for cattle interdisciplinary report • third edition 2001 ... · the national department of farm...

The Danish Agricultural Advisory CenterThe National Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery

The Danish Cattle FederationUdkaesvej 15, Skejby, 8200 Aarhus N

Telephone 8740 5000 • Telefax 8740 5010 • www.lr.dk

ISBN 87-7470-828-7ISSN 1602-849X

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Interdisciplinaryreport • Third edition 2001

DanishRecommendations

Housing Designfor Cattle

OmslagEXTRA.p65 02-12-2002, 14:572

The Danish Agricultural Advisory CenterNovember 2002

TranslationGitte Grand Graversen The Information Department, The Danish Agricultural Advisory Center

Proof-readingMette Bjerring The Danish Cattle Federation, The Danish Agricultural Advisory CenterInger Dalgaard The National Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery,

The Danish Agricultural Advisory CenterOle Kristensen The Danish Cattle Federation, The Danish Agricultural Advisory CenterChristian C. Krohn Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Research Center FoulumJan Brøgger Rasmussen The National Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery ,

The Danish Agricultural Advisory CenterØyvind Runge The Danish Cattle Federation, The Danish Agricultural Advisory Center

LayoutInger Camilla Fabricius The Danish Cattle Federation, The Danish Agricultural Advisory Center

IllustrationNiels Peter Nicolajsen The National Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery,

The Danish Agricultural Advisory Center

Printed bySpecialtrykkeriet i Viborg

Numbers printed1.000

Third edition

2001

Housing Design for Cattle– Danish Recommendations

Interdisciplinary report

Translated into English

and issued in 2002

4 Housing Design for Cattle – Danish Recommendations • 3rd edition • 2001

Preface

Now the third revised edition of the interdisciplinary report “Housing Design forCattle – Danish Recommendations” is ready. As the previous editions it is to be con-sidered as a status in a continuous process of finding the most optimal housing de-signs to the benefit of animals as well as human beings.

The report is based on animal requirements for near environment, behaviour,health and production.

The first edition was published in January 1991. Second edition was published inOctober 1995. Since 1995, several new research results and much knowledge havebeen produced concerning for instance dairy cow and young stock housing, entirelyor partly open housing systems, ventilation and climate as well as design and func-tion of the milking area.

Additionally a series of editorial changes has been carried out in the structure ofthe individual sections of this edition.

The report is the result of a cooperation between a number of research and experi-mental institutions as well as the agricultural advisory service.

The report can be cited with indication of sources.

The Danish Agricultural Advisory CenterDecember 2000

This English edition is a complete and accurate translation of the third edition ofthe report and no editing or alterations have been made except from a few necess-ary changes to the layout of the publication.

The Danish Agricultural Advisory CenterNovember 2002

5Housing Design for Cattle – Danish Recommendations • 3rd edition • 2001

The following persons have contributed to the report:

Senior Adviser Ole KristensenThe National Department of Danish Cattle Husbandry, The Danish AgriculturalAdvisory Center

Senior Adviser Jan Brøgger RasmussenThe National Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery, The Danish AgriculturalAdvisory Center

Adviser Inger DalgaardThe National Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery, The Danish AgriculturalAdvisory Center

Head of Section Jens Yde BlomThe National Department of Danish Cattle Husbandry, The Danish AgriculturalAdvisory Center

Certificate in dairy herd health Mogens JakobsenDanish Veterinary Association

Farm Building Adviser Ole UgelvigAabenraa Local Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery, Association forAgricultural Construction Advisers

Farm Building Adviser Helge KromannViborg Local Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery, Association forAgricultural Construction Advisers

Cattle and Farm Building Adviser Robert PedersenMorsø Agricultural Advisory Centre, Danish Cattle Advisers’ Association

Head of Department Per JustesenDanish Dairy Board

Senior Consultant Laust JepsenDanish Dairy Board

Head of research unit Christian C. KrohnDanish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Research Center Foulum

Scientist Kaj HansenDanish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Research Center Bygholm

Associate Professor Niels RørbechDepartment of Animal Science and Animal Health, The Royal Veterinary andAgricultural University

When referring to the report the following literature reference must be stated:

Anonymous, 2001. Interdisciplinary report “Housing Design for Cattle – DanishRecommendations. Third edition 2001”. The Danish Agricultural Advisory Center.Translated into English and issued in 2002. 122 pp.


Contents

Preface .................................................................................................................................4Contents ..............................................................................................................................6Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 101. Cattle behaviour ........................................................................................................... 12

1.1 Cattle senses........................................................................................................................ 121.2 Social behaviour .................................................................................................................. 13

1.2.1 Communication ........................................................................................................... 131.2.2 Individual distance requirements .............................................................................. 131.2.3 Ranking and rank criteria .......................................................................................... 141.2.4 Aggressive behaviour ................................................................................................. 151.2.5 Social grooming .......................................................................................................... 15

1.3 Circadian rhythm and activity patterns .............................................................................. 161.3.1 Lying time, lying frequency and circadian rhythm .................................................... 161.3.2 Lying down and getting up behaviour ....................................................................... 161.3.3 Lying down positions .................................................................................................. 171.3.4 Choice of lying place and bedding .............................................................................. 181.3.5 Movement .................................................................................................................. 19

1.4 Comfort behaviour .............................................................................................................. 191.5. Feed and water intake ...................................................................................................... 20

1.5.1 Grazing and circadian rhythm.................................................................................... 201.5.2. Feed intake in housing systems ................................................................................ 211.5.3 Restrictive feeding ...................................................................................................... 211.5.4 Ad lib feeding ............................................................................................................. 211.5.5 Rumination .................................................................................................................. 211.5.6 Water intake .............................................................................................................. 21

1.6 Reproduction ....................................................................................................................... 221.6.1 Sexual behaviour of bulls ........................................................................................... 221.6.2 Sexual behaviour of cows ........................................................................................... 221.6.3 Calving and the cow’s behaviour towards the calf ................................................... 221.6.4 Behaviour of calves ..................................................................................................... 231.6.5 Sucking and eating behaviour of calves .................................................................... 241.6.6 Separation and weaning ............................................................................................ 25

1.7 Undesirable behaviour ........................................................................................................ 251.8 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 27

1.8.1 Sources ........................................................................................................................ 272. Weight, body dimensions and movement behaviour ...............................................28

2.1 Cattle weight and dimensions ............................................................................................ 282.2 Young stock weight and dimensions .................................................................................. 282.3 Body dimensions of cows .................................................................................................... 282.4 Cattle movement pattern .................................................................................................. 282.5 Freedom of movement and exercise ................................................................................. 302.6 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 31

2.6.1 Sources ....................................................................................................................... 312.6.2 Supplementary literature ......................................................................................... 31

3. Health ............................................................................................................................ 323.1 General health state ........................................................................................................... 323.2 External infection protection ............................................................................................. 33

3.2.1 Purchase of cattle ....................................................................................................... 333.2.2 Handing over cattle .................................................................................................... 333.2.3 Admittance of persons ............................................................................................... 34

3.3 Internal infection protection .............................................................................................. 353.3.1 Moving around cattle within farm ............................................................................ 353.3.2 Placing and moving around cattle and young stock ................................................. 353.3.3 Sick cattle and cattle under treatment ..................................................................... 35

3.4 Separation and treatment section ..................................................................................... 353.4.1 Space for hoof trimming ............................................................................................ 36


3.4.2 Medicine and chemical storage ................................................................................. 363.4.3 Waste handling ........................................................................................................... 36

3.5 Cleaning and disinfection .................................................................................................... 363.5.1 General cleaning information .................................................................................... 363.5.2 Specific information about disinfection, including instructions ................................ 36

3.6 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 374. Work routines and supervision ................................................................................... 38

4.1 Work routines, supervision and welfare ............................................................................ 384.2 Cleaning and grooming ....................................................................................................... 384.3 Hoof care ............................................................................................................................. 384.4 Supervision of housing climate ........................................................................................... 394.5 Herd supervision .................................................................................................................. 394.6 Herd handling ...................................................................................................................... 394.7 Handling of cattle and animal – human relations ............................................................. 40

4.7.1 Calves, heifers and cows ............................................................................................. 414.7.2 Bulls ............................................................................................................................. 42

4.8 Taking into use renovated and new housing systems ....................................................... 424.8.1 When will the new housing be taken into use? ........................................................ 424.8.2 Making ready housing and technique ....................................................................... 42

4.9 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 444.9.1 Sources ........................................................................................................................ 444.9.2 Supplementary literature .......................................................................................... 44

5. Housing Climate ........................................................................................................... 465.1 Introduction – housing climate in general .......................................................................... 465.2 Climatic requirements ......................................................................................................... 46

5.2.1 Temperature ............................................................................................................... 465.2.2 Air humidity ................................................................................................................ 475.2.3 Wind speed ................................................................................................................. 475.2.4 Precipitation ............................................................................................................... 475.2.5 Gases ........................................................................................................................... 475.2.6 Dust ............................................................................................................................. 475.2.7 Light ............................................................................................................................ 475.2.8 Sound ........................................................................................................................... 48

5.3 Building insulation ............................................................................................................... 485.3.1 Insulated buildings ...................................................................................................... 485.3.2 Uninsulated buildings ................................................................................................. 48

5.4 Ventilation ........................................................................................................................... 485.4.1 Natural ventilation ..................................................................................................... 495.4.2 Dimensioning of natural ventilation ......................................................................... 49


6. Selection of equipment and materials ........................................................................ 546.1 Equipment ........................................................................................................................... 546.2 Floors .................................................................................................................................... 54

6.2.1 Recommendations for solid floors ............................................................................. 546.2.2 Recommendations for slatted floors ......................................................................... 56

6.3 Drinking water supply and allocation ................................................................................ 566.4 Materials .............................................................................................................................. 59

6.4.1 Choice of materials ..................................................................................................... 596.4.2 Surface treatment ...................................................................................................... 59

6.5 Equipotential bonding ......................................................................................................... 596.6 Cleaning ............................................................................................................................... 616.7 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 62

6.7.1 Sources ........................................................................................................................ 626.7.2 Supplementary literature .......................................................................................... 62


7. Calving section – sucking calfs .................................................................................... 647.1 Calving ................................................................................................................................. 64

7.1.1 Calving pen .................................................................................................................. 647.2 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 67

7.2.1 Sources ........................................................................................................................ 678. Calves and young stock ...............................................................................................68

8.1 Single housed cattle ............................................................................................................ 688.1.1 Single pen .................................................................................................................... 688.1.2 Calf huts ...................................................................................................................... 698.1.3 Stalls ............................................................................................................................ 70

8.2 Jointly housed cattle ........................................................................................................... 718.2.1 Joint pen with a layer of litter or deep litter ............................................................ 728.2.1.1 Litter in the whole pen ............................................................................................ 728.2.1.2 Littered resting area and short non-littered feeding area ................................... 728.2.1.3 Littered resting area and long non-littered feeding place ................................... 738.2.1.4 Self-cleaning sloping pen ......................................................................................... 748.2.1.5 Joint hut with litter in the total area ..................................................................... 758.2.1.6 Shelter with free access to outside area ................................................................ 758.2.2 Cubicles ........................................................................................................................ 768.2.3 Joint pen with slatted floor ....................................................................................... 77

8.3 Feeding areas in joint pens ................................................................................................. 778.3.1 Roughage and concentrate ........................................................................................ 788.3.2 Milk feeding ................................................................................................................ 798.3.3 Drinking water ........................................................................................................... 79


9. Dairy cows .....................................................................................................................869.1 Loose housing – joint housing ............................................................................................. 86

9.1.1. Housing types – divided into type of resting area ................................................... 869.1.1.1 Cubicles ..................................................................................................................... 869.1.1.2 Feeding cubicles ....................................................................................................... 869.1.1.3 Deep litter ............................................................................................................... 869.1.1.4 Self-cleaning sloping pen ......................................................................................... 879.1.2 Resting area ................................................................................................................ 879.1.2.1 Cubicles ..................................................................................................................... 879.1.2.2 Resting area with deep litter and separate feeding area .................................... 919.1.3 Feeding area ............................................................................................................... 949.1.4 Walking alleys ............................................................................................................. 99

9.2. Milking area...................................................................................................................... 1009.2.1 Holding area ............................................................................................................. 1009.2.2 Entrance part ............................................................................................................ 1029.2.3 Milking stalls ............................................................................................................. 1039.2.4 Exit part and return alleys ....................................................................................... 1049.2.5 Hoof bathing ............................................................................................................. 1059.2.6 Separation area ........................................................................................................ 106

9.3 Tied-up housing system ....................................................................................................1069.3.1 Stall (resting area) ....................................................................................................1069.3.2 Feeding area ............................................................................................................. 1079.3.3 Tethers ...................................................................................................................... 1089.3.4 Cow control equipment ............................................................................................ 1099.3.5 Walking alleys ...........................................................................................................109

9.4 Catch-stall housing system................................................................................................ 1109.5 Literature ..........................................................................................................................110

9.5.1 Sources ...................................................................................................................... 1109.5.2 Supplementary literature ........................................................................................112

10. Beef cattle ................................................................................................................. 11410.1 Weight and body dimensions ......................................................................................... 11410.2 Feeding and resting areas .............................................................................................. 11410.3 Literature ........................................................................................................................ 117

10.3.1 Sources .................................................................................................................... 117


10.3.2 Supplementary literature ......................................................................................11711. Outdoor exercise folds ............................................................................................. 118

11.1 Outdoor exercise folds ....................................................................................................11811.2 Literature ........................................................................................................................119

11.2.1 Sources .................................................................................................................... 11911.2.2 Supplementary literature ......................................................................................119

Subject index .................................................................................................................. 120


Introduction

The report has been revised by a workgroup consisting of specialists withinresearch, education and advisory serv-ice. The work group has formulated theaim in this way:

The aim is to point out appropriateequipment and cattle housing systemdesigns as regards animal welfare andworking environment.

Target groupsThe report addresses the following tar-get groups:• Milk and beef producers• Manufacturers of housing equip-

ment and technical aids• Veterinary surgeons and agricultural

scientists• Construction, production and milk

quality advisers• Researchers and product developers• Teachers and students• Politicians and interest organisations.

Structure of the reportThe report comprises 11 chapters. Eachchapter includes recommendations forhousing design on the basis of the ani-mal needs and requirements concern-ing behaviour, health and other practi-cal matters. First of all the recommen-dations cover conditions of direct rele-vance to the animals and / or conditionsof directly applicable value, and to aless extent choice of materials and de-sign, etc. Under the sections of “Back-ground and motivation” literature(documentation) concerning the debat-ed, relevant subjects of the chapter islisted. In addition, there is a literaturelist with sources as well as supplemen-tary literature.

The first chapters illustrate general be-haviour, health, supervision and climat-ic conditions, which should be con-sidered when dealing with cattle.

In respect of dimensioning chapter 2 ex-plains cattle dimensions when standingand lying down as well as when movingdependent on body weight, age andgain.

If nothing else is indicated, the recom-mended dimensions are for cattle with-out horns.

Chapter 6 includes some overall func-tions concerning floors and equipment,which can typically be seen in all sec-tions of cattle houses.

Chapter 7 includes functional require-ments and design of calving section.

Chapters 8 to 10 are about functionalrequirements and solution models forthe individual farm sections describedfor calf houses and young stock housesas well as houses for dairy cows andbeef cattle.

Chapter 11 is about design of outdoorexercise folds.

For many designs, layouts and detailsonly a few or none scientific studies hasbeen carried out. Therefore the recom-mendations are based on practical ex-periences.

Known housing systems, equipmentparts and the like, which the workgroup does not recommend, are eithernot included in the report or the reportdeprecates the application.

No matter how a housing system is de-signed physical injuries may occur e.g.injuries owing to pressure and injuriesto hooves. However, appropriate designreduces the risk.

There are limits to how much “normal”housing design can compensate for sec-ondary physical injuries. Such injuries,which are incorrectly considered to becaused by the housing, can e.g. be dueto inappropriate feeding. An exampleof this can be sore legs caused by lamini-tis. Cows with laminitis have an unnor-mally long lying time. When theystand up they relieve the legs by lean-ing up against the equipment. In thisway injuries owing to pressure arise.Cows with laminitis rise slowly and withgreat trouble and in this way the risk ofskidding and teat damage is increased.


All drawings are principle outlines,which support the explanation in thetext and the tables.

An example of applicationThe idea behind the report is to use itas a work of reference.

Housing system, equipment and techni-cal aid developers within cattle hus-bandry are able to find information onbasic requirements for individual func-tions, hereunder motivation and justifi-cation for carrying out product control.Moreover, they can find professionallysupported arguments in a future mar-keting of new solution methods withinthe field.

Politicians and interest organisationsmay use the report as reference indealing with ethic and animal protec-tion dialogues at national and interna-tional levels.

Advisers can use the report in the ideaand planning phase as a work of refer-ence to inspire and document in con-nection with elaboration of decisionbases for cattle farmers who considerand plan housing building.

Cattle farmers can clarify and supporttheir requirements and on the basis ofthis control the function in establishedas well as planned production systems(functional study in connection withquality management).

Lecturers and students may use the re-port as reference in connection withlectures at schools as well as univer-sities in general.

Indication of dimensions forbuilding and equipment partsThe indicated dimensions concerningthe distance between parts of equip-ment as e.g. the breadth of pens, cu-bicles, location of neck rail, etc. havebeen stated as dimensions from midequipment to mid equipment. Wherethe demarcation is a solid wall as e.g. aconcrete wall the dimensions havebeen indicated for a solid wall.

Follow upIt is intended to revise the report everyfew years. Therefore the work groupwill be pleased to receive suggestionsand potential corrections for thisedition of the report. Please forwardsuggestions to the National Depart-ment of Farm Buildings and Machinery.

Chapter 1

12 Housing Design for Cattle – Danish Recommendations • 3rd revised edition • 2002

Cattle behaviour

The main feed of cattle is grass andother plants containing cellulose.Originally, cattle were forest animalsthat went far and wide in the search offeed, water and appropriate places torest. Cattle belong to the group oflight-active animals. This means thatthe search for feed, social behaviour,grooming, etc. take place during theday, while cattle mainly rest at night.Finally, cattle are gregarious animals.

The knowledge of the normal behav-iour of cattle mainly derives from wilddomestic cattle, beef cattle or crossbredbeef cattle kept under natural or halfnatural circumstances. Most results con-cerning behaviour in intensive produc-tion systems derive from our moderndairy cattle breeds.

Intensive production and housingsystems are characterised by a high de-gree of mechanisation, high animaldensity, and low performance. Thus it isnot always possible to satisfy the basicneeds of the animals in such systems,and they cannot be adapted to the en-vironment. This results in behaviouralchanges and a high risk of physical in-juries and diseases.

1.1 Cattle sensesAll the senses of cattle are well-devel-oped and are applied both in thesearch of feed and as a mean of orien-tation and social communication.

The range of vision of cattle covers 330-360°, and the field of vision covered byboth eyes at the same time is 25-30°(figure 1.1). Cattle are able to distin-guish between the colours red, yellow,green and blue, however, the distinc-tion between green and blue is poor.Cattle are able to distinguish betweendifferently simple shapes such as trian-gles, circles, and lines. The ability ofcattle to focus is probably poor, too.

It is more likely for cattle to move froma dark area to a light area than theother way around. However, they arecautious about entering strong day-light, and they avoid strong contrastsbetween sun and shadow, e.g. sun/shadow from a railing or a window.

The hearing of cattle (frequency range)is almost the same as the hearing ofpersons, but they are actually able topick up some high tones that we can-not hear. However, cattle are not goodat localising sounds, as they are onlyable to determine the source of thesound within a rate of 30°. Thus cattleare restless when they are not able to“see” where the sound is coming from.The sense of smell is well-developedand it is utilised frequently when cattleseek food and when they communicatesocially. The bull is able to detect a cowon heat several days before she is reallyon heat by smelling her. Moreover, acow finds and recognises her calf bymeans of her sense of smell.

The sense of taste is important as re-gards the choice of feed. Cattle prefersweet and sour feed, while they refusebitter feed and feed containing muchsalt. The sense of touch is also well de-veloped on the naked muzzle as well ason the body. It is assumed that physicalinjuries, lesions, diseases, and stress areexperienced as pain and malaise by cat-tle as by people.

Figure 1.1.

Range of vision

of cattle.

13

Cattle behaviour

Housing Design for Cattle – Danish Recommendations • 3rd revised edition • 2002

Social behaviour1.2 Social behaviourAny manifestation of life between con-specifics is social behaviour. Just like allother gregarious animals, cattle have awell-developed social behaviour, whichcan be divided into aggressive behaviour(e.g. battle, threats) and non-aggressivebehaviour (e.g. social grooming).

1.2.1 CommunicationCattle communicate by sending out dif-ferent signals. The signals are poses,sounds, and smells, and the signal ispicked up as a visual, sound, scent, ortouch impression.

Through generations a genetic basic forthe performance and interpretation ofthe individual signals has been coded insuch a way that all individuals withinthe breed master this way of communi-cating. However, most behavioural pat-terns require some sort of learning andtraining in order to be able to carry outthe behaviour correctly. The learningmight be attached to certain periods ofthe animal’s life, and if this learning isprevented, problems of communicatingmight arise.

Calves that are bred isolated during thefirst two to three months of life willlater on find it difficult to socialise withother calves. The lack of social contactis presumably a strain on the animal.Even calves that are kept in closed sin-gle pens that make it almost impossibleto see or touch other calves most oftenhave a high frequency of “licking itselfbehaviour”. This behaviour is increasedfurther when calves are kept in penswithout litter and fibre-rich supplemen-tary feeds.

1.2.2 Individual distancerequirementsThe distance between conspecifics (theindividual distance) can be divided intoa physical and a social room (figure1.2). The physical room constitutes thespace, which the cow needs for itsnecessary movements, e.g. to lie down,get up, stretch, etc. The social room isthe minimum distance, which the cowkeeps to conspecifics.

If the minimum distance is overstepped,the cow will either try to escape/runaway or it will behave aggressively. The“personal” minimum distance of thecow to other individuals is limited by acircle around its head, because cows

orientate themselves through the senseimpressions they receive through theeyes, ears and smell. The individual dis-tance is thus always measured fromhead to head. The individual distancefor adult cows at pasture is, typically,two to four meters. Moreover, the indi-vidual distance is very activity depend-ent. Polling limits the individual dis-tance, and in certain situations, e.g.when cows lick and rub each other forsocial reasons, the distance is of coursezero.

A high density of animals limits thefreedom of movement of the cow andif this is repeated, social stress may oc-cur. Investigations of heifers and youngbulls on slatted floors have shown thatan increased density rate results inmore aggressive clashes and a high fre-quency of undesirable behaviour. In an-other investigation the frequency ofundesirable behaviour (tongue rollingand other oral activities directed at ob-jects or other cattle) rose 2.5 - 3.0 timesamong young bulls when the densityrate was increased from 2.3 m²/animalto only 1.5 m²/animal. Troubles causedby heifers on heat also increased at 1.6m²/animal compared to 3.0 m²/animal,especially, because the frequency ofmounting rose. Less physical space alsoresults in a situation where a largenumber of cattle are urged to stand updue to disturbances of other cattle inthe group.

Figure 1.2.

The physical and

social room of cattle

(individual distance).

Chapter 1


a)

b)

c)

A reduction of the walking width be-tween dairy cow cubicles from 2.0 me-tres to 1.6 metres resulted in a high de-gree of aggression, and “queuing” be-tween the feed alley and the cubicles.The cubicles were frequently used as“passing place” and “turning area”, be-cause cows were unable to pass eachother without touching each other (theindividual distance was overstepped).“Blind passages” cause huddling andincreased aggression among cattle.

The abnormal getting up and lyingdown behaviour will increase, if thephysical space is limited, and theresting time is reduced if the animaldensity rate is high. The increase of theabnormal getting up and lying downbehaviour is one of the reasons whythe frequency of tail treads raises onslatted floor.

Examinations show that a high degreeof e.g. young stock kept in group penswill strain animals to such an extendthat it might affect both their welfareand yield negatively.

The necessary number of animals perm² does of course depend on the sizeof the young animal.

1.2.3 Ranking and rank criteriaUnder natural conditions cattle formsmall herds consisting of a bull, cows,young animals and calves. Young bullsof more than 10 – 12 months arechased away from their herd. Thedominance relations are determined onthe basis of the social behaviour, and arank order (hierarchy) is build, so thateach individual “knows its place” in theherd. The dominance relations aregradually established during adoles-cence. The ranking is often very stabilein intact groups, and in this way theherd is able to live in harmony.

In order to maintain the stable rank or-der, and avoid trouble and unnecessaryaggression in the herd, the change of in-dividual cows has to be limited as muchas possible. However, if a change of ani-mals must take place, it is best to moveseveral animals than one at a time.

Rank orders are prevalent within eachgroup of dairy cows, heifers or fatteninganimals that walk freely together in e.g.loose housing systems. The ranking ofeach animal depends on its age, weight,seniority and temperament.

In this way old and big cows always havea high ranking, while young, light andnewly arrived cows – primarily first cal-vers – will have a low ranking in the hier-archy. Thus young, small and newly ar-rived cows will have poor productionconditions in loose housing systems,especially if the conditions are not opti-mal.

If a few animals have been isolatedfrom the group for a long time, or ifthe herd has been kept in tied-up hous-ing systems during the winter period,the hierarchy must be re-established.The hierarchy can be maintained foryears without any clashes in the formof physical fighting, if the cattle haveaccess to physical contact regularly.Fairly few situations of threaten andretreat behaviour are sufficient tomaintain the rank order.

Not much research has been done inoptimal group size. It is assumed thatthe maximum number of animals that acow is able to know is 70 – 80. The riskof clashes increases, if the herd is big-ger, because the animals do not recog-nize each other. The optimal group sizeof calves and heifers is unknown.

Figure 1.3.

Physical fights and

threats. a) frontal

fight, b) brow push

from the side, c)

threat (psychical).

15

Cattle behaviour


Social behaviour1.2.4 Aggressive behaviourDirectly aggressive and physical con-tacts primarily arise during the estab-lishment of the rank order. Frontalfight (forehead against forehead) ismost aggressive, however, brow pushagainst shoulder and flank can also bevery violent (figure 1.3).

Once the rank order has been estab-lished, the threatening behaviour isdominating. The aggressive threaten-ing behaviour can be intensified bypushing and tossing the head againstthe opponent. If resources such as feed,water, lying areas, etc. are limited, theaggressive behaviour will rise consider-ably and it may be very violent.

A clear understanding of the actualneeds of the animals is often necessaryin order to comprehend the situation –the limited resource. Intensifiedaggression among heifers in a - by nor-mal standards - very big communitypen may for instance be due to the factthat the littered lying area is too small,or when fed restrictively the feedingplace is too little.

1.2.5 Social groomingCattle have a distinct urge to lick andbe licked by their peers. Thus the lick-ing behaviour must be regarded as anormal behavioural manifestation.

When the social grooming takes placeamong cattle, the individual distance isignored and there does not arise anyaggressive actions. The active animalalways approaches from the front, andin order to avoid escape or aggression,the characteristical approaching atti-tude is performed with stretched neck,lowered head and extended muzzle. Ifthe passive animal does not whish tobe contacted, it will conduct a deviantand threatening behaviour, but it rare-ly attacks. If the active animal wants tobe licked, it will keep its approachingattitude in front of the selected part-ner and the behaviour will change toan encouraging attitude. If both ani-mals wish to be licked they may keepthe encouraging attitude in front ofeach other for a while. The animal ofthe highest rank may emphasise the in-vitation by pushing its muzzle againstthe underside of the partner’s neck orby soft forehead pushes.

The invitation can also be initiated bymeans of a social battle-like game, inwhich the two animals will mutuallyrub each other’s head and forehead.The behaviour often results in mutualsocial licking of the face, ear and neck.

Social grooming almost always startsout by the head or the neck, and after-wards the animal will change its posi-tion in order to have other parts of itsbody licked (figure 1.4). It will oftenturn those parts of the body towards itspartner, which it cannot reach by itsown tongue. Thus the muzzle, tip ofthe tail and limbs are not licked. Thechoice of partner for the licking processis rarely random, as many cows preferthe same partner each time.

All the animals of the group are licked,but not all the animals lick. Animals ofsimilar rank lick each other more oftenthan animals of very different rank.Moreover, social licking is often carriedout, when a change of activities takesplace, e.g. before or after a rest, andwhen cattle have been disturbed andthis has caused unrest (calming effect).

Cattle need social grooming, and if thisneed cannot be met, e.g. because theanimal is tethered, the need is accumu-lated and will result in an intensifiedgrooming activity, as soon as the possi-bility offers itself again.

Figure 1.4

Social grooming.

Cattle have a dis-

tinct urge to lick and

be licked by each

other. Social licking

contributes to main-

taining the social

hierarchy.

Chapter 1


1.3 Circadian rhythm andactivity patternsCattle have a distinct circadian rhythm,in which the main rest, feed and rumi-nation activities vary according to afixed pattern (see these). At the sametime cattle are gregarious animals andthus a group of cows or heifers will pre-fer to carry out the same behaviouralactivities at the same time. This cir-cadian rhythm is difficult to change andhence problems may arise, e.g. in con-nection with automatic milking or re-duced feed alley, which are based on anindividual behavioural pattern.

1.3.1 Lying time, lying frequencyand circadian rhythmLying has a very high priority amongcattle. Calves lie down 16 – 18 hoursper day distributed over 30 – 40 per-iods. The lying time of cattle decreasewith age and thus a cow normally liesdown for 10 – 14 hours distributed over15 – 20 periods. Cattle doze (lightsleep) more than they sleep. They areable to stand up and ruminate whilethey doze. Cattle only sleep a couple ofminutes 10 - 15 times per day. The longrest periods include rumination as wellas doze and profound sleep.

The lying periods of cattle are fit in be-tween the periods of feeding andstanding. A lying period typically lastsfor half an hour to three hours. Duringthe long lying periods – in the middleof the day or during night – the cowrises, stretches and lays down immedi-ately again, usually, on the other side.Thus cattle spend more than half oftheir lives lying and during a wholeyear a dairy cow lies down and rises5,000 – 7,000 times. Among otherthings the lying time and the numberof lying periods depend on the age,heat cycle and the state of health ofthe cow. Moreover, the weather, thequality of the bedding, the type ofhousing and the number of animals persquare metres also influence the lyingtime and the number of lying periods.

1.3.2 Lying down and getting upbehaviourThe natural lying down behaviour ofcattle begins when the animal sniffs atthe ground while it slowly moves for-ward (in search of a suitable place to liedown). When the cow has found a suit-able place, it, characteristically, shuttlesits head from one side to the other to

Figure 1.5.

Natural getting up

behaviour among

cattle.

17

Cattle behaviour


Circadian rhythmand activity

patterns

Figure 1.7.

Abnormal getting up

behaviour. The cow

rises like a horse.

examine the place. Afterwards, it bendsits forelegs, kneels and, finally, it care-fully moves one hind leg under its bodyand lies on it. The lying down behav-iour requires much space in order to becarried out normally. The head andbody of a fully developed cow is thrust0.60 – 0.70 metre forward during thelying down process.

When a cow wants to get up in a natu-ral way it firstly rises to its knees andafterwards the hind part of its body isswung up via the knees, which func-tions as rocking point (see figure 1.5).This movement is one of the greatestphysical activities of cattle. The naturallying down behaviour is a reverse fre-quency of the movements of the natu-ral getting up behaviour.

In the open cows often carry out the ly-ing down and getting up activities inone continuous movement. When cowsare kept indoors their movements maybe hampered by too little space, tether-ing and/or hard and slippery flooring. Inthis way the movements may be abrupt-ed several times at different behaviouralstages, or the behaviour may be carriedout abnormally (figure 1.6 and 1.7).Thus the frequency of abnormal lyingdown/getting up behaviour is higherwhen cows are kept on slatted floorsthan deep litter, and the frequency risesaccording to age. Each lying down/get-ting up behaviour may last for severalminutes instead of the usual 15 – 20 and5 – 6 seconds respectively. At the sametime there is a higher risk that the cowinjuries itself physically.

1.3.3 Lying down positionsNormally, cattle lie with their headerected, resting on the sternum andeither the right or the left thigh (seefigure 1.8). The head is raised and thetwo forelegs may be either stretched orbended. Rumination when the cow liesdown always takes place in this posi-tion. We have knowledge of three typi-cal “resting” positions:

a. The head is bended backward, sothat it rests on or lies along the body(most frequent)

b. The head is stretched forward andchin rests on the bed (frequent)

c. The cow lies flatly stretched outcompletely on the side (frequent).

Figure 1.6.

Abnormal lying down

behaviour. The cow

bends down on one

or both knees after

which the behaviour

is interrupted, and

the cow gets up

again and stands on

all four hoofs.

Chapter 1


Figure 1.8.

Different lying posi-

tions among cattle.

The durability of the two last-men-tioned positions is, however, short. The“resting” positions are assumed 30-40% of the resting time of calves and15-20% of cows. Deep sleep occurs onlywhen the cows assume their lyingdown positions. Many cows of tied-uphousing systems have difficulties intaking up a normal “resting” positiondue to the tether and the feed alley de-sign. This situation may influence theresting need and the lying downbehaviour of the animals.

1.3.4 Choice of lying place andbeddingThere has not been carried out much re-search in the choice of lying place atpasture. However, cows have a tendencyto choose high-lying and wind-sweptplaces when the weather is warm,whereas sheltered places are preferredwhen it is cold. Normally, when the firstcow of the herd has assumed its lyingplace, the other cows take up placesnearby. Typically, cows will lie with inter-vals of 3-5 meters between their heads.

In housing systems cattle always choosea soft to a hard and slippery bedding.The level of skid resistance, hardnessand workability of the bed has a greatinfluence on the lying down behaviour.Several examinations have shown thatthe number of lying-down periods isreduced on slatted floors compared todeep litter bedding, because the motio-nal pattern of cattle is restrained.

If heifers can freely choose betweendeep litter bedding and slatted floors,they will prefer deep litter. Dairy cowsin cubicle houses choose soft, heat-insu-lated mats to hard rubber mats. How-ever, a nicely made straw bed alwayshas the highest priority among cattle.

Cubicles with draught and noise are of-ten avoided. Moreover, the neighbour-ing cubicles of a cubicle with a domi-nating cow are unattractive. In connec-tion with rapidly growing young bulls,slatted floor may cause a change ofmotional pattern and painful joints dueto the smoothness and hardness of thefloor.

Thus it can be concluded that housing ofyoung stock on fully slatted flooring re-strains the motional pattern of cattle tosuch a degree that the frequency of theperformance of the lying down, comfort

19

Cattle behaviour


Comfortbehaviour

and social behaviour is changed consider-ably. Thus the welfare of cattle must beregarded as reduced.

