imposed onthe substitute alloy were many. It hadto have high -electrical resistivity andgood oxidation resistance-and, of course,be free of nickel. In addition, related re-quirements of high strength and thermalstability had to be met.

After reviewing property data on anumber of alloy systems, metallurgistsarrived at a class of iron compounds withabout 10 percent aluminum and 10 per-cent chromium. These materials wereknown to have good oxidation resistance;however, they had serious shortcomingsin fabricability, joinability, and room -temperature ductility. The developmentprogram was then aimed at modifyingthe structure and properties of these ma-terials through compositional and proc-essing techniques.

The properties of the new alloys wereeven better than expected. The Hiroxalloys appear to have better oxidationresistance, higher electrical resistivity,and at the same time have a useful servicetemperature up to 2300 degrees F. And,since they are ductile at room tempera-ture, they can easily be drawn into theconvenient form of wire.

These alloys may have other applica-tions. For example, thanks to their high -oxidation resistance they might also be

used as "skin" on high-speed missiles, oras a substitute alloy in nuclear reactorfuel -element cladding.

the digital computer in reactor designThe large digital computer has become

one of the reactor designer's basic tools.For example, the physics performance ofa drawing -board core now can be calcu-lated by computer. Still, the need forlarger and faster machines and bettercoding systems is ever present.

In earlier stages of the nuclear art,methods of predicting mathematicallythe lifetime characteristics and behaviorof core designs were crude. The core hadto be built and tested-an expensive butnecessary process.

As more and more core configurationswere built and tested, mathematicallypredictable patterns began to emerge.Digital computer codes were built onthese patterns; these were capable, to alimited extent, of predicting how a simi-lar core configuration, not yet built,might behave. Each new core yieldedmore information, which, when studied,led to refinements of the initial codes.Conversely, a large program on the de-velopment of neutron diffusion theorywas embarked upon, written into codes,and then tested for validity and accuracyby comparing theoretical results withthe actual behavior of specifically de-signed cores.

The ultimate aim of this step-by-stepprocess is to develop a set of digital -computer codes that will yield all infor-mation needed on a given core designwithout building a test core.

The prediction of fuel depletion overthe life of a reactor core is one of extremecomplexity, requiring literally thousandsof individual calculations. The basicproblem of fuel depletion is further com-plicated by a number of side effects thataffect reactor physics calculations.

In the early stages of design, when awide range of reactor parameters are ex-plored, one-dimensional codes are oftenadequate. A reactor, however, is a three-dimensional entity. Thus the next stepwas to design a two-dimensional code.The jump from one to two dimensions inphysics calculations increases the com-plexity, coding time, and computer oper-ating time by many orders of magnitude.Months of preparation are required tocode some two-dimensional problems.

Until recently, three-dimensional ef-fects were being synthesized by combin-ing a number of two-dimensional solutionswith a one-dimensional solution. Thereactor core is divided into "slices,"each of which is considered a two-dimen-

sional problem. These are solved sepa-rately. The two-dimensional solutions arethen "stacked" mathematically in theone-dimensional problem to present anapproximate three-dimensional picture.

Complex as this three-dimensional syn-thesis is, it cannot predict with sufficientaccuracy all that happens within the corethroughout its life. These results mustbe combined with others to factor intothe basic design problem such additionalphysical effects as local inhomogeneitiesin the core, neutron escape, thermalutilization, temperature distribution, andcore hot spots.

Three-dimensional codes for these life-time calculations are now being used.However they are limited in scope be-cause of existing computer abilities.

Despite present limitations, reactorcomputational methods have been re-markably successful. When properly ap-plied to water -moderated reactors, re -activities within 1 or 2 percent of themeasured values can be obtained.

Although the use of prototype coresand critical experiments still cannot becompletely avoided, the computer pro-gram has already advanced to the stagewhere designers are relying heavily onmachine predictions of lifetime behaviorof reactors at full power.

thick polyethylene plate-by extrusion

Thin sheets of polyethylene are oftenmade by an extrusion process. Until re-cently, however, thick polyethylene platecould be made only by compression mold-ing. A radically new extrusion processnow permits the continuous productionof heavy polyethylene plate up toinches thick and 48 inches wide. The twoprime advantages: a six -fold increase inproduction rate, and a guaranteed void -free plate.

In addition to its use as a neutronradiation shielding, the new plate is par-ticularly suited to structural uses, whereits chemical inertness, thick cross-section,stiffness, and unlimited length can beused to advantage. This new plate canalso be used as a dielectric barrier, whereheat is not a factor.

