Food Manufacture Notes:Production and processing of food:

1) Quality and quantity control in the selection of raw materials for food processing.

Food manufacture: can be defined as activities that typically use power driven machines and materials handling equipment to mechanically or chemically transform raw materials into food and beverages for human consumption.

Raw materials: any products that are used in the manufacture of another processed food.

Quantity control: Food manufacturers spend a large % of their costs on raw materials. Due to this strict specifications are put in place to reduce the risk of contaminated raw materials.

Raw materials specifications:

1) Description of raw material:*Physical characteristics i.e. shape & size*Sensory characteristics i.e. aroma& colour*Chemical characteristics i.e. moisture content & pH level*Microbiological limits

2) Sampling method for material

3) Test or each specified characteristic needed.

4) Action to be taken when tests have produced a result:*Accept material*Reject material*Start method of controlling problem in material

2) Role of food additives in the manufacturing process.

Food additives are any substance, not normally eaten as food alone and not normally used as an ingredient in the preparation of food that affect the characteristics of the products they are added to.

Food additives:*extend the shelf life & reduce waste of foods*maintain or improve the nutritional quality of foods*restore or improve the taste texture or appearance of foods*assist in the production & preparation of foods*provide for special dietary needs

Code numbering system: Listing the class & name of an additive requires considerable space. Australia uses a system which states the class name & additive number ti help the consumer read & recognise food additives.

3) Characteristics of equipment used in different types of production & factors influencing their selection.

Reasons for delay of adopting computerised systems:*the food industry has a great range of products & a wide range of processed, all of which have different requirements.*the food industry has strict safety & health requirements*many food production lines have a number of separate unit processes

Benefits of automation & computerisation:*reduced labour*energy savings*consistent product quality*less wastage of materials*more consistent production levels

Processing equipment:*the ability to provide a supply of nutritious & safe food depends on the processes & equipment used.*the food technologist is responsible for the operations & equipment. They need knowledge of chemical, microbiological & biochemical characteristics of food products.

Unit operations: are the specific processes food undergoes during production. Processes are:

Process used: Purpose:Separation-filtration The process of passing a liquid through a

filter so solid particles are removed.Separation-sedimentation The use of gravitational or centrifugal

forces to remove solids from liquids.Separation-centrifuging The process used to separate food

particles of different densities e.g. the separation of cream from whole milk

Grinding & milling The process of reducing raw material size which may required to:*make raw materials easier to handle*make raw materials suitable for the final product*make a completely new product

Mixing The process used to evenly distribute ingredients through a product batch.The type of mixer used depends on the size batch to be produced.

Heating equipment The equipment used to heat raw materials

during processing.The type pf equipment used depends on the nature of the raw materials & the intensity of the heat treatment.

4) Production systems used in the manufacture of food

5) Quality management considerations in industrial practices to achieve safe foods for public consumption.

Quality control: process by which we measure characteristics, compare them to a standard & act on any differences that may occur. Quality control consists of economically developing, designing, producing, marketing & servicing products that will satisfy consumers.

Quality assurance: refers to the cooperation to achieve quality control i.e. all separate parts of the company must work together.

Setting up a quality management system:*A clear final product specification statement of the level of quality that is expected & that can be achieved at the price the customer is prepared to pay.*Methods for assessing & measuring the quality of the material to the specification set out & agreed to by the supplier & purchaser.*Specifications for the processing areas involved.*Sampling & testing of the final product, after packaging & labelling to ensure that all specification standards were met.

HAACP: Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points.

Advantages of HACCP:*the business makes more profit because it wastes less product & has to redo less work*the product has an edge over the competition*problems are prevented than responded to when they happen*consumers feel confidence in the safety of the product*employees feel more in control of the work environment & job security is improved

HACCP involves the following steps:1) Examine production stages & analyse potential hazards2) Identify the critical control points3) Specify control measures & set critical limits4) Establish a system to monitor control points5) Specify corrective action when monitoring indicates that control measures have not been met6) Regular review of system effectiveness7) Make & keep suitable records

1) The first step involves:*listing all the operations in the production process from delivery of raw materials to the finished product.*conducting a hazard analysis to identify potential risks for each operation in the process such as physical, chemical or biological contamination.

2) The second step identifies any production steps where hazards can be controlled. These steps are known as the critical control points (CCP). They include all processes where a failure of controls could comprise food safety. E.g. CCPs occur during storage & transport, cooling, chilling or freezing, heating for blanching, pasteurisation, sterilisation, cooking, cleaning & sanitising, packaging & sealing.