Cows have a relatively constant need tolie down and this behaviour has a highpriority. If the lying down behaviour isprevented – even for a few hours – theneed to lie down rises and exceeds thebasic needs, e.g. the eating need. Lessthan one cubicle per cow will reducethe lying down time of the cows andincrease cases of abnormal behaviour.

Deep litter housing is a very “free”housing system in which cows can per-form almost all their normal behav-ioural activities naturally. The only re-stricting factor in connection with deeplitter mats is the animal density rate(m2/cow). A high density will cause ahigher level of trouble and aggressionamong cattle.

1.3.5 MovementCattle need space for movement andfrequent exercise in order for their mus-cles, sinews and bones to develop nor-mally. If they are not exercised properlyit will be difficult for them to lie downand get up. They will develop an un-steady gait and it will be difficult forthem to coordinate their movements.

It has been shown that calves housed insmall single pens will be more moti-vated to run and jump/kick, the longerit is since they have had a chance to ex-ercise. The solution to this problem is togive calves frequent access to an exer-cise fold or to house them in largegroup pens.

If tethered cows are at pasture for 5-6months per year, the risk of developingmore production diseases such as masti-tis, treat damage, retained placenta,milk fever and ketosis will be reducedand the possibility of improving the re-production ability increased. Even a rel-atively short period of daily exercise (2-4 hours) seems to have a positive effecton the reproduction ability, the fre-quency of retained placenta, milk feverand ketosis.

Grazing in the dry period does alsoseem to have a favourable effect on thereproduction in the succeeding lacta-tion. Naturally, rearing in loose housingsystem pens with a high animal densitydoes not provide a sufficient freedom

of movement, nor has it been provedwhether the exercise need is consideredin dairy cow cubicle housing systems.Typically, dairy cows at pasture walk 3-5kilometres per day. However, this de-pends on the amount and the qualityof the grass and the size of fold. Inloose housing systems with access to anoutdoor run the daily walking distanceis about 1 kilometre.

The tying up of cows and heifers allyear round poses behavioural andhealth problems to the animals.

1.4 Comfort behaviourThe term comfort behaviour covers allkinds of behaviour that increase thephysical well-being of cattle. Groomingis the most important activity, however,stretching and shaking of oneself alsobelong to the comfort behaviour ofcattle.

The function of grooming is to removedroppings, urine and parasites andkeep up the skin and the fur. When theanimal performs the grooming behav-iour it partly licks all the places of itsbody that it is able to reach with thetongue, partly rubs its body against ob-jects or scratches itself with the backhoofs (see figure 1.9). Tosses with head,

Figure 1.9.

Grooming behav-

iour a) licking the

udder, b) scratching

with hind hoof.

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tail or legs against the body are carriedout to chase away flying insects. Theweather and the amount of parasitesaffect the grooming behaviour. Oftenthe grooming behaviour takes place inconnection with a change of activities,e.g. right before or after rest.

The first weeks after birth, the cow per-forms the grooming of the calf. Thusthe calf does not lick itself very oftenduring that period of time. Older calvesuse 4 – 6% of the day and night ongrooming activities, while full-growncows only lick and scratch themselvesabout 1% of the day and night. Thefrequency typically varies from 10-15 tomore that 100 times per day. Thegrooming behaviour is distributed asfollows:

• 60 – 70% licking• 10 – 30% rubbing against object• 1 – 3% scratching.

It is assumed that grooming is primarilymotivated by external stimuli, i.e. some-thing that annoys the skin. Skin para-sites such as vermin, lice and ringwormsare very annoying for animals and mustbe treated fast and efficiently.

However, increased grooming behav-iour can also arise in conflict and frus-tration situations that strain the ani-mal. Increased grooming is frequentamong tethered animals, animals innew surroundings (adaption problems)and isolated animals. A tendency to slipis often seen in connection with theperformance of grooming and socialbehaviour on slatted floors and con-crete floors without litter, but never onfloors with deep litter. Finally, it shouldbe mentioned that the frequency of so-cial grooming can affect the groomingbehaviour of the individual animal.

1.5. Feed and water intakeThe feed and water intake of cattle areinterdependent. Feed with high watercontent lowers the need for water in-take. Insufficient water supply influen-ces the feed intake and thus reducesthe yield.

1.5.1 Grazing and circadian rhythmThe grazing behaviour of cattle israther monotonous. Cattle slowly moveover the field with the muzzle close tothe ground while moving the headfrom side to side. As the animal at the

same time leans a little forward on thefront leg, the front part of the animal islowered about 5 centimetres. Thus theanimal is able to reach the ground withits muzzle.

By means of the tongue, the frontteeth of the lower part of the mouthand the dental plate of the upper partof the mouth, the grass is gathered andcut off. It is difficult for cattle to gethold of vegetation lower than 3 centi-metres. The vegetation is chewedslightly before it is swallowed togetherwith added saliva. By means of smelland taste senses a certain selection ofthe grass takes place during the intake.

Cows eat grass 5 – 9 hours per day dur-ing which they walk 3 – 5 kilometres.The duration of the grazing time pri-marily depends on the weather, thequantity and the quality of the grass.Bad weather characterized by continu-ous rain and wind reduces the grazingtime. The application of supplementaryfeed has the same effect as bad weath-er. On the other hand a poor grassquantity or grass with a high content ofcellulose will increase the grazing time.Moreover, the individual grazing timeand grass intake may vary considerably.

Cattle are gregarious animals and theyprefer to eat at the same time. The cir-cadian rhythm at pasture is typicallycyclical with 4 – 5 grazing periods perday, interrupted by resting and rumina-tion. The main intake takes place dur-ing two long, intensive grazing periods;one around sunrise and one aroundsunset. Between these two periods 2 –3 short and less intensive grazing peri-ods will take place during the day ac-cording to the season. During the sum-mer months 85% of the grazing willtake place during the day. However, asthe days get shorter, the cattle willgraze more and more at night.

Naturally, the milking of dairy cows willbe incorporated as an established partof the circadian rhythm. If the milkingin the morning takes place before sun-rise, the first period of grazing happensafter milking. If the cows are milkedlate in the morning, they will startgrazing before they are driven in. Thesecond, long grazing period alwaystakes place after the evening milking.

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Cattle behaviour


Feed and waterintake

1.5.2. Feed intake in housingsystemsIn the housing systems the cow normallyplaces both forelegs next to each otherwhile it eats and thus it does not lowerthe front part of its body. This meansthat the cow has difficulties in reachingfeed at ground level. Several examin-ations have shown that there is an up-ward tendency towards physical injuryoccurrences when the feed alley is thislow. Thus the feeding level should alwaysbe raised 10 centimetres above the levelof the cow’s forelegs. The feeding area ofthe dairy cow is within 0.60 metres fromthe rear edge of the trough, as it cannotreach any further.

The feeding rhythm of the cows followsthe daily feeding hours. When feedingtakes place twice per day – morning andlate afternoon – the main part of thefeed intake will take place at thesehours. The feeding time will normally de-crease (4 – 6 hours/day), and the numberof feeding periods increase (6 –12 per-iods/day) when the cows are fed in thecow house and not at pasture. This is be-cause the feed is partly close to the ani-mal and partly easily accessible.

At some points of time first calvers, old,walking-impaired, down-calving andhigh-performance cows may not eat asmuch as usual due to “bullying” or dueto their own inclination. Other cows ofthe herd may take advantage of thissituation and eat a larger amount offeed than usual.

1.5.3 Restrictive feedingWhen a limited amount of feed isspread at a joint feed alley, most of thefeed is eaten in short time. Enoughspace at the feed alley is therefore deci-sive for a uniform feed intake. If thereis a shortage of feeding places (lessthan one per animal) there is a risk thatlow-ranking cows will be pushed awayfrom the feed alley. Thus the totalfeeding time of low-ranking cows willbe shorter than the feeding time of therest of the group. Even if there is afeeding place per cow, an increasinglyuneven growth and milk yield must beexpected among young animals andcows, when restrictive feeding makesup a considerable amount of the feedration. Any kind of separation at thefeed alley (trough partition) will pro-tect the animals while they eat and re-duce the individual variations.

1.5.4 Ad lib feedingIt is possible to increase the number ofanimals to 2 – 3 per feeding place (0.25– 0.35 metre feeding space per animal),if cattle are ad lib fed in loose housingsystems, in which cattle have access tofeed during most hours of the day. Thefeeding time will decline, but apparent-ly not the feed intake. However, anumber of examinations have shownthat the competitive situation of thishigh rate of animals per feeding placewill strain the lowest ranging animals.

1.5.5 RuminationThe rumination starts relatively soon –½-1 hour – after the grazing or feed in-take has ended. Rumination consists inregurgitation from the rumen of partlychewed feed, which is then chewedcompletely by the back teeth while thelower jaw moves from side to side. Afterregurgitation the liquid part of the “ballof cud” is swallowed, while the solidparts are chewed 50 – 60 times and, fi-nally, added with saliva swallowed.

Usually, cows ruminate 5 – 8 hours perday spread over 15 – 20 more or lesslimited periods of time. Each period oftime lasts from a few minutes to ap-prox. one hour. Most of the ruminationtakes place while the cow is lying down(70 – 80%).

The rumination time depends very muchon the structure of the feed. A struc-tureless and easily digested feed reducesthe rumination. Thus the saliva mixing isreduced in such a way that rumen disor-ders (rumen acidosis, displaced abomas-ums) and pseudo rumination may arise.Disturbances reduce the rumination andhence the feed intake.

1.5.6 Water intakeThe daily water need of cattle dependson the air temperature and the produc-tion. In Denmark dairy cows take in 30– 100 litres of water per 24 hours. Feedwith a high water content reduces theneed for drinking water. At pasture thecows take in water 2 – 5 times per 24hours depending on the distance to thewater. If cows have to walk several kilo-metres, they will only drink once ortwice.

In tied-up housing systems in which theautomatic water trough is placed rightin front of the cow, cows often take inwater 15 – 20 times per 24 hours. Since

Chapter 1


cows normally take in water under orright after they have been fed, severalautomatic water troughs are requiredin loose housing systems, so cows haveseveral options. The drinking speed ofdairy cows is 10 – 20 litres per minute,if the surface of the water is free. Cowstake in most water at a water tempera-ture of 15 – 20°C, which also has a posi-tive influence on the milk yield. Cattlesuck in water and they prefer to do thisfrom a free water surface.

1.6 ReproductionThe sexual maturity of cattle sets inwhen the animal is 6 – 12 months olddepending on the breed and the envi-ronment. The sexual activity is very lit-tle prior to the maturity. However, bullcalves may already show an interest incows on heat from the age of fourmonths. Under natural conditions ma-ture young bulls would brake awayfrom the herd and live alone or in smallgroups. In intensive production systemsthe sexual activity of both bulls andheifers of big dairy breeds increases ata weight of approx. 300 kg, which nor-mally corresponds to a 7 - 8-month-oldbull and a 13 -15-month-old heifer.

1.6.1 Sexual behaviour of bullsNormally the sexual behaviour of ma-ture bulls in loose housing systems con-sists of the following elements: Court-ing, erection, mounting, ejaculationand dismounting.

The courting of the cow starts two daysbefore it is on heat (oestrus). Gradually,as the cow comes nearer to oestrus thebull’s interest and pursuit of the cowgets more and more intensive. Oftenthe bull sniffs at the outer genital or-gans of the cow after which it in a typi-cal movement lifts its head and turnsout the inside of its upper lip – flehmenbehaviour. Before the bull mounts thecow, it places its head and neck againstthe loin of the cow, which stimulatesthe cow to stand still. As the bullmounts the cow, the penis is led intothe vagina of the cow and the bullejaculates, when the penis is led to amaximum into the vagina. Thus actualmating movements do not occur asthey do when e.g. horses and pigscopulate. This behaviour makes it easyto collect bull semen.

As the bull perceives and is stimulatedby the cow on heat by means of its

sense of smell, all young bulls who arein the same barn as a cow on heat willshow sexual excitement perhaps withsubsequent ejaculation. This excitementcan be reduced by fattening the youngbulls, if they are kept in a separatebarn. Young bulls in loose housing sys-tems often mount each other, whichmay cause some unrest and a reducedbody weight gain.

1.6.2 Sexual behaviour of cowsThe sexual behaviour of cows and heif-ers is limited to the period of heat,which is stimulated by oestrogen fromthe ovary’s follicles. During the matingperiod the physical activity of the cowsand heifers rises considerably. The nor-mal feeding and resting time is reducedconsiderably, too, while the standingand walking activities rise and cowsand heifers are very restless.

The social order of precedence is inter-rupted as cows on heat threaten bothdominating and subordinate herdmembers.

A cow on heat accepts that other cowsmount, which is an abnormal behaviourof a cow that is not on heat. Onlyabout one fifth of the cows that arenot on heat on the farm will show aninterest in a cow on heat. This smallgroup of cows changes depending onthe cow on heat.

The most characteristic changes of be-haviour of cows on heat are restless-ness, lowing, reduced feed intake and areadiness to be mounted. One pushwith the hand on the rear end of thecow’s back will cause the animal to sinkdown its back and lift its tail and lum-bar region. It is important for the farm-er to notice this special behaviour ofthe cow, especially on farms where thecows are not served naturally.

1.6.3 Calving and the cow’sbehaviour towards the calfCattle belong to “lying out” or“hiders”. This means that the new-borncalf is left behind when the cow leavesto drink or feed.

Examinations of cattle show that thebehaviour of cattle changes the lastcouple of days before the calving. Thecow gets restless and it does not carryout the same activities as the rest of theherd. In areas with trees and bushes the

23

Cattle behaviour


Reproductioncow will seek remoteness when thecalving is near. It would thus be in ac-cordance with the natural behaviour ofthe cow to put it in a calving pen andseparate it from the rest of the herd.Most cows lie down about half an hourbefore the calving, and during thesecond stage of labour the cow normal-ly lies on the side. Most cows lie downduring the whole calving. However,beef cattle often get up when the headand front part of the calf appears andstand up during the rest of the calving.

The course of the calving depends onthe age of the cow. The calving of firstcalvers lasts longer than the calving ofolder cows and similarly first calversalso lie down for a longer time afterthe calving than cows that have hadthree or four calves. Generally, it takesa little longer for dairy cattle to get upagain after the calving than beef cattle.

The cow reacts by making faint, deepsounds when it sees the calf and will inmost cases begin to lick the calve in-tensely right away. Thus the cow mustnever be tied up during or after calvingunless the calf is removed immediatelyafter birth. Older cows with experiencefrom previous calvings will start to lickthe calf right after birth while first cal-vers might be aggressive towards andhesitant about the calf at first.

The cow energetically licks the calf’shead, shoulders, back and loin duringthe first couple of hours after the calv-ing. The cow gets to know its calf bylicking it. Thus this behaviour is an im-portant basis for the binding betweencow and calf (figure 1.10). Later on thecow will probably recognise the calf bymeans of its sense of hearing and smell-ing. During the short period of time af-ter the calving in which the binding (im-printing) takes place - during the so-called sensitive period – the cow is high-ly sensitive to visual, odour and soundimpressions from the new-born calf.

The cow stays together with the calfuntil it has sucked milk from its teatsfor the first time. During the first cou-ple of days the cow spends much timetogether with the calf, but it leaves thecalf behind when it leaves to drink orgraze. During the first couple of weeksafter the calving it is the cow that seeksout the calf so that it can suck milkfrom its teats. Later it is the calf that

seeks the cow when it is hungry. Thus itmust be assumed that the need of thecow to have its teats sucked/milked de-creases in the course of time after thecalving. The cow defends the calf andits territory from the other cows. Nor-mally, the placenta comes out of thecow a couple of hours after the calvingand the cow often cleans the calvingplace by licking it and eating the foetalmembrane.

1.6.4 Behaviour of calvesA few minutes after the calf is born, itstarts to raise its head and after a coupleof attempts it succeeds in resting on itssternum. The calf immediately attemptsto get on its feet and often it succeedswithin half to one and a half hour.Calves that are born on a soft bed(grass, straw, etc.) will get on their feetquicker than calves born on a hart bed.Moreover, beef breed calves will get upsooner than dairy breed calves.

As soon as the calf can stand on its feet,it starts to search for the udder andteats of the cow. Calves have a naturalinstinct for putting their muzzles upunder the stomach of the cow andsearch for its teats at the highest level.Often the calf places itself in the oppo-site direction of and parallel with thecow. It spreads its forelegs and sinks its

Figure 1.10.

The cow licks the

new-born calf and

thus the blood

circulation of the

calf and the faeces

and urination is

initiated.

Chapter 1


shoulders, which makes it easier for thecalf to reach the udder in the search forthe teats. As soon as the calf finds theteats it starts to suck milk. During thesucking the calf will with short intervalspush its head and bridge of the nosecharacteristically against the udder ofthe cow.

Most calves will succeed in sucking milkbefore they are 3 – 5 hours old. How-ever, this differs considerably accordingto individual and breed. The most im-portant reason for this is the differentudder forms of cows. A big and hang-ing udder will change the form of theabdominal line, so that the udder willno longer be placed at the highestlevel. Several examinations have shownthat for this reason up to one third ofthe dairy breed calves do not succeed insucking milk within the first six hours.Thus in order to be sure that the suck-ing calf obtains colostrum at an earlystage it is best to help the calf duringits first sucking, so that they will soonbe able to stand up. As soon as the calfhas learned how to find the teats, itwill not forget this. In large joint calv-ing pens with several cows and calvessome of the calves may suck milk fromother cows than their mother.

Calves are born without any antibodiesto protect them from infectious diseas-es. During the first two to three weeksthe immune response thus depends to-tally on the antibodies (immunoglobu-lins) that are supplied by the colostrum.Therefore it is important that the calf issupplied with colostrum quickly, be-cause the immunoglobulins content ofthe colostrum is highest right after thecalving after which it gradually decreas-es. Moreover, the ability of the epitheli-um of the gut to absorb antibodies ishighest during the first 6-12 hours aftercalving. Usually calves kept togetherwith the cow will obtain a higher im-mune response level than calves thatare fed colostrum from a bucket or anartificial teat, provided that they startto suck early.

1.6.5 Sucking and eating behaviourof calvesDuring the first week after the calvingthe calf will suckle milk up to eighttimes per 24 hours. Subsequently thefrequency of suckling periods decreaseswith age. Up until the age of twomonths the calf will typically suckle

milk four to six times per 24 hours,from the second to the sixth monththree to five times, while six to eight-month-old calves only suckle milk in themorning and evening. The suckling ofbeef cattle is often naturally connectedto the circadian rhythm of the cow.

Thus the calf suckles the first timearound sunrise when the cow gets upafter a night’s rest – but before it startsto graze. During the day the calf sucklestwo to four times and, finally, it sucklesone last time before the cow goes tosleep. The calf rarely suckles during thenight. Each suckling period lasts fromeight to 12 minutes. Beef breed calveswill often change teats and push theirheads more often against the udderduring the last phase of suckling thandairy breed calves. This behaviour isprobably due to the lower milk yield ofbeef cattle. During each period the calfsuckles milk from the cow, the calf willnormally only use two or three teats andamong beef cattle the teats used willusually be milked dry.

The sucking need of the calf is oftenvery high during the first four to fiveweeks. When the calf drinks or sucklesmilk, the need to suck will increase andit will peak after five to six minutes.This need will then gradually decreaseduring the next half hour. When thecalf suckles milk from the cow, it willsuckle so much that its sucking need ismet. Those calves whose sucking needis met will only very rarely suck onother calves or the equipment after theintake of milk.

When the calf is bucket fed the milk isdrunk rather than sucked. Often themilk intake ends when the sucking mo-tivation has reached its peak (afterthree to four minutes). Subsequently,the sucking behaviour is directed to-wards equipment and calves near by.Especially, ears, legs, scrotum, penis andmouth are sucked. This kind of sucklingsubstitution is most frequent duringthe first two months of the calf’s life.This behaviour may lead to an abnor-mal sucking behaviour on foreskin/penis, which may result in urine drink-ing, which is injurious to the animal.This disadvantageous sucking behav-iour, which is due to an unsatisfiedsucking need, can be reduced consider-ably by mounting an artificial teat inthe calf pen next to the milk bucket.

25

Cattle behaviour


Undesirablebehaviour

After the calf has finished drinking themilk, it will suck on the artificial teatand thus its sucking need will be met.An abnormal sucking behaviour of thecalf may be maintained also later onduring the rearing period.

When milk is supplied by means of ateat feeding system the sucking needof the calf will to a higher degree bemet during the intake of milk thanwhen the calf is fed milk from a bucket.Thus the abnormal sucking on othercalves and/or equipment will be re-duced considerably. However, the calfshould be adapted to the teat feedingsystem during the first week after it isborn, as its natural instinct to seek forthe teats will disappear after three tonine days. Calves, which have been fedfrom a bucket up till this time, willhave difficulties in learning to drinkfrom a teat feeding system.

Calves, which are at pasture togetherwith their mothers, will already duringthe first or second week of their livesstart to eat – nibble - blades and leafsof grass. When they are six to eightweeks old they are fully developed ru-minants. An early intake of fibre-richsupplementary feeds is necessary inorder for the calf to quickly develop acud-chewing function and thus reducethe risk of developing digestive dis-orders. When the calf is about threemonths old, it is able to adapt the graz-ing pattern of the herd. However,calves will usually graze together untilthe age of five months.

During the period when calves feed onmilk they also need water whether theyare fed milk from artificial teats orfrom a bucket. The best way to ensurethe water supply of calves is by meansof a free water surface.

1.6.6 Separation and weaningUnder natural conditions weaningtakes place when the calf is eight to 15months old or at the next calving at thelatest. On most beef cattle farms thecow continues to nurse the calf until itis approx. six to eight months old afterwhich it is weaned. In contrast, calveson dairy cattle farms are removed fromtheir mother at a very early stage –often immediately after the calving.

The possibility of being together –especially for the first couple of days

after the calving - is assumed to have apositive effect on both the calf andcow. The cow licks clean the calf andthus the blood circulation of the calfand the faeces and urination are initi-ated – in short the cow “gets the calfstarted”. The calf can receive small por-tions of colostrum during the day, andthe total milk intake may be consider-able. This situation is normal to the calfand as such it is better than the diffe-rent alternatives often offered. Calveswhich must later on enter into a nurs-ing cow system, should from the startlearn to suckle from their mother.

During the first time after the calving,the cow is still affected. It starts to pro-duce milk and its udder is tense. Thephysical activities of the cow change af-ter the calving and when the cow startsto produce milk. The cow’s activities arecharacterised by shorter lying time,more lying periods, standing rumina-tion, increased grooming and abnormalbehaviour – all in all these changes ofbehaviour indicate that the cow isloaded after the calving. These changesof behaviour are less common whenthe cow is in a calving pen or a deeplitter housing system together with thecalf than if the cow is tethered in a penwithout the calf.

1.7 Undesirable behaviourUndesirable behaviour may both benormal behaviour occurring with an ab-normal frequency, and totally new waysof behaviour, which do not occur undernatural conditions. Stereotypies are ab-normal behaviour patterns, which arerepeated in the same way over andover without any apparent purpose orbenefit.

The frequency and amount of undesir-able behaviour reflect the ability of theanimal to adapt to its surroundings.Thus a high frequency is a clear indica-tion of the fact that the surroundingsare not quite right – it is difficult forthe animal to adapt to the conditions.The most common, abnormal behaviourpatterns among cattle are the follow-ing:

Sucking at other calves or equipment.This behaviour is most common amongcalves and it consists in sucking thelower jaw, ear, scrotum, penis or fold ofanother calf or even a piece of equip-ment. The behaviour is due to an un-

Chapter 1


satisfied suckling need and it occursboth in individual and joint pens whilethe calves are fed milk from a bucket.

Equipment gnawing (trough-biting).The animal both bites and gnaws theequipment for considerable periods at atime. Often the behaviour is stereotypicand it both occurs among young stockand cows due to a lack of feed or fibre-rich supplementary feeds. However, thebehaviour can also be caused by a lackof stimuli.

Excessive licking. The animal licks otheranimals or objects for very long periodsat a time. Excessive licking is frequentamong calves and young stock that lacksocial contact, occupation possibilitiesand roughage feed.

Pseudo rumination. The animal carriesout grinding movements with itsmouth as if it is ruminating, however, itdoes not have any feed in its mouth.This behaviour is mostly stereotypic andit occurs when cattle are fed fibre-poorsupplementary feeds.

Urine drinking. Urine is “drunk” direct-ly from the penis. This behaviour ismost common among young bulls injoint pens, which are fed very fibre-poor supplementary feeds. Calves maydevelop this behaviour as a sucklingsubstitute.

Tongue rolling. The animal carries outgrinding movements with the tongueeither in or outside the mouth (themouth is always open). Tongue rolling,

which often has a stereotypic character,occurs among both calves, young stockand cows when they need roughagefeed or when they are fed fibre-poorsupplementary feeds.

Leaning. The animal presses its fore-head or the bridge of its nose againstanother animal or a piece of equip-ment for long periods of time. Leaningtakes place both among young stockand cows and it, probably, reflects frus-tration or pain.

“Dog-sitting”. The animal sits withstretched forelegs. This behaviour oftenoccurs when the animal is going to liedown, and it is almost always due to alack of space. Thus the animal cannotget up and lie down normally.

Horse-like rising. First the animal getsup on stretched forelegs and then itlifts the hindquarter of its body. Thisbehaviour is caused by a lack of spacein front of the animal.

Milk theft. Cows suckle milk from othercows. Milk theft is more frequentamong the Jersey breed than amongother breeds and it is often a local herdproblem. The reason for this behaviouris unknown.

Skidding. Either the forelegs or hindlegs of the animal skid. Skidding mightcause that the animal stumbles andfalls and thus the risk of physical inju-ries increases. Skidding happens onhard and slippery ground during differ-ent behavioural activities.

27

Cattle behaviour


1.8 Literature

1.8.1 SourcesAlbright, J.L., and Arave, C. W., 1997. The Behav-

iour of Cattle. University Press, Cambridge, 305

pp.

Fraser, A.F., 1985. Ethology og farm animals. I

serien „World animal science, A5“. Editors in

chief A. Neimann-Sørensen and D.E. Tribe, Elsevi-

er, Amsterdam, 500 pp.

Fraser, A.F., and Broom, D.M., 1990. Farm Animal

Behaviour and Welfare. Third ed., Bailliére Tin-

dall, London, 437 pp.

Hafez, E.S.E. and M.F. Bouissou, 1975. The behav-

iour of cattle. In „The behaviour of domestic ani-

mals“ edited by E.S.E. Hafez, Bailliére Tindall,

London, 246-294.

Munksgaard, L., og C.C. Krohn, 1990. Adfærd hos

kalve og ungdyr. 667. Beretning fra Statens Hus-

dyrbrugsforsøg, 42 pp.

Phillips, C.J.C., 1993. Cattle Behaviour. Farming

Press Books, UK, 212 pp.

Sambraus, H.H., 1978. V. Rind. In „Nutztieretolo-

gi“ edited by Poul Perey, Berlin, Hambrug, 49-

127.

Schnitzer, U., 1971. Abliegen, Liegestellungen

und Aufstehen beim Rind im Hinblick auf die En-

twicklungen von Stalleinrichtungen für Milch-

vieh. KTBL-schrift,10, 1-43.

Süss, M. and U. Andreae, 1984. 2. Rind. In „Verh-

alten landwirtschaftlicher Neutztiere“ edited by

Bogner, H. og Granvogel, Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart.

149-246.

Sørensen, J.T. og Krohn, C.C., 1999. Opstaldnin-

gens indflydelse på opdrættets adfærd, sundhed

og produktion. DJF rapport nr. 9, 63 pp.

Literature

Chapter 2


Weight, body dimensions andmovement behaviour

Figure 2.1.

Body dimensions

of cattle.

Farm buildings and equipment for cat-tle must be designed according to thesize of the animal. This chapter states anumber of measurements and weightmeasures for cattle. It should be notedthat the measurement and weight ofcattle may vary considerably within thesame age group.

Cattle are from birth to the age of sixmonths called calves. Male cattle arefrom the age of six months until theyare slaughtered or used for breedingpurposes called bulls. Female cattle arecalled heifers from the age of sixmonths until calving. Female cattle,which have calved are called cows.Young stock is a joint term for male andfemale cattle from the age of six monthsto slaughter or calving respectively.

2.1 Cattle weight and dimensionsThe body dimensions of cattle are shownin figure 2.1. The height at withers ofcattle is measured as the vertical distancefrom the lowest part of the hoof to the

top of the shoulder blades. The loinheight is measured from the lowest partof the hoof to the junction of the loinand os sacrum right between the hips.The heart girth is the circumference be-hind the shoulder blades where the heartgirth is smallest in circumference.

The total length of cows is measuredfrom the poll to the pin bone. The bodylength of the cow is the distance be-tween shoulder blade and pin bone/tailhead. The width across the shoulders andhips is measured as the distance betweenthe shoulders and hips respectively.

2.2 Young stock weight anddimensionsThe body dimensions of calves andyoung stock at a given time of theirperiod of growth are more dependenton the weight than the breed. Thusthese housing design recommendationsare calculated in relation to the weightof the animal. The weight, age andbody dimension of the animal is shownin tables 2.1 and 2.2. However, thetables only apply to dairy breeds. Pleasesee chapter 10, if you wish to know thecorresponding weight, age and bodydimension relations of beef breeds.

2.3 Body dimensions of cowsThe fatness and lactation stage of full-grown cows will have more influence onthe body weight than the body dimen-sions. Through the lactation the weightof the cow may vary 100 – 150 kg. Thebody weight and dimensions of dairycows is shown in table 2.3 and 2.4.

2.4 Cattle movement patternThe natural getting up movements ofcattle are shown successively in figure2.2. At the same time the figure showsthe horizontal movement of the cowwhen it gets up. In total the full-growncow makes use of 3.0 metres to get upor lie down. The moving-forward mo-tion is 0.6 metre, and the minimum dis-tance to the bedding from the head/neck of the cow is approx. 0.2 metre.

The reach of the cow during the feedintake depends somewhat on the heightof the feed alley, the type of tether and

29

Weight, bodydimensions and

movement behaviour


Cattle movementpattern

Table 2.2. Weight in kg and body dimensions in metre among dairy breed young stock(large breed). The body dimensions may vary +/- 5% dependent on the breed anddegree of fatness.

Body weight, Total Body Height at Shoulder Hipkg length length withers width width

50 1.00 0.70 0.75 0.18 0.20

100 1.20 0.80 0.90 0.22 0.27

200 1.50 1.10 1.10 0.28 0.35

300 1.75 1.20 1.22 0.34 0.42

400 2.00 1.27 1.30 0.40 0.47

500 2.20 1.40 1.35 0.46 0.52

Table 2.3. Weight in kg and body dimensions in metre among dairy cows (large breed).

Body weight, Height at Body length Total Hip widthkg withers (shoulder/pin bone) length (thurl width)500 1.35 1.40 2.20 0.52

550 1.37 1.49 2.29 0.53

600 1.39 1.57 2.35 0.54

650 1.41 1.64 2.41 0.55

700 1.42 1.70 2.45 0.56

Table 2.4. Weight in kg and body dimensions in metre among dairy cows (Jersey).

Body weight, Height at Body length Total Hip widthkg withers (shoulder/pin bone) length (thurl width)

300 1.19 1.20 1.94 0.44

400 1.24 1.27 2.02 0.47

500 1.25 1.32 2.04 0.50

Table 2.1. Age and body weight of dairy breed young stock.

Body weight, kgLarge breed Jersey

Days Months Heifers Bulls Heifers BullsBirth

10 0.3 50 50 30 30

30 1 60 60 40 40

50 1.6 80 80 50 50

90 3 100 110 60 70

130 4.3 130 160 80 100

160 5.3 150 200 90 130

180 6 160 230 100 160

230 7.6 190 300 110 220

240 8 200 320 120 230

270 9 210 360 130 260

300 10 230 400 150 300

330 11 250 440 160 330

370 12.1 270 480 170 350

400 13.1 290 520 190

420 14 300 200

470 15.4 330 220

510 17 360 240

540 18 380 250

610 20 420 290

700 22 480 350

720 24 500 370

Chapter 2


Figure 2.2.

Natural getting up

behaviour of cattle

(Anonym, 1969).

Figure 2.3.

The reach of cows

during feed intake.

The reach depends

on the type of teth-

er and the feed alley

height. (Model from

Mortensen, 1971).

the feeding rack. However, it rarely ex-ceeds 0.6 – 0.7 metre, see figure 2.3. Forfurther information about the lyingdown and getting up behaviour, pleasesee chapter 1, section 1.3.2.

From the shoulder region to the tailhead (the body length) the spine is notvery supple, which makes it difficult forthe cow to make sharp changes of di-rection while it is walking. Thereforemuch space is required in the directionof motion for the cow to turn 90° and180° respectively (see figure 2.4a and2.4b). When making a 90° turn it is thuseasiest for the cow to make two 45°turns (see figure 2.4c).

The separation of cows is ideal at a 45°change of the motion direction (seefigure 2.5)

2.5 Freedom of movement andexerciseA normal development of the motorapparatus of cattle (skeleton, tendonsand muscles) and the coordination ofmotions require both freedom ofmovement and frequent exercise.

Several investigations have shown thatexercise among cows in tied-up housingsystems (grazing versus zero grazing)has a positive influence on reproduc-tion, hoof and limb health and on sev-eral metabolic disorders. Grazing is anatural form of exercise.

31

Weight, bodydimensions and

movement behaviour


Literature

Figure 2.4.

Space in connection

with 90° and

180° turns in the

direction of motion,

cm.

Figure 2.5.

Separation in two

directions, 45° of the

direction of motion.

Background and motivation• It is easier for cows that exercise to

get up and lie down than cows thatdo not exercise at all (Gustafson etal. 1988, Krohn and Rasmussen 1990)

• At pasture dairy cows walk approx.two to four kilometres daily, de-pending on the amount of grass andthe size of the fold (Zeeb 1983,Krohn et al. 1992).

• In loose housing systems with accessto an open exercise yard cows walkabout one kilometre per day (Zeeb1983).

• The reproduction conditions are im-proved and the level of diseases isreduced when cows kept in tied-uphousing systems exercise regularly,e.g. graze during the summer(Krohn 1986, review article).

2.6 Literature

2.6.1 SourcesAnonym 1969. Alt det nyeste inden for landbrug,

havebrug og husholdning. Det Kgl. Danske Land-

husholdningsselskab.

Gustafson, G. M., Andersson, M. & Lund, E. 1988.

Getting up and lying down behaviour in tied and

exercised dairy cows. SVE-summer meeting. Ska-

ra, Sverige.

