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VirtuesandVices:andotheressaysinmoralphilosophyPhilippaFoot

Printpublicationdate:2002PrintISBN-13:9780199252862PublishedtoOxfordScholarshipOnline:November2003DOI:10.1093/0199252866.001.0001

Nietzsche:TheRevaluationofValues*PhilippaFoot

DOI:10.1093/0199252866.003.0006

AbstractandKeywords

FewphilosophersinrecentyearshaveattemptedtorefuteFriedrichNietzsche'sattackonChristianandothermoralities.NietzscheseesthemoralityderivedfromChristianityasharmfulbecauseitisslavish,rootedinweakness,fear,malice,andadesireforpunishmentofoneselfandothers.Heseesthepreoccupationwithothersthroughpityandcharityasasignofspiritualillhealthandarguesthatweshouldvaluethestrong;hencehisconceptofthebermensch,orSuperman.Theauthorcriticizestheseviews.

Keywords:charity,Christianity,FriedrichNietzsche,pity,punishment,bermensch

Thisproblemofthevalueofpityandofthemoralityofpity...seemsatfirstsighttobemerelysomethingdetached,anisolatedquestionmark;butwhoeverstickswithitandlearnshowtoaskquestionsherewillexperiencewhatIexperiencedatremendousnewprospectopensupforhim,anewpossibilitycomesoverhimlike

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avertigo,everykindofmistrust,suspicion,fearleapsup,hisbeliefinmorality,inallmorality,faltersfinallyanewdemandbecomesaudible...weneedacritiqueofmoralvalues,thevalueofthesevaluesthemselvesmustjustbecalledinquestion...(GMPreface6).1

WhatNietzscheexpresseshere,hissenseofthefearfulstrangenessofhisthoughts,issomethingintenselyfeltandnotunfittinggiventhefactsofthecase.Forinhislonely,highlydaringmentalvoyagehehadcometoaviewoflifewhichwasquiteunlikethatofanyofhiscontemporaries,andwhichbroughthimtochallengewaysofthoughtandbehaviourcenturiesold.Hewasready,hesaid,tocallinquestionChristianmoralityandevenallmorality,andwhenhehadquestionedhecondemned.YetNietzschesawasclearlyasanyonethatmoralitycouldfascinateandinspire.Thoushalthesaidisthenameofagreatdragonsparklinglikegold(ZIOntheThreeMetamorphoses10).Heknewthatwhathewasdoingwasalmostunthinkable;hewasbrandingasevilwhatseemedmostcertainlygood.

Nowonewouldexpectthatsuchachallengefromanundoubtedgeniusmusteitherbedefeatedorelseshaketheworld.Butneitherofthesethingshavehappened.ItistruethatNietzsche'stheories(oratravestyofthem)playedabriefand(p.82) ingloriouspartontheworld'sstagewhenhewasproclaimedasaprophetbytheNazis,butbyandlargehehasneitherbeenacceptednorrefuted,andthisseemsaremarkablefact.Howisit,onemayask,thatphilosopherstodaydonoteventrytorefuteNietzsche,andseemtofeelmoralityasfirmaseverundertheirfeet?Whydowenotarguewithhimaswearguewithotherphilosophersofthepast?PartoftheanswerseemstobethataconfrontationwithNietzscheisadifficultthingtoarrange.Wefindithardtoknowwherewecouldmeethimbecauseoftheintrinsicallypuzzlingnatureofaprojectsuchashis.Nietzschehaddemandedacritiqueofmoralvaluesandannouncedthathewascallinginquestionthevalueofthesevaluesthemselves.Buthowcanonevaluevalues?Theideaofsuchathingisenoughtomakeone'sheadspin.Itis,therefore,witharuefulsenseofthedifficultiesthatIshalltry,inthisessay,toconfrontNietzsche,oratleasttohelptopreparethegroundforaconfrontation.

Aproblemarisesattheoutset.InthepassageIquotedhespokeofthemoralityofpitybutalsoofallmorality.Whichshallwetakehistargettobe?IshallconsiderfirstNietzsche'sspecialobjectiontoChristianmorality,withitsteachingofthevirtuesofhumilityandcompassion,anditsrejectionoftheworld.

