This presentation is from the course “Primary Production” of the

FAO Good Hygiene Practices (GHP) Toolbox

(http://www.fao.org/good-hygiene-practices-toolbox)

Readers are encouraged to visit the online resource for a full

learning experience.

Food Hygiene Issues in Primary

Production

Food Hygiene Issues in Primary Production:

Presentation Objectives

The objectives of this presentation are:

– To provide an overview of the topic “Food Hygiene Issues in

Primary Production” as covered in the FAO GHP Training

Toolbox.

– To underline the importance of identifying potential food

safety hazards in primary production and the need to control

or reduce these hazards at this stage in the value chain.

– To enable concerned stakeholders to recognize potential

food safety hazards in primary production and to provide

practical guidance on minimizing these hazards.

– To provide information resources that facilitate the

preparation of training sessions on good hygiene in primary

production.

Primary Production: Presentation Outline

1. Introduction

• Definition of primary production

• Introducing Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) standards

• Explaining classes of hazards

• Introducing concept of maximum limits for residues or contaminants in foods

2. Overview of potential hazards in crops and animal products

3. Suggested supplier monitoring techniques

Definition of primary production

• Primary production is defined as those steps in the food

chain up to and including harvesting, slaughter, and

milking

• Hunting and fishing wild animals, as well as collecting

wild crops is considered part of primary production

• Primary production needs to be managed in a way that

ensures that products supplied are safe and suitable for

food and/or animal feed

Be aware of inappropriate farm production

technologies

Many of the safety deficiencies caused by inappropriate farm production technologies and handling practices are not visible on primary produce and cannot be corrected during food processing.

Examples are pesticide and veterinary drug residues, mycotoxin and microbial contaminations.

Identifying potential food safety hazards upon delivery to the food business is difficult. Therefore, prevention of contamination of primary produce is always favoured over correction.

Mould on corn that may contain mycotoxins

Worker spraying pesticides

Introducing Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)

Efforts to assure food safety must start at farm level. To ensure this requirement a multiplicity of GAP codes, standards and regulations have been developed in recent years.

A GAP approach to agriculture involves the establishment of guidelines or standards for agricultural producers and post-farm handlers as well as the monitoring of these standards.

Good Agricultural Practices cover a wide spectrum of on-farm and post-farm activities related to food safety and food quality, the environmental impacts of agriculture and often various social objectives including animal health and welfare and agricultural workers rights.

This presentation deals with the subset of GAP issues affecting safety and quality.

Assuring GAP on the farm

The following key controls are selected examples of GAP controls that are relevant for food safety.

– Control contamination from air, soil, water, feedstuffs, fertilizers (including natural fertilizers), pesticides, veterinary drugs.

– Control plant and animal health, so that it does not pose a threat to human health through consumption, or adversely affect the suitability of the food.

– Protect food sources from faecal and other contamination by ensuring the appropriate management of waste (human, animal and chemical), and store all chemicals (and other harmful substances) away from food materials.

– Segregate food and food ingredients that are unfit for further processing or consumption.

Classes of hazards to consider in primary

production

Hazards that may affect food safety of plant and animal products during production and handling are grouped as follows:

1. Chemical

– Pesticide Residues

– Environmental contaminants

– Veterinary drugs and contaminants from animal feed

– Natural compounds, such as mycotoxins and nitrates

2. Microbiological

– Pathogenic bacteria

– Water and foodborne viruses

– Zoonotic parasites

3. Physical

– Foreign matter such as dust, stones, needles, seeds, vegetable matter

Codex definition of the term “hazard”: A biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the potential to cause an adverse health effect.

Maximum limits for residues or contaminants in

foods

Residues from chemicals used in primary production or other chemical or microbial hazards of a primary product can pose serious health problems.

National authorities establish maximum limits for these hazards based on international recommendations and implement programs to ensure that food chain operators comply to these limits.

– Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) define the maximum concentration of a chemical or compound that is legally permitted in any type of food product.