Krohn, C.C. 1986. Motion til malkekøer i bind-

estalde. Ugeskrift for jordbrug, 46, 1364-66.

Krohn, C.C. & Rasmussen M.D. 1990. Motion til

malkekøer. Medd. nr. 763 fra Statens Husdyr-

brugsforsøg, 4 pp.

Krohn, C.C., Munksgaard, L. and Jonasen, B.

1992. Behaviour of dairy cows kept ind extensive

(loose housing/pasture) or intensive (tie stall) en-

vironments. I. Experimental procedure, facilities,

time budgetsdiurnal and seasonal conditions.

Appl.Anim. Behav. Sci., 34:37-47.

Mortensen, B. 1971. Forsøg med bindsler til køer.

1. 33. SBI-landbrugsbyggeri. Statens Byggefors-

kningsinstitut. 156 pp.

Zeeb, K. 1983. Locomotion and space structure in

6 cattle units. Farm Animal Housing and Welfare,

Martinus Nijhoff Publishers for CEC, 129.

2.6.2 Supplementary literatureHoffman, H. & Rist, M. 1975. Tiergarecht und ar-

beitswirtsschaftlich günstlige Anbringevorrich-

tungen für Kühe. Schweiz. Landw.M.h. 53:119-

126.

Chapter 3


Health

Figure 3.1.

Many environmental

factors influence

cattle. Diseases arise

when cattle, as a

consequence of in-

fluences from the

surroundings, – also

the feeding – are

thrown of their

natural physiologi-

cal balance. This

figure shows some

of the environmen-

tal factors, which

influence the health

of cattle.

3.1 General health stateDanish cattle farms are free fromthe infectious diseases that causetrouble to dairy farmers in otherparts of the world, who suffer di-rect losses in the shape of sick anddead animals as well as increasedexpenses for handling and treat-ment of sick animals. At the end of2000 Denmark was among otherthings free from cattle tuberculo-sis, brucellosis, leucosis, foot-and-mouth and IBR diseases.

Today the greatest health chal-lenge within cattle farming is theso-called production-related dis-eases. The characteristic feature ofthese diseases is that the transitionfrom health to disease is more flu-

ent and determined by far more factorsthan the balance between the infec-tious disease and the individual animalof the herd. The main cause of produc-tion-related diseases may both be hous-ing design, feeding and management(see table 3.1). In the recommendationsof this report, we have taken the physi-cal factors of farm housing design intoaccount, which can reduce the frequen-cy of injuries and reduce the risk of dis-eases among cattle.

In the following chapter it will be de-scribed in which ways the building de-sign as well as the traffic of persons canresult in the introduction and spread ofinfectious diseases. Figure 3.1 showsthe numerous environmental factors,which influence cattle.

Physical environmentCarcassFloor design Bedding/troughs TetheringMilking system Manure handling Grazing managementGrazing conditions

Climate TemperatureAtmospheric humidityDraughtMicroclimateDust Psychical

environment Management- milking technique- supervision- intervention- purchase policy- temper of staffsOther cowsNoise

Biological environment Microorganisms: - feeddrinking water- housing air- tools- other animals- guests

Feed supplyQualityQuantityChange of feedDrinking water

Chemical environmentManure gasManure in dung alleySilageCleaning agents

33

Health


External infectionprotection

Table 3.1. Some diseases can easily beattributed to the direct influences fromthe immediate environment of the cow.This table shows the connection betweenpossible causes and the resulting injuryor disease.

Cause Disease

Building Scratches and wounds

Skidding

Pneumonia

Heatstroke/frost-bites

Housing Knee and hock pressure

system injuries

Tail damage

Acid injuries on deep litter

Feed and leg diseases

Mastitis

Feed alley Neck injuries

Swollen carpus

Feet and leg diseases

Tether Pressure injuries

Teat damage

Skidding

3.2 External infection protectionThe external or outer protectionagainst infection is characterised by themeasures, which are carried out oneach individual farm to avoid or limitthe introduction of infectious diseases.The infectious diseases may either beundesirable for the country as a wholeor for the individual farm, if the farmerhas chosen that his herd should be at ahigher health level.

When practicing the external protectionagainst infection one must keep in mindthe cattle farmer’s general attitude thatDanish cattle farms are open farms,which must be convenient to visit.

3.2.1 Purchase of cattleThe risk of introducing new infectiousdiseases is by far greatest when pur-chasing new cattle. A well-establishedfarm with a sufficient rearing is able tolimit or avoid purchase. However, inconnection with an extension of thefarm, it might be necessary for a periodof time to purchase cattle. In this case itis important to plan as well the numberof cattle and the time of arrival to thefarm well ahead. By planning, thor-oughly, a good general view will beformed, which should result in a pur-chase of cattle from as few farms aspossible. Moreover, it should also pro-vide time to achieve the necessaryknowledge of the state of health (BVDdisease, Salmonella Dublin, para-tuber-culosis and infectious udder germs) ofthe farm from which the cattle is to bepurchased. It is the buyer that musttake action to protect his herd againstinfection and thus he should make thespecific demands. It is fair that a docu-mentation of the state of health of theherd of the supplying farm within thelast three to four years is includedwhen cattle is purchased.

The purchased cattle should be placed inthe farm housing as early as possible, sothat they can get used to the infectiousdiseases of the new farm and have thetime to produce high-quality colostrums.Cattle purchased from abroad may re-quire particular attention.

3.2.2 Handing over cattleWhen living as well as dead cattle areleaving the farm there is a risk that dis-eases may be passed on to the existingcattle.

There is a danger that diseases may bepassed on to cattle when they are sentfor slaughter, cattle shows or jointgrazing and if the carrier or cattle fromanother farm touches them. Cattle forslaughter must always be viewed asanimals of a low level of health, as theymay be healthy disease spreaders. Thusit is important that cattle for slaughterare separated from the rest of the herduntil they are picked up.

Even on a well-run farm, dead cattlecannot be avoided completely. Thus aplace for the contemporary deposit ofdead cattle must be established. Thedeposit place for dead cattle must becemented and fenced in to avoid foxes,dogs and cats. Dead cattle must eitherbe deposited in an enclosed containeror they may be covered with a tarpau-lin or the like. The deposit place shouldbe situated in such a way that the lorryfrom the incinerating plant does notcross the carriage road between thefeed silo and feed alley. Furthermore,the deposit place should be highly de-marcated from the rest of the farm.

Chapter 3


Figure 3.2.

Entrance room.

The driver from the incinerating plantmust under no circumstances touch thelive animals of the farm.

3.2.3 Admittance of personsVisits to farms also involve the risk thatdiseases may be passed on to cattle,however, this risk is not as considerableas the purchase of or touching of cat-tle. It is practical to allow visitors oneentrance and exit place only. This placeshould provide cleaning facilities out-side the farm building.

Service staffs (inseminators, veterinarysurgeons, milk recorders, and hooftrimmers) are in direct contact withcattle, also on other farms, and thusthe risk of passing on diseases to cattlecannot be eliminated. Thus it is impor-tant that the visit of the service staffsonly takes place through a given accessroad where it is possible before andafter the visit to thoroughly clean anddisinfect the equipment they havebrought with them and their footwear.

The necessary facilities must be placedin a way that it seems naturally for visi-tors to pass them. Service staffs thattouch the cattle must change workingcoat or overalls between each visit. Ifthe individual farmer wishes to takefurther steps in the form of washingand change of clothing and footwear,the necessary facilities must be madeavailable (cupboard for working coatand boots). (See figure 3.2).

Other guests or visitors from agricultur-al colleges, schools, nursery classes, etc.do not pose the same risk, as they onlyin very few cases have direct contactwith the cattle of the farm and as theyhave rarely had recent contact withother cattle. If the farmer receives visi-tors from abroad, or if he wishes totake further safety precautions in con-nection with visits, the guests may beprovided with overalls and overboots.Moreover, they must be able to washhands and boots after the visit on thefarm.

35

Health


Separation andtreatment section

3.3 Internal infectionprotectionInternal protection against infectionconsists of those measures a farm carriesout in order to avoid or limit the spreadof infection between different groupsof cattle, e.g. age groups or farm sec-tions. The internal protection againstdiseases is especially actual in connec-tion with outbreak of infectious diseasesor reconstruction programmes. Howev-er, the internal protection against dis-eases should also be considered duringthe daily work, e.g. boots should bewashed when passing from one farmsection to another. Furthermore, the in-ternal protection against infection alsoconsists in avoiding the spread of ma-nure in feed and troughs.

3.3.1 Moving around cattle withinfarmCattle must continuously be movedfrom one section to another when theherd reaches a certain size. Calves aremoved to group pens, heifers that areabout to calve must be placed amongthe milking cows, cows must be driedoff and moved, etc. Thus it is practicalto design the housing system in such away that the moving around of cattlerequires as few staffs as possible andthe design must allow particularly vul-nerable cattle to be separated from therest of the herd in case of infectiousdiseases. Moreover, it is practical to rearsucking calves and small calves in sec-tions and group systems. For further in-formation, please see chapter 4: “Work-ing routines and supervision”.

3.3.2 Placing and moving aroundcattle and young stockNewborn calves must be placed in cleansingle pens. Continuous placing of calvesin random pens in the calf house increas-es the disease risk. Thus it is best to fillone row or block of single pens at a time.Moreover, feeding is more rational and itis easier to inspect calves frequently dur-ing risk periods, if calves are placed nextto each other according to age.

The moving of calves from single to jointpens can with great advantage be carriedout in groups. In this way it is avoidedthat younger calves that are less resistantto diseases are placed among oldercalves with a higher infection rate.Moreover, young calves are accustomedto herd behaviour without dominatingold calves at the water and feed trough.

3.3.3 Sick cattle and cattle undertreatmentNormally, there are no health reasonsfor separating full-grown cattle ingroups. However, in connection withdifferent reconstruction programmesand during fights against differentkinds of mastitis, it might be efficientto separate cattle in different groups.

The government order concerning pro-duction and transport of milk doesamong other things demand thatcattle with diseases, which can betransmitted to human beings throughthe milk, must be separated from therest of the herd. Moreover, cattle thatshow visible signs of general healthdisorders or that suffer from reproduc-tion diseases with discharge, intestinaldisease with diarrhoea and fever aswell as mastitis, must be separatedfrom the rest of the cattle.

It is important that the place for thesesick animals is arranged in a way thatthey have the same feeding and hous-ing opportunities as the rest of thecattle. The entrance conditions must begood, so that sick cattle can be movedand handled with a minimum work-load. It is not allowed to use the calvingpen as convalescence area for cowswith open wounds, abscesses or othersufferings that cause discharge of pus.Sick cattle and cattle that require treat-ment for other reasons must be housedcentrally and close to the necessarycleaning and disinfection facilities.

3.4 Separation and treatmentsection A separation section is an area of thehousing in which individual cows caneasily be separated from the rest of theherd. The separation can either takeplace manually by means of gates orautomatically by means of electronicmarking.

A treatment section is an area of thefarm building, which is used routinely forboth inseminations, pregnancy checksand occasionally for examination andtreatment when diseases occur.

The separation as well as the treat-ment section must have the same facil-ities and equipment as the rest of thebuilding. It is, especially, importantthat cattle kept temporarily in a sepa-ration or treatment section have access

Chapter 3


to water and usual feed in a trough, adry resting place with a deformablebedding.

The treatment pen should facilitatecatching and fixing of cattle that mustbe examined or treated. A closed penmust be equipped with a manhole dooror some other fast escape route. Thepen must be lit up properly and accessto warm and cold water is required, sothat equipment, etc. can be cleaned orwashed after treatment. Moreover,there should be a plug near the pen.

Treatment pens must be minimumthree metres long and broad (seefigure 3.3).

3.4.1 Space for hoof trimmingIt is practical to establish space and facil-ities for hoof trimming. Moreover, goodwashing and cleaning facilities are re-quired, preferably on a cemented foun-dation, so that the hoof trimming boxand tools can be cleaned efficiently.

3.4.2 Medicine and chemicalstorageThere must not be kept any chemicals,medicine or other pesticides nearcattle. Such preparations must bestored in a locked cupboard or the likewith no admittance except on busi-ness. Tools, medicine and other equip-ments as well as chemicals must bestored under well-organised condi-tions on shelves, e.g. in closed cup-

boards. The storage facilities must in-vite order. The storage should be ar-ranged in such a manner that confu-sion and mistakes do not occur in caseof new staffs or relief men.

3.4.3 Waste handlingWaste containers for used disposableequipment must be provided at allplaces where the service personnel car-ries out cleaning and disinfection. Afteruse, disposable syringes and hypoder-mic needles must be kept in suitablecontainers until they are removed fordestruction. All packaging and medi-cine residues must be disposed by a vet-erinary surgeon or the chemist’s.

3.5 Cleaning and disinfectionCleaning is important prior to disinfec-tion. The disinfectants do not havemaximum effect without precedingmanual cleaning. Disinfection routinesare, especially, carried out on farms incase of:• Outbreak of infectious diseases to

limit the spread of the infection• Establishment of infection barriers

between groups of cattle or individ-ual sections

• Surgical intervention and treatmentof cattle

• Limitation of germ contamination ofanimal products.

3.5.1 General cleaning informationAn appropriate cleaning and subse-quent disinfection procedure of emptyfarm buildings and pens or stalls couldbe:• Thorough cleaning of the areas• Soaking• Cleaning by means of high pressure

cleaner• Subsequent disinfection with a suit-

able disinfectant, if necessary• Thorough airing and drying of alleys

and stalls.

3.5.2 Specific information aboutdisinfection, including instructionsThe choice of disinfectant depends onseveral conditions, i.e. disinfectionmethod, time of effect, temperaturedependence, pH dependence, spectrumof effect, etc. At the same time even-tual incompatibility with other sub-stances must be considered if the effectseems to be too little. In table 3.2 thenumber of disinfectants are listedwhich cannot be mixed due to toxiceffect or because they neutralize each

Figure 3.3.

Design of

treatment pen.

37

Health


Literatureother mutually. The final choice as todisinfectant can be difficult, however,primary characteristics of disinfectants,which can be used in connection withlivestock husbandry are listed in table3.3. When disinfecting farms with cat-tle inside iodofors and oxidizing disin-fectants such as Clorid-cid, Jettadam A-100 and Virkon-S can be applied. Thesedisinfectants can also be used forsprinkling.

3.6 LiteratureAnonym, 1998. Gårdbutikker og besøgslandbrug.

Råd, vink og praktiske anvisninger om start og

strategi. Landbrugets Rådgivningscenter 62 pp.

Table 3.3. Outline of the qualities of each disinfectant.

Disinfectant Wash Effective against Fast Sensitive Recommended Corro- Envir.effect effect to sive impact

organicBacteria Spores Virus matter PH Tempe-

value rature

Acids no +(+) - + ++ ++ < 2 > 5o C +++ no

Strong bases yes ++ (+) +++ + - - - ++ no

Hypochlorite no +++ - +++ +++ +++ > 7 < 35o C +++ no

Chloramines no +++ - +++ ++ ++ ca. 7 - +++ no

Iodofors yes +++ + + +++ ++ < 6 < 35o C + ?

Phenol yes ++( +) - (+) ++ ++ > 8 < 40o C - yes

Quart. amm.comp. yes +(+) - - +++ +++ ca. 8 - + ?

Glutaraldehyde no +++ +++ +++ + - > 7 > 5o C - no

Peracetic acid no +++ +++ +++ ++ + < 6 > 5o C ++ no

Oxiddising no +++ ++ +++ ++ + < 6 > 5o C + no

- = none

+ = few

++ = average

+++ = many

Table 3.2. Disinfectants, which cannot be mixed due to toxic effect or because they neu-tralize each other.

Group Cannot be mixed with

Acid Bases, chlorine preparation and chlorhexidine

Base Acids, iodofors and chlorhexidine

Quarterner ammonium

compounds Soap, strong acids and bases as well as iodofors

Chloramin, hypochlorit Acids

Jodoforer Bases, slaked lime and quart, ammonium compounds

Chlorhexidin Acids and bases

Chapter 4


Work routines and supervision

4.1 Work routines, supervisionand welfareThe planning of a production plan isbased on the cycle of cattle from birthto departure from the farm.

Work routines and supervision influ-ence the welfare and yield of cattleconsiderably. Thus these two factors arepreconditions of an optimum utilisationof the herd potential. A practical de-sign of the farm building and equip-ment as well as easy and unobstructedaccess to each animal will ensure thatthe observation and the daily workingroutines can be carried out without anunnecessarily high work performance.

Special attention must be drawn to thefollowing issues:• Distribution of feed and ensuring

that the feed is within the cattle’sreach

• Supervision and inspection of feedalley, feed silo, automatic feeder,watering cup and water troughs

• Cleaning of resting areas and alleys• Supervision and registration of the

health condition and yield of eachsingle animal

• Supervision at calving• Routine tasks, e.g. insemination,

pregnancy test, udder health controland udder care, hoof care, bloodsampling, dehorning, ear tagging,removal, fatness estimate andweighing, etc.

• Handling and treatment of sickcattle

• Going through alarm lists of auto-matic feeding and milking systems,activity monitoring systems, watermeters, etc.

In order to control the distribution offeed to each animal, to carry out obser-vation for oestrus efficiently, etc. it isan advantage that cattle can be subdi-vided in a number of functional groups.This subdivision will make it easier tofollow up on the groups and each ani-mal. The maximum group size can bedetermined either as the number ofcows that can be milked per hour, or itmay be assumed that a maximum of 70

cows are able to recognise the rankingof each other in a herd (Syme andSyme, 1979).

4.2 Cleaning and groomingThe cleaning of resting area and thealleys of the cattle housing is a precon-dition for milking clean cows. It is muchmore time consuming to clean udderand teats when milking the cows thanit is to clean the resting area. Cleaningof the resting area is especially impor-tant if an automatic milking system(AMS) is applied, as it is not possible toclean the dirty cows manually beforethey are milked in this system.

The resting area must be inspected, su-pervised and cleaned several times perevery 24 hours. In practice it is best toclean and litter the resting area whilethe cows are being milked or whenthey are prevented from entering theresting area, e.g. when they are lockedin self-locking feed barriers or kept inthe feeding area. The effect of a cleanbed is greatest when cows after milk-ing or joint feeding are able to liedown in a clean and well-littered rest-ing area. Typically, grooming in loosehousing systems is left to the cowsthemselves. Fixed or rotating brushescan profitably be mounted in thehousing system. However, they mustbe placed in a way where they do notdisturb the cow traffic.

4.3 Hoof careHoof care must be carried out as occa-sion requires. The farm building designmust facilitate routine checking of thehoofs of cattle and hoof trimming twoto four times per year. The activityconnected to hoof trimming is probab-ly not a positive experience for cattle.It should be possible to work withgroups of untethered cattle. When de-signing cattle housing, space must beleft for a hoof-trimming box and thecows must be able to walk to and fromthe box. Moreover, hoof trimmingshould not be carried out in thoseplaces where cattle should be able towalk safely during the day, e.g. theholding and milking area.

39

Work routinesand supervision


Herd handlingDry and clean alleys and good deep-lit-ter areas contribute to a low level ofhoof moisture and thus keep the hoofshardy, healthy, dry and strong.

In case of preventive and emergencytreatments it should be easy to estab-lish an effective hoof bath. The best so-lution would be permanent hoof baths.Hoof baths shall be easy to clean and itis best to place them at a place cattlepass when they return from the milkingarea. It should not be possible for fluidfrom the hoof bath to plash on theother cows.

4.4 Supervision of housingclimateThe climate inside the cattle housingmust be dry, free from draught andwell-ventilated (for further informa-tion, please see chapter 5). In order tomonitor the climate, automatic moni-toring systems can be built in, whichwill regulate the ventilation in natural-ly and mechanically ventilated cattlehousing.

Monitoring systems can be combinedwith an alarm that puts on an acousticor optical alarm if the ideal climate isinterrupted. If a mechanical ventilationsystem is installed, an emergency venti-lation and alarm system must be in-stalled, too.

4.5 Herd supervisionAll animals must be inspected at leastonce per day. Supervision and registra-tion of the state of health of each indi-vidual animal are crucial for the wel-fare and security of cattle. Thus anideal supervision is achieved if thefarmer can easily make several obser-vations during his daily tasks in thecattle housing.

Calving and treatment sections as wellas the group of first calvers must beplaced in a central place, which thestaffs pass several times during the day.

Monitoring must be integrated as anatural part into the list of daily rou-tines.

Manholes or small one-hand operatedgates can secure an easy access to dif-ferent areas and pens of the cattlehousing as well as a quick escape routefor the staff.

An observation platform will enablethe staffs to orientate themselvesquickly of the situation in the cattlehouse. In emergency situations a videomonitoring system which provides apermanent record of the total or justsome highly actual parts of the hous-ing, e.g. the calving section, enablesthe staff to intervene faster than if theemergency was not detected until thenext routine check.

4.6 Herd handlingIn connection with the tending andmonitoring of cattle, there is a need tobe able to fix individual animals and tomove one or more animals at a time. Itis e.g. natural to separate individualcows from the group in connectionwith the milking. A suitable alternativecould be to use the self-locking feedbarriers of the feed alley. This self-lock-ing feed barrier provides an efficient,easy and cheap solution as regards thehandling of individual cows.

The requirement for separation pens inwhich animals are kept for a short per-iod of time is that it must be possible tofix individual animals. Moreover, cattlemust have access to water and feed andit should be possible for them to rest.Staffs and external persons must bymeans of manholes or small one-handoperated gates have easy access tothose pens in which the separatedcattle are kept. The gates will facilitateindividual animal’s placing in and re-moval from pens.

Among young stock there is a need tobe able to fix animals that must betreated. A self-locking feed barrier cane.g. be applied in partitions with heif-ers that are going to be inseminated.

The housing design must facilitate themoving of cattle, which is a result ofthe natural cycle. It must be possible tomove animals in groups and to drivethem quietly and peacefully from onepartition to another. Thus it is practicalto establish good drive alleys and gates,which can lead cattle in the right direc-tion. The gates must be easy to operateby one person only.

It should be possible to accustom cattleto new facilities, e.g. heifers thatshould later be placed among the othercows. Thus cows that are kept in tied-

Chapter 4


Table 4.1. Recommended adaption time in cow housing, number of weeks before calving.

Deep litter 3 9 12 Adaption to cow

Cubicles 3 3 6 housing can be

Tied-up housing 6 6 3 modified by

Slatted floor pens 3 6 9 combining it with

Grazing 3 6 6 grazing.

* If heifers have not been accustomed to cubicles after 2 – 4 days, they must be tethered daily.

** If heifers have been tethered earlier on, e.g. in connection with insemination, the adaption peri-

od may be halved.

First calvers Placement in cow housing, no. of weeks before calving First calvershoused in/on Deep litter and Cubicles* Tied-up at pasture

sep. feeding housing**

up housing systems must as heifers beaccustomed to stalls and cows kept incubicle housing systems must as heifersbe accustomed to cubicles. The heifermust feel safe in its housing systemwhen it is placed among cows after itsfirst calving.

It is easiest to accustom first calvers tocubicles if they are as heifers placed inpens with cubicles at an early age.Heifers on deep litter require a longerlearning period to get used to cubicles(see table 4.1).

It is recommended that cows are notallowed to walk directly from the milk-ing to the resting area after milking.This recommendation is based on thefact that the sphincter of the teat chan-nel must be able to close efficiently toprevent environmental bacteria fromentering the udder. It takes between 10minutes and two hours for the teatsphincter to close depending on thecourse of the milking. (MC Donald,1975).

When there is one feeding area percow, the distribution of restrictive feedcan be practised if the feeding rack isdesigned in such a way that superiorcows cannot chase away/disturb thesubordinate ones.

One feeding area including a self-lock-ing feed barrier per cow is an excellentway to handle cattle, e.g. when theymust be fixed in groups in connectionwith pregnancy checks, selection ofsamples from each animal as well as

other treatments or the singling outcattle for subsequent treatment.

If there is more than one cow per feed-ing area the working routines andfunctions must be secured in otherways. E.g. the feed ration of subordi-nate cows must be ensured, the feedseparation must be met, sufficient feedmust be supplied within reach, restric-tive feed must be distributed to individ-ual animals and cattle for treatmentmust be fixed alternatively.

The precondition for an optimised feedefficiency is that each cow or group ofcows can receive a feed ration, which isattuned to the need of the cow orgroup of cows.

The choice of feeding rack has a greatinfluence on the amount of feed that isspilled onto the feeding area. Thechoice of a neck rail may in connectionwith certain feedstuffs result in a largerfeed loss than if a self-locking feed bar-rier is chosen.

Self-locking feed barriers provide theopportunity of blocking off cattlefrom the feed. Thus the feed can bedistributed before the animals haveaccess to it.

4.7 Handling of cattle andanimal – human relationsThe welfare of both cattle and humansof a farm depends on a trusting handl-ing of the large number of animals indifferent age groups. Thus time mustbe spent on adjusting cattle to positive

41



Table 4.2. Connection between yield level and handling of the animal (Seabrook, 1994).

Milk yieldHigh Low

Kind touch during milking, number/minutes 2.1 0.5

“Conversation with cows” during milking, words/minutes 12.4 0.0

Voluntary contact between cow and milker, number/minutes 10.2 3.0

Flight distance (nervousness), m 0.5 2.5

Handling of cattleand animal -

human relations

close contact as early as possible. Cattlethat are easy to work with during thedaily work will at the same time reducethe number of staff injuries. Moreover,the adjusting of cattle to positive closecontact with humans will ensure thatthe routine tasks, which require closecontact with each animal, are carriedout rationally.

The relationship between cattle andthe person who tends them is an impor-tant factor. Several examinations ofcattle as well as pig farms show a posi-tive connection between a friendlymanagement and the production re-sults obtained. Thus Seabrook found, inan examination of 24 cattle farms, ayield difference of 15% between thoseherds in which the cowman “spokewith the cattle” and touched themmuch and the farms in which the levelof contact between cattle and cowmanwas very small. (See table 4.2).

Under experimental conditions it hasbeen proven that even a brief and neg-ative treatment can cause a drop in themilk yield of up to 10% next time thecow is milked.

In connection with several species (e.g.geese, dogs and horses) it is the casethat there are several periods of theirlives where they respond more to con-tact with other animals and hence hu-man beings (the sensitive period). Ex-aminations prove that frequent contacthas a considerable influence on howtrustful the animal will become. Especi-ally, if the contact takes place duringthose periods of time where animalsare already loaded in one or the otherway, e.g. after weaning, during calving,when first calvers are accustomed tomilking and when the animal is beingmoved to new surroundings (Fraser &Broom, 1990).

The daily contact with cattle must bekind, consequent and predictable. Thestaff should frequently talk to cattleand touch them. Any approach must bemade on the terms of the animals, i.e.the animal must be able to see andsniff at the person before it is beingtouched (see chapter one: Behaviour ofcattle). Generally, the handling of cattleis easiest in familiar surroundings.

The cowman must be very much awareof the behaviour of the animal and hemust know each animal of the herdvery well. All cattle must be inspectedat least once per day. (Anonym, 1991and Anonym, 1997).

The rising number of large farms com-bined with increased automation in-volve the risk that the contact witheach animal is being reduced. Naturally,this development will result in a lesstrusting (tame) animal and thus, at eve-ry subsequent handling, in a loading ofthe animal, to the detriment of thewelfare and production of cattle andperhaps of the staff, too. This circum-stance calls for increased attention andresearch in the years to come.

4.7.1 Calves, heifers and cowsDuring the first couple of weeks afterthe calve is born it responds very muchto human contact. A few minutes ofdaily, positive contact with human be-ings will during this period (the primaryperiod of socialisation) lay the ground-work for the later sociability and tracta-bility of cattle. Examinations haveshown that it is easier to obtain a closerelationship of trust with calves kept insingle pens than joint pens and it is, es-pecially, difficult as long as the calf iskept together with its mother.

However, a constant and stable trust inhumans is only possible, if the primary

Chapter 4


contacts are followed up by frequentpositive contacts during the subsequentrearing period (Krohn, 1996). In addi-tion to the first sensitive period afterthe calf is born the chance of establish-ing a good relationship of trust is bestwhen the animal is in an emotionallyimpressionable situation (e.g. weaning,isolation, displacement, calving, etc.).The social ties that are established dur-ing these circumstances are often justas stable as those established duringthe primary period of socialisation.

In order for first calvers to be easy tohandle and for them to have a highand stable milk yield, it is importantthat they are both trustful and tame,even before they calve.

Cattle can tell people apart. A numberof experiments show that the colour ofclothing is an important distinctivemark. Cows are able to connect posi-tive/negative handling both with colourof clothing and a certain place (Hems-worth and Coleman, 1998).

Thus an unpleasant but necessary hand-ling of dairy cows should not take placein the milking area and the clothing ofthe active person should not have thesame colour as the working clothes,which the milker wears. It is especiallyimportant that heifers are handled pos-itively the first couple of times they aremilked. In this way the animal will notassociate milking with a negative treat-ment and hence it will not fear themilker.

4.7.2 BullsYoung bulls and breeding bulls must al-ways be treated with respect and alert-ness by means of a confident and firmhandling. The bull should always regardthe farmer as the dominating part.Moreover, the farmer should know thenormal behaviour of each bull and heshould especially watch out, if the bulldoes not behave as it usually does.When bulls that are normally calm sud-denly turn aggressive this is often due tothe fact that something, which they areunaccustomed with, has happened tothem. They may e.g. have been moved,have lost some females or they may ex-perience pain due to injuries or disease.During such situations the farmer has tobe particularly alert.

4.8 Taking into use renovatedand new housing systemsDuring the planning the farmer mustset aside time for placing cattle in thenew or rebuild housing system. A mini-mum of 14 days should be set aside fortaking the farm into use from theworkmen and the equipment suppliershave finished their job in the building.Moreover, the defects and shortcom-ings should be repaired before cattleare placed in the new housing system.

It may even be a good idea to set apartan extra week for cattle to familiarisethemselves with the new surroundingsin small groups. This extra week willtake the first day easier where the cowsmust e.g. be milked in the new housingsystem. (See table 4.3).

4.8.1 When will the new housing betaken into use?The new or rebuilt housing may e.g. betaken into use during the period ofturning out to pasture. At this point oftime the herd will have build up astable hierarchy and the physical fitnessof the cattle will be optimum. If cattleare placed in the new housing later on,the hoofs will be vulnerable to inten-sive traffic on the new floors.

The worst situation – which should beavoided – is to move cattle in the mid-dle of the winter. At this time of theyear cattle must establish a totally newhierarchy as well as cope with the newsurroundings. This may lead to a long-term unrest on the farm and many inju-ries may arise as well as abnormallylarge hoof wear.

It should always be avoided to take anunfinished housing into use, as this mayinfluence cows’ habituation to the newhousing negatively. The new routinesthat cows learn should be lasting.

If cattle should be accustomed to a newmilking system/principle, e.g. automaticmilking, it is even more important thatthe housing is totally ready before tak-ing it into use.

4.8.2 Making ready housing andtechniqueThe farmer ought to have worked out adetailed plan of action for taking thenew housing and techniques into use.

43



Taking into userenovated andnew housing

systems

The schedule should consider all thetasks, e.g. preparation of the milkingsystem, checking of drinking water sys-tems, running in of feeding systems,feed silos and tanks as well as prepar-ing the resting area.

It is important that there is sufficientlabour available on the farm during theperiod when the new housing system istaken into use. It may be necessary tohire extra staffs for a period of time.

Sharp equipment edges that animal orman may bang against should beavoided. In connection with cubiclesneck rails must be placed far ahead. It isadvantageous to coat new floors with

Days prior to full use Action

Min 30 Hoof trimming of cows and first calvers.

7 The resting area is littered. Feed silo and feeding system are

filled up. Milking towel, milking aprons/clothes and other ma

terials such as teat dip and cleaning materials, brushes and

tubes must be ready.

5 The cows pass through the housing.

4 The cows stay 1 – 2 hours in the housing and are supplied a

tasty feedstuff in the feed alley. The cows should not be catc

hed in the self-locking feed barriers. The milking system is

checked by an adviser on milk quality.

3 The cows pass through the milking parlour on their way to

the feed alley where they are supplied feed as the previous day.

2 The cows are gathered in the holding area. The milking sy

stem is started, and the cows stay in the milking stalls 1 – 2

minutes. The cows are fed at the feed alley as the previous

days and they are catched in the self-locking feed barriers for

a while. Cows that lie in the cow alleys are loosely tied up in

the cubicles.

1 The first milking is carried out in the new housing, and a full

feed ration is administered in the feed alley. Cows that lie in

the cow alleys are systematically tied up. From this point of

time a hoof bath is applied twice per week.

0 All functionings are examined: Milking system, water trough,

watering cup automatic feeder, etc. The cows stay perma-

nently in the housing.

Table 4.3. Example of a plan for taking the new housing into use. The plan includes thedays up to and the first milking.

asphalt coating and apply a thick layerof sawdust on the asphalt coating inorder to reduce strong hoof wear dur-ing the first period of time.

It is necessary to test and adjust as wellas study the operational manual for thevarious technical devices, including thedata recording and steering equip-ment.

If the farmer has already consideredthe above-mentioned measures andchosen a date, outside the peak loadperiod, when the new housing shouldbe taken into use his full attention canbe devoted to accustoming cattle tothe new housing.

Chapter 4


4.9 Literature

4.9.1 SourcesAnonym. 1991. Dyreværnslov lov nr. 386 af 1991.

Justitsministeriet.

Anonym. 1997. Bekendtgørelse om ændring af

bekendtgørelse om beskyttelse af kalve.

Justitsministeriet.

Fraser, A.F., & D.M. Broom, (1990): Farm Animal

Behaviour and Welfare. 3. edition. Bailiere Tin-

dal, London, 437 pp.

Hemsworth P.H. & Coleman G.J., (1998): Human-

Livestock Interactions (The Stockperson and Pro-

ductivity and Welfare of Intensively Farmed Ani-

mals).152 pp.

Krohn, C.C., 1996. The effects of early housing og

dairy calves on the subsequent man-animal rela-

tionship. Proc. of the 30th Intern.Cong. of the

ISAE, 14-17 Aug. Guelph, Canada. 109 pp (abstr.).

Seabrook, M.F., 1994. Psychological interaction

between the milker and the dairy cow. National

Mastitis Council Annual Meeting Proceedings,

163-173 pp.

Syme G.J. & L.A. Syme, (1979): Social structure in

farm animals. Elsevier. 199 pp.

4.10.2 Supplerende litteratur

Anonym. 1994. Nødventilation og alarmanlæg,

Landbrugets Rådgivningscenter. 34 pp.

4.9.2 Supplementary literatureAnonym, 1995. Arbejdsteknik og arbejdsmiljø i

landbruget. Landbrugets Rådgivningscenter.