NietzschewantedtoshowChristianmoralityasaslavemoralityrootednotinanythingfineoradmirablebutratherinweakness,fear,andmalice;thesewereitsoriginsandtotheseoriginsitspresentnatureconformed.Inthismoralitythegoodmanisthehumbleandcompassionateman,theonewhoisnottobefeared.Butoriginally,heinsists,itwasquiteotherwise.Inthebeginningitwasthestrong,noble,privilegedaristocratwhocalledhimselfgood,andcalledthosewholackedhisownqualitiesbad.Theseoldconceptswereturnedontheirheadswhentheperspectiveoftheweakprevailed.Forthenthecontrastofwhatwasgoodandbad(schlecht)gavewaytothecontrastbetweenwhatwasgoodandevil(bse);theweakbrandedthosetheyfearedevil,andpraisedthepropitiatory

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qualitiesnaturaltomenlikethemselveswhowereincapableofaggression.Wheretheoldvaluationhadbeenpositivethenewwasnegative;themembersoftheherdmustfirstbrandtheenemiestheyfearedasevilbeforethey(p.83) couldseethemselvesasgood.MoreoverNietzschedetectsalargeamountofmaliceundertheprofessionsofChristianhumilityandgoodwill.Whentheweakcallthestrongevilthemoveisnotmerelydefensive;itisalsoanexpressionofthatpeculiarmalicewhichNietzschereferredtoasressentiment.Thosewhocultivatehumilityandtheotherpropitiatoryvirtuestocloaktheirweaknessnourishanenviousresentmentagainstthosestrongerthanthemselves.Theywantrevengefortheirinferiorityandhaveadeepdesiretohumiliateandharm.ThewishtopunishseemstoNietzscheoneofthemostevidentsignsofthishiddenmalice,andheseestheideaoffreewill,andaccountability,asinventedbythosewhodesiredtoinflictpunishment.Norispunishmentalwaysdirectedoutward;themanofselfsacrificingvirtueisresentfulandvenomousalsotowardshimself.ButthusIcounselyou,myfriends:Mistrustallinwhomtheimpulsetopunishispowerful(ZIIOntheTarantulas).

ThemanprofessingChristianvirtuesis,Nietzscheinsists,asickindividual,deeplymalicioustohimselfandothers.Hehasbeentaughttorejectlifeasitis,todespisehisownsensuality,andtotormenthimselfandothersinthenameofhisideals.Eventheseidealsareinimicaltohealth,sincewhatispreachediscompassion,andthisNietzscheseesasakindofsicknessinitself.Pity,hesays,isatemptationtoberesistedatallcosts;hethinksofitasakindofpoisontothecompassionateman,whobecomesinfectedbythesufferingsofothers.Thesufferingofothersinfectsus,pityisaninfection(WP368).2Nordoeshebelievethatpityrelievessuffering.Nowandthenitmaydoso,butmoreoftentheobjectofourcompassionsuffersfromourinterventioninhisaffairs.Hesuffersfirstfromthefactthatwearehelpinghim.Havingseenthesufferersuffer,Iwasashamedforthesakeofhisshame;andwhenIhelpedhimItransgressedgrievouslyagainsthispride(ZIIOnthePitying).Itseemstomethatahumanbeingwiththeverybestintentionscandoimmeasurableharm,ifheisimmodestenoughtowishtoprofitthosewhosespiritandwillareconcealedfromhim...wroteNietzscheinalettertohissisterin1885(quotedinWalterKaufmann[ed.],ThePortableNietzsche,NewYork,Viking,1956,p.441).NordidNietzschethinkthatgoodmotiveslaybehindmostcharitable(p.84) acts.Charitableandhelpfulpeopledisposeoftheneedyasofpossessions....Onefindsthemjealousifonecrossesoranticipatesthemwhentheywanttohelp(BGE194).Concernforothersoftenbetrayedaman'sdissatisfactionwithhimself;menwhoweredulltriedtocheerthemselvesupwiththesightoftheirneighbour'smisfortunes,whilethosewhohadalowopinionofthemselveswouldtrytobuybackabetteropinionfromthoseonwhomtheyhadconferredabenefit.Nietzschesawthepreoccupationwithothersasanevasion,andasignofspiritualillhealth;whatisimportantistoloveoneselfsothatonecanbeartobewithonselfandneednotroam(ZIIIOntheSpiritofGravity2).Themanwholoveshimselfwillbetheonewhomosttrulybenefitsothers;inhisownrejoicinghewillforgethowtocontrivepainforthem.