– Extraneous Maximum Residue Limits (EMRLs) refer to compounds banned for agricultural uses, which are persistent in the environment with potential to result in residues in food and feed.

– Maximum Levels (MLs) define specified contaminants and natural toxicants in foods.

– Microbiological Criteria are used to formulate requirements to indicate the required microbiological status of foods at different stages of food production.

1. Introduction

• Definition of primary production

• Introducing Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) standards

• Explaining classes of hazards

• Introducing concept of maximum limits for residues or contaminants in foods

2. Overview of potential hazards in crops and animal products

3. Suggested supplier monitoring techniques

Primary Production: Presentation Outline

Chemical hazards in crops: Agricultural

Chemicals

Agricultural chemicals are applied

either as

– insecticide, fungicide, herbicide, or

desiccant used in the field, or

– post-harvest treatments to preserve

shelf-life (i.e. fungicides).

Certain chemicals are intended for

use only on selected crops. Farmers

must use only authorized agricultural

chemicals. In addition, the chemicals

must be used according to

manufacturer’s instructions and for

the intended purpose.

If good practices are applied MRL will

not be exceeded.

Application of agricultural chemicals, Lao PDR

Farmer field schools

help farmers to apply

GAP consistent with

Integrated Pest

Management (IPM)

principles.

Chemical hazards in crops: persistent chemicals

I

Soils can be contaminated with persistent chemicals deriving from

– the natural occurrence of heavy metals such as Cadmium,

– the presence of technically enhanced chemicals of agricultural/industrial origin such as DDT or mercury.

These compounds or their metabolites are stable and cannot be degraded or destroyed.

They enter the food chain by plant interception and through plant uptake and present a hazard to human health.

Maximum limits define their tolerable limits in foods.

Persistent chemicals cannot be removed from foodstuffs. Only a preventive approach that eliminates or controls contamination on the farm will be effective in guaranteeing safe products.

Codex Codes of Practice offer relevant advice on how to prevent the presence of toxic chemicals in foods. Example are:

– Codex Code of Practice Concerning Source Directed Measures to Reduce Contamination of Foods with Chemicals (CAC/RCP 49-2001) deals with the major sources of environmental chemicals.

– Codex Code of Practice for the Prevention and Reduction of Lead Contamination in Foods (CAC/RCP 56-2004) provides recommended practices based on GAP and GMP to control contamination of foodstuffs with lead.

Chemical hazards in crops: persistent chemicals

II

Avoid planting in contaminated areas and processing produce from polluted sources!

Chemical hazards in crops: mycotoxins

Molds produce toxic substances called mycotoxins which are a major food safety threat.

Mycotoxins can occur at any stage throughout the food-chain and affect a wide number of food commodities such as cereals, nuts, spices, fruit, coffee, milk and alcoholic beverages.

Codex provides recommended practices to prevent contamination with mycotoxins specific to cereals (CAC/RCP 51-2003), apple juice (CAC/RCP 50-2003), peanuts (CAC/RCP

22-1979), feedingstuffs (CAC/RCP 45-

1997), tree nuts (CAC/RCP 6-1972), wine (CAC/RCP 63-2007), dried figs (CAC/RCP 65-2008), and coffee (CAC/RCP 69-2009).

Moldy peanuts may be contaminated

with mycotoxins

Mycotoxins can not be inhibited through processing steps. Preventive measures such as moisture management to limit growth of molds are the most effective way to lower the risk of intoxications.

Chemical hazards in crops: Nitrates

High nitrate levels are of concern in leafy vegetables, roots and tuber crops.

A known source of nitrate contamination is the re-use of fertilizer bags for food storage or transport.

The negative food safety implication of high nitrate content in foods is that under certain conditions they may be converted to compounds which can cause cancer.

As a general rule for any commodity the re-use of packaging previously used for non-food items should be avoided.

Storage of rice in sacks previously used for fertilizer

Microbial hazards in crops

Fresh produce can become microbiologically contaminated at any point along the farm-to-table food chain.