Anonym, 2000. Hvorfor går det så galt? - En

film om arbejdsulykker i landbruget. Land-

brugets Rådgivningscenter.

Blom, Jens Yde. 1999. Sunde klove - kommer ikke

af sig selv. Landbrugets Rådgivningscenter. 27 pp.

CIGR Design Recommendations Dairy Cow Hous-

ing. 1994. Report of CIGR Section II. Working

group no. 14 ADAS, Martyr Worthy Winchester,

SO21 1 AP, England. 56 pp.

Dalgaard, I., 2000. Indkøring af stalde til kvæg.

Landbrugets Rådgivningscenter. 43pp.

Krohn, C.C. 1995. Forskning i adfærd og velfærd.

Husdyrvelfærd og husdyrproduktion. En rapport om

forskning i velfærd for husdyr. Landbrugs- og fisker-

iministeriet, Forskningsdsekretariatet. 28-46 pp.

Kromann, H., O. Kristensen, H. J. Andersen, J. Y.

Blom. 1995. Når du skal bygge ny løsdriftstald.

Anvisninger og checklister for indkøring. Land-

skontoret for Kvæg. 15 pp.

MC Donald, J.S. Radiographic Method for ana-

tomic study of the eat canal: Changes between

milking periods. AMJ vet res. 1975; 36: 1241-

1242.

Nickerson, S. C., 1985. Immune mechanisms of

the bovine udder: An overview. Journal of Ameri-

can Veterinary Medical Association, vol. 187:41.

Rasmussen, J.B., L. Jepsen, M.D. Rasmussen, S.

Clausen, O. Kristensen. 1999. AMS - Automatiske

malkesystemer. Landbrugets Rådgivningscenter.

26 pp. ISBN 87-7470-738-6.

45



Literature

Chapter 5


Housing Climate

5.1 Introduction– housing climate in generalHousing climate means the air in a cowhouse in terms of temperature, humidi-ty, wind speed and air pollution in theshape of particles (dust and micro-or-ganisms) and gasses. Acoustics and lightconditions also form part of the hous-ing climate (Valbjørn, 1995).

The dimensioning of the housing cli-mate is based on the size and age ofthe individual animal groups, the pro-duction level as well as the staff whomust work in the given farm sections.

The housing climate is influenced bythe building design (geometry), vol-ume, insulation, location of animalsand heating, if any.

In specific farm sections and servicerooms that must be frost-free andmaintain a certain minimum tempera-ture, insulation and heating can helpensure the desired housing tempera-ture. At the same time ventilation cankeep air humidity and pollution at anacceptable level. This section will notgo any further into mechanical ventila-tion of insulated farm buildings. (Pleaseconsult professional literature for fur-ther information).

The housing wind speed is primarily de-termined by the design of the air inletand its regulation. However, it is also tosome degree affected by the heat pro-duction from the animals, air outlet,farm housing dimensions and the out-door climate.

The following sections will deal withconditions of importance to a goodhousing climate.

5.2 Climatic requirementsWhen establishing climatic require-ments for cattle buildings, animals aswell as staff must be paid regard to. Cli-matic requirements that apply for thewhole year for temperature, air humid-ity, etc. cannot be established as abso-lute requirements. Instead they must beestablished as climatic requirements forthe winter climate (temperature, air

humidity and degree of pollution) andmaximum requirements for ventilationduring summer. The regulation of theamount of ventilating air between twoextreme ends must ensure that the cli-mate is kept within acceptable limits.

Generally, cattle are very climate toler-ant. Production traits of dairy cattle areonly influenced very little by tempera-tures from -15°C and up to +25°C. Mostof the year the housing climate require-ments of dairy cows are met by a com-bination of the typical Danish climateand the application of farm buildingsthat provide shelter from sun, wind andrain.

The thermoregulation of cattle (theirability to adapt to the climatic condi-tions) will compensate for tempera-tures beyond the range of -15°C and+25°C. In consequence, cows will in-crease feed intake and develop morefur when it is cold and reduce feed in-take as well as supply a reduced milkyield and/or beef production when it iswarm.

5.2.1 TemperatureCattle can easily stand temperature fluc-tuations between -20°C and +30°C. How-ever, the temperature in Denmark ishardly ever beyond this interval. Thusthere are no particular minimum re-quirements for cattle building tempera-tures in Denmark. Therefore, to ensure agood housing climate, a high degree ofair change is recommended as well askeeping the temperature as low as pos-sible during frost-free periods. Full-pro-duction animals can very easily standsubzero temperatures as long as condi-tions are dry and draught can be avoid-ed. However, sick animals have difficul-ties in standing low temperature.

Draught may arise in housings with ahigh wind speed in the areas wherecattle stay. The result of the wind su-percooling, e.g. an outdoor tempera-ture of 0°C and a wind speed of thewind that enters the farm housing of11 m/s, will by humans be perceived asa cooling that corresponds to stayingoutdoor at -16°C.

47

Housing climate


Climaticrequirements

5.2.2 Air humidityThe ratio of water vapour in air is nor-mally expressed in percentage relativehumidity (% RH). It is very rare that theair humidity will influence the well-being of cows in Denmark.

High relative air humidity is usual, ifthe farm building air is extremely pol-luted due to a low air change. This mayfurther the development and spreadingof environmental bacteria.

High relative air humidity requires higheramounts of litter, as it is difficult to keepthe litter dry. Moist housing surfaces willresult in a shorter life of the buildings orincreased costs of maintenance.

5.2.3 Wind speedFrom experience it is known that thewind speed in the part of the housingwhere cattle stay should not exceed 0.2– 0.5 m/s. If this happens the ambient airtemperature may result in an increasedcooling of the surface temperature ofthe animal. This is the simple definitionof draught. At the same time this meansthat higher air velocities than theabove-stated 0.2 – 0.5 m/s during per-iods of higher ambient air temperaturesmight be perceived positively by cattle.In this situation the increased windspeed will result in a desired cooling ofthe surface temperature of cattle.

5.2.4 PrecipitationPrecipitation e.g. in the form of snowand heavy shower should not occur inthe resting area, as the litter will bemoist and lose its insulation effect. Thusit will be very cold and unhygienic.

5.2.5 GasesCarbon dioxide, ammonia and hydro-gen sulphide will influence the housingclimate. The amount of these gases inthe housing air should be as low as pos-sible. According to CIGR-1984 the ani-mal welfare will be affected if the con-centrate of these gases exceeds thenumbers stated in table 5.1.

5.2.6 DustDust comes partly from cattle, litter,manure remains and from the feed.The content of dust in the air should beas low as possible. However, dust in thehousing air is normally not a problemfor cattle.

The limit value of total dust is 3 mg/m3 airfor staffs that work eight hours per day.

5.2.7 LightWell-lit farm buildings will influencecattle directly as indirectly. This is dueto the fact that the length of the day(also the one established by artificiallight) is the outer stimulant, which bymeans of hormones controls/synchro-nises the sexual behaviour and repro-duction of cattle.

For dairy cattle a lighting system is rec-ommended that changes betweenthree levels: working light, orientationlight and/or night light.

Illumination is dimensioned accordingto table 5.2. The numbers of the tableare calculated on the basis of the as-sumption that lighting fittings areclean and that floors, walls and ceilingsof the room reflect light to some de-gree. If the inside surfaces of the farmbuilding and the lighting fittings arevery dirty the lighting effect will be re-duced (Anonym, 1997).

It is recommended that animals duringthe winter term should have abouteight hours without light during nightand an artificial day length of about 16hours with working light.

Orientation light is recommended dur-ing the whole resting period in hous-ings with reduced feeding area and inconnection with automatic milking sys-tems (AMS).

Night light (light to distinguish) duringthe resting period is recommended toreduce the risk of teat damage and un-wanted unrest during nightly inspec-tion visits.

Gas Instr., max. concen-trations according to CIGR

Carbon dioxide, CO21) 3,000 ppm

Ammonia, NH3 20 ppm

Hydrogen sulphide, H2S 0.5 ppm

1) CO2 should preferably be under 1,000 ppm

in well-ventilated housing.

Source: Anonym, 1984.

Table 5.1. Recommendations for maxi-mum accepted gas concentrations.

Chapter 5


5.2.8 SoundCattle’s limit for acceptable noise levelis unknown. However, when designingceilings, especially in connection withthe milking areas and service rooms,the farmer should aim at creating anacoustically pleasant environment, assudden high sounds in certain parts ofthe farm housing will be unpleasant forboth cattle and staff. As a consequence,they may be stressed.

5.3 Building insulationBuilding insulation is applied in thoseparts of the housing that must be frost-free and, if necessary, heated. This maye.g. be the service or the milk storageroom. The insulation of the rest of theconstructions only serves the purposeof avoiding condensed water.

5.3.1 Insulated buildingsRecommendations• From a farm building climatic point

of view cattle do not make specialdemands on the degree of insula-tion.

• The function and maintenance ofthe building as well as the staffworking conditions should form thebasis of the choice of insulated con-struction

• The constructions must be carriedout in such a way that condensedwater does not occur on the insidebuilding surfaces

• Normally, the bedding of littered cu-bicles needs no insulation out ofconsideration for cattle

• Farm buildings with a temperatureof 10 – 15°C and a relatively high airhumidity would, if the outer floorarea is a cubicle, benefit from an ef-

fective edge insulation in the frontpart of the cubicle or foundation.

5.3.2 Uninsulated buildingsRecommendationsUninsulated farm buildings are only tobe recommended in connection withloose housing systems. However, insula-tion and heating should be establishedin the milking area to keep it frost-free.

In order to prevent condensed waterfrom dripping from the roof surfaces,roof materials of a certain porousnessor constructions that lead the con-densed water to the outer side of theroof surface should be applied. More-over, drinking water supply systemsshould be frost-proof.

Background and motivationThe climate of uninsulated farm build-ings cannot really be controlled, andthus the temperature will follow theoutdoor temperature changes. More-over, the farm building air will bemoister than the outdoor air.

Therefore uninsulated housing cannever be kept completely condensation-free. Especially, cold, calm winter nightswill make the roof surface radiate up-going heat. This means that the roofsurface will turn colder than the air andhence condensed water occurs. Con-densed water will, especially, occur inconnection with sheet metal roofs aswell as climatic changes from frosty towarm weather or the other way around.

5.4 VentilationToday new cattle houses are normallyuninsulated and with natural ventila-

Table 5.2. Recommendations for illumination, lux (Danish standard = DS 700).

Working light, lux Orientation light, lux Night light, luxFeed alleys 100 25 5

Rung alley, (tied-up housing) 100 25 5

Resting area 100 25 5

Holding area 100 - -

Milking parlour and milk storage room 200 - -

Treatment and calving pens 200 25 5

Service room 100 - -

Orientation/night light is recommended during night hours. The illumination should not vary more

than 50%.

49

Housing climate


Ventilation

Weight kg/animal No. of hpu/animal

Calves, 0-6 months

50 0.12

75 0.18

100 0.23

Beef cattle, 6-15 months

200 0.42

300 0.58

400 0.72

500 0.86

Rearers, 6-15 months

200 0.37

300 0.52

400 0.65

First calvers/dry cows (1 month before calving)

400 0.72

500 0.80

600 0.88

Dairy cows

(20 kg, 4% milk/day, 3 mth. aft. insemination)

400 1.08

500 1.16

600 1.24

Source: Morsing, 1999.

Table 5.3. Heat production units (hpu) fordifferent age groups and production lev-els.

Drift height, m. Insulated Insulated deep litter Uninsulated Uninsulated deep litter3 1,600 1,800 2,200 2,700

4 1,300 1,600 1,900 2,300

5 1,200 1,400 1,700 2,100

6 1,100 1,300 1,500 1,900

7 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,700

8 1,000 1,100 1,300 1,600

Source: Morsing, 1999.

Table 5.4. Ventilation area in cm2/hpu in connection with different housing types. The areamust be available both in connection with air inlet and outlet.

tion. Mechanical ventilation is appliedin old insulated farm housings, in spe-cial houses for beef calves with a highweight gain and heat production, andin tied-up housing systems. Cattle inloose housing systems can to a certainextent avoid areas with draught duringchanging climate conditions. However,this is not the case for cows in cubicles.

5.4.1 Natural ventilationNatural ventilation is partly based onthermal buoyancy and wind effects/winddrift. The thermal buoyancy is welldefined and depends on the differencesin temperature between air in thehousing and outdoor air as well as thedifference in height between air inletand air outlet (the drift height). How-ever, the wind effect is unpredictableand it varies considerably.

The concept “open housing systems”covers naturally ventilated housing sys-tems, which are simply roofed buildingswith outdoor climate. This system onlyserves the purpose of sheltering cattlefrom precipitation.

5.4.2 Dimensioning of naturalventilationRecommendationsIn order to ensure sufficient minimumventilation in calm weather, large ven-tilation areas must be established.

Tables 5.3 and 5.4 state the dimensionsof the heat production and the ventila-tion area based on the number of ani-mals per group, age and productionlevel as well as the drift height of thehousing. This area should be availablein connection with air inlet and outlet(Morsing, 1999).

In table 5.3 the number of cattle ofeach group is converted into heat pro-duction units (hpu).

Table 5.4 lists the ventilation area nec-essary in different housing systems, in-sulated as uninsulated with naturalventilation. The drift height is the dis-

Chapter 5


Figure 5.1.

Air dispersion in

housing in which the

sticking effect has

been optimum uti-

lised in connection

with air inlet at the

upper part of the

wall placed directly

against an inner

roof carried out as

an overhang. NB!

Avoid projecting,

shelter-providing

wooden purlins – or

curtain sidewalls

under the roof – as

they will most cer-

tainly ruin the stick-

ing effect.

Figure 5.2.

Wind speed in full

open-wall housings

with a wind effect

of 10 m/s (measured

at 10 metres height)

across the housing.

Figure 5.3.

Air velocities of a

corresponding hous-

ing under the same

conditions as in

figure 5.2. However,

in this case the hous-

ing is provided with

a sidewall of 1.5

metres.

Figure 5.4.

Wind speed of a

housing that cor-

responds to figure

5.3. The open part

of the wall has been

covered with a

wind-breaking

covering.

51

Housing climate


Ventilationtance measured from the air outlet inthe roof ridge to the middle of the airinlet in the sidewalls of the building.

Typically the air outlet is placed in theridge of the roof, but never quite atthe gable end. Air outlet should not beestablished in the last bay before thegable end or approx. four metres with-in the inside gable end/partition walls.This is recommended to avoid cold airintake in the animal resting area neargables/partition walls.

The basis of the dimensioning of venti-lation openings in farm buildings with-out drift height (i.e. housing systemswith a small roof slope and very limitedopenings in the roof ridge) is still underdevelopment.

The manure mat of deep litter housingsystems emits large amounts of aqueousvapour and carbon dioxide, which resultsin increased ventilation need. Table 5.4.shows that the dimensioning of ventila-tion areas of deep litter farm buildings isapprox. 30% larger than ventilation areasof building systems without deep litter.

Background and motivationIt is an advantage that the air inlet ofinsulated farm housings can be adjust-ed to approx. 10% of the area dimen-sions of table 5.4. during cold periods.It should thus be possible to keep thefarm building frost-free. Often adjust-ment of air inlets is not necessary orpractically possible in uninsulated hous-ing systems. The fact that uninsulatedfarm buildings cannot be 100% frost-free anyhow should be accepted.

If the air inlets are designed as shownin figure 5.1, it is possible to utilise asticking effect created against the in-side roof surface as long as the air istaken in along a flat inside roof. Thiseffect can only be achieved in uninsu-

lated housing systems if the first two tothree metres of the ceiling are made asan insulated and covered inside roof.

Totally open housings without wallsrun the risk of too high air velocities inthe areas where cattle stay. Figure 5.2shows an example of air velocities thatmay occur in totally open cattle build-ings with a traverse wind force of 10 m/smeasured at a height of 10 metres.

If the ventilation openings are reducedby a 1.5 metre high wall, the conditionswill be changed considerably at thesame wind force. This is evident fromfigure 5.3.

Further shelter could be provided bymounting wind-breaking covering inthe open part of the walls. This isshown in figure 5.4.

The covering could e.g. be wind-break-ing plastic nets, perforated steel plates,slot-shaped gill slits or space boarding.If a wind-breaking material with toobig holes is chosen, heavy shower mayenter the farm building and perhapsthe resting areas.

When a wind-breaking covering is cho-sen, the open area is reduced depend-ing on the qualities of the material. Thesize of the ventilation area, calculatedaccording to table 5.4, must be in-creased, correspondingly, to obtain asufficient ventilation.

Wind-breaking coverings must be keptintact and the opening degree shouldbe the same as when mounted. Con-densation humidity and airborne dustmay fasten to the covering and reducethe opening area and hence the cover-ing material must stand cleaning. Expe-rience shows that space boarding andperforated steel plates stand this treat-ment.

Chapter 5


5.5 Literature

5.5.1 SourcesAnonym. 1984. Climatization of Animal Houses,

rapport fra CIGR-arbejdsgruppe. Scottish Farm

Buildings Investigation Unit. Aberdeen, Skotland.

72 pp.

Anonym. 1997. DS 700. Dansk Standard. 2 pp.

Morsing S., Zhang G. og Strøm J. S. 1999. Naturlig

ventilation af stalde: Dimensionering, Grøn Vi-

den nr. 13. Danmarks JordbrugsForskning, Fors-

kningscenter Bygholm. 6 pp.

Valbjørn O. et. al. 1995. Indeklimahåndbogen.

SBI-Anvisning 182. Statens Byggeforskningsinsti-

tut Del 1, 17-28 p.

5.5.2 Supplementary literatureAnonym. 1992. Climatization of Animal Houses,

II, rapport fra CIGR-arbejdsgruppe. Centre for

Climatization of Animal Houses, University of

Gent, Belgien. 147 pp.

Anonym. 1994. Aerial Environment in Animal

Housing, rapport fra CIGR-arbejdsgruppe.

Groupement de Pennes. Rennes, Frankrig. 16 pp.

Anonym. 1995. Indretning af stalde til kvæg -

Danske anbefalinger, 2. udgave. Landbrugets

Rådgivningscenter. 192 pp.

Eskholm, T., Korsholm, K., Pedersen S. og Peder-

sen N. 1998. Klimateknik - i landbruget. Land-

brugets Rådgivningscenter, Landbrugsforlaget

Skejby. ISBN: 87 74 70 684 5. 152 pp.

Hansen, K. 1991. Løsdriftstalde med dybstrøelse

til malkekøer, Orientering nr. 75. Statens Jord-

brugstekniske forsøg. 42 pp.

Strøm J.S.,1999. Åbne stalde, Grøn Viden nr. 16.

Danmarks JordbrugsForskning, Forskningscenter

Bygholm. 6 pp.

Strøm J.S. Morsing S. og Zhang G. 2000. Vind-

brydende beklædning af vægåbninger i naturligt

ventilerede stalde, Grøn Viden nr. 17. Danmarks

JordbrugsForskning. 6 pp.

53

Housing climate


Literature

Chapter 6


Selection of equipment and materials

Equipment, walking alleys and drinkingwater system must be designed in suchways that they meet the needs ofcattle. The most suitable materials forthe given purposes must be applied.

Since 1994 it has been a legislative re-quirement in Denmark that an equipo-tential bonding (supplementary equi-potential connection) must be estab-lished to protect the cattle when build-ing cattle housing systems. It is extre-mely important that this equipotentialbonding is carried out correctly as po-tential differences between the differ-ent building parts may cause stressamong cattle.

6.1 EquipmentDefinitionThe primary purpose of farm equip-ment is to design and demarcate theareas where cattle are kept. The termequipment covers cubicle partitions,gates, pen partitions, feeding racks,troughs, neck rails, front rails, brisketboards, watering cups and watertroughs, distance rails as well as milkingparlour/holding area equipment.

DesignThe equipment must be designed insuch a way that animals can maintain aconsiderable degree of welfare withoutrunning the risk of being hurt.

Moreover, the equipment should en-able animals to place themselves innatural positions when drinking, eat-ing, exercising or resting. The equip-ment design should not lead to tearingoff of ear tags, transponders or thelike. Finally, the equipment designshould not cause any openings in whichanimals can get stuck.

RecommendationsAngles of less than 90° should be avoi-ded as well as narrow cracks in connec-tion with joints. Bolts and screw headsshould be countersunk or in some otherway “hidden”. Concrete must be castaround the posts in order to keep thepost clean and dry. The surfaces of allthe equipment should be smooth androunded off. Thus only small amounts

of dust, dirt and moist will be deposi-ted. Moreover, equipment with smoothand rounded surfaces is easy to clean.

6.2 FloorsFloors must stand the occurring me-chanical and chemical loads and mustadditionally be moist-resistant – in caseof outdoor facilities, the floor must alsobe frost-resistant.

6.2.1 Recommendations for solidfloorsSurface conditions as regards solidfloorsWalking areas must be slip resistantand the surface must be as gentle tocattle as possible. Slippery floors maycause cattle to fall and lead to subse-quent injuries. Rough floors may resultin knee and leg injuries as well as worn-down hoofs.

The bedding area must both be slip re-sistant and dry. A dry bedding area canbe obtained by means of an appropri-ate downward slope and a smallamount of litter or a slopeless beddingarea with a large amount of litter.

In this way it is possible for cattle toemit heat and moist from their skin andalso from the parts of the body thattouches the bedding. If the contact sur-face is both humid and warm, the riskof pressure injuries and sores increases(for further information, please seechapter 9 concerning cubicles and deeplitter for dairy cows, and chapter 8about cubicles and deep litter foryoung stock).

Walking alleys with solid concretefloors must be established withbroomed or profiled slip resistant sur-faces. Different profiling examples aredepicted in figure 6.1. Moreover, thepurpose of profiled surfaces is to leadfluids from floor to drain, so the floor iskept as dry as possible. If other materi-als are applied brooming and profilingmay be omitted, if the material is slipresistant. This material may e.g. be hotrolled asphalt.

55

Selection ofequipment and

materials


Figure 6.1.

Different profiling

examples of walking

alleys with solid con-

crete floor.

FloorsNew concrete floors may be so roughthat they cause an extremely harshhoof wear as well as hair and skin wearoff on hocks and knees. Thus walkingalleys must be coated before the hous-ing is taken into use. This may e.g. bedone by applying an asphalt product tothe floor, which is sprinkled with saw-dust while it is still wet. Some asphaltproducts contain cork or rubber granu-late, however, sawdust should still beapplied.

Concrete in front of trough elementsmay with advantage be protectedagainst erosion. If the trough bottom ismade of concrete, the farmer shouldchoose a strong concrete type, which istight and intended for an aggressiveenvironment.

Milking centre floorsThe floor of the operator pit/milkingalley and milk storage room must beequipped with a coating which canstand mechanic and chemical loads. Thecoating may e.g. be oblong floortiles orflags of polyester concrete, epoxy, hotrolled asphalt or the like. The space be-tween floor and wall should be pro-tected against moist penetration, e.g.by pointing an acid-proof joint sealantor by coating the surfaces with an acid-proof product.

The concrete floor of the operator pit/milking alley is very hard and loadingfor the milker to walk on. Thus it is rec-ommended to apply an elastic grid ormat for the milker to stand on whilemilking. The grid may be adjustable toprovide the milker with the optimumworking height and it should be madeof acid-proof materials, e.g. plastic andacid-proof stainless steel.

It should be easy to clean under thegrid. The floor under the grid could e.g.be built with a 10% slope towards anopen centre drain, which channels li-quid to a pump sump or by means of awater trap to another pump well.

The milking stall floor must be slip re-sistant and the surface should be asgentle as possible to the cow’s legs.Concrete floors must be coated e.g.with an epoxy product to which sand isadded. If other slip resistant materialsare applied, the coating may be omit-ted. Thus hot rolled asphalt must notbe coated.

The stall floor should slope 2% towardsa drain away from the edge of the ope-rator pit. The drain must be cleaned af-ter each milking and it is a good idea tokeep it open.

Other coatings than the ones men-tioned in this section may be applied ifthey stand mechanical and chemical ef-fects.

Strength and tightness in connectionwith solid floorsFloors should stand loads of animal, hu-man and machine.

Chapter 6


Moreover, the floors should be made ofa durable material, which is not easilypenetrated by moist.

Normally, the requirements for floorconstruction as well as the tightnessand strength of slurry and manurechannels are met, if the construction iscarried out as stated in “LandbrugetsByggeblade” (technical construction in-structions) issued by the Danish Agricul-tural Advisory Centre.

6.2.2 Recommendations for slattedfloorsSlatted floor serves the purpose ofmaintaining a clean and dry floor. Itshould be designed in such a way thatthe hoof and legs are not injured whencattle tread the manure, urine, litterand feed remains through the slots.

It is recommended that slatted floorelements are coated with an asphaltproduct and sprinkled with sawdust,while the asphalt is still wet, and be-fore the slatted floor is taken into use.

The slot may with advantage lead allthe way to the rear kerb of the cubi-cles. Thus manure is prevented fromgathering.

Walking surfaces and tolerancesThe completed slatted floor must havea plane walking surface as well asrounded off edges and each slattedfloor element must be floored steadily.

The floor surface of the elements mustbe protective and slip resistant for ani-mal and man. Slatted floors with nar-row walking surfaces are easiest toclean while wide walking surfaces pro-mote hoof and leg health. In practise alighting percentage of 20 – 30% of theslatted floor has proven appropriate.Table 6.1 lists the recommended walk-ing surface and slot dimensions in con-nection with slatted concrete floors.

The difference in level between eachslatted floor element, which lies next toeach other, should not be more thanthree millimetres. The slots should notvary more than +/- 10%, however, theyshould not vary more than +/- 3 milli-metres. This is also the case for slotsthat appear between slatted floor ele-ments. Prior to delivery from factoryburrs and sharp edges must be re-moved, if any. For information aboutthe dimensioning background of con-crete slatted floor elements, please con-sult “Landbrugets Byggeblade“ (techni-cal construction instructions): “Productrequirements for concrete slatted floorelements” (Anonym, 1999a).

For further information, please consultDSK – Dansk SpaltegulvsKontrol (Ano-nym, 1999a), a Danish slatted floor con-trol body, which attempts to ensure ahigh level of quality of concrete slattedfloor bars/elements. Figure 6.2 depictsan example of a “Dansk Spaltegulvs-Kontrol” label.

6.3 Drinking water supply andallocationTable 6.2. states in which way wateringcups should be placed and the numberof cattle recommended per metrewater trough.

RecommendationsTied-up housing, treatment pens, calv-ing pens and pens in general:

It is recommended to mount one water-ing cup per animal in tied-up housingsystems. If a cup unintentionally ceasesto provide water, the cow is able todrink of the neighbouring cup.

Figure 6.2.

Example of a “Dansk

SpaltegulvsKontrol”

label.

Table 6.1. Recommended walking surfaceand slot dimensions in connection withslatted floors.

Walking surface Slot,width, mm mm

Calves 80 20

100 25

Young stock 100 30

and beef cattle 120 35

Cows 120 35

140 40

57


materials


Drinking watersupply andallocation

Pens must provide two drinking oppor-tunities and thus at least two wateringcups. The cups can e.g. be mounted inthe divisions between two pens allow-ing cows from both pens to drink fromthem.

The dimensioning of water supply inconnection with watering cups must al-low a water yield of minimum 10 litresper minute/cup when 20% of the herddrinks at the same time.

A watering cup should have an open-ing of at least 0.06 m2, approx. 30 centi-metres in diameter, or a similar open-ing size. A flat and wide watering cupis preferred. However, the cup must beso deep that the cow can keep thewhole muzzle three to four centimetresunder the water when it drinks. Itshould not be possible to empty water-ing cups for calves completely.

Loose housing systemsIt is recommended to apply watertroughs instead of watering cups inloose housing systems. There must al-ways be two water troughs per groupof animals. Thus the drinking opportu-nities of low-ranking cows are good.

Each water trough should be able tohold 200 – 300 litres of water and thewater supply should be at least 10 litresper minute.

The volume of water troughs can be re-duced to about 100 litres if the installa-tion of water is dimensioned accordingto a volume flow of 15 – 20 litres perminute.

Location of watering cups and watertroughsWatering cup:The watering cup is placed above thetrough or feeding area in pen parti-tions preventing water from beingspilled on the resting area. The heightabove floor of watering cups in connec-tion with different groups of animals, isstated in table 6.2, and the number ofanimals allowed per cup is also stated.

Water troughs:Water troughs are placed ideally incrossovers or at the feeding area inconnection with the feeding rack. Freespace should be provided around thedrinking place allowing other cows topass the drinking cows. Table 6.2 liststhe recommendations concerning theplacement and free space around adrinking place. The water troughsshould be 0.2 – 0.3 metre deep.

In order to minimise the amount of ma-nure in the water, water troughs/cupsshould be placed on a landing, de-picted in figure 6.3, as cattle will neverascend a platform with its hind legs.Another solution could be to mountdistance rails as shown in figure 6.4.However, this solution does not totallyprevent water pollution.

Table 6.2 lists the recommended dimen-sions for landings on which cows standwith their forelegs while they drink. Al-ternatively the landing can be 0.3 me-tre broad only, and thus cows are notable to stand on it while drinking. Thislanding also prevents cows from defe-cating in the water troughs. The above-mentioned landing may be replaced bya distance/guard rail as depicted in

Table 6.2. Drinking place design.

Animal weight, from kg 100 200 300 400 500 600 700Watering cup upper edge max. height

above standing place, m 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7

Number of animals per watering cup 10 10 8 8 6 6 6

Number of animals per metre water trough 20 17 13 12 11 10 10

Water trough upper edge height

above standing place, max., m 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9

Landing width, m

(from water trough edge to landing edge towards alley) 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5

Landing height, m 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20

Chapter 6


figure 6.4. The platform height is statedin table 6.2.

Types of water supplyIt is recommended that the main of thewater supply is ring-connected and thatthe water is under a constant pressure.The water of water troughs/cups is sup-plied by the main via a short servicepipe. This will make sure that fresh wa-ter is always supplied.

It is not recommended that watertroughs are directly connected, as dirtywater will be led from one watertrough to the next.

Frost controlEvery water supply plant of the farmhousing must be frost-proof. A watermain can be frost-proof by mounting acirculation pump and perhaps an elec-tric heating cartridge element in thewater plant.

HygieneDirt in the form of manure, urine andfeed remains cannot be avoided in wa-ter troughs and watering cups. Thuswater trough and cup should be de-signed in a way that as little dirt as pos-sible is collected. Moreover, the designshould facilitate cleaning. A big drainmay e.g. be mounted in the watertrough or it should be possible to tiltout all the water at the same time. Awater trough with rounded off bottomand sides is easier to clean than a watertrough with sharp edges/corners.

General informationIt should be possible to water cattle ifthe normal water supply fails. Waterfrom water troughs as watering cupsshould be prevented from returning tothe water main installation.

It is recommended to apply water me-ters and filters (to remove dirt) to thesupply mains of each farm section. Thewater meter allows the farmer to regis-ter the water consumption continuous-ly and thus he will be able to detect awaste of water quickly, if any.

It is recommended periodically to checkup on the water consumption by regis-tering the daily consumption.

The design of water troughs and cupsshould prevent cattle from gettinghurt.

Background and motivationAbundant drinking water of a highquality is crucial for the milk yield andhealth of cattle. High-performancecows drink up to 100 litres of water perday and night.

It is difficult to avoid manure and urinecompletely in water troughs and cupsof loose housing systems. Besides theywill get dirty anyway from the feed re-

Figure 6.3.

Water trough design

where the trough

foundation has been

provided with a

landing.

Figure 6.4.

Water trough design

including distance

rails.

59


materials


Equipotentialbonding

mains on cow muzzles. Thus it is neces-sary to clean water troughs and water-ing cups regularly.

If one cup is provided per cow in tied-up housing systems, each cow will havetwo drinking opportunities. Thus if onecup is not working, this will not influ-ence the milk yield negatively.

When the water supply of wateringcups is reduced to less than 7 litres perminute, the drinking frequency as wellas the total drinking time will increase.

In order for cows to carry out their nat-ural drinking (sucking) behaviour theheight of the water surface must allowcows to keep their heads in an angle of60° measured from the water surface(horizontal). The cup opening shouldbe at least 0.06 m².

The cow will assume a natural drinkingposition when the water surface is 0.70– 0.80 metre above the bedding (de-pendent on the breed). If neck rails areapplied in connection with the watersupply, e.g. in tied-up housing systems,it may be necessary to reduce theheight to avoid that the rail disturbscows when they drink.

If two cows must share a watering cup,e.g. in tied-up housing, there is a riskthat the lowest-ranking cow will drinkless water than the dominating cow,and thus the milk yield will decline ac-cordingly.

6.4 Materials6.4.1 Choice of materialsFarm equipment must be made of ma-terials that stand loads of cattle, imple-ments, and cleaning. The equipmentloading depends on the function andplacement of the equipment in e.g.milking parlours, alleys, resting areas,in connection with feeding racks, etc.

When choosing materials the durabilityshould be considered as well as main-tenance time and costs. The durabilityof the equipment e.g. depends on thethickness and quality of the material.The equipment must stand the neces-sary cleaning, which varies according tofunction and placement.

Farm equipment can be made of the fol-lowing materials: Steel, stainless steel,concrete, wood, plastic, aluminium, etc.

RecommendationsPosts and steel tubes for feeding racks,cubicles and partitions should have aminimum thickness of four millimetres.The dimensions of finishing compo-nents placed in exposed places and par-ticularly aggressive environments, e.g.the foot of supporting posts, should beextra solid. They could e.g. be made ofa massive material.

6.4.2 Surface treatmentThe surface loading is very heavy in farmenvironments. The chemical environ-ment is relatively aggressive and the me-chanical loading of tools and technicalfacilities is large as is the equipmentwear caused by cattle. Rust and corro-sion of steel equipments reduce thechances of maintaining a good farm en-vironment.

Coating experiments show that differentmethods may to some degree protectequipment as well as cattle. Damagecaused by corrosive attack can be limitedby choosing suitable dimensions and ma-terials as well as a corrosion preventingcoating. A combination of normal steeland stainless steel is an excellent solu-tion, if the stainless steel is applied wherethe risk of corrosive attacks is highest.

RecommendationsCoating must always be carried out ac-cording to the recommended instruc-tions of the product. E.g. coating ofconcrete should not be carried out be-fore the concrete has hardened suffi-ciently. Likewise, the coating must alsoharden sufficiently before the premisesare taken into use. In order to achievethe desired effect, the coating must becarried out carefully.

Possible coatings:• Galvanisation• Coating of synthetic materials:

Epoxy, polyurethane, acrylics• Painting• Farm asphalt.