The new material can be fabricatedwith conventional woodworking toolsand techniques. It can be fastened by ad-hesives, nailed, or bolted. Polyethyleneplate can also be welded. Its potentialuses depend largely on the imaginationof designers.

shaking of atomsScientists have discovered a new way

to probe into the complicated interior

29

structure of matter -by shaking its atomsback and forth up to 20 million times asecond. The technique, known as "nu-clear magnetic resonance acoustic ab-sorption," is a major advance in methodsfor studying the structure of crystallinematter. Nuclear magnetic resonanceacoustic absorption (NMRAA) takes ad-vantage of the fact that the nuclei ofatoms resemble tiny spinning magnets.These nuclear magnets have north andsouth magnetic poles that tend to line upparallel with one another when placedbetween the poles of a magnet. The shak-ing supplies enough energy to affect thespinning nuclear magnets, thereby up-setting the atoms' magnetic balance.The unbalance is detected through tinyelectrical signals that show the inter-action between the atomic nuclei and theelectrons swarming around them. Thiselectronic look inside the atoms ofcrystalline matter reveals the crystal'sinternal structure, and leads to a betterunderstanding of the forces holding thecrystal together.

The technique is based upon a phe-nomenon called nuclear magnetic reso-nance (NMR), which has been known formore than a decade. NMR is used tostudy the structure of molecules, tomake chemical analyses, to study chemi-cal processes, and to obtain basic scien-tific data on certain types of crystals.However, NMR has limitations. Thistechnique does not work for metals andsemiconductor crystals simply becausethe pulsating magnetic field used cannotpenetrate these materials and tip overtheir nuclei. These substances act as ashield against the pulsating magneticfield, just as a steel building cuts radioreception by shielding a radio receiverfrom radio waves.

Fortunately this shield can be pene-trated. If a crystal is set into rapid vibra-tion, magnetic and electric fields arecreated inside it. These internal fieldsinteract with the nuclei in the crystal inmuch the same manner as an externallyapplied field.

When the motion matches exactly thefrequency of wobble of the nuclear mag-nets, the nuclei behave exactly as theydo when a pulsating external magneticfield is applied to them. This nuclearshaking is done with high -frequencysound waves from a quartz crystalbonded to the crystal under study.

The objective in these experiments wasto verify experimentally a theory thatpredicted this acoustic resonance innuclei. However, from the results ob-tained, this new technique appears toprovide a useful new tool.

30

red hot motorA "red hot" electric motor has oper-

ated continuously over extended periodsat ambient temperature of nearly 1000degrees F. The motor is believed to bethe first to have operated in the thou-sand -degree range for any appreciabletime without some form of artificial cool-ing; it has run for more than 100 hourssealed in an oven at 950 degrees F.

To put the motor insulation to itsseverest test, the motor bearings wereplaced outside the oven and cooled withforced air. Such versions of the red hotmotor have run continuously at 950 de-grees for as long as 1000 hours.

The motor was designed to test theperformance of a new system of electricalinsulation for electrical equipment re-quired to operate at very high tempera-tures, such as those encountered in thesupersonic flight of jet planes, missiles,rockets, and other high-speed aircraft.

In the red hot motor, there are fourbasic insulation components: phase in-sulation, slot insulation, wire insulation,and the potting impregnating compound.

The phase and slot insulation is flex-ible sheet material that consists of glasscloth and large mica flakes bonded withphosphate. The wire is insulated bycovering it with glass fiber and then im-pregnating with a suspension of pow-dered mica in a phosphate solution.When so insulated, the wire is flexibleand then can be wound into motors in aconventional manner. After winding, themotor is impregnated and potted with aliquid slurry consisting of a phosphatesolution, Wollastonite, silica, and otherchemically reactive materials. The pottedmotor is dried out to remove free mois-ture and then pyrolyzed above 600 de-grees F to develop the best properties.

The new insulation has been tested forperformance on a series of experimentalmotors. First tests were conducted on afive -horsepower motor operating at 110volts. To raise the motor temperaturehigh enough to challenge the insulation,heating strips were placed around themotor frame. The whole motor then wascovered with a thick coating of asbestos.In this early version the motor bearingswere exposed to air and cooled by forcingadditional air through them.

The motor ran at full speed under no-load conditions for more than 1000 hoursat temperatures well above the meltingpoint of metals such as lead and zinc.After the tests were stopped, no deterio-ration of the insulation was found.