WhatshallwesayofNietzsche'sattackonChristianmoralityasithassofarbeendescribed?Withwhatweaponsisheattacking,andonwhatground?Severaldifferentlinesofattackcanbediscerned.Inthefirstplaceheissuggestingthatwhatispraisedas

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Christianvirtueislargelyasham,andthattruegoodwillwouldbeproducednotbyteachingthemoralityofcompassionbutratherbyencouragingahealthyegoism.Secondlyheissayingthatjudgedbyitsownaimsthismoralityisbad.Mensufferpityasasickness,andbytheirpitytheydomoreharmthangood.Eachofthesechargeswouldbedamagingifitcouldbeshowntobesupportedbythefacts.ButwhatofNietzsche'saccountoftheoriginsofChristianmorality,andhisinsistencethatitrepresentstheascendencyoftheweakoverthestrong?Ifprovedwouldthisbedamagingornot?Couldonereplythatvirtuessuchascompassionandjusticeareindeedofspecialinteresttothoseliabletomisfortuneandvulnerabletooppression,andthattheyarenonetheworseforthat?SuchareplywouldmissthepointofNietzsche'sattack.Heistryingtoshowthegoodandvirtuousasrepresentativesofameanandbasesectionofmankind,asfawning,timid,incapablepeoplewhoexpressinhiddenformthemalicetheyareafraidtoexpressopenly.Hewantstosuggestthattheyarebothdespicableanddislikable,andifhecouldreallydothishewouldhavestruckamosttellingblow.ForhowcouldasocietywhichcametoseethingsinNietzsche'sfashionhaveamoralityofthiskind?Itisnot,afterall,enoughforamoral(p.85) systemthatparticularactionsshouldberewardedandpunishedasinasystemoflaws.Ifacertainmanistobeseenasagoodman,andcertainactionsasgoodactions,thenheandtheymustbegenerallyesteemed.Andnooneisesteemedifheistheobjectofscornanddislike.IfNietzschecouldshowthatwehavenoreasoneithertoadmirethemanofChristianvirtueortobegratefultohim,hewouldhaveknockedawayapsychologicalbasewithoutwhichthismoralitycannotstand.

InrepresentingChristianmoralityastheweaponusedbytheweaktodefendandexaltthemselvesNietzschewastryingtoshowitandtheminadisagreeablelight.ButitwasmuchmoreimportanttohimtoshowthatinfavouringtheweakattheexpenseofthestrongChristianitywasthemostpowerfuloftheforcesmakingforthedegenerationofthehumanrace.Nothinghaspreoccupiedmemoreprofoundlythantheproblemofdecadencehewrote(CWPreface).AndhesawasdecadentthetypeofmanencouragedbyChristianteaching,describinghimasanaccommodating,industrious,gregariousindividualwhowasmediocre,anddull.Againstthisportraithesetthatofastrongerhighertypeofindividual,bold,independent,andreadytosayyestolife.Suchamanwouldnotbemuchconcernedaboutsuffering,whetherhisownorthatofothers.Amonghisequalshewouldbehavewithrestraint;totheweakhemightbedangerous,butifheharmedthemitwouldberatherfromdisregardthanfrommalice.Theweakman,however,isafraidofsufferingforhimselfandpreoccupiedwiththemisfortunesofothers.Hetriestobuildhimselfasafelifewhichshallnotrequiretoomuchexertion.Onehasone'slittlepleasureforthedayandone'slittlepleasureforthenight:butonehasaregardforhealth(ZIZarathustra'sPrologue5).Hepreachesthemoralityofcompassion,thoughfilledwithsecretillwilltowardsothers.

MuchcontroversyhassurroundedNietzsche'swritingsonthehigherandlowertypesofman.Ishetobetakenasglorifyingthecrueltyrant,thebeastofprey,ordidhehavesomelessrepulsiveideal?Theanswerseemstobeneitheranunqualifiedyesnoranunqualifiedno.Thereisnodoubtthatintherankofmenhepreferredasthemore

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healthytypeevenCaesareBorgiatothemediocresubmissivemodernman.Andtherearesomeembarrassinglyawfulpassagesinwhich(p.86) hespeaksofthesuperiorman'sruthlessnesstowardshisinferiorsasifitcouldbeseenassomethingmerelypranksome.Butthecruelmaniscertainlynothisideal,andtherearesometowhomherefusestopreachegoismatall.