6.5 Equipotential bondingAccording to the Danish heavy currentRegulation (“Stærkstrømsbekendt-gørelsen”) (Anonym, 1993) equipoten-tial bonding (supplementary equipo-tential connection) must be establishedin all farm buildings. This also appliesto all housings and rooms, with installa-tions, in which feed, litter and manureis handled and stored.

Chapter 6


An installation equipotential connec-tion is a protective conductor, whichensures an equipotential bonding. Theequipotential bonding should preventresistive faults in connection withstrokes of lightning as well as electricinstallation defects and damages. Equi-potential bonding is a part of the totalprotection measures against fault cur-rent and should be compared withfuses and fault circuit-breakers. In prac-tise this means that all electricity con-ducting parts of the housing (equip-ment, gratings, steel rafters, milk pipes,etc.) must be connected to a jointgrounding connection.

RecommendationsEquipotential bonding must be carriedout correctly to protect cattle. A correctequipotential bonding will also elimi-nate potential differences between dif-ferent buildings, which may cause stressamong cattle.

All equipment that has been cast intothe floor, e.g. posts, should be pro-tected against galvanic corrosion in thezone between floor and post.

Figure 6.5 and 6.6 show examples ofequipotential bonding carried out incubicles and a milking parlour.

Background and motivationCattle have a low inner resistance andare able to sense very low amounts ofvoltage and current. Normally, cattlereact to a current intensity of less than5 – 7 milliamperes and a voltage inten-sity of at least 4 – 10 volts.

By connecting all electricity-conductingparts of the housing, the risk of galvan-ic corrosion in the zone between floorand post, if the posts are cast in, in-creases. Thus in order to prevent gal-vanic corrosion this zone must be keptdry. This can e.g. be done by castingconcrete around the posts and apply acollar of e.g. shrink plastics to the post.Alternatively, a circle of at least 15 cen-timetres from the post can be coated aswell as a minimum of 15 centimetres ofthe lowest part of the post. The coatingmay consist of epoxy, farm asphalt orsimilar products.

Figure 6.5.

Example of equipo-

tential bonding in

cubicle housing

system.

61


materials


Figure 6.6

Example of equi-

potential bonding in

milking parlour.

CleaningBy choosing like materials, e.g. galvani-sation of equipment as well as steelrafters, arming and earth cables, therisk of galvanic corrosion may also bereduced.

6.6 CleaningIt should be possible to clean equip-ment thoroughly, which is crucial to thedurability of the product. By maintain-ing a good hygiene in the farm housingthe equipment and building construc-tion elements will last longer.

Cleaning is the most simple and effec-tive way to reduce corrosive attacks ofe.g. the attachment points of equip-ment (eliminate feed remains and ma-nure).

Cleaning must be adjusted to those ani-mals that are kept in the housing. Reg-ularly cleaning will also have a positiveinfluence on the well-being of cattle.

The equipment must stand water, clean-ing agents and disinfectants that arenormally applied and recommended.

The equipment must have a smooth –perhaps tight – surface, which is easyto clean and does not attract moistand dirt. The equipment must standmechanical, high pressure and steamcleaning as well as disinfection, de-pendent on its function and place-ment.

Chapter 6


6.7 Literature

6.7.1 SourcesAnonym. 1993. Stærkstrømsbekendtgørelsen,

elektriske installationer. 1. udg. Elektricitetrådet.

København. ISBN 601-3745-2.

Anonym. 1999a. Landbrugets Rådgivningscenter:

Landbrugets Byggeblade grp. nr. 102.09-21.

Produktkrav for spaltegulvelementer af beton. 6

pp.

Anonym. 1999b. Dansk SpaltegulvsKontrol:

Vedtægter samt øvrige bestemmelser.

6.7.2 Supplementary literatureAndersson, M. 1984. Drinking water supply to

housed dairy cows. Institution för husdjurens ut-

fordring och vård. Sveriges Landbruksuniversität,

123 pp.

Anonym. 1994. The design of dairy cow Housing,

Report of the CIGR section II, working group no.

14. ADAS Bridgets Dairy Research Centre Farm

Buildings Research Team. 56 pp.

Anonym. 1995. Byggeinformation: El-installation-

er i landbrug, potentialudligning. Landbrugets

Rådgivningscenter, Skejby. 7 pp.

Anonym. 1997. Dairy Freestall Housing and

Equipment. 6. udg. MWPS-7. Iowa State Universi-

ty, Ames, Iowa. 136 pp. ISBN 0-89373-087-4.

Beck, J., D. Katzschke, T. Jungbluth, and H. Stein-

gaßß. 2000. Warm versus cold drinking water for

dairy cows - influence on water and feed intake,

performance and behaviour. EurAgEng. Warwick.

Gjestang, K. E. & K. A. Løken. 1980 Friksjons-

forhold på båsgolv av beton og gummi. 161.

Stensiltrykk. Inst. for bygn. teknikk. NLH. Norge.

17 pp.

Groth, W. & H. J. Eischler-Steinhauff. 1978.

Haltungsbedingte Schäden beim Milchvieh. Fort-

schritte der Veterinärmedizin 28:12:34-43.

Olsen, N. O. 1985. Vandinstallationer i kostalde.

SBI-landbrugsbyggeri nr. 65. Statens Byggefors-

kningsinstitut. 50 pp.

Olsen, N. O. 1984. Vandinstallationer til malke-

koen - betydning og løsninger. 588. Beret. Stat-

ens Husdyrbrugsforsøg. 194-210 pp.

Reinemann, D. J., S. D. LeMire, M. D. Rasmussen,

M. C. Wiltbank, & L.G. Sheffield. 1999. Compari-

son of behavioural and physiological response to

electrical shock in lactating dairy cows. ASAE pa-

per no. 993154. American Society of Agicultural

Engineers, ST. Joseph, MI, USA. 23 pp.

Rosengren, B. og A. M. Sundahl. 1991. Drickvat-

tentilldeling Till Mjölkkor, LBT Specialmedde-

lande 186. Sveriges Lantbrugsuniversitet.

Sundahl, A. M. 1988. Förvärmning av Dricksvat-

ten till Mjölkkor. LBT Specialmeddelande 164.

Sveriges Lantbrugsuniversitet.

Weeb, N. G. & C. Nilsson. 1983. Flooring and inju-

ry - an overview. In: Baxter, S.H., M. R. Baxter & J.

A. C. MacCormack (eds.) Farm animal housing

and welfare. Nijhoff. 200-214 pp.

63


materials


Literature

Chapter 7


Calving section – sucking calfs

Figure 7.1.

Commodious and

straw-littered calv-

ing pen which can

easily be accessed.

Table 7.1.

Calving pen dimensionsArea, min., m2 10.0

Pen width and length, min., m 3.0

Pen side height, min., m 1.3

7.1 CalvingCalvings should take place in calvingpens at a place that the staff passes fre-quently during the day. Thus the staffwill have a good contact with the otherpart of the herd and at the same timethey can easily look after cow and calf.It is recommended that calf and coware kept together alone the first 24hours after the birth. The calving penmust be clean and freshly littered priorto each calving.

The cow should not be tethered in thecalving pen, as it should be able tomove around naturally during the calv-ing and lick the calf when its born. Incase of para-tuberculosis or salmonellaon the farm, the calf must be removedfrom the calving pen as quickly as possi-ble after calving.

Even though cow and calf stay togetherafter calving it is necessary to checkthat the calf quickly suckles colostrumand it may also be necessary to help itfind the teats. In joint calving pens

there is a risk that the new-born calfsuckles from other cows than its mot-her. Thus the farmer should make surethat each calf receives enough colos-trum from its mother as soon as possi-ble and within 6 hours after calving.

7.1.1 Calving penOne calving pen is recommended per30 cows at even calving intervals. Table7.1 lists the calving pen dimensions.

If down-calving cows are kept in jointpens, 8 m2 per cow is recommended. Itshould be possible to isolate an area of10 m2 for the calving. Moreover, a calfshed should be established (see figure

65

Calving section– sucking calfs


Calving10.1, chapter 10). This enables the calfto stay and rest on its own withoutbeing disturbed by the other cows.

SeparationPartition walls should be built as anopen construction with a maximum of10 centimetres between the verticalbars. It should be possible to removethe partition walls in case of emergen-cies. There should be a gate or a man-hole in each pen, which allow personsto enter the calving pen. Figure 7.1. de-picts a calving pen.

Feeding rackThe feeding rack should prevent calvesfrom getting out of the pen and at thesame time allow cows to eat and drink.It should be possible to move a cowthat is lying down to or from the penthrough a front gate. Moreover, itshould be possible to fix cows in thecalving pen.

FloorThe pen floor must be slip resistant andeach pen should include an indepen-dent drain. Thus the calving pens canbe cleaned individually. Moreover, thepens must always contain fresh litter.Sand bedding under the litter makesthe floor particularly slip resistant andthis deformable sand bedding will beeven more comfortable for cows to lieon. A minimum of 30 centimetre sandmust be applied.

Feeding areaThe same as in the rest of the housingsystem.

Drinking waterPlease see section 6.3 in chapter 6.

MilkingIt should always be possible to milkcows in the calving section/pen.

LightThe calving pens should always be welllit (200 lux).

Background and motivationBehaviourCalves need to lie on dry bedding andthey should not be disturbed by othercows (new-born calves lie down 16 – 18hours per 24 hours). The calf needsphysical contact with its mother. Thecow has a great need to lick its new-born calf (Edwards and Broom, 1982).

The licking of the calf stimulates itssenses and motor apparatus to activatethemselves quickly and the suckling ac-tivity has a positive effect on the after-birth expulsion (Edwards, 1982).

The urge of the cow to lick the calf maycause stress, if she can see and hear thecalf, but is prevented from getting at it(Michanek, 1994).

“Cross suckling” means that a calf suck-les from another cow than its mother.This behaviour occurs relatively fre-quently in joint calving pens, especiallyamong first calvers. Thus there is an in-creased risk that the calf may not suckleenough colostrum (Michanek, 1994).

If the mother-calf bonding, which is es-tablished through visual and physicalcontact during the first 24 hours afterthe calving, is severed after four to fivedays it will strain the cow more thanthe calf (Krohn, Jonasen & Munks-gaard, 1990).

During the first week after the birththe calf suckles milk 5 – 8 times per day(Krohn and Madsen, 1985). Moreover,calves almost never eat solid feed dur-ing the first week (Swanson and Harris,1958).

HealthCalves are born without any antibodiesto protect them from infectious diseas-es. Colostrum contains antibodies. Thusthe calf depends totally on its ability tosuckle colostrum quickly after its birthespecially as the intestinal wall is onlyable to absorb colostrum antibodiesduring the first 24 hours after the calf isborn (Blom & Jensen, 1996).

The power of resistance of calves is in-fluenced by the following conditions:• The physical contact between calf

and cow during the first 24 hours af-ter the birth influences the ability ofthe intestine to absorb antibodiesfrom the colostrum positively(Selman et al., 1971a and 1971b)

• It is no guarantee that calves thatare kept in pens together with theirmothers suckle colostrum within thefirst six hours of their lives. This mayespecially be difficult for the calf ifthe cow is nervous or the udderhangs very low (Edwards, 1982;Selman et al., 1970; Broom, 1983)

Chapter 7


• An optimum immunity is achieved ifcow and calf are kept together thefirst couple of days after the birth,and if the first colostrum is suppliedmanually (e.g. by means of feedingbottle) within the first six hours ofthe calf’s life (Blom et al., 1984).

Other circumstancesThe following practical circumstancesmust be considered:• It should be possible to apply straw

litter regardless of the type of pen.It is not recommended to apply

wood shavings and sawdust to calv-ing pens

• Calving pens should be easy to ac-cess in case that any type of first aidis needed

• The placing of calving pens shouldfacilitate optimum supervision

• It is not allowed to keep sick or in-jured cows in calving pens becauseof the danger of infection

• A wash basin and boot wash mustbe established close to the calvingpen allowing people to wash handsand boots before entering the pen.

67

Calving section– sucking calfs


Literature7.2 Literature

7.2.1 SourcesBlom, J.Y & Jensen, A.M. 1996. Sundhed og syg-

dom hos kvæg.

Blom, J.Y., Thysen, I., Østergaard, V. & Møller, F.

1984. Kalvens sundhed og tilvækst i relation til

staldklima, jern- og immunstatus samt syg-

domsbehandling. 570. Beret. fra Statens Husdyr-

brugsforsøg, 108 pp.

Broom, D.M. 1983. Cow-calf and sow-piglet be-

haviour in relation to colostrum ingestion. Ann.

Rech. Vet. 14 (4), 342-348.

Edwards, S.A. 1982. Factors affecting the time to

first suckling in dairy calves. Anim. Prod. 34: 339-

346.

Edwards, S.A. & Broom, D.M. 1982. Behavioural

interactions of dairy cows with their newborn

calves and the effects of parity. Anim. Behav. 30:

525-535

Krohn, C.C. & Madsen, K. 1985. Undersøgelser

vedrørende ko-kalv samspil. Medd. nr. 586 fra

Statens Husdyrbrugsforsøg.

Krohn, C.C., Jonasen, B. & Munksgaard, L. 1990.

Undersøgelser vedr. ko-kalv samspil. 678. Beret.

fra Statens Husdyrbrugsforsøg.

Michanek, P. 1994. Transfer of Colostral Immu-

noglobulin to Newborn Dairy Calves. JBT Report

90, Lund.

Selman, I.E., McEwan, A.D. & Fisher, E.W. 1971a.

Absorption of immune Lactoglobulin by New-

born Dairy Calves. Res. Vet. Sci. 12: 205-210.

Selman, I.E., McEwan, A.D. & Fisher, E.W. 1971b.

Studies on Dairy Calves Allowed to Suckle their

Dams at Fixed Times post partum. Res. vet. Sci.

12: 1-6.

Selman, I.E., McEwan, A.D. & Fisher, E.W. 1970.

Studies on natural suckling in cattle during the

first eight hours post partum II. Behavioural stud-

ies (calves). Anim. Behav. 18, 284-289.

Swanson, E.W. & Harris, J.D. 1958. Development

of rumination in the young calf. J. Dairy Sci. 41:

1768-1776.

Chapter 8


Calves and young stock

From cattle are born until they are sixmonths old they are called calves. Maleanimals are from the age of six monthsuntil slaughter or until they are usedfor breeding purposes called bulls.Male animals used for breeding pur-poses are called breeding bulls. Femaleanimals from the age of six months un-til they have calved the first time arecalled heifers. Young stock is a jointterm for male and female cattle fromthe age of six months until slaughter orcalving.

Some housing systems are more suit-able for calves and others for youngstock, while others may very well beused during the whole rearing period.

Calves may be housed separately or injoint pens including littered resting areas.Young stock may be housed in joint penswith littered resting area or in cubicles.

When calves stop drinking colostrumthey should be placed in joint pens.Calves are only allowed to be housedseparately until they are eight weeks

old. They should be able to see andhear other calves. Thus single pensmust have open or partly open sidesand the sides of the outdoor exercisefolds of single calf huts must also beopen, and they must be placed againsteach other. Calves are not allowed tobe tied up permanently.

8.1 Single housed cattle8.1.1 Single penDefinitionRectangular pens with room for onecalf only and with a litter mat in thewhole area, see figure 8.1. Milk andwater should be supplied in a teatbucket or perhaps a calf bowl mountedoutside the front gate. Concentrate issupplied in a bowl and hay in a hay-rack.

RecommendationsIt is recommended to keep calves insingle pens during the first week andperhaps until the age of eight weeks.

DimensionsTable 8.1 lists single pen dimensions. Inorder to meet calves’ need to move,pens should be dimensioned accordingto the recommended pen area.

SeparationThe partition walls must be open orpartly open. The distance between thevertical bars should be 8 – 10 centi-metres. In order to ease the cleaning itis a good idea if the lowest 20 centi-metres of the partition walls are solid.

Feeding rackIn order to prevent calves from puttingtheir forelegs out of the feeding rack

Table 8.1. Dimensions of single pens forcalves.

Body weight, kg Under 60 Over 60Recommended pen area, m2 1.70 2.00

Pen area, min., m2 1.20 1.40

Pen length, min., m 1.20 1.40

Pen width, min., m 1.00 1.00

Pen side height, min., m 1.00 1.10

Figure 8.1.

Single pens for

calves.

69

Calves andyoung stock


Single housedcattle

Figure 8.2.

Calf huts.

while they eat, the lowest part of therack should be solid (all the way up tobowls/buckets). The feeding rack mustbe supplied with openings, throughwhich the calf can put its head when itdrinks and eats.

FloorThe pen floor should be designed todrain off urine. A solid floor that slopestowards a drainage channel, which isplaced under the feed and drinkingbowls, is recommended. A floor that israised, compared to the feed alley, willfacilitate supervision. A raised additio-nal floor is not recommended, as it isdifficult to maintain a satisfactory hy-giene under the additional floor. More-over, the ammonia evaporation increa-ses and causes bad air in the housing.The pens should be well-littered.

Feed bowls, teat bucket and hayrackTable 8.2 lists feeding and drinkingspace dimensions in connection withsingle pens. It is recommended to sup-ply milk by means of teat bucket in-stead of bowl. A good hygiene is im-portant regardless of the chosen milksupply means. Teat buckets should bedemountable and easy to clean. A dum-my-teat should be provided in thosepens where milk is supplied by meansof bowls. The feed bowls must be acid-proof and the sides of the bowl shouldbe almost vertical. Moreover, it shouldbe possible to demount bowls whenthey must be cleaned.

WaterFresh drinking water should be suppliedat least two times per day in teat bucketsor bowls. Nipple drinkers are not recom-mended. If calves are housed in singlepens more than one week after birth, ahayrack should be mounted above thedividing panel between two pens.

8.1.2 Calf hutsDefinitionsHut with deep litter and an outdoorexercise fold, see figure 8.2. Concentrateand hay are supplied inside the hut or inthe exercise fold. Milk and water shouldbe supplied by means of teat bucket orbowl placed in the exercise fold.

RecommendationsIt is recommended to house calves thatare less than 8 weeks old in calf hutswith exercise folds. The exercise fold isnecessary in order for the calves to beable to see and touch each other.

Table 8.2. Feeding and drinking space dimensions in single pens.

Body weight, kg Under 60 Over 60Feeding opening width, m 0.19 0.20

Feeding opening height, m 0.28 0.30

Min. volume of feed bowl, l 6.0 6.0

Feeding bowl upper edge height above floor, m 0.45 0.50

Bucket teat or dummy-teat height above floor, m 0.70 0.80

Hayrack bottom height above floor, max., m 0.80 0.90

Chapter 8


Figure 8.3.

Stalls for young

stock.

Table 8.3. Calf hut and exercise folddimensions.

Body weight, kg Under 60 Over 60HutRecommended area, m2 1.70 2.00

Area, min., m2 1.20 1.40

Length, min., m 1.20 1.40

Width, min., m 1.00 1.00

Floor-to-ceiling height, min., m 1.10 1.25

Exercise foldArea, min., m2 1.20 1.20

Length, min., m 1.20 1.20

Width, min., m 1.00 1.00

Height, min., m 1.10 1.10

DimensionsTable 8.3. lists the hut and exercise foldminimum dimensions for one calf.

Separation / materialCalf huts should have a bright colour toavoid extremely high temperatures in-side the hut during summer. Moreover,huts should be equipped with an adjust-able ventilation vent. The sides of theexercise fold should be open, e.g. withvertical bars, allowing calves to see andtouch each other.

FloorCalf huts can be placed on a solidground (e.g. concrete or asphalt), fromwhich liquid is channelled to the stor-age tank for urine and liquid manure,or they may be placed on well-drainedsoil or grass. In the latter case the hutmust be moved every second month.Finally, huts must be well-littered.

For further information about location,etc. of feed bowls, teat buckets andhayracks, please see section 8.1.1. Con-centrate and hay must be protectedfrom precipitation.

8.1.3 StallsDefinitionsIn stalls cattle are fixed by means ofneck tether. The stall serves both asresting and feeding place, see figure8.3. The stall floor is made of concreteor the like, and it slopes 2% to the rear.Litter is applied to the floor on the top

of a mat/mattress or directly on theconcrete floor. Feed is supplied introughs in front of the stall and waterin watering cups.

RecommendationsIt is not recommended that young stockis housed permanently in stalls. It maybe practical to tie up heifers for a shortperiod, so they can get used to thiskind of handling and tying.

DimensionsRecommended stall length and widthmeasurements for young stock arelisted in table 8.4.

71



Jointly housedcattle

Table 8.4. Dimensions of young stock stalls.

Body weight from, kg 100 150 200 300 400 500Stall width, min., m 0.80 0.85 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.15

Stall length, min., m 1.25 1.30 1.40 1.55 1.70 1.75

SeparationThere must be a partition betweeneach animal in at least half of the stalllength.

TetherTether should provide young stock withthe greatest possible freedom to standup or lie down naturally as well as carryout grooming. Sliding chain collar tying(see figure 9.28 in chapter 9) is most fit-ting.

TroughIt is most practical to design the troughwith a front edge preventing youngstock from pushing the feed out ofreach. The width of the trough bottomshould not exceed 40 – 60 centimetresdependent on the size of the animals.Moreover, the trough should be placedat least 5 centimetres, preferably 15centimetres, above the stall floor. Therear edge of the trough should be atleast 15 centimetres above the troughbottom, and the in-flexible part maxi-mum 20 centimetres above the stallfloor. This is why the upper part of thetrough may favourably be made of aflexible material.

FloorA solid floor with a soft bedding and lit-ter should be applied in stalls. Stalls forbulls should provide a drain at the backof the stall through a grating or slattedfloor. Steel gratings at the back of thestall floor are not to be recommended.The floor should slope at least 2% to therear. Finally, stalls should be kept dryand they must be well-littered.

Drinking waterFor information about drinking waterallocation, watering cup design and lo-cation of cups, please see chapter 6,section 6.3.

8.2 Jointly housed cattleApart from the previous-mentioned ex-ceptions, calves and young stock should

be housed in joint pens. The restingarea of joint pens can be:• A layer of litter, which is changed at

least every third month• Deep litter, which is renewed at in-

tervals of more than three months• Cubicles in which every animal has

its own demarcated resting place

A distinction is made between the fol-lowing two areas in connection withjoint pens:• Pen area = the total area which the

animals have at their disposal in thepen

• Resting area = the total area with abedding that is well suited for rest-ing, flights/ramps exclusive.

DimensionsThe recommended dimensions of eachpen type are listed in tables in the chap-ters concerned. The stated pen areas arenecessary in order to meet the exerciseneeds of young stock, room required foravoidances, and to be able to establishsufficient individual distance. The listedminimum resting areas must be suitedfor resting, which means that e.g.ramps, flights and moist areas are notincluded in this dimension. If the ani-mals have their own demarcated restingplace like in cubicles, the resting areasmay be smaller. See chapter 8, section8.2.2. The recommended resting areadimensions for jointly housed youngstock are based on experiments with upto 12 animals per pen.

Access conditionsThe access conditions for each joint penshould be good. Thus man and animalshould always be able to get safely andeasily in and out of pens. Gates facingan inspection and drive alley is a goodsolution. Alternatively a gate facing thefeed alley may be established, but theyoung stock should not have to passany slippery troughs or trough edges.

Chapter 8


8.2.1 Joint pen with a layer of litteror deep litterDefinitionJoint pens in which a layer of litter ordeep litter is at least provided in theresting area.

FloorThe floor must be able to stand loadsof animals, tools and machines. More-over, it should be impossible for moistto penetrate the floor and a suitabledrain must be established.

8.2.1.1 Litter in the whole penDefinitionPens with a layer of litter or deep litterin the total pen area, see figure 8.4.The feed is administered in a raisedfeed alley or in a height-adjustabletrough.

RecommendationsPens with a layer of litter or deep litterin the whole area is to be recommended

for calves. From the age of four monthscalf hoofs must be trimmed as requireddue to lacking hoof wear.

DimensionsIf the whole pen is littered, the restingarea is identical with the pen area, seethe dimensions listed in table 8.5. Forinformation about feeding area design,please see chapter 8, section 8.3.

8.2.1.2 Littered resting area andshort non-littered feeding areaDefinitionPens with a layer of litter or deep litterin the resting area. Young stock standon a short, raised feeding area and eatfrom the feed alley, see figure 8.5. Thereis unrestricted passage between restingand feeding area in full pen width. Incase of a layer of litter in the restingarea the animals have to climb one stepto get to the feeding area, while flightswith several steps are established in rest-ing areas with deep litter.

Figure 8.4.

Joint pen with a

layer of litter in the

whole pen.

Table 8.5. Dimension of joint pens with a layer of litter or deep litter.

Body weight from, kg Under 60 60 100 150 200 300 400 500Pen area, min., m2/dyr 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.2 3.8 4.4 5.0

Pen side height, min., m* 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3

* = Height is measured from the upper edge of the litter mat.

73



Table 8.6. Dimensions of joint pens with short, non-littered feeding area.

Body weight from, kg Under 60 60 100 150 200 300 400 500Pen area, min., m2/animal 1.7 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.4 4.2 4.8 5.4

Littered area, min., m2/animal 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.8 4.3

Short feeding area length, min., m 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.55 1.65 1.75

Pen side height, min., m* 1.1 1.2 1.3

Step width, m 0.40 - 0.50

Step height, m 0.15 - 0.20

Bottom step height, m** 0.30 - 0.60


** = These measurements are at the same time the maximum difference in level between resting

and feeding area in pens with a layer of litter.

RecommendationsPens with littered resting area andshort non-littered feeding area are re-commended for calves and youngstock. Moreover, littered resting areapens are only recommended for firstcalvers if deep litter is applied to theresting area, as it is the case with cows.

DimensionsIn table 8.6 the dimensions for jointpens with a short and non-litteredfeeding area are listed. For informationabout the feeding area layout, pleasesee chapter 8, section 8.3.

8.2.1.3 Littered resting area andlong non-littered feeding placeDefinitionsPens with a layer of litter or deep litter.Animals stand on a long raised feedingarea and eat from a feed alley, see fi-gure 8.6. Normally, passage from feed-ing area to resting area only takesplace in a restricted part of the penwidth, but it may also be totally open.If there is a layer of litter in the restingarea, the animals have to climb onestep to get to the feeding place, whilethey have to climb several steps in con-nection with deep litter.

Figure 8.5.

Joint pen with short

non-littered feeding

area and littered

resting area.


Chapter 8


RecommendationsLittered resting area and long non-lit-tered feeding place is recommendedfor bulls and heifers that are more thansix months old. It is only recommendedfor first calvers if deep litter is appliedto the resting area, as it is the case withcows.

DimensionsIn table 8.7 the dimensions for restingarea, pen area and height of pen sidesare listed. For information about feed-ing area layout, please see chapter 8,section 8.3.

8.2.1.4 Self-cleaning sloping penDefinitionPens where the resting area consists of alitter mat on a sloping floor. The activi-ties of animals causes sliding of the littermat onto a long feeding area fromwhich the manure is scraped away.

RecommendationsSelf-cleaning sloping pens are not rec-ommended, as it is difficult to make thelitter mat slide sufficiently and at thesame time meet the resting area andlitter application demands.

Figure 8.6.

Joint pen with long,

non-littered feeding

area and deep litter

in the resting area.

Table 8.7. Dimensions of joint pen with long, non-littered feeding area.

Body weight from, kg Under 60 60 100 150 200 300 400 500Pen area, min., m2/dyr 1.7 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.7 4.4 5.2 5.6

Littered area,min., m2/dyr 1.2 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Pen side height, min., m* 1.1 1.2 1.3

Long feeding area length, min.,m 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0

Width of passage between resting

and feeding area,min., m** 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.8

Step width, m 0.40-0.50

Step height, m 0.15-0.20

Bottom step height, m*** 0.30-0.60


** = Applies to pens with up to 12 animals. More and wider passages are recommended in

connection with larger pens.

*** = These measurements are at the same time the maximum difference in level between resting

and feeding area in pens with a layer of litter.

75



8.2.1.5 Joint hut with litter in thetotal areaDefinitionA hut in which animals stay permanent-ly, and with a layer of litter or deep lit-ter in the total hut area, see figure 8.7.The feed is supplied in a trough whichmust be height-adjustable in connec-tion with the deep litter.

RecommendationsJoint hut with litter in the total area isrecommended for calves. From the ageof four months the calves’ hoofs mustbe trimmed as required due to lackinghoof wear.

DimensionsIf the whole hut is littered, the litteredarea is identical with the total hut area,see the dimensions in table 8.5 (jointpen with litter). For information aboutthe feeding area layout, please seechapter 8, section 8.3.

FloorFloor under well-functioning deep littermats may be made of gravel used inroad construction or the like.

8.2.1.6 Shelter with free access tooutside areaDefinitionsA detached perhaps mobile shelter with

Table 8.8. Shelter dimensions.

Body weight from, kg Under 60 60 100 150 200 300 400 500Shelter area, min., m2 1.2 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Width of the shelter entrance, min., m* 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.8

* = Applies to shelters with up to 15 animals. There should be more or wider entrances in larger

shelters.

Figure 8.7.

Joint pen for calves

and young stock.


a layer of litter or deep litter in the totalarea, see figure 8.8. Animals have unre-stricted access to an outdoor exercisefold or grass field. The feed is suppliedin an outdoor trough or the like.

RecommendationsShelter is recommended for both calvesand heifers. In winter conditions all ani-mals must be able to lie down at thesame time within the shelter.

DimensionsShelter dimensions are stated in table8.8. For information about feeding arealayout, please see chapter 8, section 8.3.

Figure 8.8.

Shelter for calves

and young stock.

Chapter 8


FloorThe floor under well-functioning deeplitter mats may consist of gravel used inroad construction or the like.

8.2.2 CubiclesDefinitionThe resting area is a cubicle, the alleyareas and the feeding area are pro-vided with solid or slatted floor. Feed issupplied in the feed alley.

RecommendationsCubicles are recommended for bulls andheifers that are more than half a yearold. Cubicles are especially suitable forfirst calvers to be housed in cubicles orperhaps in tied-up housing like cows.The cubicle size must always correspondto the size of the individual animal andthus this housing system is less flexible.

The principles of cubicle design areshown in figure 9.1 to figure 9.6 inclu-sive in chapter 9.

DimensionsTable 8.9 lists the recommended cubicledimensions for calves and young stock.

Cubicle partitionsCubicle partitions must end at least0.20 metre from the rear kerb of thecubicle to prevent young stock, walkingin the alley behind the cubicles, fromgetting injured. There must be a com-

pact partition wall/division plate at theend of each cubicle row next to thecrossovers to protect young stockagainst draught and manure splashes.Moreover, in order to provide sufficientspace, the width of the cubicles at theend of the row is increased with 10%compared to the other cubicles.

Rear kerbThe kerb between cubicle and alleymust be so high (0.20 – 0.25 metres)that the young animal does not backinto the cubicle. Furthermore, thisheight will force the animal to lie downand draw its tail onto the cubicle. Thusthe young animal avoids pulling its tailinto solid and liquid manure of the al-ley. It is not to be recommended tomake the rear kerb higher than thebedding level.

CubicleCubicles with mattresses/mats and strawmattresses must be littered daily withabout 0.3 kg of straw to keep themclean and dry. Cut straw with a lengthof 3 – 5 centimetres may be applied withadvantage. Sawdust and wood shavingsare only recommended as litter, if thesematerials are without splinters and aremade of oven-dried wood.

Cubicles with sand bedding must beflattened out every day and new sandmust be supplemented regularly.

Table 8.9. Dimensions of calves and young stock cubicles.

Body weight from, kg 100 150 200 300 400 500Width, minimum, m 0.55 0.60 0.70 0.85 0.95 1.10

Length (row against wall), min., m 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.95 2.15 2.40

Length (double rows) **, min., m 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.25

Bottom front rail, height above bedding:

- either min., m 0.55 0.58 0.62 0.69 0.73 0.76

- or max., m 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10

Brisket board from rear kerb ***, +/- 0.05 m 1.25 1.30 1.40 1.55 1.60 1.65

Neck rail from rear kerb, +/-0.05 m 1.20 1.25 1.35 1.50 1.55 1.60

Neck rail height, +/- 0.05 m 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.05

Cubicle bedding downward slope, %, +/- 1% 5

Cubicle bedding height above alley floor ****, m 0.15-0.25

* = The width must be increased with 10% in cubicles with walled side partitions.

** = These measurements presuppose double rows without walled frontal partition that bothers

the young animals when they are getting up and lying down naturally.

*** = May be necessary if the flooring slopes down below 4% and/or to prevent young animals

from lying down too close to the cubicle front.

**** = These measurements state the bedding height above floor, inclusive mat or mattress, if any.

77



Table 8.10. Minimum alley widths stated in metre.

Body weight from, kg 100 150 200 300 400 500Feed alley – wall 1.65 1.85 2.20 2.50 2.70 2.95

Feed alley – cubicles a) one row 1.65 1.85 2.20 2.50 2.70 2.95

Feed alley – cubicles b) two rows 2.00 2.20 2.60 2.95 3.25 3.25

Feed alley – cubicles c) three rows or

more/deep litter 2.10 2.35 2.80 3.15 3.50 3.60

Cubicles – cubicles 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.50 1.90 2.20

Cubicles – wall (free passage) 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.50 1.90 2.20

Crossovers 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.15 1.45 1.65

Crossovers with drinking places incl. water trough 2.30 2.50 2.90 3.25 3.55 3.60

Width of blind alleys, min. 1.35 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.20 2.35

a) a row of cubicles per feed alley side.

b) two rows of cubicles per feed alley side.

c) three or more rows of cubicles or deep litter per feed alley side.

Cubicles with sand or straw mat mustbe kept even with an onward slope. Aslope down to the rear may prevent theanimal from getting up naturally.

AlleysAll alleys must be slip resistant. More-over, the alley floor may either be slattedor solid. The alleys and feeding areamake up the exercise area, which is atthe young animals’ disposal. Alley dimen-sions are listed in table 8.10. The alleywidth serves the purpose of allowing ani-mals so much room that they are able topass each other and limiting their aggres-sions, collisions and abnormal behaviour.Alleys should not be blind. If blind alleyscannot be avoided, the dimensions in ta-ble 8.10 should be observed.

Figure 9.17 in chapter 9 shows principlesketches of four differently designedcubicle housing systems.

The number of cubicles in one farm sec-tion should be adapted to the size ofthe herd and calving intervals. It is ex-tremely important that cubicle andyoung stock size go well together. Thiscan be achieved by moving animals of-ten. The maximum number of youngstock per farm section should be 70 – 80animals. A crossover should be estab-lished for every twenty cubicles in row.

As regards the height of partitions be-tween farm sections, please see penside height in table 8.5. For informationabout feeding area layout, please seechapter 8, section 8.3.

