food science report - group

7/31/2019 Food Science Report - Group

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Soy sauce is a condiment in which it is gone through the same method with miso, which is

fermented and aged product. The soy sauce is fabricated by fermenting soybeans with

Aspergillus oryzae or Aspergillus sojae moulds along with water and salt. The soy bean which is

salted and fermented food are created back in the days in order to preserve for longer shelf life

and flavour. The soy sauce is important especially in for South East Asian cooking which

comprise mostly salted and fermented food product too, where it is used in cooking and as a

condiment. It originated in China 2,800 years ago and spread throughout Asia. In more recent

times, it is also used in Western cuisine and prepared foods. All varieties of soy sauce are salty,

earthy, brownish liquids intended to season food while cooking or at the table. The sauce is in

dark brown liquid, in which it is table at ambient temperature and does not need refrigeration

due to its lower water activity and high salt content.

Generally soy sauce is made from a mixture of soy beans, wheat, salt and yeast. Some types of

soy sauce also include fermented rice (Kome Koji) or Amazake to give sweetness to the flavour.

Mass produced soy sauce is made from defatted soy residue (soy from which the oil has been

extracted), which makes the soy sauce ferment a lot faster than using the whole bean. After the

fermentation, which yields fermented soybean paste, the paste is pressed, and two substances

are obtained: a liquid, which are the soy sauce and a cake of (wheat and) soy residue, the latter

being usually reused as animal feed. Most commonly, a grain is used together with the

soybeans in the fermentation process, but not always. Also, some varieties use roasted grain.

1.1 TYPE OF SOY SAUCE

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There are various types and brands of soy sauce which available in market due to the extensive

use in flavouring in East Asian and South East Asian cuisines. Basically, there are two types of

soy sauce which normally used in cooking which are light and dark, or sweet and salty.

Dark soy sauce is aged longer than light soy sauce, giving it a brownish black colour and much

thicker texture. Light sauce meanwhile has a lighter colour and saltier in flavour. Sweet and

salty soy sauce as its name suggest, providing sweetish or salty flavour for cooks. Soy sauce

generally poses the same appearance, but depending on the regions and origin, it may have

different in taste, consistency, fragrance and saltiness. Below are the type and characteristic of

soy sauce based on the region origin.

China

Figure 1: Chinese soy sauce

Majority of Chinese soy sauce was made from soybean and seldom use other grains. It can be

divided into two classes based on the manufacturing process in which it is brewed or blended.

Brewed soy sauce was made brewed directly from a fermentation process using wheat,

soybeans, salt and water without additional additives. The result from the brewing normally will

produce light soy sauce. Blended meanwhile are finished brewed soy sauce in which later will

be mix with additives and produce dark and thicker soy sauce.

Japan

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Figure 2: Japanese soy sauce

Japanese soy sauce can be divided into five main category based on their differences of

ingredients and production method. Japanese soy sauce does not include wheat as their main

ingredient where impact on the sweeter taste than Chinese soy sauce. Certain soy sauce may

be added with small amount of alcohol as natural preservative, white wine, red flavour or beef

stock, fish stock in which produce different taste of soy sauce.

Categories of Japanese soy sauce are Koikuchi which is thick in flavour, Usukuchi that has

weaker taste, Tamari that have richer flavour and darker colour, Shiro is white soy sauce and

Saishikomi that is double brewed and have darkest and strongest taste.

Korea

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Figure 3: Korean soy sauce

Korean soy sauce is produced from the Korean fermented soybean paste that have thin and

dark brown in colour which have different degree of saltiness based on the producer.

Indonesia

Figure 4: Indonesian soy sauce

Soy sauce or known as kecap have three varieties which is Kecap Asin (salty soy sauce),

Kecap Manis (sweet soy sauce) and Kecap Manis Sedang (medium sweet soy sauce). Salty

soy sauce is quite similar to Chinese light soy sauce but usually thicker and stronger in flavour.

Sweet soy sauce is thicker and sweeter due to addition of palm sugar and medium sweet soy

sauce is categorized in between of both soy sauce which has less thick consistency and saltier.

Philippines

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Figure 5: Filipinos soy sauce

The Philippine soy sauce is similar to Japanese soy sauce which have thinner texture and

saltier than most of soy sauce product in South Asian countries.

Malaysia

Figure 6: Malaysian soy sauce

Malaysian use the same dialect with Indonesian by calling soy sauce as kicap, and produced in

two types which is kicap lemak (rich fat soy sauce) that similar to sweet soy sauce and kicap

cair (thin soy sauce) equivalent to salty soy sauce.