Following these initial tests, the West-inghouse scientists constructed several

versions of the red hot motor. Thesewere smaller in size and used standardmotor frames. Special high -temperaturebearings allowed the motors, includingtheir bearings, to operate continuouslyin the nearly 1000 -degree heat.

Copper wire could not be used to windthese experimental motors, because atsuch temperatures the metal soon oxi-dizes and becomes useless as an electricalconductor. Among the most successfulmotors were those wound with wire ofpure silver. The insulation also has beentested in solenoid coils, in small trans-formers, and in other devices.

The new inorganic insulation has beenprepared experimentally in a number offorms suitable for wide variety of uses.These include: insulated wire, flexiblesheet insulation, and laminated materials.These insulating materials are easily pre-pared on conventional equipment withlow-cost raw materials. Only minorchanges from conventional methods arenecessary for processing of the compo-nents into the complete insulation sys-tem. The thermal life of all the insulatingmaterials up to temperatures of 950 de-grees F is considered almost indefinite.

While some problems remain in per-fecting these new insulating materialsand in adapting them to practical use,the major problems in designing a very

NMRAA-In the small metal box be-tween the poles of this large electro-magnet, scientists vibrate the atomsof a crystal up to 20 million times persecond to study the structure ofcrystal matter (story at left).

high temperature inorganic insulationhave been largely solved. Such insulationis of particular interest because of itspotential applications in the red hotelectrical equipment demanded by super-sonic flight.

taping harmonic strainsTurbine designers are continually

plagued with potentially destructivevibrating forces in discs, blades, and dia-phragms. Turbine parts must be me-chanically designed to prevent them fromliterally shaking themselves to pieces.

Aviation gas turbine engineers havecome up with a method for determiningvibratory stresses and frequency devia-tion from a datum of the various indi-vidual turbine components, and auto-matically plotting a curve of these valuesversus engine speed or other parametersuch as air flow. Where two or threemonths often were required to completelyanalyze strain -gauge data from a newturbine or compressor, the job now canbe done in less than two weeks.

Prior to the development of the newmethod, strain gauge analysis involved atedious process of manually measuringinstantaneous magnitudes and countingfrequency content from the strain -gaugesignal displayed on a high-speed oscil-lograph trace. The method was time con-

Hot Motor-Even in the searing heatfrom jets of burning gas, this ex-perimental motor performs efficient-ly enough to do useful work, such asthis grinding job (story at left).

suming and limited to the measurementof frequencies below 500 cycles; andfurther, determining true amplitudestress values of individual componentswas extremely difficult because of phasebeating of the variable involved.

In the new method, the strain gaugesignal is recorded directly on magnetictape, as the engine is operated over itsfull speed range. The tape is thenanalyzed to determine the various fre-quency components. By means of spec-trum filters, each frequency componentis detected and recorded as a pulsatingd -c signal. The plotter chart position iscontrolled by another signal on the tapethat corresponds to engine speed (orother engine parameters), so that the re-sult is a display of amplitude stressvalues versus engine speed. In a similarmanner, frequency is also recorded as afunction of engine speed. As a result,engineers are getting more reliable in-formation, more of it, and over a muchwider frequency spectrum.

objects cause sonar noiseResearch scientists have had the first

detailed look at the billions of "some-things" in the sea that are believed tocause the noise that jams sonar systems.

The look, an electronic one, was ob-tained aboard a Navy submarine in the

Gulf Stream off the coast of Florida. Us-ing short bursts of ultrahigh -frequencysound waves, the sea was probed to pin-point individual underwater scatterers ofsonar signals.

Collectively, these individual scat-terers affect a sonar signal much as drop-lets of fog disperse and reflect the beamfrom an automobile headlight. They pro-duce a confusing jumble of unresolvedechoes, or noise, that limits the range ofsonar signals and interferes with theirclear reception.

Therefore, in addition to the desiredsignal, the sonar receiver sees a contin-uous distracting assortment of indis-tinguishable echoes called reverberation.The object of the research was to studythe nature and mechanism of this so-called volume reverberation.

Previous reverberation studies haveemployed comparatively broad pulses ofultrasonic energy. The Westinghouse ex-periments used ultrasonic waves with afrequency of 60 000 cycles per second,roughly four times the frequency of theupper limit of human hearing. Thesewaves were broken into pulses less thanhalf a thousandth of a second long, reoc-curring at a rate of 80 pulses per second.

When these high -frequency, narrowpulses were beamed into the water, theresults were quite unexpected. The con -

Taping Strains-Equipr-i3nt used by gas turbir e designers for analyzing test data.Tape-recorded strain gage cata is analyzed and displayed as amplitude stressva+ues versus engire spaei. Complete analysis cf strain -gauge data from a new tur-bi ie or compressor takes less than two weeks (story above).