Therearetheterribleoneswhocarryaroundwithinthemselvesthebeastofpreyandhavenochoicebutlustorselflaceration.Andeventheirlustisstillselflaceration.Theyhavenotevenbecomehumanbeingsyet,theseterribleones:letthempreachrenunciationoflifeandpassawaythemselves!(ZIOnthePreachersofDeath).

InNietzsche'seyestheimportantdistinctionwasthatoftheascendinganddescendingtypesofmen.Onegreatquestionwastobeaskedaboutthehistoryofanyrace:diditrepresentdeclineorascent?Andeachindividualshouldbescrutinisedtoseewhetherherepresentstheascendingorthedescendinglineoflife(TwilightSkirmishesofanUntimelyMan33).Nietzschesawhimselfastheone,theonlyone,whosawclearlythecontrastbetweenascendinganddecliningmankind.Ihaveasubtlersenseofsmellforthesignsofascentanddeclinethananyotherhumanbeingbeforeme;Iamtheteacherparexcellenceforthis...(EHWhyIAmSoWise1).Itwasinthiscontextthathepreachedegoismtothestrong:

Everyindividualconsistsofthewholecourseofevolution....Ifherepresentstheascendingcourseofmankind,thenhisvalueisinfactextraordinary;andextremecaremaybetakenoverthepreservationandpromotionofhisdevelopment.(Itisconcernforthefuturepromisedhimthatgivesthewellconstitutedindividualsuchanextraordinaryrighttoegoism.)Ifherepresentsthedescendingcourse,decay,chronicsickening,thenhehaslittlevalue:andthefirstdemandoffairnessisforhimtotakeaslittlespace,force,andsunshineaspossibleawayfromthewellconstituted(WP373).

AnditwasinthiscontextthatNietzschespokeleastambiguouslyaboutthefateheenvisagedfortheweak.Theweakandthefailuresshallperish:firstprincipleofourloveofman(A2).

ItwasnowonderthenthatNietzschehadaspecialhatredofChristianity.Hesawitasthereligionoftheweakdesignedfortheirprotectionandglorification,andhesawitasthemostpowerfulinfluencefordecadenceanddecline.AboveallhethoughtChristianmoralityharmfultothestrongerandhealthier(p.87) typeofman.Bypreservingtheincapableandmisbegotten,andbyinsistingthattheybetheobjectofcompassionateattention,itwouldcauseeventhestrongtobeinfectedwithgloomandnihilism.Andevenmoreimportantlyitwouldleadthehighertypeofmantomistrusthisownnature,andwouldcreateconditionsinwhichitwasimpossibleforhimtofindhishealth.Torequireapeaceablebenevolencefromsuchaman,topreachhumilityandpitytohim,isnecessarilytoinjurehim.

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Todemandofstrengththatitshouldnotexpressitselfasstrength,thatitshouldnotbeadesiretoovercome,adesiretothrowdown,adesiretobecomemaster,athirstforenemiesandresistancesandtriumphs,isjustasabsurdastodemandofweaknessthatitshouldexpressitselfasstrength(GMI13).

Thestrongmancondemnedbysocietyfordoingwhathisnaturedemandswillsufferfromguiltandselfhatred,andmaywellbeturnedintoacriminal.

Thecriminaltypeisthetypeofthestronghumanbeingunderunfavourablecircumstances:astronghumanbeingmadesick....Hisvirtuesareostracizedbysociety;themostvividdriveswithwhichheisendowedsoongrowtogetherwiththedepressingaffectswithsuspicion,fearanddishonour(TwilightSkirmishesofanUntimelyMan45).

Nietzschedoesnotshrinkfromtheconclusionthatforsomemenruthlessnessmaybetheconditionofhealth.Itisthecounterpartofhisbeliefthateverythingevil,terrible,tyrannicalinman,everythinginhimthatiskintobeastsofpreyandserpents,servestheenhancementofthespeciesmanasmuchasitsoppositedoes(BGE44).IfGodisdeadnothingguaranteesthatevilmaynotbetheconditionofgood.