3) The third step establishes control measures for CCPs & sets critical limits. Control measures to ensure safety will vary depending on the severity & type of hazard. Critical limits specify standards to ensure food safety.

4) The fourth step involves determining procedures for systematically monitoring critical control points & critical limits. There procedures indicate the tests of checks which must be applied to procedures & food samples to ensure that the food is safe. Monitoring can either be quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative monitoring are things you can’t see e.g. temperature acidity levels. Qualitative monitoring are things you can see and relies on visual inspection of characteristics such as colour and texture.

5) The fifth step involves specifying corrective action if the monitoring procedure indicates an operation is outside the critical limits. Corrective action involve adjusting the process to prevent future failure & either rejecting or reprocessing the food to ensure the safety of the product.

6) The sixth step involves regular onsite review to ensure that the program is working as it should and that it is adequate & effective.

7) The seventh step involves keeping records of all reviews, tests & procedures. Records provide evidence of safety procedures & identity areas for improvement. Documentation also identifies each batch of product, allowing quick identification if food contamination occurs & product recall is necessary.

Occupational health & safety:

Accidents are most often caused by the worker being unskilled at the job, the worker being rushed during very busy times or the equipment being poorly maintained.

The employer in the food industry must by law provide basic working conditions. These include:

*instruction of training about safety issues*equipment that operates correctly when used in the right way*a safe environment according to the Occupational Health & Safety Act 1983

An O&H committee must be established if there are 20plus employees in an origination. They:

*prepare a plan or checklist of areas prone to accidents.*devise an accident report form*decide an accident report form*decide on a course of action when an accident occurs.

Employees are to:*take reasonable care for eh heath& safety of others in the workplace.*use equipment as instructed & in a safe manner.*notify the employer in writing of accidents that occur*wear necessary protective clothing.

Preservation:

1) Reasons for preserving foods

Main reasons:1) promote safety-SAFETY2) keep foods in a form acceptable to the consumer >prevent waste-

ACCEPTABILITY3) retain the nutritional value of the food-NUTRITIVE VALUE4) make perishable food available all year round-AVAILABILITY5) achieve economies for the production company (it is cheaper to

produce a large amount of something than a small among > referred to as the economies of scale) –ECONOMIC VIABILITY

2) Causes of food deterioration and spoilage

Food spoilage is anything that renders food unsuitable for consumption.

Environmental Factors:- Infestation : An infestation of ants, weevils or any other insect can get into

foods. This spoils the food causing it to be unsuitable for consumption. Flys also land on food and contaminate it. Rodents such as rats or mice can nibble and spoil food. These are all spoilage agents.

- Oxygen: Oxidant reactions can spoil food.1) Enzymatic browning occurs when cut surfaces are exposed

to oxygen and they turn brown e.g. Pears.2) Rancidity occurs when oxygen reacts with fats to create a

“ranc” smell and the fat structure deteriorates.3) Souring of milk occurs when oxygen or heat react with the

lactose (milk sugar) and it’s converted into lactic acid which sours the milk and creates a curd texture. i.e. pH decreases.

- Light: Can spoil food by changing the colour of the food or the texture. Light can also break down the cell structure of food.

- Water: Food spoilage can be caused either by the addition or the removal of water. Water gain causes some food to become inedible and it will attract microbes. Water loss causes food to become stale which makes the food spoiled thus inedible. Although the foods can still be eaten water loss/gain makes them undesirable to eat.

- Impact damage: Foods can be either crushed or bruised due to poor handling, which makes the food spoiled.

- Freezer burn: Caused by exposure to cold air dehydrates foods leaving the spoiled.

Enzymatic Activity:Is involved in the ripening and eventual breakdown of fruits and vegetables, and the decomposition of meats. Enzymes naturally exist in all both plants and animals and have important functions while the organism is still alive. Once the organism is dead the enzymes continue to work which causes spoilage.

Microbial Contamination:- Bacteria: Are pathogenic (cause food poisoning). Different strains of

bacteria thrive at different temps and different pH levels. Food manufacturers’ must ensure that all precautions are taken to deny bacteria a suitable environment for growth. Flesh foods are extremely vulnerable to bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria don’t require O2 for growth so food manufacturers must be very careful. Bacteria grow best in the danger zone between 5oC and 60oC.

- Moulds: Grow in warm moist conditions and create a green/gray mass over the surface of the food. Moulds aren’t usually pathogenic but AFGOTOXIN mould is an exception. Mould spores spread easily from one food to another e.g. bread, cheese etc. High temps. Deactivate/kill mould.