Left --Thermoelectricity -Thermo-electric power generation has longbeen an exciting scientific challenge.Recently, Westinghouse scientistsdiscovered a large number of com-pounds in a previously unexploredclass of solid-state thermoelectricmaterials that appear to make feasi-ble the interchange of heat and elec-tricity at the elevated temperaturesencountered in standard methods ofpower generation. The experimentalthermoelectric generator (at left) de-livers ten watts of electric power.The generator was first demonstratedat a conference on thermoelectricitysponsored by the U.S. Naval ResearchLaboratory, where it powered a publicaddress system.

Center-Cleaning With Sound --Thekitchen sink may be going ultrasonic.The same kind of ultrasonic soundwaves used in underwater systems fordetecting enemy submarines maysoon be doing cleaning tasks for thehousewife. The photo shows a full-scale experimental sink. Such newapplications of ultrasonics are madepossible by the development of a newand improved ultrasonic transducer.A radical new design has resulted ina transducer that is twice as efficientand considerably more compact thanany existing units of comparablepower. A number of Westinghousemanufacturing operations usingultrasonics have been made practicalbecause of the new transducer. Theseinclude: electroplating aluminumbus bars with silver, cleaning printedcircuitry boards for television andradio receivers, and decontaminatingpieces of nuclear apparatus. In onetypical application, the requiredmanufacturing operations have beenreduced from 12 steps to 3, and thetime required from 30 minutes to 2.5.

Bottom - Automatic Photometer -Taking photometric readings of astreetlighting luminaire normallytakes two technicians about fourhours, or a total of eight man-hours.Calculation of the light values anddistribution, and plotting of curvestakes another 25 to 35 hours. Now,using the automatic photometer(shown below) plus a digital com-puter, the readings can be taken andrecorded by one man in an hour, andall calculations and curve plottingdone in 13 minutes. The system auto-matically takes light readings at pre-selected points in the light beam.Programming of the photometer isaccomplished by two tape readers.

Readout of information is in theform of punched tape. The tape isthen run through a converter, andthe information punched on cards.These cards are then fed into a digitalcomputer to accomplish the neces-sary calculations. From this com-puter comes not only calculated val-ues, but also a completely plottedillumination distribution curve. Asfar as is known, this is the first auto-matic photometer ever built. Thepresent unit is designed for mercuryand incandescent streetlightingunits; engineers are now working ona similar arrangement for fluorescentluminaires.

PEP

tinuous jumble of sonar noise broke downinto separate, distinct echoes. Thesedistinct echoes proved the existence ofdiscrete objects in the sea as the sourceof reverberation. And because these ob-jects were distinct, their distribution andsize could be plotted.

The experimental apparatus was in-stalled aboard the submarine USS SeaPoacher. The transmitting and receivingtransducers were mounted on the bow ofthe submarine and the associated elec-tronic equipment was placed in theforward torpedo room. The signals re-ceived from the undersea scatterers weretape recorded and later analyzed in thelaboratory.

Experimental data was collected dur-ing runs of the submarine at variousdepths and speeds. Depths ranged from30 feet to 380 feet below the surface.

To measure the motion of the under-water scatterers themselves, one trialwas a hovering operation in which thesubmarine remained nearly motionless.Another trial, to compare underwaterand surface scattering, was a surfacingoperation from a depth of 35 feet.

About six times as many scattererswere found at 80 feet as at 380 feet, butthe acoustical size of the 380 -foot scat-terers was about three times larger.Acoustical size is a measure of the abilityof an object to scatter sound waves and isnot necessarily a measure of its actualphysical size. But translated into termsof physical size, if these objects werebubbles of air they would, on the aver-age, be the size of a pinhead.

Some scatterers remained motionlessin the probing sonar beam, apparentlymoving forward at the same rate as thesubmarine followed them. In the hover-ing operation, the scatterers were ob-served to move with speeds up to one -tenth knot.

Such data leads to the belief that atleast some of these individual scatterersunder the sea are forms of animal lifecapable of motion. Theories as to theirexact nature mention such varied crea-tures as fish, shrimp, squid, and a host ofsmall organisms barely visible to thenaked eye. But even strictly physicaleffects in the water may be responsible.Whatever these objects may be, they cannow be electronically pinpointed. Thenext step is to attempt to take a visuallook at them.