If...apersonshouldregardeventheaffectsofhatred,envy,covetousness,andthelusttoruleasconditionsoflife,asfactorswhich,fundamentallyandessentially,mustbepresentinthegeneraleconomyoflife(andmust,therefore,befurtherenhancediflifeistobefurtherenhanced)hewillsufferfromsuchaviewofthingsasfromseasickness.Andyeteventhishypothesisisfarfrombeingthestrangestandmostpainfulinthisimmenseandalmostnewdomainofdangerousinsights...(BGE23).

(p.88) Itis,then,forthesakeofthehighermanthatthevaluesofChristianmoralitymustbeabandoned,anditisfromthisperspectivethattherevaluationofvaluestakesplace.IsitNietzsche'sintentiontopresentuswithaclashofintereststhegoodofthestrongagainstthatoftheweak?Obviouslyhehasthisintention,butjustasobviouslythisisnotallthathewantstosuggest.Amorepuzzlingaspectofhisdoctrinescomesbeforeuswhenweremindourselvesofwhathesaysaboutthevalueofthehighertypeofman.

TheproblemIposeis...whattypeofmenshallbebred,shallbewilled,forbeinghigherinvalue,worthieroflife,morecertainofafuture(A3).

AndagainNietzschesays:Wehaveadifferentfaith;tousthedemocraticmovementis...aformofdecay,namelythediminution,ofman,makinghimmediocreandloweringhisvalue(BGE203,italicsadded).

Whatdoeshemeanwhenhespeaksofthevalueofonetypeofmanasgreaterthanthatofanother?Nietzschehimselfhasremarkedelsewherethatonecannevertoocarefullyconsiderthequestionvalueforwhat?Andinthesetermsonemighttrytoexplainwhat

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hesaysaboutthevalueofcertainmen.Perhapshemeansthatthecontributiontheymaketolifeingeneralbytheiroptimismandfearlessnessforinstancemakesthemvaluabletousall.Orperhapsheisjudgingtheirvaluebythecontributiontheymaketothefuture.Aretheynotabridgetothesuperiormanwhomaycomeinthefuturetothebermensch?Neithersuggestiontellsthewholestory,andthesecondsimplyshiftstheproblem.IftheOvermanorSupermanistheonewhogiveshisforerunnersvalue,thismustbebecausehehasvaluehimself.InfactNietzscheseemstowanttosaythatanyonewhoisstrong,independent,andsoonanyonewhofitshisdescriptionofthehighertypeofmanisonewhohasvalueinhimself,andweareleftwiththispuzzlingidea.IsNietzschemerelytalkingnonsense,orcanwemakesenseofthewordvalueasitisusedhere?Theanswerseemstobethatwecan.Foritdoesmakesensetosaythatwevaluestrongandexceptional(p.89) individuals,whetherornotNietzsche'spictureoftheseindividualsringstrue.Wedofindpatternsofreactiontoexceptionalmenthatwouldallowustoseehereavaluingrathersimilartovaluingonaestheticgrounds,evenifitisoneforwhichwehavenospecialname.Iamthinkingoftheinterestandadmirationwhichisthecommonattitudetoremarkablemenofexceptionalindependenceofmindandstrengthofwill.Suchmenholdourattention,andareoftenwillinglyserved.WhenNietzschesaysthatwhatisatstakeiswhetherthehighestpowerandsplendoractuallypossibletothetypemanisevertobeattained(GMPreface6)itsuggeststhatheisappealingtoourtendencytoadmirecertainindividualswhomweseeaspowerfulandsplendid.Hehimselfevensays,inonepassage,thatThisisatbottomaquestionoftasteandofaesthetics:woulditbedesirablethatthemostrespectable,i.e.,mosttedious,speciesofmanshouldsurvive?(WP353).ButIthinkthatthepassageisuntypical,andinanycasedoesnotquitedescribethefactsastheyare;ifthereisanelementofrespectinthecommonreactiontostrongandremarkablementhentheanalogywithanaestheticvaluationshouldnotbepressedtoofar.Perhapswhatweshoulddoissimplytosuggestasimilaritybetweenthewayweattributevalue(aestheticvalue)toartobjectsandthevaluethatNietzscheattributestoacertainkindofman,bothrestingonasetoffamiliarreactions,andonreactionsthathavemuchincommon.