8.2.3 Joint pen with slatted floorDefinitionJoint pen with slatted floor in thewhole pen area.

RecommendationsJoint pens with slatted floor are notrecommended, as they cause problemsin connection with animal welfare, be-haviour, health and yield/production.

8.3 Feeding areas in joint pensDefinitionThe feeding area consists of an area,which the animals can stand on duringthe feed intake, a feeding rack to sepa-rate animal and feed as well as atrough/feed alley from which the feedis supplied, see figure 8.9.

Figure 8.9.

Feeding area

in joint pens.

Feeding areas injoint pens

Chapter 8


8.3.1 Roughage and concentrateRecommendationsIn connection with restricted feedingone feeding place is recommended peranimal or automatic feeder to supplythe rationed feedstuff. In connectionwith ad lib feeding a maximum of 3animals is recommended per feedingplace. Four to five bulls may share oneconcentrate feeder.

DimensionsThe layout of the feeding area must al-low animals to reach the feed, whenassuming their natural feeding posi-tion, without having to press hardagainst the equipment. Moreover, thelayout should prevent injuries. Thefeeding area dimensions are stated intable 8.11.

Feeding area floorA slip resistant feeding area floor madeof concrete or the like is an advantagefor young stock, as they can get used toa hard surface and experience hoofwear. In connection with short feedingarea solid floor sloped to the litteredarea is recommended. As regards longfeeding areas slatted or solid floorsloped towards the liquid manure drainis recommended. 0.5 metre of the slat-ted floor that leads directly to the feedalley may be solid and slope towardsthe slatted floor.

Feeding rackThe feeding rack should facilitate ac-cess of young stock to the feed and atthe same time separate animal andfeed enough to prevent dirty feed andfeed loss. The lowest part of the feed-ing rack is a solid trough rear edge. Aheight-adjustable neck rail above thismay be the simplest way to separateanimal and feed. The neck rail must beplaced in an angle of 20° above thetrough measured vertically from thetop side of the trough rear edge. Feed-ing rack gates with self-locking feedbarriers must also be placed in an angleof 20°. Feeding rack gates will provideanimals with less opportunities of dis-turbing each other than neck rails.However, there is a higher risk that ani-mals get stuck in connection with feed-ing rack gates. Feeding rack gates mustbe designed to open the self-lockingfeed barriers at the bottom if an animalfalls and gets its head stuck in the headgate.

TroughThe trough should be equipped with afront edge to prevent young stock frompushing the feed out of reach. Penswith deep littered feeding area shouldapply height-adjustable troughs. Youngstock must always stand lower than thetrough bottom while they eat.

Table 8.11. Feeding area dimensions.

Body weight from, kg Under 60 60 100 150 200 300 400 500Trough rear edge,

height above feeding area level, m 0.4 0.4 0.45 0.45 0.5 0.5 0.55 0.55

Feeding area width,

+/- 0,05 m 0.3 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65

Height above feeding level

of trough bottom, min., m 0.15

Trough width,

max., m 0.4 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.55 0.6 0.6

Width of acid-proof

trough surface, min., m 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85

Feeding rack upper

rail above feeding area, min. m 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Trough cubic content,

min., l 15 15 20 25 30 35 40 40

Feeding landing height,

max., m 0.10

Feeding landing width,

min., m 0.40

79



Straw feed must be supplied in troughsor hayracks (see table 8.2).

8.3.2 Milk feedingMilk should mainly be supplied bymeans of an artificial teat, either in theform of a teat bucket (see chapter 8,section 8.1.1) or automatic milk feeders.

RecommendationsIt is recommended to mount teat-dum-mies in the calf housing. Teat-dummiesprovide calves with the opportunity ofhaving their sucking need met.

Automatic milk feederAn automatic milk feeder consists of adevice, which mixes milk powder andwater, and a drinking station that pro-tects calves while they are suckling milkfrom the artificial teat.

The capacity of the milk feeder as wellas the feeding strategy will determinethe number of calves, which the feederis able to serve. One feeder may beable to operate several drinking sta-tions. Normally, one drinking stationwill be able to serve about 20 calves.

The drinking stations must be designedin a way that calves will not get hurtand at the same time they should bebuild to protect calves from othercalves while they drink. The drinkingstation design (height and width) mustbe adapted to those calves that are go-ing to drink from it. Thus calves will beable to assume normal drinking posi-tions while they are suckling milk.

The drinking station must be placednear feed and water to keep the restingarea quiet.

The drinking station should be placed ina way that calves are led to its entrancenaturally, e.g. parallel to the sides of thepen. When locating the drinking stationit is important not to create blind cor-ners in which low-ranging calves may bedriven by dominating calves. Figure 8.10and 8.11 depict the drinking station de-sign principles, which will protect calves.

8.3.3 Drinking waterFor information about drinking waterallocation, watering cup and watertrough designs as well as their location,please see chapter 6, section 6.3.


Figure 8.10.

(Left)

Example of drinking

station of an auto-

matic milk feeder.

Figure 8.11.

(Right)

Sketch of drinking

station, which

protects the drink-

ing calf from other

calves.

Chapter 8


Background and motivationBehaviour• Calves should have access to a dry

resting place which is free fromdraught (small calves lie down 16 –18 hours per 24 hours)

• Calves should be able to lie withstretched forelegs and the head rest-ing on the bedding or flat on one sidewith stretched legs. These lying posi-tions are assumed 15 – 20% of the ly-ing time (Putten and Elshof, 1982)

• Calves have a great urge to suck dur-ing the first months. If calves are fedfrom bucket/bowl the unmet need tosuck is directed at equipment andneighbouring calves (Mees and Metz,1984). Teat buckets and automaticmilk feeders are reasonably goodcow teat substitutions (Gjestang,1981; de Wilt, 1985; Sambraus, 1980)

• Calves must be supplied with freshwater every day (Bogner, 1982)

• Solid food at an early age will stimu-late the ruminant function (Swanson& Harris, 1954)

• From the age of three to four weeksthe calf’s need for social contact in-creases (Lidfors, 1987; Sambraus,1980)

• A lack of social contact during theperiod when calves are fed milk willmake calves fear each other later onwhen they are housed jointly (Veissi-er et al., 1994; Jensen et al., 1999)

• If calves are not able to lick eachother for social purposes, they maylick themselves excessively and theyrisk developing hair balls in the ru-men (Broom, 1982)

• Animals reared individually (in tied-up housing or single pens) will onlyto a small extent be motivated bythe activity of other animals andtheir performance of social behav-iour is drastically limited (Bogner &Reising-Berner, 1982)

• After a couple of days calves thatare housed restrictively will feel arising need to move around (Jensen,2000). An unsatisfied need to movemay result in sudden and violent ac-

Calf and young stock cubicle and alley dimensions recommended in the literature.

Calf and young stock cubicle dimensions, Dutch recommendationsWeight, kg Width, m Length, m

100 0.60 1.30

150 0.67 1.52

200 0.73 1.65

300 0.80 1.84

400 0.88 Against wall: 1.98

Against cubicle: 1.90

500 1.00 - 1.10 Against wall: 2.20

Against cubicle: 2.10


Calf and young stock cubicle dimensions, American recommendationsWeight, kg Width, m Length, m

150 0.75 1.55

200 0.75 1.55

300 0.95 1.70 - 1.85

400 1.07 1.98

500 1.07 1.98


Alley width dimensions, Dutch recommendationsWeight, kg 100 150 200 300 400 500Feeding alley, m 1.75 1.95 2.05 2.20 2.45 2.75

Alley between 2 cubicle rows, m - - - 1.75 1.95 2.00


81



tivities and subsequent injuries (Neu-schutz, 1982)

• Young stock is in need of early socialexperiences. Heifers, which arehoused together from an early age,are more tolerant to each otherthan if the group is established late(Bouissou and Hövels, 1976)

• Getting up and lying down behav-iour, normal resting positions andgrooming behaviour are to a largeextent influenced by tether designand pen dimensions (Bogner, 1982)

• Young stock always prefer soft bed-ding (Irps, 1987)

• Many behavioural activities are re-duced on smooth and hard beddingand flooring. Thus abnormal behav-iour often arises, especially, in con-nection with the lying-down behav-iour (Andreae and Smidt, 1982; Irps,1984)

• A high animal density in joint penswill cause unrest in the shape of ag-gressiveness and an increasednumber of violent activities whichforces animals to get up and mounteach other, heifers as young bulls.This unrest may reduce the lyingtime considerably (Jensen, 1992)

• It is complicated for young stock tolie down on slatted floor. Thenumber of interruptions of the lyingdown and getting up behaviours isincreased, and these activities areoften carried out abnormally. Thebehavioural changes partly developbecause it is difficult for animals tolie down on a smooth and hard bed-ding, and partly because of physicalinjuries, as this abnormal behaviourmay be an attempt to spare sorejoints (Jensen, 1992)

• Access to a littered bedding will im-prove the welfare of young stock(Sørensen and Krohn, 1999)

• The weight gain among largeheifers will increase at the expenseof small heifers in case of a diverseherd composition with restrictedconcentrate allocation. If the heifersize differs considerably, the riskthat small heifers will be seriouslyinjured increases (Sørensen andKrohn, 1999)

• The feeding time decreases and thelevel of aggression increases concur-rently with a rising number of ani-mals per feeding area at the feedalley (Beneke, 1985)

• The frequency of abnormal behav-iour and unrest when young stockmount each other increases concur-rently with a rising animal density(Beneke, 1985)

• The frequency of abnormal behav-iour is larger among young bulls intied-up housing than bulls housed inpens with slatted floor or deep litter(Andersen et al., 1991)

• Often abnormal oral behaviour oc-curs if the roughage lacks structure(Graf, 1985)

Health• First of all calf housing must be dry,

clean and free from draught (Blomet al., 1984; Webster et al., 1985;Østergaard et al., 1986; Hansen,1988). The most common calf dis-eases are pneumonia, diarrhoea andarthritis. However, pneumonia oc-curs most frequently (Blom et al.,1984). It seems to be less importantwhether calves are able to toucheach other or not, because the po-tential infection may be everywherein the housing air. A good health isachieved among calves housed incalf huts (Hansen, 1985) or in calfhouses divided into sections (Øster-gaard et al., 1986)

• Normally, the number of healthproblems among calves from half ayear to two years is very low. Almostall diseases and physical injuries aredue to the immediate environment.Young stock thrive in totally openand uninsulated housing

• A hard bedding which lacks littercan cause pain in joints and hoofs(Reiland et al., 1978)

• Hoof health is worse in connectionwith slatted floor pens than tied-uphousing (Andersen et al., 1991)

• Tail treads solely occurs on non-lit-tered bedding (slatted floor/- con-crete) and the frequency rises con-currently with a rising animal densi-ty (Konggaard et al., 1984; Madsenet al., 1987)

• The risk of skidding in connectionwith social behaviour, grooming andmounting is higher on slatted floorthan on deep litter (Ming, 1984)

• The frequency of hoof and leg prob-lems is high in connection with ahard bedding (slatted floor/concrete).


Chapter 8


Other conditionsThe layout of calf pens must make al-lowance for the following practical con-ditions:• It should be easy to remove manure

either manually or by means offront/mini loader

• It should be possible to apply strawlitter to all pen types

• It should be possible to turn off thewater supply

• There should always be a couple ofsingle pens for sick calves in jointpen housing systems

• Heat lamps should be available tosick calves in uninsulated housingsystems

• Calves for slaughter and rearingshould be separated from each other,because calves for slaughter mustgain as much weight as possible,

while large breed rearing heifers arenot allowed to gain more than 600grams per day (Jersey heifers shouldnot gain more than 450 grams) (Fold-ager and Sejrsen, 1991)

• Feed troughs must be capacious(minimum 15 litre per calf) and thedesign must consider the anatomyof calves and minimise feed loss.

• In connection with restricted feed-ing there should always be onefeeding place per animal to makesure that low-ranking animals getenough feed

• Trough separations that prevent ani-mals from touching each other whilethey are fed, will result in fairly uni-form feed intake

• It should be possible to fix youngbulls by means of self-locking feedbarriers in joint pens.

83



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nr. 80. Statens Jordbrugstekniske Forsøg. 32 pp.

Hansen K. 1995. Undersøgelse af bokse med træ-

deudmugning til ungkvæg. Forskningsrapport nr.

40. Statens Husdyrbrugsforsøg. Afd. For Jord-

brugsteknik og Produktionssystemer. 20 pp.

Hansen K. 1996. Dybstrøelse til kvier. Opsamling

af al gødning i strøelsesmåtten. Forskningsrap-

port nr. 52. Statens Husdyrbrugsforsøg. Afd. For

Jordbrugsteknik og Produktionssystemer. 36 pp.

Hansen K. & H. kromann. 1996. Skal kvier kunne

gå ud om vinteren? Erfaringer fra praksis, ind-

samlet ved interviewundersøgelse. Produktud-

vikling af staldsystemer til kvæg. Rapport 96.02.

Landbrugets Rådgivningscenter og Statens Hus-

dyrbrugsforsøg. 16 pp.

Hindhede, J. & M.B. Jensen. 1995. Kvier kvitterer

for bedre plads i boksen. Bovilogisk Tidsskrift 5-

95. 24-26.

Jensen M.B., 2000. Kalves behov for bevægelse.

JordbrugsForskning nr. 2, 2000. Danmarks Jord-

brugsForskning. 12-14.

Justitsministeriet. 1993. Bekendtgørelse om be-

skyttelse af kalve. Nr. 999, 14. december 1993.

Justitsministeriet. 1997. Bekendtgørelse om æn-

dring af Bekendtgørelse om beskyttelse af kalve.

Nr. 1075, 22. december 1997.

Jørgensen, J. C., S. Eriksen, O. Kristensen, K.

Hansen, P. Keller & H.B. Rom. 1990. Stalde med

trædeudmugning, SjF Orientering nr. 70. Statens

Jordbrugstekniske Forsøg. 16 pp.

Kromann, H. 1993. Løsdriftstalde til ungkvæg.

Idékatalog og eksempler fra praksis. Landbrugets


85



Literature

Chapter 9


Dairy cows

Milking cows are kept in two complete-ly different housing systems: Either injoint or individual housing.

The term joint housing covers the fol-lowing housing types:• Cubicle• Feeding cubicle• Deep litter• Self-cleaning sloping pen.

The term individual housing covers thefollowing housing types:• Tied-up• Catch-stall.

9.1 Loose housing – jointhousingDefinitionThis is a housing system in which thecows can move around freely. The hous-ing types; cubicle, feeding cubicle, deeplitter and self-cleaning sloping pen aretypically divided according to functioninto a resting, feeding, and milkingarea.

9.1.1. Housing types – divided intotype of resting area

9.1.1.1 CubiclesDefinitionThe resting area is divided into cubiclesthat function as resting place for eachindividual cow. The cubicles are sepa-rated by partitions to protect the cowand consider its need for individual dis-tance. The bedding comfort is ensuredby applying loose bedding material,e.g. straw, sand and the like or a bed ofsynthetic materials.

Thus cubicles must be a demarcated,comfortable and sheltered restingplace. Moreover, the design of cubiclesshould provide a clean, dry and de-formable bedding as well as make surethat it is easy for the cow to lie downand get up again.

RecommendationsCubicles can be recommended. Theremust be one cubicle per cow.

9.1.1.2 Feeding cubiclesDefinitionFeeding cubicles function both as afeeding and resting area for each indi-vidual cow. The pens are separated bypartitions in order to protect the cowand consider its need for individual dis-tance.

RecommendationsFeeding cubicles cannot be recommen-ded because:• Cows move forward in the pen and

defecate on the bedding• A low frequency of cow traffic on

the slatted-floor walking areas willresult in dirty alleys

• Cows drag more manure into the cu-bicles

• The low front edge results in a largefeed loss in the cubicle

• Relatively short pens involve the riskof pressure injury

• There are no escape routes for lowranking cows(Rådum et al., 1982; Hansson andWahlander, 1991)

9.1.1.3 Deep litterDefinitionThe resting area is undivided and thebedding consists of a deep litter mat.

RecommendationsDeep litter resting area and separatefeeding area with slatted/solid floorcan be recommended.

Deep litter without separate feedingarea (deep litter in the whole housingarea and mobile feed boxes/racks) can-not be recommended because:• Deep litter in the whole area will

not bring about the normal hoofwear of animals

• The cows are not accustomed towalking surfaces

• It involves a high risk of hoof suffer-ings

• It involves a relatively large litter uti-lisation

• The deep litter mat is worn downaround the feed boxes/racks.

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Dairy cows


Loose housing –joint housing

9.1.1.4 Self-cleaning sloping penDefinitionThe resting area consists of a (recycled)manure mat at a floor that slopes downtowards the feeding/cleaning area. Thecow traffic will make the manure matslide onto the feeding area from whichthe manure can be scraped away.

RecommendationsSelf-cleaning sloping pens are not to berecommended because:• A high density rate is required to ob-

tain an appropriate sliding of themanure mat

• The passage between the feedingand resting area will often be highlyworn down and this will result indirty cows

• The amount of litter must be care-fully adjusted to the number of cowson the mat. Too much litter will pre-vent the mat from sliding and toolittle will lead to a very worn downand dirty mat

• This system is very onerous as re-gards maintenance of the manuremat, as it is recommended to littertwice or several times daily. (Jør-gensen et al. 1990).

9.1.2 Resting area

9.1.2.1 CubiclesDefinitionA separate bedding in which the indi-vidual cow is protected by a partition.

Cubicles consist of a resting area and anunobstructed opening towards thefront of the cubicle for the cow tothrust its head through (get-up-zone)when it rises and lies down. The roomrequirements and dimensions of cubi-cles are stated in table 9.1.

RecommendationsSeparationPartition and bottom front rails:Cows must be able to rise and reclinefreely in one continuous movementwithout obstacles and without beinginjured when they get into contactwith the partition or the bottom frontrail. This is especially important whencows lie down, as the last part of the liedown movement is uncontrollable.

Cubicle partitions that are hung up areoften fastened to two horizontal frontrails. To prevent the bottom front railfrom bothering the cow it may eitherbe mounted low (maximum 10 centi-metres above the level of the bedding)(see figure 9.1) or high (minimum 80centimetres below the level of the bed-ding) (see figure 9.2). Partitions thatare cast in and attached with bolts canbe mounted without the bottom hori-zontal front rail. This is also the casewith partitions that are hung up if apost is being applied for each partition.

The cubicle partition must end mini-mum 0.30 metres from the rear kerb of

Table 9.1. Room requirements and dimensions of cubicles.

Jersey Large breedWidth*, min., m 1.10 1.20

Total length (rows towards wall), min., m 2.40 2.60

Total length (double rows)**, min., m 2.25 2.45

Bottom front rail, height above bedding:

- eiteher, min., m 0.70 0.80

- or, max., m 0.10 0.10

Brisket board from rear kerb ***, +/- 0.05 m 1.65 1.75

Neck rail form rear kerb, +/-0.05 m 1.60 1.70

Neck rail height, +/- 0.05 m 1.05 1.10

Cubicle slope, %, +/- 1% 5 5

Bedding height above cow alley floor **** 0.20-0.25

* = The width of cubicles against closed side partitions must be increased with 10%

** = Implies two rows against each other without disturbing partitions.

*** = May be necessary if the bedding slope is below 4%.

**** = States bedding height above floor including matt and mattress, if any.

Chapter 9


the cubicle to avoid that cows, whichwalk on the alley behind the cubicles,are injured. There must be a compactpartition wall/division plate at the endof each cubicle row next to the cross-overs to protect cows against draughtand manure splashes. In order to pro-vide sufficient wall space, the width ofthe cubicles at the end of the rows isincreased with 10% compared to theother cubicles.

Neck railThe neck rail must ensure that the cubi-cle is kept clean. If the neck rail is ad-justed correctly, the cow will move backone step when it rises. In this way solidand liquid manure are avoided on thebedding.

In order to make it easier for cows toadjust to using the cubicles when takingin to use a new housing system, theneck rail must during the first 14 days beplaced 15 centimetres further in thefront than usually. It should be possibleto adjust the neck rail from time to timeand thus a system is required whichmakes it easy to move the neck rail.

The neck rail is often an iron pipe, how-ever, it may also consist of a flexiblematerial. A flexible neck rail is less re-strictive, but functions the same way asthe inflexible rail. (See figure 9.3).

Brisket boardA brisket board is recommended in cu-bicles with no or only a slight down-ward slope (below 4%) so that cowswill not move too much forward in thecubicle and have difficulties at rising(see figure 9.4).

The brisket board may e.g. be a roundedoff wooden plank. There are also severalother kinds of prefabricated brisketboards, which are sold as part of thehousing system equipment. The brisketboard may either be mounted on thepartition or the floor. The prefabricatedboard is usually of plastic or metal.

A raised concrete platform (“pillow”) isnot recommended.

Rear kerbA high rear kerb will prevent solid andliquid manure from splashing on the cu-bicle bedding. The kerb between cubicleand cow alley must be so high (0.20 –0.25 metres) that the cow does not back

Figure 9.2.

Partition mounted

on high-hanging

front rail.

Figure 9.3.

Flexible neck rail.

Figure 9.1.

Partition mounted

on low-hanging

front rail.

89

Dairy cows



into the cubicle. Furthermore, thisheight will force the cow to recline anddraw its tail onto the cubicle. Thus thecow avoids pulling its tail into the solidand liquid manure of the alley. It is notto be recommended to make the rearkerb higher than the bedding level.

Cubicle beddingThe cubicle bedding must be of a dry,slip resistant material that can be de-formed.

The total length of the cubicle base incubicles with synthetic mats or mat-tresses should at least slope 5% to therear. (See figure 9.5).

A rear kerb/plank 0.25 – 0.30 metresabove the cow alley must be estab-lished in cubicles with loose beddingmaterial such as straw mats, sand or thelike. Thus the cubicle floor can be es-tablished on the same level as the alleyand without slope. (See figure 9.6).

Cubicles with synthetic mattresses/matsand straw mats must be littered dailywith at least 0.5 kg straw. Cut strawwith a length of 3 – 5 centimetres maybe applied with advantage. Sawdustand wood shavings are only recom-mended as litter, if these materials arewithout splinters and are made ofoven-dried wood. It is recommended touse the same amount as straw.

Cubicles with sand bedding must be flat-tened out every day and new sand mustbe supplemented, as occasion requires.The sand utilisation on Danish farms var-ies from 1 – 10 kg sand per cow/day.

Cubicles with sand or straw mat mustbe kept even with a slope towards therear kerb.

Background and motivationThe cubicle is partly used as resting andstanding area in which the cow is pro-tected from other cows.

BehaviourThe resting behaviour of cattle kept incubicles is primarily influenced by thefollowing factors:• Cubicle number• Cubicle bedding• Cubicle litter• Cubicle location in the cow house• Cubicle delimitation

(Wierenga et al., 1989).

Figure 9.4.

Example of brisket

board design

Figure 9.5.

Cubicle with syn-

thetic mattress.

Figure 9.6.

Cubicle with loose

bedding material

Chapter 9


The literature recommends the followingtotal measurements for cow cubicles

Single row

Weight, kg Width, m Lenght, m575 1.20 2.41

625 1.20 2.45

725 1.20 2.53

(Cermak, 1987)

545 1.14 2.33

635 1.22 2.43

725 1.22 2.54

(Irish og Martin, 1983)

550 1.12 2.31

650 1.15 2.35

750 1.18 2.46

(CIGR, 1994)

Cows have a great need to lie down.Thus this behaviour has a high priorityamong cows. All cattle should be ableto lie down at any time (however, notin the milking area and in the holdingarea) (Metz, 1984; Metz & Wierenga,1984).

The aggression level and the frequencyof abnormal behaviour will rise if thereis more than one cow per cubicle (Hen-neberg et al., 1986; Metz, 1981; Metzand Mekking, 1984; Wienrenga, 1983).

Cows prefer soft to hard bedding. (Co-lam-Ainsworth et al., 1989; Gebreme-dhin et al., 1985; Jensen et al., 1988;Natzke et al., 1982; Irps 1983).

Cows prefer soft and heat insulatedmats to hard rubber mats (Natzke etal., 1982; Maton & Daelemans, 1989).

Concrete beddings and beddings ofhard mats are not satisfactory unlessthey are littered with a thick layer ofstraw (Hansen et al., 1999).

It is recommended that the slip resist-ant coefficient should be at least 0.5(this corresponds to a dry concrete slab)(Hansen et al., 1999).

Cubicles must be so big that cattle caneasily rise and lie down without anyhindrances. Cubicles must be so narrowthat cattle do not lie across them.Moreover, cubicles must be so narrowthat the solid and liquid manure aredropped outside the cubicle and solong that straw is kept away from alleyswith manure (Irish and Martin, 1983).

Too short cubicles is the main reasonfor cubicle refusal or rising difficulties(Cermak, 1987).

The lying down time increases whenthe cubicle width increases from 1.05 to1.20 metres. Likewise, the lying timeincreases when the cubicle length in-creases from 2.10 to 2.50 metres (Cer-mak, 1987).

Cubicles in which the slope to the rearis too small (2%) will make cows moveforward. Thus a brisket board must beapplied as a stopping device (Chris-tensen, 1998).

Cubicles in which the downward slopeis appropriate (4%) will have the effect

that cows, when they rest and movearound in the cubicle, will neither skidforward or backwards in the cubicle(Christensen, 1998).

The end cubicles of each row, cubiclesnear open doors, under ventilationplants (air injection unit) as well as cu-bicles in which the walking alley behindthe cubicles is highly used, e.g. nearwater troughs and feed alleyss, are lessattractive resting areas (Wierenga andHopster, 1989; Potter and Broom, 1987;Irish and Martin, 1983).

The partition between the cubiclesmust be high enough to prevent cowsfrom turning around. Moreover, parti-tions must be so long that cows canneither stand or walk across cubiclesand so short that they do not obstructcows walking on the alleys behind thecubicles (Irish and Martin, 1983).

Partitions both in front and betweencubicles must not prevent cows fromrising and lying down (Wierenga andHopster, 1989).

Mats and mattressesIf the knee of a cow is able to sink 30millimetres into the bedding layer, theload will be reduced to less than onethird of the load on a concrete base(Hansen et al., 1999).

At 2,000 Newton any bedding materialshould at least be pressed down 16 and

91

Dairy cows



not more than 28 millimetre. If the ma-terial is pressed down more than 28millimetre, the pressure of the knee isreduced very slowly, and thus a softermaterial does not improve the softnessof the lying comfort substantially.(Hansen et al., 1999).

The remaining depression of hard rub-ber mats is little. However, the remain-ing depression of soft rubber mats isalso acceptable, if the bedding slopesminimum 5%. A considerable layer oflitter will, normally, prevent liquid fromcollecting in the bedding in connectionwith two-layer mattresses, provided thatthe slope towards the rear kerb is suffi-cient. On the other hand, it may be diffi-cult to keep beddings with mattressesthat are channel sewn dry at the rearend of the cubicle (Hansen et al., 1999).

The surface of the beddings must be sosoft that the cow’s knee sinks at least 16millimetres into the bedding when it liesdown and rises (Hansen et al., 1999).

Normally, heat insulation of beddings isconsidered by means of softer beddings(Hansen et al., 1999).

The bedding layer must be so elasticthat the remaining depression does notexceed 5 millimetres (Hansen et al.,1999).

The slip resistant coefficient of the bed-ding layer should be at least 0.5, whichcorresponds to a dry concrete slab(Hansen et al., 1999).

The surface of the bedding materialshould not be so rough that the cowssuffer hair losses or other injuries(Hansen et al., 1999).

HealthIt is assumed that a hard cubicle floor(concrete or slatted floor) loads cows(Andreae and Smidt, 1982) and in-creases the risk of injuries owing topressure (Blom et al., 1983).

Generally, cows kept on straw littercontract fewer diseases than cows kepton alternative littering (Smidt et al.,1985).

A daily litter amount of 600 kilogram-mes per cow is better than 300 kilo-grammes. A frequent supply and pilingof the same total straw supply in layers

will improve the health of cows (Smidtet al., 1985).

The application of rubber mats in cubi-cles and an increased amount of litterreduces the number of injuries (Blom,1981).

A high (>0.15 metre) and sharp-edgedbrisket board will increase the numberof knee injuries (Blom, 1982).

Partitions must be without any sharpedges, as they are very likely to causeinjuries owing to pressure on the cowbodies (Blom, 1981).

9.1.2.2 Resting area with deep litterand separate feeding areaThe height of manure mats that are re-moved twice a year: 1.6 metre (approx.8 m3/cow).

The distance from the resting to thefeeding area should be as short as pos-sible to reduce the loading of the deeplitter mat and at the same time reduceconflicts between walking cows andcows that are lying down. A rectangu-lar area with a minimum width of 6metres is preferred. The deep litter areamust not form part of the holding areaand cows should not walk directly fromthe milking parlour to the deep litterarea. Space requirements and dimen-sions of deep litter areas are listed intable 9.2.

In figure 9.7, 9.8 and 9.9 different deeplitter housing constructions are shown.

Flights and rampsOften the resting and the feeding areaare not at the same level (split-level)and thus the two different levels areconnected by flights or ramps. Experi-ments have shown that especially cowsprefer flights to ramps. The steps offlights must be so broad that cattle caneasily see them. If the steps are too nar-row cattle will not dare to step out farenough on the step and they risk tear-ing of the dew claws on the edge ofthe steps. In other cases cattle step outtoo far on the steps and risk stumblingand falling down the stairs.

The slope of cattle ramps should notexceed 17% (Hansen and Keller, 1991).Moreover, slip resistant flights andramps must be applied and rails/banis-ters must be provided on the sides.

Chapter 9


SeparationIf cows are divided in groups, it shouldbe possible to divide the resting areacrosswise by means of partitions. Eachgroup must have access to the feedingarea.

The partition height must be adjust-able. Moreover, it should be easy to getpast the partition when littering theresting area. Finally, partitions shouldbe easy to remove, when the manuremat is removed.

If the resting and feeding areas are pa-rallel and if the level of the resting areais below the feeding area level, parti-tions must be placed between thesetwo areas. Additionally, it should bepossible to bar the crossover (rank orflights) that connects the two areas.

LitterStraw litter can be applied. Littershould be sprinkled in such a way thatthe resting area is always dry and clean.

The amount of litter remains the sameirrespective of the straw sort. The littermust be dry.

Background and motivationBehaviourIt is supposed that the animal densityrate will affect the level of aggression,as this is the case in other housing types(Henneberg et al., 1986; Wierenga,1983).

The lie-down and get-up behavioursare normal in connection with deep lit-ter housing (Andreae and Smidt, 1982).

Cows prefer soft to hard bedding(Jensen et al., 1988; Natzke et al., 1982;Irps, 1983).

Cows tend to lie down longer on deeplitter than on a solid bedding with litter(Smidt et al., 1985).

Other circumstancesThe straw quality is essential to an effi-cient manure mat (Hansen, 1993).

If the alley that leads to the restingarea is narrow, there is an increased riskthat the manure mat will wear down(Hansen, 1993).

The application of sawdust is only rec-ommended, if this material is withoutsplinters and made of oven-dried wood(Anonym, 1994).

The deep litter area should not be usedas a passage to and from the milking par-lour or as holding area (Hansen, 1993).

A litter material of poor quality and amoist manure mat will lead to a poorudder health in connection with deeplitter housing systems (Hansen, 1993).

Moreover, a litter material of poorquality will cause a rise in the litter uti-lisation of at least 1.5 kg per cow/day(Hansen, 1993).

Large amounts of beet in the feed willalso cause a rise in the litter utilisationof 1.5 kg. per 10 kg of beet (Hansen,1993).

Table 9.2. Space requirements and dimensions of deep litter areas.

Resting area Jersey Large breedLittered resting area per cow, min., m2 5.0 * 6.5 *

Total area per cow, m2 7.0 8.5

Width of entrance to deep litter, min., m/cow** 0.20 0.20

FlightsStep width, approx. m 0.50 0.60

Step height, approx. m 0.20 0.20

Height of lowest step, approx. m 0.60 0.60

* = Corresponds with 1 m2/100 kg.

** = No staircase should be less than 1,80 m.

93

Dairy cows



Figure 9.7.

Deep litter housing

with resting area

below feeding area

level.

Figure 9.9.

Deep litter housing

with resting area on

a level with feeding

area level.

Figure 9.8.

Deep litter housing

with resting area

partly below feed-

ing area level.

Chapter 9


Table 9.3. Feeding place space requirements and dimensions.

Feeding place, space requirement MetreTrough rear edge, height above feeding place/area level* 0.50 - 0.60

Feeding place width per cow (Large breed/Jersey) +/- 0.05 m 0.70 / 0.65

Trough bottom height above feeding area level 0.15 - 0.20

Trough width, max. 0.60

Width of acid-proof trough surface, min. 0.90

Feeding rack top rail above feeding place (Large breed/Jersey), min. 1.45 / 1.40

*Rear edge should be made of tight material up to the bottom rail of the feeding rack.

9.1.3 Feeding areaIn a loose housing system cows normallyfeed from a joint feed alley or from feedboxes/racks. Moreover, concentrate,grain and beets can be distributed bymeans of automatic feeding stations.

RecommendationsTrough designThe trough should be created with anedge, so that cows cannot push thefeed out of reach. See table 9.3. fortrough dimensions and space require-ments. (Se figure 9.10, 9.11 and 9.12).

Figure 9.10.

Feeding area design

(principle construc-

tion in loose housing

system).

Figure 9.11.

Design of feeding

rack with self-lock-

ing feed barrier.

Room reqiurements and dimensions

Number of cows per feeding place:

Max. 1 in connection with restrictive feeding

Max. 3 in connection with ad-lib feeding*

*In connection with ad-lib feeding complete

feed/single feedstuff units is supplied accord-

ing to appetite, and feed must be available in

the feed alley 20 – 22 hours per day and

night.

In case of restrictive feeding, the com-plete feed or single feed stuff is distrib-uted once or several times per day andnight. Moreover, the cow may be feedan individually apportioned feed sup-plement. Finally, there must be spaceenough for all the cows to be at thetrough at the same time in case of re-stricted feeding. In connection withloose housing systems and, especially,farms that do not divide cattle perma-nently into groups, a temporary clutch-ing/fixing of cattle during the first partof the feeding is required. Thus it is

95

Dairy cows



Figure 9.12.

Design of feeding

rack with neck rail.

Figure 9.13

Measurements for

neck opening at the

top of the self-lock-

ing feed barrier

(CIGR, 1994).

possible for weak cattle and first calversto eat their feed ration without beingdisturbed by higher-ranking cows.

In case of restricted feeding the farmermust provide space for two or three ex-tra cows than each group does actuallymake up, in order for the “last” cow tobe able to find room at the trough.