- Yeast: Wild yeast lands on sweet liquids and causes undesirable fermentation of the liquid e.g. OJ. Characteristic ‘gas’ bubbles appear in the liquid and a strong/undesirable alcohol taste develops.

Microbial spoilage can be air borne; it is constantly around us and can land on open or uncovered food. Microbes can also be present in soil, on animals and their faeces, insects and bodily fluids i.e. viruses. Cross-contamination can cause microbial spoilage. Conditions for microbe growth:- H2O- O2

- Sufficient nutrients in food- Temperature (above 70oC for pasteurization)- TIME AND TEMP. ARE CRITICAL

Other Spoilage Agents:- Addition of contaminants wither intentionally or accidentally e.g. farm

chemicals.- Intentional adulteration of foods may occur illegally e.g. adding water to

milk.- Deliberate sabotage of food for extortion threats e.g. poisoning of Arnott’s

biscuits

3) Principles behind food preservation techniques:

The aim of food preservation is to render microbes inactive i.e. kill or control the conditions. The principles of food preservation are to control:

1) Temperature – Increase above 100o and kill microbes or decrease below 4oC (refrigeration) which slows/retards growth or -18oC (freezing) and microbes lay dormant.

2) Water Availability – Microbes can’t multiply w/o water, they cease to grow.

3) Oxygen Levels – Microbes and enzymes can’t exist w/o O2. No oxidation reactions either.

4) pH Levels – With pH<4 it is impossible for microbes to grow.5) Addition of Chemicals – It is impossible for microbes to grow by adding

salt, sugar or other additives.

4) Preservation processes:

- Freezing (Snap Freezing): Happens at -40oC with liquid nitrogen in a couple of seconds. Only small ice crystals form which reduces cell damage. Domestic freezing has large which damages food cells. Microbes lay dormant and can’t access the liquid but enzymes are still active. TEMP down

- Accelerate Freeze Drying (AFD): The product is snap frozen then dried through sublimation. TEMP down and H2O down

- Cook-Chill (Sous Vide): Used in hospitals, hotels and restaurants. Food is pasteurized and crash cooled via blast chilling, then vacuum packed and refrigerated. Cold chain is imperative of C.C.P. TEMP down and O2 down

- Dehydration/Drying: Involves the partial or complete removal of H2O from food e.g. semi dried tomatoes have 25% moisture content while dried milk has no moisture content. 100% moisture removal means a long stable shelf life. Barrier packaging is critical to prevent H2O entry into the V.A product. H2O down

- Pasteurization: Liquids are heated to 72oC for 15 seconds to kill some of the harmful pathogens e.g. milk and juice. Cold chain storage is essential as the product IS NOT STERILE/ASEPTIC. TEMP up

- Ultra-Heat Treatment (UHT): Liquids are heated to 1300C to 140oC for 2 – 3 seconds. This renders the product ASEPTIC and with an aseptic package the product has a 1 – 2 year shelf-life e.g. Berri juices. Doesn’t need cold chain so it’s cheaper to store/distribute. TEMP up

- Canning: Food is placed in a laminated triplated can with a liquid (syrup, brine, oil, vinegar or springwater) and then it hermetically sealed and heat sterilized above 100oC. This creates a vacuum seal on the lid. Cans have got thinner and cheaper to transport. TEMP up and O2 down

- Salting/Curing/Corning: Salt is added in a solid or liquid form to create an environment unsuitable for microbes. Osmosis occurs as moisture is removed. H2O down and pH<4

- Irradiation: Food is passed by Gamma Rays which sterilizes any spoilage agents. It’s not permitted in Australia.

- Smoking: Food can be exposed to smoke which permeates the cells and reduces the pH as well as partially drying the food. H2O down and pH<4

- Fermentation: The controlled use of yeast to create alcohol to preserve food. The eventual build-up of alcohol stops the yeast, common in Salami and alcohol.

Packaging, storage and distribution:

1) Functions of packaging & types of materials available

Functions:*packaging contains product*packaging protects products*packaging preserves food*packaging informs the consumer & markets the product*packaging provides convenience

Types of materials:*cans*glass containers*rigid plastic containers (plastic bottles)*flexible plastic packaging (plastic films)*paper & board products (moulded packaging, cardboard boxes, composite containers)*aluminium foil & laminates

Type of packaging: Main points:Cans 1) Advantages include:

Provides good protection for the contents

Prevents undesirable gains or losses in moisture content.