Ifthiswereacorrectaccountofthematterwhatwouldweconclude?WouldChristianmorality,oranyother,bevulnerabletoNietzsche'sattack?Fromthecomparisonwithaestheticvaluesonewouldsaythatitmightbevulnerable,notbecausesomethinghadbeenprovedagainstitbutbecausemenmightcometocaremoreaboutproducingandpreservinginterestingandsplendidindividualsthanabouttheendsofmorality.Forconsiderwhattheimplicationswouldbewereittobediscoveredthatthehumanracewouldbecomephysicallyuglierifmoralityflourished,orthatjusticeandkindnessdestroyedbeautyofsomeotherkind.Thiscouldbeconsideredirrelevantbythoseforwhommoralvaluesweremoreimportantthanaestheticvalues,andonemightcountassimilarlyirrelevantthediscoverythatthehighestpowerandsplendor(p.90) wasinconsistentwithmoralends;neverthelessmoralitymightdecline.

SofarwehavebeenconsideringNietzsche'sobjectionstoonespecificmoralsystemthatofChristianity.Buthehadspokenofanattackonallmoralityandwasreadytocallhimselfanimmoralist.Doeshereallyhaveargumentsreachingsofar?Someofhis

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argumentsagainstChristianmoralitywillbebroughtalsoagainstothermoralsystems.Butwithothersthiswillnotbepossible.Nietzschecouldnot,forinstance,accuseAristotleofpreachingamoralityofpity,norofextollinghumility.OnthecontraryAristotle'sdescriptionofthemegalopsychoswhopossessesthevirtueofgreatnessofsoulanddeservesandclaimsgreatthings(NicomacheanEthics1123a15)hasmuchincommonwithNietzsche'spictureofthehighertypeofman.LetusaskwhichpartofNietzsche'sdoctrinescouldjustifyusinthinkingthatmoralityallmoralitywasindeedhistarget.

Isitrelevant,forinstance,thatNietzschehadnoplaceinhisideologyfortheconceptofguilt?Aboutthishewasquiteexplicit.Hesaweffortstomakemenfeelguiltyasexpressionsofmalice,andrejectedguiltasareactiontoanythinghehimselfwoulddo.Nottoperpetratecowardiceagainstone'sownacts.Nottoleavetheminthelurchafterwards!Thebiteofconscienceisindecent!(TwilightMaximsandArrows10).ThisseemstoprovenothingaboutwhetherNietzschewas,ashesaid,rejectingallmorality;itdoesnotseemimpossiblethatamanshouldhaveamoralitywithoutacceptingguiltasaresponsetomoralfailure.Itwouldhavebeendifferenthadhebeenrejectingtheaimofselfdiscipline,butthisNietzscheneverdid.LikeCalliclesinPlato'sGorgiasNietzscheobjectstothetamingofthestrongmanbysociety,butwhereCalliclesurgesthatthestrongshouldthrowawayallrestraintandallowtheirpassionsfullreinNietzschewasscornfulofsuchasuggestion.Hedoesindeedopposethosewhowouldweakenorevendestroyaman'spassions,butinsiststhatastrongwillbelongsonlytoonewhohasimposeddisciplineandunityonhisdesires.Soinsteadofobjectingtomoralityonthegroundthatitinvolvesdisciplineofthepassionshesaysthatthisisitsonemerit.Whatisessentialandestimableineverymoralityisthatitconstitutesalongcompulsion...(BGE188).Obviously(p.91) drawingonhisownexperienceheinsiststhatwhatismostnaturalisakindofselfdiscipline.

Everyartistknowshowfarfromanyfeelingoflettinghimselfgohismostnaturalstateisthefreeordering,placing,disposing,givingforminthemomentofinspirationandhowstrictlyandsubtlyheobeysthousandfoldlawspreciselythen...(BGE188).

Tothisextent,then,Nietzscheisatonewiththemoralist:heispreachingselfdisciplineandcontrolofthepassions.Neverthelessitmaybearguedthatheisrightlytobecalledanimmoralist.Itisrelevantheretorecallthatthewordmoralityisderivedfrommoswithitspluralmores,andthatinitspresentusageithasnotlostthisconnexionwiththemorestherulesofbehaviourofasociety.ForNietzschekeepssomeofhissharpestvituperationforthosewhotrytoimposesocialrulesandacodeofbehaviourwhichshallbeuniformthroughoutthecommunity.HerepeatedlyragesagainstthosewhopreachGoodandevil,goodandevil,thesameforall.