Taiwan

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Figure 7: Taiwanese soy sauce

Taiwanese soy sauce use the black bean and known as black bean soy sauce and took around

6 months to produce.

1.2 SOY SAUCE GRADE

Soy sauce in other regions is normally graded based on their texture or taste but in Japan, soy

sauce is carefully graded based on their quality and production process. Japanese highest

grade of soy sauce called as Special grade where it is exclusively made by the fermentation

process and marketed under the Japanese Agricultural Standard (JAS) for the grade. This

grade is characterized by a pleasant aroma, complex flavour and deep reddish brown colour.

The second grade is Upper grade soy sauce where they have lighter reddish brown colour and

milder aroma and flavour. The third grade is Standard grade which is characterized by slightly

higher amino acid content and have lack of aroma. Special and Upper grades produced from

equal amount of wheat and soy beans meanwhile for Standard rely on soy bean and use small

amount of wheat.

2.0 SOY SAUCE PROCESS

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There are two type of production method to produce soy sauce which is brewing and hydrolysis

process. Brewing method use the combination of soy beans, wheat grain, water and salt. It

consists of four (4) steps which are koji making, brine fermentation, refinement and pressing,

lastly pasteurization.

The second production method is the hydrolysis where the defatted soya bean is combined with

food grade hydrochloric acid in a pressure cooker. The process goes through neutralization,

refinement, treatment and filtration. The hydrolyzed soy sauce is lack in aroma and flavour and

normally used to make less expensive and lower quality of soy sauce.

2.1 STEP IN MAKING SOY SAUCE

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2.1.1 BREWED METHOD

Brewing method is very famous among the coffee maker or even the coffee drinker because by

brewing the coffee, it can give the best aroma and taste for the coffee. Same like coffee, the soy

sauce also use brewing method to get the original taste and to get the best aroma of the soy

sauce. The method will help in preserving the colour, taste and aroma in which producing the

high quality soy sauce. Brewing is the traditional method of making soy sauce and in this

method; it consists of four steps which are koji making, brine fermentation, refinement and

pressing and also pasteurization.

1. Koji making

Figure 8: Koji Making

In the first step of brewing method, the soybean and wheat grains are added with koji which is

the source of proteolytic enzymes for converting soybean proteins into peptides and amino

acids, and amylase for hydrolyzing gelatinized starch into simple sugars. The substances

converted by the enzymes in Koji become the nutrients for yeasts and lactic bacteria in the

subsequent brine fermentation.

During this step, the soybean and the wheat grains have been carefully selected and have been

washed. Than the soybeans that have been washed are soaked in water to increase the

moisture content and will be steam for about 180 C until boiling for 4 hours. Upon this process,

the soaked soybeans containing 30% to 45% moisture were cooked with saturated 6-7kg cm 2-

gauge pressure cooking.

The wheat grains contains 8% moisture is heated with continuous roasting on the pan roast for

25 minutes at 150 C at 20-30 second in atmospheric pressure and the wheat grains that have

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been roasted will be crushed into several pieces in order to let yeast to penetrate the wheat

grains during fermentation process. When the steam soybeans are ready, it will be speared into

a large tray to let the soybean cold until 33C.

Then the cold soybean will be mix with the crushed wheat grains. Then the yeast (Aspergillus

oryzae or Aspergillus sojae) will be added to the mixture of steam soybean and crushed wheat

grains. The ratio of wheat and soybean may vary depending on the type of soy sauce to be

prepared. In order to activate the yeast, the mixture will allowed maturing for 2 or 3 days in a

large of perorated vats in a control air circulated room. This process will generate heat and

because of that it is good to check the temperature to prevent overheating that can kill the

yeast. The right temperature of the mixture is around 30C to 31C. After the incubation, the Koji

becomes greenish yellow as a result of mold growth and sporulation.

2. Brine fermentation

Figure 9: Brine Fermentation

The second step in making fermented soy sauce is brine fermentation. It utilizes the lactic

bacterium, Pediococcus halophiIus and the yeasts Zygosaccharomyces rouxii and Candida

species both of which tolerate a salt concentration of 20 g per 100 ml. The brine effectively

prevents growth of undesirable microorganisms. The harvested Koji is mixed with 20% salt brine

and water, and transferred by means of a spiral pump into deep fermentation steel tanks coated

with epoxy resins on the interior. The resultant mixture is called moromi mash.