Are relatively easy to handle, in terms of filling, sealing and packaging.

High speeds can be achieved during production.

Can be easily displayed and stacked.

Can be stored for a long period of time.

The steel can is impact resistant and virtually unbreakable.

2) The two most common cans used are the steel and aluminum can. Steel cans are used for solid and

semi-solid foods Aluminium cans are used for soft

drinks and beer. Steel cans are generally coated

with a thin layer of tin which acts as a barrier between the steel and food content. A coating of lacquer or plastic is sometimes needed to prevent a chemical reaction between the tin and food.

It is not advisable to use the contents of a can which is dented or damaged as microscopic holes may be present.

Air and microbes can enter through these holes and react with or grow on the food.

Glass containers 1) Glass is used for a number of reasons including:

Doesn’t react with food

Is odourless and hygienic. Is usually transparent, which

allows the content to be inspected at times of packing and purchase.

Strong. Inert Recyclable and reusable Is easy to open and reseal. Comes in variety of shapes, sizes

and colours. Provides a means of long-term

storage and extended shelf-life.2) Can break easily3) Expensive

Paper and cardboard 1) Light weight2) Inexpensive3) Recyclable4) Able to be combined with plastic

& foil 5) Greaseproof papers are used

because they offer a barrier to unwanted odours and moisture.

6) Waxed papers are tasteless, odourless, nontoxic and inert and can be used for most foods.

7) Different types of paper can be made into a variety of shapes and thickness.

Rigid plastic packaging 1) Polyvingl choride (PVC) and polyethylene terephthdlate (PETP) are most commonly used for rigid packaging.

2) PVC rigid plastic packages are used to hold edible oils and cordials, while PETP is used in the soft drink industry. The two substances differ in their strength and barrier prosperities and their ability to be coloured.

3) Advantages of plastic: Is lightweight yet string. Has a high resistance to breakage. Is available is a variety of colours,

shapes and sizes. Adds to sales appeal of products. Is relatively cheap to produce.

Flexible plastic packaging 1) Is any plastic material that is formed into a sheet or reel, having

a thickness of up tp0.375millimetres. Common plastics used to make plastic films are:

Low density polyethylene (LDPE) and linear low density polyethylene (LIDPE): used for cake and cereal liners and cling wraps.

Polypropyleen (PP): used for packaging of snack foods.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): used for meat and vegetable wrapping.

2) Laminations: Involves the combining of 2 or

more materials from separate reels which are stuck together with the use of an adhesive or heat.

Retortable plastics, the shrinkable bags and film for vacuum packging are examples of laminates.

Aluminium foils and laminations 1) Most foils used today are made from aluminium.

2) Foils on their own or combined with other materials are used in food and pharmaceutical products.

3) They are light, flexible and add value to the product.

4) Foil is generally less than 0.5% millimeters think and tears easily. For this reason it is usually combined with another material. This process is known as lamination.

5) Metallising plastics is a process of coating a plastic film with a fine layer of metal. The befit of this is that the metallising process can use a far thinner coat of metal, making this process cheaper while a good barrier remains.

2) Current developments in packaging:

Cans: *steel alloys developed have allowed the production of cans with thinner walls. *ring pull lids have become possible

*changes with the introduction of aseptic canning. The cooked and/or sterilised product is placed in a sterilised can then the air above the product is removed by a vacuum & the can sealed

Active packaging*provides not only a barrier to outside influcnes but can also control &react to the enviorment inside the package.

1) Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP):*the starting atmosphere in the MAP is adjusted to produce a gas mix that will maximise shelf life. *one form of MAP has a headspace filled with gas or gases that will extend the product shelf life. The packaging material will not let gases pass through it once the package is sealed.*another form of MAP uses a packaging film that allows the movment of agses & water tinot & out of the package.

Sous vide:*the perishable food is cooked, rapidly chilled, vacuum packed & stored at a low temperature to extend its shelf life for several days or frozen until needed.*when required the bag is placed in boiling water for reheating.

3) Legislative requirements for packaging & labelling

Packaging:

Food Standards Code > what packaging materials are allowed for foods (standard) & label info

State Food Act > packaging of food (standard)

State Trade Measurement Act > correct labelling (weight)

Trade practices Act > correct country of origin

The choice of food packaging materials depend on:*the cost in time, energy & money*ease of production*consumer appeal*environmental impact National Packaging Covenant:*based on the principle that packaging & its eventual destination are the producer’s overall responsibility*is self-regulating: companies who produce or use packaging aren’t forced to sign.*has two parts:1) The covenant itself, which details action plans, kerb-side recycling &

industry commitment.2) A regulatory safety net designed to catch free loaders & those who do not

sign the covenant.