Letusfinallyconsiderhownaiveitisaltogethertosay:Manoughttobesuchandsuch!Realityshowsusanenchantingwealthoftypes,theabundanceofalavishplayandchangeofformsandsomewretchedloaferofamoralistcomments:No!Manoughttobedifferent.Heevenknowswhatmanshouldbelike,thiswretched

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bigotandprig:hepaintshimselfonthewallandcomments,Eccehomo!(TwilightMoralityasAntiNature6).

Whatwillcreatehealthinonewillenfeebleanother,andeachmanmustdiscovertheruleofhisownhealth.Todesirethatmenshouldbevirtuous

meansthattheyshouldceasetobedistinct

meansthattheyshouldbegintoresembleoneanotherintheirneedsanddemandsmoreclearlythattheyshouldperish

Thewilltoasinglemoralityistherebyprovedtobeatyrannyoverothertypesbythattypewhomthissinglemoralityfits:itisadestructionoralevellingforthesakeoftherulingtype(whethertorendertheothersnolongerfearsomeortorenderthemuseful)(WP315).

ItmaybesuggestedthatNietzsche,evenifhewillnotaccepttherulesofbehaviourtobetaughttoallmen,doesatleastsetupidealsofcharactervalidforall.Isitnotthecasethathe(p.92) refusestopraiseanyonewhoisnot,e.g.,courageousandindependent?Thisisofcoursetrue,anditdoesgivesomeoverlap,bothinformandcontent,betweenamoralsystemandasetofteachingssuchasNietzsche's.Neverthelessaninjunctionsuchasseekyourownhealthissoneutralastoactualbehaviourastofailtoreestablishthelinkwithsocialnorms.Andeveninjunctionssuchasthisonewerenotpreachedtoeveryone,sinceNietzschethoughtthatmanymenweresimplyincapableofhealthandstrength.Therewere,aswehavealreadyseen,cruelmonsterstowhomNietzschewouldnotpreachegoism.Andasforthemembersoftheherdhesaidthathehadnowishtochangethem;thespiritoftheherdshouldrulewithintheherd.Heisnot,heinsists,tryingtopreachhiskindofvirtuegenerally:itbelongsonlytotherareandexceptionalman.

Theseconsiderationsshould,Ithink,inclineustotheviewthatNietzscheisanimmoralistratherthanaspecialkindofmoralist.Andoneisledinthesamedirectionbythefactthathewaspreparedtothrowoutrulesofjusticeintheinterestsofproducingastrongerandmoresplendidtypeofman.Isuggestedthatthisimpliedaquasiaestheticratherthanamoralsetofvalues.Moralityisnecessarilyconnectedwithsuchthingsasjusticeandthecommongood,anditisaconceptualmatterthatthisisso.

Whythenshouldwestillhaveafeeling,asIthinkwedo,thatNietzschehasagreatdealincommonwiththemoralistandthatheisnotsimplyarguingfromanincompatibleandirreconcilablepointofview?Ithinkthatthisisduetothefactthatinmuchofhisworkhecanbeseenasarguingaboutthewayinwhichmenmustliveinordertolivewell.ItisthecommongroundbetweenhissystemandthatoftraditionalandparticularlyGreekmoralitythatmakesusinclinedtothinkthathemustbeamoralistafterall.ForwhileNietzscheloathedutilitarianism,withitsconcernforthegreatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber,anditstendencytotakepleasureandtheabsenceofpainasthemotiveofallhumanaction,hehimselfwasinterested,onemightsay,intheconditionsinwhichmenatleaststrongmenwouldflourish.Theissueishardtogetclearbecause

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Nietzsche,aswellasintroducingquasiaestheticcriteriawhichareirrelevantinthiscontext,(p.93) alsoappealstoanideaofhumangoodthatisopposedtothatofhisopponents,andthereisnoconceptthathasprovedmoreintractablethanthatofhumanhappinessorhumangood.Weareinclinedtosayatfirstsightthathappinessisequivalenttocontentment,andonlyseethatthiscannotbethecasewhenwenotice,forexample,thatwecountsomeoneasunfortunate,notfortunate,ifhesuffersbraindamageandthereafterlivesthelifeofahappychild.ButthiscorrectionshowsthathoweverlittleweareabletogiveanaccountoftheideaofhumangoodwehavereasontoagreewithNietzschethatamanisharmedifheistaughttobecontentwithsmallpleasuresandmadeunfitforenterprisesrequiringdaringandindependence.So,insofarasNietzscheissuggestingthatmoralityingeneral,andChristianmoralityinparticular,hasthiseffectheisatleastarguingonmoralground.Andofcoursethereweremoreobviouswaysinwhichthegoodandvirtuoushadbeenharmed.ForNietzschesawthemasresentful,hatingthemselvesandothers,andwithoutstrongpurposeordesire.Nomancanlivehappilyifheliveslikethis.