The moromi will be blend for a few minutes and the tank will be seal in order for fermentation

process occur. It is important to control the microorganisms in the brine fermentation. The

specially selected Pediococcus halophilus is cultured and added to the mash. To control its

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growth rate it is necessary to keep the fermenting mixture at 15 C for the first month, allowing

the pH of the mash to decrease slowly from 6.5 to 5.0. Then cultures of Z rouxiiand Candida

species are added as a starter. The temperature of the moromi is allowed to rise slowly to

nearly 28 C until vigorous alcoholic fermentation starts. The temperature in the tank can be

controlled by coil type heat exchangers with mixing devices, thermocouples, and control

systems in which controlled the tank to be open and mixing the moromi once a day for the first 6

weeks in order to remove the gases that build up and to stimulate yeast growth, mixes the

contents and at the same time developing the flavour.

During the fermentation period, proteolytic enzymes from Koji hydrolyze the proteins in soy

bean and wheat to form amino acids and low molecular weight peptides. Starch is converted to

simple sugars which are fermented primarily to lactic acid, ethanol and carbon dioxide. During

the brine fermentation, the pH of the mixture drops from 6.5 to 5.0 in the first month at 15

C .This is followed by fermentation at 28 C for four months. The mixture will be open once a

week for mix the moromi. After 6 month fermentation, the tank will be open and the moromi will

be mix for the last time and it finally ready for next process. This fermentation process creates

over 200 different flavours.

3. Refinement and Pressing

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Figure 10: Refinement and

Pressing

The third process is the

refining which including

pressing and filtering. The

aged moromi will be removed

from the tank and it will be

placed on the filtration cloth.

Than the moromi that on the filtration cloth will be fold and place on the equipment for pressing

process. During pressing process, moromi is placed into special equipment where the mash is

strained through filtration cloth and pressed vertically to separate soy sauce from the residue.

The moromi will be give 6 tan of pressure under the force of gravity and the moromi then will

mechanically pressed slowly and steadily for about ten hours. It takes a considerable period of

time to gradually press the mash in order to get delightfully clear and plain soy sauce. After

pressing, the filtered raw soy sauce is pasteurized in a heat-exchanger at 70-80 ~ for a few

minutes to ensure clarity, to inactivate residual enzymes, and to inactivate any undesirable

microorganisms.

4. Pasteurization

The soy sauce that has been pressed from moromi is known as raw say sauce. Raw soy sauce

will be left in a clarifier tank for about 3 to 4 days to separate the raw say sauce into various

components that is oil floating on the surface and sediment settling on the bottom. This oil can

be reuse as a fuel for machinery operation and the sediments can be reuse for livestock feed.

The clarified soy sauce will be undergoing for pasteurization process. This clarified soy sauce

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will be run at steam pipe at temperature of 80C. There will be three purpose of the

pasteurization process that is halts the activity of enzyme to stabilize the quality of soy sauce,

prolong the shelf life of soy sauce and at the same time to adjust colour, taste and smell. Finally

the pasteurized soy sauce will be bottle automatically.

2.1.2 FLOWCHART OF BREWING METHOD

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Figure 11: Brewing Method Flowchart 1

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Figure 12: Brewing Method Flowchart 2

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2.2 NON BREWED METHOD (HYDROLISIS)

There are some of soy sauce are been made by using chemical known as hydrolysis process.

This process is different from brewed process and it much faster. Using a hydrolysis process

only takes a few day compare to brewed method that take several months in order to produce

soy sauce. Below are the steps for making a soy sauce using hydrolysis process;

1. Soybean has been boiled in hydrochloric acid for about 15 to 20 hours in order to

remove the amino acid.

2. When the maximum amount of acid amino has been removing, the mixture will be

cold to stop the hydrolytic reaction.

3. The mixture will be neutralized by using sodium carbonate.

4. Then the mixture will be pressed through the filter and mix with the active carbon for

purified though the filtration. This solution is called as hydrolyzed vegetable protein.

The result of this process is dark colour liquid and produces the glutamic acid that

provides the flavour to the soy sauce.

5. The caramel colour, corn syrup and salt are added to this mixture in order to get the

right colour and taste. Than the mixture will be refined and package.

The soy sauce that are produce from chemical method are hasher and did not have pleasant

flavour and character compare to those soy sauce that are made from brewed method. The

difference is the flavour because the used of hydrolysis acids that tends to be more complete

than fermentation counterpart. This means almost all protein in non brewed method are convert

into amino acid while for brewed method the amino acid will stay as a peptides that will give a

different flavour. Besides flavour, the non-brewed soy sauce is generally different with brewed

soy sauce because it is dark in colour. Furthermore, it has a harsh, overpowering flavour and a

pronounced chemical aroma.