Food labelling:

The control of food labelling focuses on 3 categories:1) Statement or words that must appear on the label2) Statements or words that must not appear on the label3) Statements or words that may appear on a label under certain

circumstances.

Statements that are required to appear on a food label:1) a prescribed name2) the name & business address of the manufacturer & packer or importer3) details of the country of origin4) some form of ID about where the food was produced, production lot or

batch number5) list of ingredients6) a date when the food was packaged or a use by date7) a barcode8) a statement of quantity9) a nutrition information panel10) the alcohol content & number of standard drinks11) the printing on label must be in English, of uniform size, permanent &

distinct

4) Storage conditions & distribution systems

storage takes place:*after raw materials arrive at the factory*when a product is held while it changes*after the final product has been packaged but before it is distributed

storage conditions include:*cold storage: 0-5 degrees*freezer storage: -18 to -30 degrees*dry storage: room temperature (below 24 degrees)

The transportation of a product refers to the movement of goods once the product has undergone required processing.

Rail, road, sea, air.

Impact of food manufacturing technologies:

1) Environmental issues

Packaging Practices:* Packaging provides protection for the product, convenience and a marketing opportunity.* Another factor in the choice of packaging is its effect on the environment

* To respond to environmental concerns & to cut costs food manufacturers are now using light & more environmentally friendly packaging.

Production techniques:* Consumers expect food companies to promote ecological sustainability- use the least amount of natural resources & replenish these resources for future generations. * Many food manufacturers use large amounts of water & energy in production & packaging.* Manufacturing that uses more machines & larger equipment also requires more energy. Older machines also tend to use power less efficiently as do machines hat aren’t properly maintained.* The sources of energy used to manufacture food are usually electricity & gas.

Waste management:* Industry has developed biodegradable wastes that aren’t harmful to the environmental long-term.* 2 ways to help nature cope with excess waste:1) End of pipe treatment > waste water treated before going back into natural

waste.2) Recycle as much material as possible.

Packaging waste:* Sanitary landfill > this involves filling natural depressions & quarries with successive layers of waste & soil.

2) Social implications:

Lifestyle changes:1) Independence for everyone in the family:*not all family members are expected to be present at meals because of busy lifestyles lead to clashes of schedules*when family members do gather for a meal they may eat different foods*it is expected & accepted that busy people will use convenience foods

2) The urge for health, fitness & physical welfare:* Its generally accepted people eat the wrong foods*manufactures have produced a multitude of foods that are low fat and/ or high fibre, low salt or low sugar or cholesterol reduced.

3) Increased acceptance f disorder & change:*the number of family meals & traditional eating patterns has decreased,*self service & self catering are now normal*food manufacturers provide dishes & whole meals for those with few cooking skills > new products > variety of flavours, shapes & packaging.

4) Caution in accepting recent scientific undertakings:*gene technology & unnecessary chemicals are a concern

*we want a supply of a safe food, free from chemical residues > organic farming sector is satisfying this demand.*we want to know about genic modification*ANZFA develops food standards in regards to labelling.

5) A decline in or lack of food preparation skills;*our need for preparation skills & equipment is decreasing Employment opportunities:*the food industry employs 1 in 5 of the manufacturing workforce & mostly operates out of NSW, OLD, VIC.*the number of people employed in a business depends on the business’s level of operation. Also depends on the product being produced because certain tasks are more labour intensive than others.

3) Nutritional implications of food manufacturing:

Nutritionists, consumer groups & regulatory authorities criticised food manufactures for not paying enough attention to the nutritional aspects of the food they produced.

Most large companies have developed a corporate nutrition policy which is available to the public.

4) Appropriate use of technology in food manufacture:

Means to use technology to produce a variety of safe & nutritious foods in ways that are environmentally friendly & efficient.

Energy resources:*producing fresh fruit & vegetables cost more when looking at energy use & harm to the environment than producing some processed foods.

Packaging technology:*packaging is causing less damage to the environment because of developments on packaging technology.*the PCA wants to reduce container wall thickness, develop lighter packaging materials & use more composite packaging which can be recycled.

Technological processes:*recent development in the aseptic canning process*OMIX system: faster technique of taking food to the right temperature > nutritional quality & texture of the food is retained & colour & flavour are better > less energy used

Research & development:*can lead to new ways to using an existing food