Main sources for microbiological contaminations are:– Water

– Manure

– Workers

– Dirty tools and transport vehicles

– Interrupted or lacking cool-chain

Microorganisms are of particular concern in products that areconsumed with little or no processing. This includes fruits andvegetables. Prevention of microbial contamination at all steps in the farm-to-table continuum is recognized as the best measure of control. The Code of Hygienic Practice for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables (CAC/RCP 53-2003) addresses relevant good practices.

Microbial contamination paths for crops I

Contamination through water

Water is used during growing for irrigation, and after harvest for washing produce, as well as for cleaning field containers.

The quality of water is of particular concern when it comes into direct contact with the edible portion of the produce.

Measures to limit microbial contamination of crops through water include:– identification and contol of the source of the water,

– localized irrigation techniques,

– wastewater irrigation cessation period prior to harvest.

WHO/UNEP/FAO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater Volume 2 provide proven methods of water management in agriculture.

Guidance on how to prevent postharvest microbial contamination of fresh fruit and vegetables is provided online by the University of California Davis .

Microbial contamination paths for crops II

Contamination through pests

Birds, rodents and domesic animals

can contaminate products through

feces.

Insects such as flies and dung

beetles are also known carriers of

bacteria.

Preventing farm animals, pets and

pests from roaming freely on crop

fields is an effective measure to

reduce microbial contamination of

crops.

Contamination through manure

Animal manure is a known source of

microbial contamination of crops.

Composting is an effective way of

reducing the microbial hazards of raw

manure. The high temperatures

reached during composting will kill

most pathogens.

Microbial contamination paths for crops III

Contamination through people

People are a source of

microbiological contamination.

When fresh vegetables and fruits

are harvested, adequate facilities

for hand washing and hygienic

toilet facilities must be provided to

prevent microbiological

contamination.

Training in personal hygiene

standards should be conducted.

These efforts could be enforced

by providing on-site signaling. Seasonal workers harvesting lettuce

Microbiological hazards and BSE in animal

husbandry

Cattle, other ruminants, poultry and swine areimportant reservoirs for bacteria, viruses and zoonotic parasites.

Examples of pathogenic microorganisms are:

– Bacteria such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Campylobacter

– Zoonotic parasites such as Trichinella spiralis (a disease-causing round-worm)

– Viruses such as avian influenza

In addition, the agent of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) has emerged as a new type of hazard.

Care should be taken to ensure that

– sick animals are separated from the herd and treated,

– animal handlers do not infect animals,

– outbreaks of illness in herds and flocks are rapidly communicated to the authorities, and

– rendered ruminants are not fed back to ruminants.

Uncontrolled milking method

More hygienic methods of milking will reduce

quantity of bacteria in milk pail

Hygienic methods can prevent microbial hazards

in animal husbandry

Bacteria and viruses are transferred

between animals and people. A

principle source for many such

infections in humans is the handling

of animals and the consumption of

animal produce such as milk.

Good hygiene practices are essential

for the handling of animals and

animal products.

Codex Codes of Practice for meat

(CAC/RCP 58-2005) and milk and milk

products (CAC/RCP 57-2004) cover

relevant hygiene provisions.

Veterinary treatments as a food safety hazard

Veterinary Medicines

Residues of veterinary medicines, growth promoters and performance enhancers in foods of animal origin are a potential threat to human health.

Only substances that are permitted by law should be used to treat sick animals. Recommendations on the dose and mode of treatment as well all withdrawal periods need to be respected.

Proof of rigorous traceability must be demanded from suppliers.

Codex Guidelines for the use of veterinary drugs (CAC/GL 71-2009) outline systems to ensure that the exposure of food producing animals to veterinary drugs does not pose a risk to human health.

Chemical Hazards in animal feed

Chemicals from industrial and

environmental sources can contaminate

feed and make the animal or the animal

product unfit for human consumption.

Several instances of feeds contaminated

with dioxins, lead or mycotoxins have been

documented.