The production of chemical soy sauce usually only takes a few weeks because there is no

natural brewing process. The soy protein is not separated by enzymes, as it is in the natural

brewing process, but with hydrochloric acid. Colour, flavour and aroma are not produced

naturally, but in the form of additives such as corn syrup, salt and caramel colour. The quality of

the resulting soy sauce is therefore much inferior to that of Kikkoman naturally brewed soy

sauce.

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2.3 INGREDIENTS IN MAKING SOY SAUCE

Certain soy sauce has different additives included during the process of making the soy sauce

to give them special characteristic such as flavour and aroma. Below are the essential

ingredients that need to be presence in order to produce soy sauce.

Soybean

Barley grains

Salt

Water

Yeast

Preservatives and other additives

2.3.1 EFFECT OF THE INGREDIENTS

Soy bean

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Figure 13: Soybeans

Soybeans have been known as King of Legumes because of precious nutritive contain in

soybeans. Soybean has lowest in starch and high in protein. Moreover soybean also contain of

high in minerals, particular calcium, magnesium and vitamin B. Soybean have variety of colour

from yellow, black and green. The main ingredients in making a soy sauce is soybean and it will

be mixing and mashed with other ingredients. The type of soy sauce is based from the protein

contain inside the soybean. The protein in soybeans changes to components that produce

flavour and colour unique to soy sauce as they are acted upon by microorganisms. Soybean will

be soaking in water for certain period of time and it will be steam in high temperature. In soy

sauce production, they use almost 70% of soy bean in the sauce.

Barley grains

Figure 14: Barley grains

Barley is a cereal grain that was originally native to Asia. Barley was very important in ancient

times and was one of the first grains to be widely cultivated. However, when leavened bread

became popular, consumption of barley was replaced by wheat and rye. Barley grains contain

high in carbohydrates. In making a soy sauce barley grains will blend and the crushed barley

grains will be mix together with the soybean. Carbohydrates that contain in the barley grains are

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the element that provide soy sauce with the pleasant smell and also give sweetness to the soy

sauce.

Salt

Figure 15: Salt

Salt will be added during the beginning fermentation process and give around 12-18% of the

weight for finished product. The salt is added in the form of salt water and the salt does more

than to add salty taste to the soy sauce. The salt helps to protect the soy sauce from spoilage

because of high salt concentration. In making soy sauce, the salt not only has a function for

flavouring but at the same time it a gives suitable chemical surroundings for lactic acid bacteria

and yeast to do fermentation process properly. The salt protects Moromi from unnecessary

microorganisms and helps slow activities of lactic acid bacilli and ferment, which are

indispensable in soy sauce production. For a salty soy sauce, the amount of salt will be greater

than the amount of salt in the sweet soy sauce.

Yeast

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Figure 16: Yeast

Microorganisms have been used by human to enrich eating habits. Yeast is one of the

microorganisms that have been used in food production such as alcohol beverage, soy sauce,

bakery item and etc. In soy sauce production, the mixture of barley grains and soybean exposed

to specific mold that called Aspergillus Oryzae or Aspergillus Soyae. This kind of mold has been

used to ferment soybean. Aspergillus Oryzae will breakdown the protein and carbohydrate to

foaming a koji. Than the yeast and saltwater will be combine to form of moromi. Fermentation

happened when additional bacteria called Lactobaccillus and yeast which enzymatically react

with protein to produce a number of amino acid and peptides where all these protein will

contribute to the flavour at the soy sauce.

Preservatives and other additives

Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food to stop or slow down the

spoilage and thus allow for longer the shelf life of any products. Preservation usually involves

preventing the growth ofbacteria, yeasts, fungi, and othermicro-organisms as well as retarding

the oxidation offats which cause rancidity Besides that, preservative food additives can be used

alone or in conjunction with other methods of food preservation. For non brewed method in

processing a soy sauce, additional colour and flavour agent have been added to give desirable

colour and flavour to the soy sauce. The food preservatives also will be added in the soy sauce

in order to make the sauce become high in quality and longer the shelf life of the products.

3.0 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SOY SAUCE

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In general, good quality soy sauce contains 1.0-1.65% total nitrogen (w/v), 2-5% reducing

sugars, 1-2% organic acids, 2.0-2.5% ethanol and 17-19% sodium chloride (w/v). About 45% of

the total nitrogen is found in simple peptides, and 45% in amino acids.

Table 1: Composition of soy sauce

The properties of some Japanese soy sauces are shown in Table 1. Koikuchi is a representative

of the fermented soy sauce popular in Japan. It is an all-purpose seasoning characterized by a

strong aroma, attractive flavor, and a deep reddish brown color. More than 56% of Japanese

soy sauces are of this type.