TheconclusionofthisdiscussionmustbethatNietzsche'srevaluationofvaluesisamostcomplexmatter,andthereisnosingleanswertothequestionastowhathewasattackingorastowhatthebasismightbefortheattack.Itisnot,therefore,surprisingthatweshouldshyawayfromtheattempttosaywhetherhewasright.Ishall,however,trytosayoneortwothingsaboutthis.FirstofallIwouldliketopointoutthateverythingdependsonhistheoriesandobservationsofhumannature.IfhisattackonChristianmoralityandonothermoralitiesisgoingtobeworthanythinghehasgottoberightabouttheeffectofteachingpityandjusticethatitmerelyhidestheressentimentoftheweakwhileitdoesinjurytothestrong.Andhewouldhavetoberightinseeingcompassionasnecessarilyharmfultothecompassionatemanandoflittleusetotheunfortunate.Moreoverhewouldhavetoberightaboutthepossibilitiesofahealthyegoisminthestrong,evenwhenthisegoismcouldinvolvearuthlessnesstothosewhoarelessfortunatelyplaced.NowonsomepointsinhispsychologicalobservationNietzscheundoubtedlywasright;hewasrightforinstancetoteachustobewaryofonewhofindsothermenmostsatisfactorywhentheyareinneedofhishelp,andtobe(p.94) waryalsooftheonewhohateshimself.Atcertainpointshisobservation,andhisanticipationofdepthpsychology,showshimasabrilliantpsychologist.ButonecouldnotseeNietzscheasonewhohadagreatknowledgeoflifeandofthehumanheart.Hedescribesconvincinglywhatheknewthoroughly,asheknewthelifeofthelonelygenius,thecreativeartistorthinker.Itis,however,noticeablethathispictureofthestrongnoblemanfailstocarryconvictionwhenitdeviatesfromthismodel;whathesaysabouttheconditionsforthisman'shealthseemstostemlargelyfromhisbeliefthattheoverridingandunderlyingprincipleofhumanbehaviouristhewilltopower.Nowitisnotoriousthatgeneraltheoriesaboutthespringsofactionaretrapsforphilosophers,andNietzsche,whotriedtoworkonaworldhistoricalscale,isanobviousvictimofthedelusionofhavingseenthingswhole.Thischargewouldhavetobeprovedagainsthim,butprimafacieonehasnoreasontotrustNietzsche'sviewsofhumannaturebeyondaverylimitedperspective,andonequiteinadequateforhiscase.Thereisnoreasontosupposethatwereallyareinthedilemmathatheinsistsonthatweeithersacrificethe

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weakorelsedeformthestrong.AndinawayeventshavecaughtupwithNietzsche.Howcouldoneseethepresentdangersthattheworldisinasshowingthatthereistoomuchpityandtoolittleegoismaround?OnewonderswhatNietzschehimself,insomewaysamosthumaneman,wouldhavesaidifhewerelivingnow,andcouldseeinhumanityonitspresentscale,andinitspresentblatantforms.

NotesListofabbreviationsoftitlesofNietzsche'sworks:

A:TheAntichrist.BGE:BeyondGoodandEvil.CW:TheCaseofWagner.EH:EcceHomo.GM:TheGenealogyofMorals.Twilight:TheTwilightoftheIdols.WP:TheWilltoPower.Z:ThusSpakeZarathustra.

Notes:(*)Nietzsche:TheRevaluationofValuesoriginallyappearedinR.C.Solomon,ed.,Nietzsche,ACollectionofCriticalEssays,NewYork,1973.

(1)Translations,unlessotherwisestated,byWalterKaufmann.Alistofabbreviationsfollows.

(2)TranslationbyWalterKaufmannandR.J.Hollingdale.

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