If an individually apportioned amount offeed supplement is provided for eachcow, cows should be fixed for short peri-ods during the feeding to prevent themfrom steeling feed from each other. Ifconcentrate is supplied by means of au-tomatic feeding stations, the farmershould choose a type that distributesconcentrate at a variable speed. Normal-ly, cows can eat about 300 kilogrammesfeed pellets per minute.

In case of ad-lib feeding, feed must beprovided in the trough day and night,and a maximum of three cows areallowed per feeding place. If a restrict-ed number of feeding places are ap-plied, it can be recommended to mountpartitions between the feeding places.If the cows are fed ad-lib, there mustbe plenty of space at the feeding placeand alleys that facilitate the cow trafficbetween the resting and feeding areas.

Restricted feeding places should not beapplied, if only a few animals are pre-vented from having access to the feed-ing area. This situation may actuallycause more stress among cows than situ-ations where there are two or more ani-mals per feeding place. The number ofcows that cannot have access to thefeeding place, at first, must account forsuch a large part of the herd (at least 15animals) that the flock rhythm is upset.

Feeding rack(Separation device between feedingarea and feed alleys)It is recommended that the feeding rackslopes about 20 degrees towards thetrough. An appropriate width of thefeeding rack neck openings is 0.17 me-tre for Jersey cows and 0.19 metre forlarge-breed cows. There are not allowedany other openings of the equipmentthat are wider than 0.15 metre. (See fig-ure 9.13).

The self-locking feed barriers must beeasy to open, if a cow falls while it iscatched.

Water troughs should never be placedin the middle of a section with self-locking feed barriers, but rather at theend of the sections.

There should be plenty of manholes oreasily-operated gates. Boot wash forthe cleaning of footwear should be es-tablished in connection with manholesthat lead directly to the feed alley.

It is most practical to place manholeseither where the feeding places start orend and between groups.

The opening of manholes must be 0.40metre where cows can walk perpendicu-larly into the opening. The opening

Chapter 9


Figure 9.15.

Example of a

landing at the

feeding area.

provided. The height must be 0.10 me-tre above the cow alley. If a feedingplatform is provided, the height of theneck rail and feeding rack must be ad-justed to the platform.

A short feeding platform or landing forthe forelegs should only be 0.50 +/- 0.10metre wide, and it must be raised 0.10metre above the alley. (See figure 9.15).

A long feeding platform for the entirebody should at least be 1.60 metre inthe length, and it must be raised 0.10metre above the alley. Moreover, onepartition should be mounted per feed-ing place to avoid lengthwise cow traf-fic on the platform. Feeding platformsmay also be applied on farms with slat-ted floors and the platforms may beprovided with rubber mats. (See figure9.16).

The feeding platform must slope 2 – 3%towards the alley.

Feeding places with partitions will pro-tect cows from being chased away andit will reduce the feed loss as the cowwill draw feed sideways into the feed-ing place.

Automatic feeding stations(Individual distribution by means ofelectronic steering)Automatic feeders should be accessedfrom the feeding area to keep the rest-ing area as quiet as possible. There mustbe enough space at the entrance to theautomatic feeder, a minimum of 3.50metres is preferable. The automaticfeeder must protect the full body of thecow from attacks from waiting cows,and the inside width should be about0.85 metre, so there is only room forone cow at a time.

At a distribution of 300 kilogrammesfeed pellets per minute (maximum 14hours per day and night), the automaticfeeding station can serve a maximum of25 cows at a time.

It is necessary to develop a protectiongate behind the cow as well as a frontexit as is the case with feeders in milk-ing pens in connection with AutomaticMilking Systems (AMS) and tandemstalls. For further information about au-tomatic milk feeders for calves, pleasesee chapter 8.3.2.1.

Figure 9.14.

Example of man-

hole design.

holes, where cows can only walk paral-lel with the hole, may be 0.50 metre.(See figure 9.14).

Landing and feeding platformIn case of solid floor with scrapers, cowswill be disturbed by the manure scraperwhile they are eating at the feedingplace. In order to reduce this problem, alanding or feeding platform may be

97

Dairy cows



Figure 9.16.

Example of raised

feeding platform.

Drinking water allocationFor recommendations regarding drink-ing water allocation, design of watercups and water troughs as well as loca-tion of water troughs and cups, pleasesee chapter 6.3.

Background and motivationBehaviourIn loose housing systems the eating be-haviour of cows is primarily influencedby the following factors:• The number of automatic feeding

station• The number of feeding places• The feeding rack design• The supplied feed ration.

All cows should have the same opportu-nities of eating the planed feed ration.

If the amount of supplied feed is limited,there should be at least one feedingplace at the feeding area per cow. Subse-quently, the feeding place partitioningwill be crucial for the dominating cows’possibility of chasing away weaker cowsfrom the board (Metz, 1983).

Two to three cows per feeding placewill reduce the time cows spend on eat-ing and it will lead to an increasednumber of aggressions at the feedingarea, but the feed intake and the yieldwill remain the same. Ad-lib feeding isof course a precondition for this (Hen-neberg et al., 1986; Collis et al., 1980;Albright & Timmons, 1984).

Cows’ preferred feeding area is within0.60 metre from the rear edge of thetrough (Gjestang, 1983).

To prevent aggressive behaviour, it is rec-ommended to keep a maximum of 25 to30 cows per concentrate feeder (Matonand Daelemans, 1989; Candura and Gus-man, 1989). This is confirmed by experi-ences in practice. However, the numberof cows can be increased, if it is only asmall amount, or if the concentrate issupplied in the milking parlour.

Feeding rack and troughIn case of vertical self-locking feed bar-riers, cows are able to get at feed withina trough distance of 0.98 metre and ifthe self-locking feed barrier slopes (20°)towards the trough, the cow can reachall feed within a distance of 1.12 metre(Pallesen, 1997; Hansen, 1999).

With a narrow trough and a verticalself-locking feed barrier, there will be apressure of more than 500 Newton for18 seconds during each feed distribu-tion. The average of the largest pres-sures was about 1,000 Newton. A widetrough resulted in a pressure of morethan 500 Newton for more than 100 sec-onds during each feed supply and onaverage the largest pressures amountedto 2,000 Newton. Experiments show thatcows can and will press 2,000 Newton toget at the feed. At such high pressuresthere is a danger that cows might be se-riously injured (Pallesen, 1997; Hansen,1999).

By mounting a sloping (20°) feedingrack, the reach of cows will increasewith 0.14 metre and it will be possibleto apply wider and more spacioustroughs without reducing the conditionsof cows (Pallesen, 1997; Hansen, 1999).

At first the cow will eat the feed withina convenient reach. If there is somefeed in the outer edge of the trough,cows will put an equal pressure on avertical and a sloping feeding rack inorder to get at the feed (Pallesen, 1997;Hansen, 1999).

Chapter 9


a)

b)

c)

d)

Figure 9.17.

Principle sketches of four

differently designed cubi-

cle housing systems.

a)

One row of cubicles.

Plenty of room at the

feed area and a good

overview of the cubicles

from the feed alley.

b)

Two rows of cubicles.

Enough space for all cows

to eat at the same time at

the feeding area. Resting

area is separated from

feeding area. Possibility

of controlling cow traffic

in connection with AMS.

c)

Two rows of cubicles.

Double rows. Enough

space for all cows to eat

at the same time at the

feeding area. Close con-

tact with 2-5 other cows

in the cubicles. Cows are

in direct contact with

outer wall in the alleys.

d)

Three or several rows of

cubicles. Excellent utilisa-

tion of cow alleys. Re-

duced amount of feeding

places. Much traffic at the

feeding area. Cows are in

close contact with 2-5

other cows in the

cubicles.

99

Dairy cows



To avoid too much damaging compres-sive stress, it is important to supply thefood within the reach of the cow, whichin the case of a 0.20 metre raised troughand a vertical feeding rack is 0.60 metreand in case of a sloping feeding rack isapprox. 0.75 metre (Pallesen, 1997;Hansen, 1999).

HealthBy lifting the height of the trough bot-tom above the feeding area level, theloading of the cow’s forelegs is reduced(Boxberger, 1983).

The frequency of compressive stress isreduced by lifting the height of thetrough bottom to 0.15 – 0.20 metre(Rom, 1989; Gjestang, 1983).

The frequency of compressive stress isreduced considerably when the width ofthe trough does not exceed 0.60 metre(Rom, 1989; Gjestang, 1983).

9.1.4 Walking alleysDefinitionThe alleys of loose housing systems areused both as traffic and exercise areas andsometimes as traffic routes for the staff.

The floors of the alleys must have a suf-ficient carrying capacity for cows, ma-chinery, etc. Moreover, the alleys mustbe slip resistant, preventing animal andman from slipping.

Cubicle alley floors can either be slat-ted or solid. The cleaning of alleyswithout slits must be carried out sever-al times during the day, so that the

hoofs of the cows can be kept suffi-ciently clean and dry.

RecommendationsAll alleys must be slip resistant. More-over, the alley floor may either be slat-ted or solid. The alleys, the feeding areaand the holding area, if any, make upthe exercise area, which is at the cows’disposal. This area should account for ap-prox. 4 m2 per cow (cubicles exclusive) toreduce the aggressions, clashes and ab-normal behaviour of cows. The mini-mum widths of the feeding area and thecow alleys are listed in table 9.4.

Crossovers or escape alleys should beestablished on each end of a cubiclesection. If the cubicle row consists ofmore than 20 cubicles, the farmer mustestablish additional crossovers toachieve a free cow circulation.

Alleys with a width of less than 2.40 me-tres should not be closed at one ende.g. in housing with cubicles placedacross and where the housing system isdivided into sections.

In figure 9.17 principle sketches of fourdifferently designed cubicle housingsare shown.

Background and motivationBehaviourLimited space is one of the main reasonsfor aggressions among cattle. If thespace is limited, cows will often meeteach other at a close distance and at thesame time the escape possibilities arelimited (Metz and Wierenga, 1987).

Table 9.4. Minimum width of feeding area and cow alleys.

Alleys between MetreFeed alley – wall 3.20

Feed alley – cubicles a) one row 3.20

Feed alley – cubicles b) two rows 3.40

Feed alley – cubicles c) three rows or more/deep litter 3.60

Cubicles – cubicles 2.40

Cubicles – wall (free/clear passage) 2.40

Crossovers 1.80

Crossovers with drinking places including water trough 3.60

a) One cubicle row for each feeding area side.

b) Two cubicle rows of for each feeding area side.

c) Three cubicle rows or more or deep litter for each feeding area side.

Chapter 9


The floors must be dry and slip resist-ant. The efficiency of slip resistantfloors is primarily determined by meansof the friction coefficient and theamount of manure and urine (Webband Nilsson, 1983; Irps, 1983).

In general, cows defecate irregularly asregards time and locality. It is thus ex-tremely difficult to control this behav-iour in a way that cows dispose of ma-nure/urine at the same place (Metz andWierenga, 1987; Potter and Broom,1987).

If the number of crossovers must be re-duced to one, it is best to place thiscrossover at the end of the cubicle rowinstead of in the middle. Thus cows willcome from two directions only insteadof four (Potter and Broom, 1987).

HealthHoof sufferings are most common inloose housing systems with wet anddirty alleys (Blom, 1982).

Moist floors will have the effect ofsoaking the sole horn and the skin be-tween the hoofs. Thus foreign bodiesand germs will easily penetrate into thehoof. Moreover, the risk of spreadinginfections is high (Maton, 1987).

Hoof rot among cows kept in cow hous-es with solid floor can be expected todevelop faster, and veterinary treat-ments of other hoof sufferings aremore common compared to cattle keptin slatted floor housing (Buchwald etal., 1982; Thysen et al., 1982; Maton,1987; Coehen, 1980).

Hoof trimming of all cows twice peryear is supposed to have a considerableinfluence on the hoof health (Thysen etal., 1985).

A higher incidence of limb sufferingswere registered during the first lacta-tion among cows kept on solid floorthan cows on slatted floor (Thysen etal., 1985).

A raised platform along the feedingplace in connection with solid floorhousing can cause cleaner and drierhoofs (Hultgren and Herlin, 1999).

Other conditionsThere is a considerably higher airchange in open rather than closed cow

houses. The theoretical air change witha medium wind speed of 5 m/s at rightangles to a 12 metre broad buildingwith open facades would be 1,500times per hour (Strøm and Pedersen,1999).

As the high air change results in coldbuildings during cold periods, it is animportant precondition for the thriveand welfare of cows that they have ac-cess to dry resting areas, which are freefrom draught, during the resting peri-ods and that they are able to choosethemselves when to rest (Strøm andPedersen, 1999).

During summer the heat from uninsu-lated roof surfaces may cause problems,which must be taken into account, e.g.when choosing roof material (Strømand Pedersen, 1999).

9.2. Milking areaDefinitionThe milking area is the area in whichthe cow stays while it is being milkedtwo or several times per day.

The milking area is divided into a hold-ing area, entrance part, milking stalls,exit part, return alley, hoof bathing anda separation area.

RecommendationsThe milking area should provide com-fort to the cow both within, during andimmediately after the milking.

The construction and design of themilking area should ensure that thecow can move freely and easy withoutgetting hurt or stressed.

9.2.1 Holding areaThe holding area is the place wherecows stay directly before milking. Theholding area must ensure a constantand sliding intake of new cows whilethe milked cows leave the milkingstalls.

An optimum supply of cows to themilking stalls very much depends onthe design of the holding area. Figure9.18 depicts a holding area.

RecommendationsA holding area should always be estab-lished. The holding area, the milkingparlour room excluded, must be able tohold a group of cows.

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Dairy cows


Milking areaSpace requirements per cowLarge breed, min. 1.50 m2

Jersey, min. 1.35 m2

Cows should not stay more than onehour at the holding area.

The flooring must be absolutely slip re-sistant.

A long, narrow holding area is prefera-ble to a short and broad or squareholding area.

There must be an alignment passagefrom the holding area to the milkingstalls.

Crowd gates with electric shock are notto be recommended.

The holding area should be well-lit andwell-ventilated.

Background and motivationBehaviour• Too little space and a bad climate

will stress the cows unnecessarily• If cows are kept in the holding area

for a long time, they will have lesstime to eat and rest and thus thecow comfort and the production ca-pacity will be reduced

• The milking stalls should not be usedas holding area for the first cowsthat enter the stalls, as they will bestressed by the waiting time and asthey might make the milking stallsunnecessarily dirty

• It is advantageous if the holdingarea slopes towards the milkingstalls, as cows will thus place them-selves in a way that they face themilking stalls and hence they aremore willing to enter the milkingstalls. A 5 – 7% slope appears to beappropriate.

Other conditions• Cows in the holding area should be

protected from injuries owing topressure by mounting a smoothguard rail approximately 90 centime-tre above the floor. The guard railprotects against sharp edges, pillars,wall surfaces and other equipmentthat may pose restrictions on cows(see figure 9.19). The distance be-tween the wall and guard rail shouldbe at least 10 centimetre. The guard

rail opening between rail and wallmust be closed, so the leg of the cowdoes not stuck, if it jumps up therail.

• A mechanical crowd gate that re-duces the holding area, gradually, ascows walk into the milking stalls,will contribute to a uniform and con-stant funnelling of cows into themilking stalls

• On large farms in which cows are di-vided into groups, the holding areamust be dimensioned according tothe group size

Figure 9.18.

Holding area.

Chapter 9


• If the milking must take place con-tinuously while groups are changed,the area of the holding area must beincreased with 25% according to theneed of the largest group

• It is not recommended to omit theholding area, however, on smallfarms the cows are able to utilise thespace between the cubicles, crossoversor the like as holding area in front ofthe milking parlour. If you choosethis solution, the holding area mustbe dimensioned as follows:

Figure 9.20.

(Right)

Milking parlour

entrance part.

Space requirements per cowLarge breed, min. 2.0 m2

Jersey, min. 1.5 m2

Figure 9.19

(Left)

Example of guard

rail.

• If the holding area is placed betweenone or two rows of cubicles, the cu-bicles must be barred with a rail dur-ing milking. Thus the risk of injuriesowing to pressure caused by parti-tions is reduced and the cubicle hy-giene is easier to maintain

• Deep litter areas should not formpart of the holding area.

9.2.2 Entrance partThere is an entrance part between theholding and milking stalls. The en-trance part must ensure that the cows

will enter the milking stalls naturallyand easily.

RecommendationsThe passage between the holding areaand milking stalls should be completelyopen, so cows can see what is happen-ing in the milking parlour. The entrancepart must by means of gates be funnel-shaped to make sure that cows will en-ter the milking stalls one by one. Stepsor other differences in level of the en-trance part must be avoided.

Background and motivationBehaviour• An open passage between the hold-

ing area and milking stalls will pro-mote peace at the holding area.Moreover, an open passage will pro-mote the well-being and the willing-ness to enter the milking stalls

• A funnel-shaped entrance will leadthe cows naturally into a single rowbefore they enter the milking stalls.At the same time the gates will pro-tect the individual cow and in thisway it is able to keep its place whileit is waiting for access to the milkingstalls. Figure 9.20 show an exampleof a funnel-shaped entrance part

• Steps at the entrance part will in theworst case make cows trip and beinjured. In the best case cows will

103

Dairy cows


Milking areastop and this behaviour will reducethe capacity of the milking parlour.

Other conditions• An funnel-shaped entrance part will

provide the possibility of building agood flight of stairs in continuationof the milking passage/pit. In thisway it should be easy for the milkerto “go round the back” of a cowwhich is hesitating to walk into themilking parlour.

9.2.3 Milking stallsCows are milked in the milking stalls.The milking is carried out by means of amilking cluster, which is, basically, thesame regardless of milking parlourtype. However, the milking stalls can bedesigned in different ways, e.g. as a:• Herringbone parlour• Parallel parlour• Tandem parlour• Rotary milking parlour• Automatic milking system (AMS).

The following recommendations applyto all the above-mentioned milking sys-tems:

RecommendationsThe milking stalls must have slip resist-ant and cleaning-friendly floors.

The cow should be able to stand natu-rally during milking.

Cows should be able to pass the milkingstalls freely without running against theparlour equipment. The free distancebetween the equipment must be at least0.90 metre (See figure 9.21).

Herringbone milking parlours, in whichcows are placed in an angle of 50 or 60degrees measured from the edge of theoperator pit, are not to be recom-mended.

Background and motivationBehaviour• Normally, the willingness of cows to

enter the milking stalls will be en-couraged by supplying concentratein feeders. At the same time, howev-er, this will tempt cows to stay in themilking parlour after they have beenmilked.

• Equipment and/or feed boxes at themilking stalls may hinder the freepassage of cows if the opening isless than 0.90 metre. This might re-

Figure 9.21.

Free passage for

cows in milking

parlour.

sult in a slow cow traffic and/or cowinjuries

• Concentrate supply should be re-garded as a precondition of tempt-ing cows to be milked in automaticmilking systems. The willingness towalk into the system can be in-creased further by supplying a tastyfeedstuff

• It is difficult to “fill in” herringbonemilking parlours, in which cows areplaced in an angle of 50 or 60 de-grees measured from the edge ofthe operator pit, if the width space istoo narrow for the cows. However, ifthe space is made broader there is arisk that two cows might try to walknext to each other. In both situationsthe cow and the milker will bestressed. Those problems do not arisein well-proportioned 30 degree her-ringbone stalls with a milking stallwidth of about 150 centimetre(measured at right angles to the op-erator pit edge) and a length of 115centimetre (measured along the op-erator pit edge).

Other conditions• If the milking stall is raised and in-

cludes a holding area and two re-turn alleys, it is possible to establisha milking alley (“an open operatorpit”). Thus it is possible for the milk-

Chapter 9


er to enter the milking alley unob-structedly without a flight (this isalso called a “milking eminence”).

• The troughs for concentrate in themilking parlour must be easy toclean.

9.2.4 Exit part and return alleysThe area of the exit part starts when thecow leaves the milking stall and it lastsuntil the actual housing system starts orthe separation area, if any. The cow mustbe able to move freely without being ob-structed by equipment or building partson its way back to the housing system.

RecommendationsIt is optimal if the cow is able to leavethe milking stall by walking straight for-ward.

If the cow has to make a 90 degreeturn, the inside corner must berounded off. This applies both to milk-ing parlours and return alley, if any(See figure 9.22).

Walking lines with a 180 degree turningare not to be recommended.

Return alleys must be as short as pos-sible.

Return alleys, which cows have to passone by one, must have a free passage of90 centimetre (effective free openingbetween equipment/guard rail).

A return alley, which two or more cowshave to pass at the same time, musthave a free passage of at least 180 centi-metre (effective free opening betweenequipment/guard rail).

There should not be any steps or otherdifferences in level of the exit part. It isnot recommended to establish exitparts, which lead cows directly from themilking stalls or the return alley to thedeep litter area.

Background and motivationBehaviour• The milking stalls are most easily

and quietly emptied by letting cowswalk straight forward towards thedirect exit (“fast exit”) after themilking. Direct exits are most com-mon in tandem parlour and auto-matic milking systems and they canbe established in herringbone (30degree) and parallel parlours.

• In herringbone and parallel stallswith direct exits, sufficient space infront of the milking stalls must beprovided. Normally, a width of about300 centimetre in front of the milking

Figure 9.23.

(Right)

Example of guard

rail placed in

return alley.

Figure 9.22.

(Left)

The inside corner

must be rounded

off when cows have

to make a 90 de-

gree turn in the

milking parlour.

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Dairy cows


Milking areastalls is enough to hold those cowsthat have left the milking stalls be-fore they walk down the return alley

• If the cow wants to make a 90-de-gree turn, it will easily injure itselfand at the same time the walkingspeed of the cow will be reduced(the milking parlour is emptied slow-ly). The rounding off of the insidecorner of the walking line will facili-tate the cow traffic. For further in-formation, please see chapter 2.2“Cattle movement pattern”

• The risk of injuries is even larger inconnection with a 180-degree turn,which can therefore not be recom-mended. However, if it is necessaryfour angles of 45 degrees should bemade

• It may be necessary to finish off thereturn alley by a one-way gate toprevent cows from returning tothemilking parlour.

Health• Cows should be protected from inju-

ries owing to pressure in the returnalley by mounting a smooth guardrail approximately 90 centimetreabove the floor level. The guard railprotects against sharp edges, pillars,wall surfaces and other equipmentthat may pose restrictions on cows.The distance between the wall andguard rail should be at least 10 cen-timetre. The guard rail opening mustbe closed, so the leg of the cow doesnot stuck, if it jumps up the rail (seefigure 9.23)

• Cows should not be able to lie downdirectly after milking, as the teatchannels are still open and prone tomicro organisms from the bedding

• Cows should be prevented from turn-ing on slatted flooring elements asthis activity will increase the risk ofhoof injuries.

Additional information• Steps at the exit part will in the

worst case make cows trip and gethurt. The best situation would be ifthe cows stop, which will reduce thecapacity of the milking parlour.

9.2.5 Hoof bathingHoof bathing provides the possibility ofpreventing/treating hoof sufferingsamong cattle.

RecommendationsA hoof bath must be established or itshould at least be possible for cows toget a hoof bath with an appropriate dis-infectant.

It is not to be recommended to add an-tibiosis to the hoof bath, as the envi-ronmental consequences have not beenestablished yet.

Background and motivationBehaviourA hoof bath will constitute an obstacleto the cows and thus the speed ofmovement of cows is reduced. In orderto reduce this problem, it is importantto observe the following:• A hoof bath is placed in the return

alley farthest off the milking stalls• The hoof bath must have the same

width as the return alley and a depthof 15 centimetres. Moreover, itshould be able to hold 10 centimetreof liquids

• The length of the hoof bath must beminimum 2.20 metre and thereshould be established a slope inboth ends of the bath (a rise of 0.5metre) (See figure 9.24)

• The drain should be established onthe side of the hoof bath, so thecows will not be injured

• If a hoof bath cannot be built, there

Figure 9.24.

Hoof bath.

Chapter 9


should be room enough for a mobilemattress stained with disinfectant.

Health• A hoof bath can be used partly as

prevention and treatment of inter-digital necrobacillosis

• In case of prevention, the hoof bathmust be used one to two times perweek or as required.

Additional information• In order to limit the amount of dirt

in the hoof bath, it is advantageousto establish an additional hoof bathwith water only in front of the actu-al hoof bath

• The drain from the hoof bath mustbe made either by plastic or stainlesssteel.

9.2.6 Separation areaA separation area is the area in whichcows that require a short-term treat-ment will stay for a couple of hours.

RecommendationsIt is a good idea to separate cows inconnection with the milking.

The separation area should be locatedclose to the milking area.

Background and motivationThe separation area holds cattle, whichare going to be inseminated or treatedfor diseases.

It might be an independent area or itmay be a part of the normal housingarea, which is temporarily (for a coupleof hours) used for treatment or diseaseprevention.

Behaviour• It should be possible for cows to eat,

drink, exercise and rest in the sepa-ration area – preferably under cir-cumstances that conform to thecow’s normal housing conditions.

Additional information• Cows may be separated manually or

automatically• It should be easy for the personnel to

look after the cows in the separationarea and thus it should be located ata place the personnel passes oftenduring the day

• It should be easy to catch and fixcattle that need treatment, e.g. bymeans of self-locking feed barriers

• It should be easy to enter the areathrough manholes and/or smallhandy gates

• There should be a table near the sep-aration for the treatment parapher-nalia, etc. Moreover, a wash basinshould be mounted in the table andit is also a good idea to establishshelves under or besides the table

• A separation gate near the milkingstalls will disturb the cow traffic.Thus it should be considered whetherit is most convenient to disturb thecow traffic or catch cows for treat-ment after milking

• If there is room for a whole group ofcows from the milking parlour be-fore the separation gate, the gatewill not seem to disturb the cow traf-fic so much.

9.3 Tied-up housing systemDefinitionCows are tied up by tether or the like.The boxes serve both as resting andfeeding area. Milking is carried out inthe stalls.

Recommendations

DimensionsLength Width

Large breed, min. 1.75 m 1.20 m

Jersey, min. 1.60 m 1.05 m

The building of new tied-up housingsystems is not to be recommended. Thissystem limits the cow’s possibility ofmovement and social behaviour com-pared to loose housing systems.

A large amount of existing tied-uphousing systems work well. However, itwould benefit cows of such housing sys-tems to be at pasture during summerand, if possible, to exercise daily in anexercise fold during winter.

In this section it will be described inwhich ways existing tied-up housing sys-tems can be maintained and improved.

9.3.1 Stall (resting area)Stalls serve both as resting and feedingarea. The stall spans from the rear edgeof the trough to the front edge of themanure channel (see figure 9.25). Thebedding can be concrete flooring orsynthetic mats, a layer of litter is addedon both bedding types.

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Dairy cows


PartitionsIt is recommended that partitions, whichstart from the edge of the trough, aremounted between each stall. The lengthof the partition should be 1.00 metre inconnection with large breeds and 0.90 inconnection with Jersey cows.

Flooring typeThe flooring of the stall must be dry,slip resistant and non-polishing, and thetotal length of the stalls should slope atleast 2% to the rear.

Stalls should be littered with at least 0.5kg straw two times per day. The amountof litter may in some cases be reducedin stalls with mats. It is advantageous toapply cut straw.

The ideal bedding is clean, dry, deform-able, isolating and slip resistant.

Background and motivationCows need sufficient space during thelying down/getting up movement. Theeffective length of the stall is the dis-tance from the rear kerb of the stall tothe spot to which the tether can bedrawn, when the cow rises. The largestcows must be taken into account (aver-age of the 20% largest cows) in connec-tion with the dimensioning.

9.3.2 Feeding areaThe stall does among other things serveas feeding area in tied-up housing sys-tems.

RecommendationsThe trough designThe bottom of the trough must beabout 0.15 metre above the beddinglevel. The in-flexible part of the rearedge of the trough should not exceedthe bedding with more than 0.25 me-tre. If the farmer wishes to establish ahigher rear edge of the trough to re-duce the feed waste, a flexible, elasticpeace of material can be mounted ontop of the rear edge.

Design and location of watering cupsFor further information about recom-mendations for water allocation, designand placement of watering cups andwater troughs/water troughs, please seechapter 6.3.

Background and motivationThe trough design and tether type havecrucial effects on the eating behaviour

Figure 9.26

Trough design

(principle construc-

tion in tied-up

housing system).

Tied-up housingsystem

Figure 9.25.

Cow stalls with

dimensions (length

and width).

Figure 9.27.

Stall partition with

neck rail tether, wa-

ter and trough.

Chapter 9


of cows. The design of the troughshould make sure that the cow can easi-ly get at the feed. Moreover, it shouldmake allowance for the space require-ments of cows when they lie down, getup and rest.

9.3.3 TethersRecommendationsTethers should facilitate the greatestpossible freedom of movement and itshould not cause physical injuries.

The neck rail tetherThe neck rail tether is a tether typewhere cows wear neck straps, which bymeans of a chain is fastened to a neckrail, which is placed in the front.

Cows should not wear chains when theyare at pasture. An alternative could beto tie the chain to the neck strap or toapply shorter chains during summer(0.60 metre).

Sliding chain collar tyingThis is a tether type where the neckstrap is fastened by means of doublecow chains to two sliding poles that aremounted to the partition rails on eachside of the stall.

Figure 9.28.

Cubicle partition

with sliding chain

collar tying, water

and trough.

Placement of neck railHorizontal distance to

rear edge of trough 0.30 m

Vertical distance to the beddingLarge breed 0.85 m +/- 0.05

Jersey 0.80 m +/- 0.05

Sliding chain collar tying LengthDouble cow chains 0.70 m

Sliding poles 0.45 m

Placement of neck railHorizontal distance to

rear edge of trough 0.25 m

Vertical distance to the beddingLarge breed 0.85 m +/- 0.05

Jersey 0.80 m +/- 0.05

The effective chain lengthMin. 0.80 m

However, it is not necessary to apply aneck rail to make the sliding chain col-lar tying work.

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Dairy cows


Tied-up housingsystem

A max. pulse energy of 0.1 joule.

It should be indicated whether the elec-tric trainer is on or not.

To protect cows against unintended andconstant shock, the voltage must switchoff automatically, if the cow receivesfour to five shocks in succession.

ApplicationIndividually adjustable (height – length– electric connection).

The adjustment should be checked (itshould be possible to adjusted the elec-tric trainer without any tools) at leastonce per day.

The electric trainer should not be ap-plied in connection with:• Sick cows• Cows on heat• Down-calving cows.

Behaviour• As regards behaviour cows react vio-

lently to electric shock (Lefcourt,1986)

• The electric trainer limits the possi-bility of cow’s to stretch and buck itsback

• The electric trainer limits the possi-bility of cows to carry our grooming.Thus cows may execute abnormalmovements and hence there is a highrisk that cows may slip.

9.3.5 Walking alleysRecommendationsThe following alley width measure-ments should be regarded as minimummeasurements and they must be adapt-ed to needs and according to those ma-chines that should pass the alleys:

Back alleys:1.40 metre between inside wall andmanure channel.1.20 metre between two manure channels.

Crossovers:2.40 metres if forage wagon and cattlemust pass through.1.20 metre if staff should pass.

Feed alley:(Motor-driven forage wagon transport)2.20 metres between inside walls andthe rear edge of trough.2.60 metres between two trough rearedges.

Background and motivationThe tether should allow the cow tomove back and forward when it risesand reclines. Moreover, it should be pos-sible for the cow to lick most of itsbody and eat without placing itself inawkward postures at the risk of sliding.The cow should also be able to place it-self in a natural resting posture, lying aswell as standing. Finally, it should bepossible for the cow to step back, so themanure and urine will fall down ontothe manure channel and not the bed-ding of the stall.

BehaviourThe sliding chain collar tying will limitthe movements of the cow as well as itsability to lie down and carry out itsgrooming behaviour (Munksgaard &Krohn, 1990; Zeeb, 1968; Mortensen,1971).

Vertical chain tether will limit the free-dom of movement when the cow liesdown and gets up (Mortensen, 1971).

The tether types with shoulder or neckrails will limit the cow’s ability to leanover the feed trough (Mortensen, 1971;Munksgaard & Krohn, 1990).

9.3.4 Cow control equipmentCow trainersAn electric trainer (U-shaped or invert-ed T) which is placed above the back ofthe cow in order to make it move back-wards in the pen right before it urinatesor defecates.

RecommendationsIt is not recommended to use electrictrainers. However, if it is found neces-sary in order to keep the stall clean, it isrecommended that the cow trainer isonly switched on one to two times perweek and the following requirementsshould be observed (Statens Landbruk-stilsyn, 1998):

PlacementFrom the front edge of the stall / back

edge of the trough 0.65 +/- 0.05 m

Min. distance to highest

spot on cow back 0.05 m

VoltageThe max. voltage should be 3,000 (thevoltage of a common outdoor electricfence cannot be applied).

Chapter 9


9.5 Literature

9.5.1 SourcesAlbright, L.D. & H.B. Timmons. 1984. Behaviour

of dairy cattle in the stall housing. Transaction of

the ASAE 27:4:1119-1126.

Andreae, U. & D. Smidt. 1982. Behavioural altera-

tion in young cattle on slatted floors. In “Dis-

turbed behaviour in farm animals”. Hohenhe-

imer Arbeiten 121:51-60.

Anonym. 1994. Strøede staldsystemer - Orienter-

ende brugerundersøgelse, Produktudvikling af

Staldsystemer til kvæg - rapport nr. 94.01. Land-

brugets Rådgivningscenter. 34 pp.

Anonym. 1998. Godkjenningskrav og regler for

bruk av kutrener. Landbrukstilsynet i Norge. 8 pp.

Blom, J. Y. 1981. Trykninger og andre fysiske

skader på malkekøer ved forskellig staldindret-

ning. I. Østergaard, V. & J. Hindhede (eds.) Ko-

stalde, miljø, sundhed og produktion. 515. Be-

retn. Statens Husdyrbrugsforsøg. 73-104 pp.

Blom, J. Y. 1982. Forekomst af kliniske klov-

lidelser hos malkekøer i forskelligt staldmiljø.

532. Beretn. Statens Husdyrbrugsforsøg, Køben-

havn. 128-140 pp.

Blom, J. Y., J. Arnbjerg & K. Nielsen. 1983. Trau-

matiske skader hos malkekvæg under forskellige

staldforhold. Dansk Vet. Tidsskr. 66:19:881-887.

Boxberger, J. 1983. Wichtige Verhaltensparame-

tern von Kühen als Grundlage zur Verbesserung

der Stalleinrichtung. Weihenstephan. 173 pp.

Buchwald, E., J. Y. Blom, H. H. Smedegaard & I.