The 'Upper grade' or 'Usukuchi shuyu' is used mainly in the western part of Japan. The

'Standard grade' or 'Tamari shuyu' sauce is characterized by higher total nitrogen and formol

nitrogen compared with the other varieties. It is consumed largely in the Nagoya region of

Japan. The Saishikomi and Shiro soy sauces are produced and consumed only in isolated

localities or for special industrial uses.

The amino acid composition of the soy bean, wheat and a representative Koikuchi soy sauce is

presented in Table 2. Glutamic and aspartic acids are the major amino acids present in the

fermented soy sauce. A total of 18 amino acids are present in the sample. Arginine, lysine,

phenylalanine, serine, threonine, leucine, isoleucine, valine, alanine and proline are present in

significant quantities in the sauce. A comparison of the amino acids present in the fermented

soy sauce with those in the soy bean and wheat indicates the following changes: a) arginine is

converted into ornithine in the fermentation process; b) tryptophan and cystine may have been

used during the fermentation as nutrients; and c) tyrosine decreases in the moromi mash.

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A representative Japanese fermented soy sauce contains the following sugars % (w/w):

arabinose, 0.08%; glucose, 2.05%; mannose 0.06%; galactose, 0.17%; xylose, 0.06%;

disaccharide, 0.65%; polysaccharide, 1.15%; unidentified sugar 0.23%; total sugar, 4.45% (as

glucose). Organic acids: acetic acid, 0.16%; citric acid, 0.04%; formic acid 0.02%; lactic acid,

0.68%; succinic acid, 0.05%; total 0.95%.

Table 2: Distribution in Koikuchi soy sauce

3.1 FLAVOR COMPOUND

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Based on distillation-extraction techniques and using various types of glass and fused silica

capillary columns, it is reported that there are more than 200 peaks in the chromatograms which

indicate the volatile compounds. These volatile compounds included: 1) hydrocarbons, 2)

alcohols, 3) esters, 4) aldehydes, 5) acetals, 6) ketones, 7) furans, 8) lactones, 9) furanones,

10) pyrones, and 11) pyrazines. Of these aromatic compounds, HEMF (4-hydroxy- 2 (or 5)-

ethyl-5 (or 2) methyl-3-(2H)-furanone) appears to be a very important flavor component of

fermented soy sauce. HEMF possesses a strong flavor and resembles the aroma of the moromi

mash of Koikuchi soy sauce.

The volatiles are formed by microorganisms during the Koji and brine fermentation as well as

the heating and pasteurization process. There is also a report which reported on the quantitative

aspects of 12 major flavor components in Japanese soy sauces as follows: isobutyl alcohol,

3.07-18.35 p.p.m.; n-butyl alcohol, 1.41-11.48p.p.m.; isoamyl alcohol, 4.47-22.0p.p.m.; acetoin,

5.08 8.44p.p.m.; ethyl lactate, 7.35-27.12p.p.m.; furfuryl alcohol, 4.35-10.07 p.p.m.; methionol,

2.60- 4.47 p.p.m.; 2-phenylethanol, 3.71-10.25 p.p.m.; HDMF (4- hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)

furanone), 1.83-5.39p.p.m.; 4- EG (4-ethyl-2-methoxyphenol(4-ethylguaiacol)), 1.12-3.67 p.p.m.;

HEMF (4-hydroxy-2 (or 5)-ethyl-5 (or 2)-methyl- 3(2H)-furanone), 177.8-418.7 p.p.m.; HMMF (4

hydroxy-5- methyl-3(2H)-furanone), 84.54-153.6 p.p.m.

4.0 CONCLUSION

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In a nutshell, the soy sauce production method have evolved from the conventional method to

more sophisticated method which involved machineries, techniques, processes and additives

that helps to preserve the taste and quality of the soy sauce.

Innovations are made in producing varieties of soy sauce product that is available in the market

but the main purpose is remaining the same, to serve the customer the best quality and safe

soy sauce product to be enjoyed.

Even though the process of making soy sauce is very hard and complicated even with the

presence of technology, but the effort to preserve the taste of the soy sauce deserve a

compliment. As most Asia Pacific and South East Asia countries used soy sauce in their

traditional cuisines, the effort by Japanese Agricultural Standard (JAS) in grading the soy sauce

should be exemplary and followed by others in which would be very helpful for customer to

choose which soy sauce is the best and fits for them.

The Halal certification should also be a benchmark for all soy sauce manufacturers and labelled

and declaring all their product ingredients so that it will not raise any morals and religious codes

especially for Muslim as they may find it unacceptable to consume non-halal food or indeed

containing any ingredient that not declared. Undeclared ingredients used can have ramifications

for minority groups such as vegetarians, vegans, pregnant women, children and anyone on

special diets.

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