The underwater studies which led tothe trackdown of the sound scattererswere carried out under the auspices ofthe Bureau of Ordnance, U.S. Navy andthe Office of Naval Research, and wereconducted by Westinghouse scientists.

32

SOLAR POWER IN SPACEsolar "sail" for space travel

The cheapest, simplest and lightest means ofpropulsion for man's exploration of space may in-volve a device used on earth for at least 3500years. The device: A sail. Not a wind -poweredsail, but a "solar sail" made of aluminum foil orlightweight plastic material no more than one ten -thousandth of an inch thick; it would use theenergy of the sun to propel the space craft.

The solar sailboat would have to be launchedfrom the earth by conventional rocket power.However, once in orbit, the rocket would be dis-carded and a huge, parachute -shaped sail couldbe unfurled and attached by shroud lines to agondola carrying the payload and crew.

The solar sail has a significant and substantialadvantage even before the space vehicle leavesits launching pad on the earth. For example, tosend a one -ton load to Mars by chemical rocket,nine tones of payload and fuel would have to beshot up to a satellite station. With the sail, onlyone ton need be shot up because the solar sailneeds to carry no rocket fuel.

In operation, the space ship using a solar sailwould work like this: The ship would first be shotup from the surface of the earth by conventionalrocket to an altitude of about 1000 miles, whereit would circle the earth in a satellite orbit. Thenthe sail would be opened to receive the sun'senergy. This energy would cause the orbit tobecome larger and larger until the space ship es-caped the earth's gravitational grip to become asolar satellite spiraling around the sun.

By turning the mainsail-or possibly hoistingan auxiliary sail -this constant source of powercould be used to control easily the direction of thespace vehicle and thus reduce the serious problemof guidance in space. Space guidance would be aparticular problem for rocket -powered vessels,which would have to use up precious fuel to be atan exact point in space at a precise time. But ifthe solar ship by miscalculation should miss on thefirst try, the sail will always provide the neces-sary propulsive force for another try.

for the man on the moonAlthough man has yet to reach the moon, the Westinghouse Astro-

nautics Institute is busily investigating ways to make his lunar staycomfortable. The lack of atmosphere on the moon creates many dis-advantages, but it also provides a few major advantages. One is the feasi-bility of a high -power electric generator using photoelectric processes.

Although the theory of photoelectricity has been known for many years,it has never been put to high power use because photo generation requiresa vacuum, which would be costly to achieve on a large scale under atmos-pheric conditions, and subject to destruction. However, on the moon'ssurface, where vacuum is free, photoelectric generation becomes a naturalfor converting solar energy directly to electric power. Since the sun atzenith pours about 6000 kilowatts per acre on the moon's surface, the sunbecomes an impressive source of power.

The basic principle of photoelectric conversion is simple: radiation im-pinging upon a metallic surface will extract electrons if the quantumenergy exceeds the work function of the surface. If a collecting device inthe form of a metallic grid is placed facing the emitting surface, the elec-trons emitted will strike the collector and generate a voltage. Closing thecircuit between the emitter and the collector produces a current. Since thevoltage generated by a single cell is relatively low, several cells could beconnected in series.

Basic components of the actual power station would consist of wiremesh and a chemically coated plastic. Giant sheets of a thin plastic ma-terial could be stretched and supported over several acres of the moon'ssurface. Coated on these sheets would be an extremely thin layer (aboutone micron thick) of a photosensitive material. A thin wire mesh wouldthen be placed parallel to, but slightly separated from the plastic sheet andinsulated from it. The photoelectric generator would then be ready toproduce electric power. Such a device would have long life since evenrelatively large meteorites hitting it would merely destroy a portion of thephoto -converting surface, with a consequent relatively small reduction inpower output.

An obvious prerequisite for the generation of power is a low internalimpedance. Photoelectric cells normally have an internal impedance ofabout one megohm, and thus would be impractical. Work done at theWestinghouse Astronautics Institute and by electronic tube engineers haveproduced advanced structures that promise internal impedances of about0.1 ohm, with even lower values foreseeable. Although in early experi-ments efficiencies of only 0.1 percent have been achieved, insight gainedinto the phenomenon now shows good promise for generators with up to25 percent conversion efficiency. Achievement of this figure would meanpower yields of about 1500 kw per acre when the photosurface is exposedto the sun at zenith.

A plastic model of a new reactor concept.The initials stand for crgani: moderatedfluid bed reactor. Fuel is in the form ofpellets; a chain reaction is attained byincreasing the fluid flcw, lifting the pel-lets and dispersing them it the vessel.(see story under "Atomic Power")