Thysen. 1982. Klovsundhedens afhængighed af

gulvtype og lejetype. 532. Beret. Statens Husdyr-

brugsforsøg, København. 109-120 pp.

Candurra A., & A. Gusman. 1989. The automatic

feeder influence on milking cows schelters de-

sign. Agricultural Engineering 2:887-892.

Cermak, J. 1987. The design of cubicles for British

friesian dairy cows with reference to body weight

and dimensions, spatial behaviour and upper leg

lameness. In: Wierenga, H.K. & D.J. Peterse (eds.)

Cattle housing systems, lameness and behaviour.

Martinus Nijhoff Publichers. 119-129 pp.

Christensen, P. M. 1998. Betydning af lejets

hældning for liggeadfærd og drøvtygning hos

køer. Speciale i Kvægproduktion. Institut for Hus-

dyrbrug og Husdyrsundhed. Den Kgl. Veterinær-

og Landbohøjskole, Frederiksberg. 98 pp.

Feed alley:(Tractor and wagon transport)3.80 metres between inside wall andrear edge of trough.4.20 metres between two trough rearedges.

9.4 Catch-stall housing systemDefinitionA catch-stall is a housing system in whichcows are “catched” in stalls by means ofhalters, catching rails or chains behindthe cow. The stalls serve both as feedingand resting area, while milking is carriedout in a milking parlour.

RecommendationsCatch-stall housing systems are not tobe recommended due to the followingreasons:• Bad stall hygiene, as cows may drag

manure from the alleys into the stall• The stalls are often relatively short, as

an attempt to keep the stalls clean.Thus cows run the risk of pressuredamage, as they lie out over the rearkerb of the stall

• In connection with heavy types oftether cows may be injured due tolong, loose-suspended chains, espe-cially, if a ball is attached to the endof the chain. This is not to be recom-mended, as these catching devices cancause knee injuries

• In order to make sure that the cowsare catched in the stalls certain tethertypes require equipment that may re-strain the freedom of movement andthe possibility of grooming too much

• As cows can freely choose stall aftertheir own choice after milking, thefarmer will loose the general view(cow certificate) of the cows. (Rådumet al., 1982).

111

Dairy cows


CIGR Design Recommendations Dairy Cow

Housing. 1994. Report of CIGR Section II.

Workiing group no. 14 ADAS, Martyr Worthy

Winchester, SO21 1 AP, England. 56 pp.

Coehen, J. 1980. Mehr Augenmerk den Klauen

schenken. In “DLG-Mitteilungen” 95:1270-1272.

Colam-Ainsworth, P., G. A. Lunn, R. C. Thomas &

R. G. Edy. Behaviour of cows in cubicles and its

possible relationship with laminitis in replace-

ment dairy heifers. Vet. Rec. 1989, 125, 573-575.

Collis, K. A., M. J. Vagg, D. T. Gleed, C. M. Copp

& B. F. Sansom. 1980. The effect of reducing

manger space on dairy cow behaviour and pro-

duction. Vet. Rec. 30, 197-198.

Gebremedhin, K. G., C. O. Cramer & H. J. Larsen.

1985 Preference of dairy cattle for stall options

in free stall housing. Transactions of the ASAE,

28:1637-1640.

Gjestang, K. E. m.fl., 1979. Inredning og teknisk utstyr

for små løsdriftsfjøs, NJF - utredning/rapport nr. 9.

Gjestang, K. E. m.fl. 1983. Utformning av små løs-

driftfjøs (20-30 kyr). NJF-seminar nr. 38. IBT-Rap-

port nr. 190.

Gjestang, K. E. 1983. Feeding table geometry for

dairy cows. Transactions of the ASAE. 890-892.

Hansen, K. 1983. Dybstrøelse til malkekøer, Tre

forskellige typer. Orientering nr. 79. Statens Jor-

dbrugstekniske Forsøg. 31 pp.

Hansen, K. 1984. Gulve i kvægstalde. Orientering

nr. 28. SjF Bygholm, 10 pp.

Hansen, K. og P. Keller. 1991. Løsdriftsstalde med

dybstrøelse til malkekøer. Spørgeundersøgelse.

Orientering nr. 75. Statens Jordbrugstekniske

Forsøg. 42 pp.

Hansen, K., J. Strøm & S. Sigurdsson. 1999.

Lejebelægninger i sengebåse til køer, Grøn Viden

nr. 12. Danmarks JordbrugsForskning. 8 pp.

Hansen, K. 1999. Vurdering af inventarets ud-

formning og placering ud fra køernes trykpåvirk-

ninger. NJF, Sektion VII-Teknik, Workshop nr. 5.

Indretning af sengestalde.

Hansson, M. og J. Wahlander. 1991. Foderliggbås

för mjölkkor. Sveriges Lantbrugsuniversitet, Insti-

tutionen for husdjurens utfodring och vård.

Henneberg, U., L. Munksgaard, E. S. Kristensen,

S. P. Konggaard & V. Østergaard. 1986. Mal-

kekøers Adfærd og produktion ved forskellig

Literaturebelægning i sengestalde. 613. Beret. Statens

Husdyrbrugsforsøg. 61 pp.

Herlin, A., P. Michanek & M. Magnusson. 1994.

Fecal contarmination og the lying area for dairy

cows in different housing systems. Swedish Jour-

nal of agricultural Research 4. 171-176 pp.

Irish, W. W. & R. O. Martin. 1983. Design consid-

eration for free stalls. Dairy Housing II: Proceed-

ings of second National Dairy Housing Confer-

ence, march 14-16, 1983, Madison, Wisconsin.

ASAE SP 4-83:108-121.

Irps, H. 1983. Results of research projects into

flooring preferences of cattle. In: Baxter, S.H.,

M.R. Baxter & J.A.C. MacCormack (eds.) Farm

animal housing and welfare. Nijhoff. 200-214

pp.

Jensen, P., Recén & J. Ekesbo. 1988. Preference of

loose housed dairy cows for two different cubicle

floor coverings. SwediJ. Agric. Res. 18:141-146.

Jørgensen, J. C., S. Eriksen, O. Kristensen, K.

Hansen, P. Keller og H. B. Rom, 1990. Stalde

med trædeudmugning. Orientering nr. 70. Stat-

ens Jordbrugstekniske Forsøg. 17 pp.

Kirchner, M. & J. Boxberger. 1987. Loading of

the claws and the consequences for the design

of slatted floor. In: Wierenga, H.K. & D.J. Peterse

(eds.) Cattle housing systems, lameness and be-

haviour. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 37-45 pp.

Lefcourt, A. M., S. Kahl & R. M. Akers. Correla-

tion of indices of stress with intensity and electri-

cal shock for cows. J. Dairy Sci. 1986, 69, 833-842.

Maton, A. 1987. The influence of the housing

system on claw disorders with dairy cows. In:

Wierenga, H. K. & D. J. Petersen (eds.) Cattle

housing systems, lameness and behaviour. Mar-

tinus Nijhoff Publischers. 151-159 pp.

Maton, A. & J. Daelemans. 1989. Modern hous-

ing of cattle and their welfare. Agricultural En-

gineering 2:921-925.

Metz, J. H. M. 1981. Social reactions of cows

when crowded. App. Anim. Ethol. 4:384-385.

Metz, J. H. M. 1983. Food competition in cattle.

In: S. H. Baxter, M. R. Baxter & J. A. C. MacCor-

mack (eds.) Farm animal housing and welfare.

Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.

Metz, J. H. M. & P. Mekking. 1984. Croweing

phenomena in dairy cows as related to availa-

ble idling space in cubicle housing systems.

App. Anim. Behav. Sci. 12, 63-78 pp.

Chapter 9


Metz, J. H. M. & H. K. Wierenga. 1984. Spatial

requirements and lying behaviour of cows in

loose housing system. In: Unshelm, J., G. van

Putten, K. Zeeb (eds.) Proceedings of the inter-

national congress on applied ethology in farm

animals (Kiel). KTBL Darmstadt. 179-183 pp.

Metz, J. H. M. 1984. The reactons of cows to a

shortterm deprivation of lying. App. Anim. Be-

hav. Sci. 13:301-307.

Metz, J. H. M. & H. K. Wierenga. 1987. Behav-

ioural criteria for the design of housing systems

for cattle. In: Wierenga. H.K. & D. J. Petersen

(eds.) Cattle housing systems, lameness and be-

haviour. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 14-26 pp.

Mortensen, B. 1971. Forsøg med bindsler til

køer. 1.33. SBI Landbrugsbyggeri. Statens By-

ggeforskningsinstitut. 156 pp.

Munksgaard, L. & C. C. Krohn. 1990. Koens

nærmiljø. Forsøg med forskellige bindseltyper

og udformninger af foderbordet. Beret. fra

Statens Husdyrbrugsforsøg, Foulum.

Natzke, R. P., D. R. Ray & R. W. Everett. 1982.

Cow preference for free stall surface material. J.

Bairy Sci. 65:146-153.

Näsi, M. & H. Saloniemi. 1981. Effect of environ-

mental change on injuries of udder and legs in

dairy cows. Nord. Vet. Med. 33:185-193.

Pallesen, C. N. 1997. Foderpladsens udformning

i løsdriftstalde til kvæg, speciale, M.Sc. i kvæg-

produktion. Institut for Husdyrbrug og Husdyr-

sundhed. Den Kgl. Veterinær- og Landbo-

højskole, Frederiksberg. 129 pp.

Potter, M. J. & D. M. Broom. 1987. The behav-

iour and welfare of cows in relation to cubicle

house design. In: Wierenga, H. K. & D. J. Pe-

tersen (eds.) Cattle housing sstems, lameness

and behaviour. martinus Nijhoff Publishcer.

129-151 pp.

Rom, H. B. 1989. Koens Nærmiljø. Beretning nr.

42, Statens jordbrugstekniske Forsøg, 59 pp.

Rådum, A., B. Mortensen & N. O. Olesen. 1982.

Fodersengestalde, SBImeddelelse nr. 18, Statens

Byggeforskningsinstitut.

Rådum, A., B. Mortensen & N. O. Olesen. 1982.

Fangbåsestalde. SBI-meddelelse nr. 26 - Statens

Byggeforskningsinstitut. 28 pp.

Schopper, D. et al. 1989. Tierärtzl. Umschau, 44,

72-78 pp.

Smidt, M., M. Jørgensen, Aa. Møller-Medesen,

H. Jensen, Z. Horvath, P. Keller & S. P. Kong-

gaard. 1985. Halm som strøelse til malkekøer.

593. Beret. Statens Husdyrbrugsforsøg. 90 pp.

Statens Landbrukstilsyn, Norge, 06.07.98. Ret-

ningslinjer for bruk av kutrener.

Strøm, J. & J. Pedersen. 1999. Åbne stalde, Grøn

Viden nr. 16. Danmarks JordbrugsForskning. 6 pp.

Thysen, I., E. Buchwald, J. Y. Blom & H. H. Sme-

degaard. 1982. Staldtypens og staldind-retnin-

gens betydning for klovsundheden hos malke-

koen. 532. Beret. Statens Husdyrbrugsforsøg,

København. 141-152 pp.

Thysen I., J. Y. Blom & K. Nielsen. 1985. Klov- og

benlidelser, reproduktionssygdomme samt

fordøjelses- og stofskiftesygdomme hos mal-

kekøer ved forskellig staldtype og staldindret-

ning. 588. Beret. Statens Husdyrbrugsforsøg,

København. 83-103 pp.

Wierenga, H. K. 1983. The influence of the

space for walking and lying in a cubicle system

on the behaviour of dairy cattle. In: (eds. Bax-

ter, S. H., M. R. Baxter & J. H. C. MacCormack)

Farm animal housing and welfare. Martinus Ni-

jhoff Publishers. 171-181 pp.

Wierenga, H. K. & H. Hopster. 1989. The impor-

tance of cubicles for dairy cows. Submitted to

App. Anim. Beh. Sci. June 30th 1989.

9.5.2 Supplementary literatureAnonym. 1995. Malkestaldsguide. Alfa-Laval

Agri A/S. 90 pp


Equipment. 6. udg. MWPS-7. Iowa State Univer-

sity, Ames, Iowa. 136 pp. ISBN 0-89373-087-4.

Anonym. 1997. Malkecenter - anbefalinger og

ideer. Danske bygningskonsulenter. Land-


Anonym. 2000. Sand i sengebåse - Orienter-

ende brugerundersøgelse, Produktudvikling af

Staldsystemer til kvæg - rapport nr. 00.01. Land-


Bickert, W. G. & R. R. Stowell. 1997. Plan Guide

for free stall systems. 2. udg. W.D. Hoard & Sons

Co., 28 Milwaukee Av. W., Fort Atkinson WI

53538, USA. 41 pp. ISBN 0-932147-30-5

Bergsten C., J. Hultgren. 1996. The develop-

ment of loose housing system for dairy cows to

inprove the health of their feet. Program and

113

Dairy cows


LiteratureAbstracts for The International Symposium on

Disorders og Ruminent, Digit and The Interna-

tional Conference on Lameness in Cattle.

Mitzpeh Rachel, Jerusalem april 1999. 54 pp.

Clemmensen, A. 1998. Intern håndtering af halm

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98.01. Landbrugets Rådgivningscenter. 64 pp.

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Dalgaard, I. 2000. Måtter og madrasser i senge-

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Hansen, K., J. Strøm, M. Levring & S. Sigurds-

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Danmarks Jordbrugsforskning.

Hultgren, J. & A. Herlin. 1999. Stallutformning

och kohälsa, hygien, ätbeteende, juver- och

klovhälsa hos bundna och lösgående kor. Sven-

sk Mjölks Djurhälso- och utfodringskonferens,

Borås 1999. 51- 53 pp.

Keller, P. 1994. Håndtering af støelse og gødn-

ingsmåtte i dybstrøelsestalde. Beretning nr. 58.

Statens Jordbrugstekniske Forsøg. 22 pp.

Kromann, H. 1993. Vejledning i indretning af

mælkerum. Landbrugets Rådgivningscenter. 37 pp.

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geri 65. Statens Byggeforskningsinstitut. 50 pp.

Oswald, T. 1992. Der Kuhtrainer FAT-Bericht nr.

37 Eidg. Forschungsanstalt für Betriebswirtschaf

und Landtechnik, Tänikon, Switzerland.

Rasmussen, J. B., L. Jepsen, M. D. Rasmussen, S.

Clausen, O. Kristensen 1999. AMS - Automatiske

malkesystemer. Landbrugets Rådgivningscenter.

26 pp. ISBN 87-7470-738-6.

Reinemann, D. J. 1996. Milking Cenet Options.

Stepping into the Future. Four State Dairy Ex-

tension Conference 1996. Universety of Wiscon-

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beskrivelse for stalde til malkekøer. 31. SBI-

medd. Statens Byggeforskninsinstitut. 98 pp.

Saloniemi, H. 1980. Udder diseases in dairy cows

- Field observations on incidence somatic and

environmental factors and control. J. Scient.

Agric. Soc. of Finl. 52:85-184.

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echtheit praxisüblicher Gestaltung von Lauf-

flaechen für Milchvieh im Boxenlaufstall. Liz.

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Malkecenter, malkerutiner og staldindretning.

Mejeriforeningen, Århus. 57 pp.

Chapter 10


Beef cattle

The design of beef cattle housing sys-tems does not differ considerably fromthe design of dairy cow housing sys-tems. However, some adjustments needto be made as the majority of thebreeds is larger than the dairy breedsand they may have horns.

RecommendationsDeep litter housing systems with lit-tered resting area and separate feedingarea with solid floor (possibly slattedfloor) are to be preferred.

Calving time and choice of strategy forfattening male animals have consider-able influence on the herd housing re-quirements. Focus is especially onautumn calving as opposed to springcalving and whether the bull calves aredelivered as beef calves, young bulls orbullocks.

10.1 Weight and bodydimensionsTable 10.1 shows birth weight, 200-dayand 365-day weights of various beefcattle breeds. Table 10.2 shows beefbull body dimensions dependent onweight when the animals are approxi-mately one year old.

Table 10.3 shows the weight and bodydimensions among full-grown femaleanimals of different beef cattle breeds.

10.2 Feeding and resting areasGenerally beef cattle are larger thandairy cattle breeds of the same age.When dimensioning housing systemsand equipment this has to be takeninto consideration.

RecommendationsTable 10.4 indicates the recommendedfeeding and resting area dimensionsfor beef cattle.

Table 10.1. Birth weight, 200-day weight and 365-day weight for beef cattle breeds.

Birth weight, kg 200-day weight, kg 365-day weight, kgBreed Bulls Heifers Bulls Heifers Bulls HeifersDexter 21 20 155* 134** 265* 224**

Highland Cattle 30 28 192 176 285 248

Piemontese 46 41 248* 254 428* 368*

Belgian Blue White Cattle 50 45 243* 223* 450** 370*

Grauvieh 41 38 331* 242* 464** 423**

Hereford 42 39 276 246 507 378

Limousine 41 39 291 254 515 392

Aberdeen-Angus 37 35 293 259 518 389

Charolais 49 46 310 280 559 444

Simmental 45 42 330 298 571 452

Blonde d’Aquitaine 49 45 331 300 580 442

Danish Shorthorn 36 35 296** 234* - 349**

Salers 40* 36* - 256* - 352**

200-day weight and 365-day weight have been corrected for date of weighing if the animal has

been weighed at 200 +/- 60 days and 365 +/- 60 days. A 365-day weight has only been calculated if

the animal already has a 200-day weight registered.

* = Less than 25 registered weighings.

** = 5 or less registered weighings.

Source: Kvægdatabasen, september 2000.

115

Beef cattle


Feeding andresting areas

The indicated feeding area dimensionsinclude dehorned and hornless animals.If horned animals are housed, it isnecessary to increase the feeding areawidth and the resting area with up to20% dependent on breed and the ani-mals’ temperament.

Calf shedsIn beef cattle herds cows often calve inthe housing where calves and cows arehoused together. The calf shed (See

figure 10.1) is recommended for tworeasons:• Calves can lie in shelter in between

the suckling periods when the cowswalk away to eat and drink.

• In the calf shed concentrate can besupplied for the calves to achieve ahigher gain.

Autumn calving requires extra area inthe deep litter. The extra space is e.g.to be used for the establishment of calf

Table 10.2. Weight and body dimensions among beef cattle breeds (individual test resultsfor male animals 1999/2000).

Breed No of Veight, kg Height at Heart Thurl Hipbulls (392 days) withers, cm girth, cm width, cm width, cm

Simmental 39 669 130 198 52 48

Highland Cattle 7 363 108 165 40 40

Danish Gelbvieh 1 753 136 201 51 49

Forest breed 11 594 126 192 49 46

Salers 3 563 128 186 49 46

Galloway 1 495 108 183 43 44

Aberdeen Angus 12 606 126 196 50 49

Limousine 47 585 122 188 51 47

Piemontese 4 565 122 188 51 47

Hereford 18 584 126 191 50 48

Blonde d’Aquitaine 18 620 129 193 52 48

Danish Shorthorn 3 570 126 186 51 49

Danish Charolais 15 646 126 194 54 49

Belgian Blue White Cattle 4 550 126 191 51 45

Source: LK-meddelelse nr. 539. 4. september 2000. Landbrugets Rådgivningscenter, Landskontoret

for Kvæg.

Table 10.3. Weight and body dimensions among beef cattle breeds (full-grown female ani-mals).

Breed Weight, Height at Body length, m Hip width, mkg withers, m (shouder/pin bone) (thurl width)

Dexter 325 1.00 1.30 0.40

Highland Cattle 550 1.18 1.45 0.48

Galloway 550 1.18 1.45 0.48

Aberdeen Angus 700 1.37 1.49 0.53

Hereford 750 1.35 1.40 0.52

Limousine 750 1.41 1.64 0.55

Charolais 800 1.39 1.57 0.54

Simmental 850 1.42 1.70 0.56

Chapter 10


Figure 10.1.

A calf shed for suck-

lers in deep litter

housing systems.

sheds and calves must have the possi-bility of being supplied supplementaryfeed during the last months beforeweaning. Additionally the extra space isnecessary as calves at weaning mayweigh 250-300 kg weight and conse-quently start to require a larger area inthe housing. The calf shed is dimen-sioned by 1.5 m2 per calf.

At spring calving calf sheds are alsoestablished but this does not affect thecow resting area as the calves are onlyhoused for one month on average.

Access to the calf shed must be de-signed in a way as to prevent cowsfrom accessing the area. The calf shedopening must be 0.90 meter heigh and0.4 meter wide and preferably with ad-justable “rollers” in both door frames.

Calves of the smallest beef cattlebreeds, e.g. Dexter, require smalleropening areas.

Feeding areaThe choice is between a short or a longfeeding area.• The short feeding area is established

with a slope towards the restingarea and it should be no longer thanthe animals’ body length. Access to

the feeding area in the entire penwidth. The feeding area is self-clean-ing. When animals go to and fromit, manure is pulled down to theresting area where it is incorporatedinto the manure mat.

• The long feeding area is establishedwith solid floor, which must becleaned, or with slatted floor. Thefeeding area is to be wide enoughfor alongside traffic at the sametime as animals are eating.

• If the pen is designed with deep lit-ter at the entire area the feedtrough height is to be adjusted tothe height of the deep litter layer.This may require an adjustable feedtrough.

WaterIn general beef cattle need smalleramounts of water than dairy cattle.Recommendations for drinking waterallocation, design and location ofwatering cups and water troughs canbe seen in chapter 6, section 6.3.

Feeding rackIt is recommended to use self-lockingfeed barriers to be able to fix the ani-mals. Recommended neck opening is ata minimum of 0.25 meters.

117

Beef cattle


Literature

Table 10.4. Recommended dimensions for beef cattle feeding and resting areas.

Feeding area, mWidth Short Long Resting area, m2

Sucklers, 0.75 - 0.90 1.80 - 2.00 3.20 - 3.60 1 m2/100 kg

600 - 800 kg Min. 0,25 * Live weight

Weaned first year calves, 0.50 - 0.60 1.40 - 1.65 2.40 - 2.80 2.5 - 3.5

200-499 kg

Second year calves, 0.55 - 0.70 1.55 - 1.80 2.60 - 3.20 3.0 - 4.5

300-699 kg

Young bulls, 0.50 - 0.65 1.40 - 1.75 2.40 - 3.00 2.5 - 4

200-599 kg

Breeding bulls 0.75 - 0.90 1.80 - 2.00 3.20 - 3.60 1m2/100 kg

Min. 0.25* Live weight

Bullocks are considered young stock in respect of area requirements. Please also see chapter 8.

* = Neck opening, preferably adjustable.

When using fully littered pens the deep litter area is to be at 20% larger because the animals stand

on the mat when eating.

At autumn calving further 1.5 m2 per cow are added to establish calf sheds.

If self-locking feed barriers are not ap-plied at the feeding rack, tethering andhandling possibilities must be estab-lished somewhere else in the housingsystem, e.g. in the shape of a collectingfold with head gates.

It must be easy to free animals that fallwhile they are tethered by means ofthe self-locking feed barriers.

Manholes and gatesIn loose housing systems an appro-priate amount of manholes or smallerone-hand operated gates should be es-tablished. Manholes must ensure easyand untroubled access to the zoneswhere animals are located in connec-tion with supervision, treatments (e.g.insemination). Moreover, manholesmust function as escape routes for thestaff, if necessary. For informationabout design of manholes and gates,please see chapter 9. Dairy cows.

Background and motivationPlease see chapter 9. Dairy cows andchapter 8. Calves and young stock.

10.3 Literature

10.3.1 SourcesKvægdatabasen, september 2000 (upubliceret

data).

LK-meddelelse nr. 539. 4. september 2000. Land-

brugets Rådgivningscenter, Landskontoret for

Kvæg.

10.3.2 Supplementary literatureFoged, H. L., M.K. Schou, J.Y. Blom, 1995. Kød-

kvæg-avl, fodring, pasning og økonomi. Jord-

brugsforlaget.

Iowa State University, Arnes, lowa, 1987. Beef

Housing and Equipment handbook.

Anonym 2000. Fangefolde og indhegning til

kvæg, 2. udg. Landbrugets Rådgivningscenter.

Landskontoret for Kvæg. 26 pp.

Chapter 11


Outdoor exercise folds

11.1 Outdoor exercise foldsOutdoor exercise folds are defined asconsolidated areas placed in direct con-nection with the housing. Outdoor ex-ercise folds give cattle the opportunityof outdoor exercise at all times of theyear.

RecommendationsIn order for the outdoor exercise foldto make out a comfortable place forcattle, it should be correctly locatedand preferably in shelter along thesouth and south-eastern sides of thebuildings. Shelter can be established inthe fold, e.g. by planting a windbreakbelt or mounting wind-breaking netsalong some of the exercise fold sides.

The recommended areas for the variousweight groups are listed in table 11.1.The area is calculated from the numberof animals, which has simultaneous ac-cess to the fold.

DimensioningThe outdoor exercise fold is to be di-mensioned from the maximum numberof animals planned to have simultane-ous access. This does not necessarilymean the entire herd at the same time.Division into groups makes it possibleto let the individual groups have accessto the outdoor fold in turn.

Construction of outdoor exercise foldThe outdoor exercise fold is to be de-marcated in the sides with a berm andsupplied with flooring, which cannotbe penetrated by moist. The bermaround the outdoor exercise fold must

prevent surface water from the sur-rounding areas from penetrating theoutdoor exercise fold and at the sametime ensure that manure and urine donot pollute the surrounding areas. Theberm must be at a minimum of 20 cen-timetres above the outdoor exercisefold flooring.

The outdoor exercise fold flooring mustslope 1.5 - 2% towards drain or drain-age channel in order for urine and sur-face water to be channelled away. Sur-face water, manure and urine are chan-nelled to a pre-storage tank or otherstorage. Amount of precipitationshould be calculated the same way aswhen collecting rainwater at uncoveredmanure storage (0.7 m3/m2/year).

The outdoor exercise fold flooring mustbe slip resistant to improve the animalcomfort (please see chapter 6, section6.2 on floors).

To maintain good hygiene and goodhoof health, outdoor exercise foldsmust be easy to clean. The cleaning ofthe fold will typically be carried outmechanically, e.g. with a tractor-mount-ed scraper. Cleaning of the fold mustnot cause wear and tear on the floor-ing, which will reduce the slip resistantsafety of the flooring.

Access to the outdoor exercise fold cantake place through gates and/or a cat-tle grid. A cattle grid can simultaneous-ly function as a protected scrapingdown place for manure from the out-door exercise fold. In connection withgates and cattle grids there should be amarginal zone with a solid flooringoutside the outdoor exercise fold.Floorings in marginal zones are placedwith slope towards drains and perhapsthe cattle grid, if this functions asdrain.

FencingThe fencing around the outdoor exer-cise fold must be designed securely inorder not to injure cattle at contactwith the fencing or as a consequence ofescapes from the fold.

Table 11.1. Recommended area in out-door exercise folds, m2/animal.

Area, minAnimal weight, kg m2/animal

100 1.5

200 2.0

300 2.5

400 3.0

500 3.5

600 4.0

700 5.0

119

Outdoorexercise folds


A solid fencing may e.g. consist of:• Cast in posts for each 2.5 meters of

fencing. As a minimum the posts areto be in 0.75 m depth. Posts can e.g.be 75 millimetres steel tubes or 125x 125 millimetres wooden poles.

Between the posts 4 horizontal rails orplanks are placed 0.5 meters, 0.8 meters,1.1 meters and 1.45 meters, respectively,above the ground. Examples of horizon-tal rails or planks may e.g. be:• Steel tubes (5-centimetre diameter)• Spring tightened steel wires (1-1.2

centimetres)• Planed wooden planks (5 x 12.5 cen-

timetres, on top 5 x 20 centimetres,however).

In outdoor exercise folds for calves andyoung stock it is possible to omit theupper horizontal rails or planks.

Background and motivation• When grazing dairy cows walk 2-4

kilometres every day dependent onamount of grass and size of fold(Zeeb, 1983; Krohn et al., 1992)

• In loose housing systems with accessto outdoor exercise folds the dailywalking distance is approx. 1 kilome-tre (Zeeb 1983)

• It is considerably easier for exercis-ing cows to get up and lie downthan cows, which do not get any ex-ercise (Gustafson et al., 1988; Krohnand Rasmussen, 1990)

• The reproduction conditions improveand the level of diseases decreaseswhen cows in tied-up housing sys-

Figure 11.1.

Example of fencing

of an outdoor exer-

cise fold with cattle

grid.

tems are offered regular exercise,e.g. summer grazing (Krohn, 1986).

11.2 Literature

11.2.1 SourcesGustafson, G. M., M. Andersson & E. Lund. 1988.

Getting up and lying down behaviour in tied and

exercised dairy cows. SVE-summer meeting. Ska-

ra, Sverige.

Krohn, C. C. 1986. Motion til malkekøer i bind-

estalde. Ugeskrift for jordbrug, 46, 1364-1366.

Krohn, C. C. & M. D. Rasmussen. 1990. Motion til

malkekøer. Medd. nr. 763 fra Statens Husdyr-

brugsforsøg. 4 pp.

Krohn, C. C., L., Munksgaard & B. Jonasen. 1992.

Behaviour of dairy cows kept in extensive (loose

housing/pasture) or intensive (tie stall) environ-

ments. I. Experimental procedure, facilities, time

budgets journal and seasonal konditions. Appl.

Anim. Behav. Sci., 34: 37-47.

Zeeb, K. 1983. Locomotion and space structure in

6 cattle units. Farm Animal Housing and Welfare,

Martinus Nijhoff Publishers for CEC.

11.2.2 Supplementary literatureAnonym, 1991. Færiste til kvæg. Landbrugets

Byggeblade grp. nr. 103.07-05. Landbrugets


Anonym. 1998. Handling the herd. Kondinin

Group. 300 pp.

Anonym. 2000. Fangefolde og indhegning til

kvæg. Landskontoret for Kvæg. Landbrugets


Literature


A

Abnormal behaviour 25Ad-lib feeding 21, 95Aggressive behaviour 15Air humidity 47, 48Air inlet 49Air outlet 49Alleys 77Artificial teat 24, 79Automatic feeder 78Automatic feeding station 95, 96Automatic milk feeder 79Automatic milking system (AMS) 103

B

Back alleys 109Bedding 18Body dimensions 28Brisket board 88, 91Building insulation 48

C

Calf huts 69Calf shed 64, 115Calving 22Calving pen 64Catch-stall housing system 110Cattle grid 118Cattle senses 12Circadian rhythm 16Cleaning 36, 61Cleaning-friendly floors 103Climate 39Climate tolerant 46Climatic requirements 46Coating 55, 59, 60Collecting fold 117Colostrum 24, 64Comfort behaviour 19Communication 13Concentrate feeder 78Concrete floors 54, 55Condensed water 48Cow alley 99Cow trainer 109Crossovers 99, 100, 109Crowd gate 101Cubicle 76, 86, 87, 99Cubicle bedding 89Cubicle partition 76, 87

D

Dairy cow 86Deep litter 71, 86, 91Direct exit 104Disinfection 36Draught 46, 47Drift height 49Drinking station 79Drinking water 56Drive alley 71Dummy-teat 69Dust 47

E

Entrance part 102Entrance room 34Equipment 54Equipotential bonding 59Exercise area 77, 99Exercise fold 69Exercise need 71Exit part 104

F

Farm asphalt 59Fast exit 104Feed alley 109Feed bowl 69Feeder 103Feeding area 77, 94, 99, 107, 116Feeding cubicle 86Feeding place 78, 94, 95Feeding platform 96Feeding rack 78, 95, 97, 116Fencing 118Flights 91Flooring type 107Floors 54Front rails 87Frost control 58

G

Galvanic corrosion 60, 61Galvanisation 59Gases 47Grazing 20Grooming 15, 19Grounding connection 60Guard rail 102

Subject index


H

Handing over cattle 33Hayrack 69Heat production units 49Herd handling 39Herringbone parlour 103High density of animals 13Holding area 100Hoof 54Hoof bath 105Hoof care 38Hoof trimming 36, 100Hoof wear 55Hot rolled asphalt 54

I

Illumination 49Immune response 24Individual distance requirements 13Infection protection 33, 35Infectious disease 33, 35Insulated building 48Insulation 48

J

Joint pens 68Jointly housed cattle 71

L

Landing 96Light 47Litter 76, 92Loose housing 86Lying down and getting up behaviour

16Lying down time 90Lying frequency 16Lying place 18Lying time 16

M

Manholes 95, 117Materials 54, 59Mats 89, 90Mattresses 89, 90Mechanical ventilation 46, 49Medicine and chemical storage 36Milk feeding 79Milk storage room 55Milking alley 55, 103Milking area 100

Milking parlour 103Milking stall 101, 103Minimum ventilation 49Mobile shelter 75

N

Natural ventilation 49Neck rail 78Neck rail tether 108Night light 47Nipple drinkers 69Nursing cow system 25

O

One-way gate 105Operator pit 55Optimal group size 14Orientation light 47

P

Painting 59Parallel parlour 103Partition 87, 90, 91, 92, 96, 107Pen area 71Precipitation 47Profiled surface 54Purchase of cattle 33

R

Raised feeding platform 97Ramps 91Ranking 14Rear kerb 76, 88Reconstruction programme 35Relative air humidity 47Reproduction 22Resting area 71, 87Restrictive feeding 21Return alley 104Roof ridge 51Rotary milking parlour 103Rumination 21

S

Sand 89Sand bedding 76Sawdust 66, 76, 89Scrapers 96Self-cleaning sloping pen 87Self-locking feed barrier

78, 94, 95, 97, 106, 117


Separation 31, 35Separation area 104, 106Separation gate 106Separation section 35Shavings 66Shelter 75Sidewalls 51Single pen 68Slatted floor 56, 77Sliding chain collar tying 71, 108Slip resistant

54, 55, 56, 78, 89, 91, 99, 100, 103Slip resistant coefficient 90, 91Slope 77, 86, 89, 90, 91, 96Social behaviour 13Solid floor 54, 96Sound 48Stall 70, 106Stereotypies 25Sticking effect 50, 51Straw 76Straw mats 89Straw mattresses 76Supervision 38, 39, 117Surface temperature 47Surface treatment 59

T

Tandem parlour 103Teat bucket 68, 69, 79Teat-dummies 79

Temperature 46Tethers 108Thermoregulation 46Tied-up housing system 106Treatment section 35Trough 78, 97Trough design 94, 107

U

Uninsulated building 48

V

Ventilation 48, 49, 51Ventilation area 49, 51

W

Walking alley 99, 109Waste handling 36Water intake 21Water supply 58Water trough 57, 95Watering cup 57Weaning 25Wind speed 46, 47Wind-breaking covering 51Winter climate 46Wood shavings 76, 89Work routines 38Working light 47

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