Codex Code of Practice on Good Animal Feeding (CAC/RCP 54-2004) establishes a feed safety system for food producing animals.

Codex Code of Practice for the Reduction

of Aflatoxin B1 in Feed for Milk Producing

Animals (CAC/RCP 45-1997) presents

recommended practices to ensure the

lowest possible level of toxigens in milk.

Applying good hygienic layout and design

principles in primary production

Important safety precautions at primary production level

include the hygienic layout and design of primary

production facilities.

Measures of control could include

– introduction of cleanliness barriers such as boot dips,

– strict control of visitors’ contact to other farms,

– strictest barriers to prevent dirty equipment from entering clean

areas (i.e. one-way transport crates for animals, fruit etc.; cleaning

equipment for each hygiene zone, etc.),

– highest level of pest control.

Chemical hazards in fisheries and aquaculture

Fish habitats are exposed to varying amounts of environmental contaminants.

Chemicals, organochloric compounds and heavy metals may accumulate in products that can cause public health problems.

Veterinary drug residues can occur in aquaculture products when correct withdrawal times are not followed or when the sale and use of these compounds are not controlled.

Contrarily to wild fish harvesting aquaculture systems can be monitored to control contamination of harvested fish products.

Microbial hazards in fisheries and aquaculture

Biological food safety hazards associated with fish, shellfish and other aquatic invertebrates are:

– Parasites such as fish-borne zoonotic parasites which are a growing problem in aquaculture.

– Bacteria such as Vibrio species that are a common costal contaminant.

– Viruses such as hepatitis A virus that occur in waters contaminated with feces.

– Biotoxins which are either linked to a poisonous fish species or to the ingestion of toxic organisms such as toxic phytoplankton (see FAO Publication on biotoxins)

The Codex Code of Practice for Fish and Fishery Products (CAC/RCP 52-2003) provides guidance for the elaboration of fish and shellfish process management systems.

Soaking oysters in antimicrobial solution as a

safety measure because the water they are

grown in is potentially contaminated

1. Introduction

• Definition of primary production

• Introducing Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) standards

• Explaining classes of hazards

• Introducing concept of maximum limits for residues or contaminants in foods

2. Overview of potential hazards in crops and animal products

3. Suggested supplier monitoring techniques

Primary Production: Presentation Outline

You are now aware of the potential hazards

Section 2 of this presentation identified a number of

hazards in major food groups that are known to arise

during primary production activities and present a problem

to food safety.

In addition, relevant good practices have been indicated

that are required in primary production to avoid or reduce

the incidence of hazards with the aim to guarantee safe

food.

From hazard identification to control measures

This next section addresses the responsibilities of

downstream operators.

Suppliers and food processors only will be able to

guarantee safe products to their respective customers if

effective control measures that cover their sources of

primary products are in place.

Such measures include the established techniques that are

presented in the following slides.

Food businesses must monitor their suppliers

1. Develop specifications for each raw material or ingredient in

conjunction with the suppliers and get agreement to the

specification.

2. Source raw materials or ingredients from suppliers with a history of

compliance to agreed requirements (either to the food business, or

to the industry sector).

3. Request a supplier declaration for each consignment of raw

materials/ingredients that attests to the meeting of sector specific

food safety and suitability requirements. Examples are:

– withdrawal periods for chemicals prior to harvest

– product from apparently healthy animals, or

– in the case of shellfish harvests from growing areas that are suitable

Supplier monitoring – continued

4. Physically inspect/audit primary production processes to

confirm that food safety hazards are being effectively managed,

or

5. know what type of agricultural practices the farmer follows or

demand from the supplier that he is aware of the followed

practices,

or

6. demand verification that the raw materials originated from a

farm that follows internationally recognized standard such as

GAP. This may be via certification from a government agency

or a recognized third party audit body.

7. Request a certificate of analysis for raw materials/ingredients

on a batch basis to verify that specification parameters are met.

Know your suppliers

If food businesses establish and maintain good linkages with their suppliers these will:

– understand potential hazards to food safety during production and handling on the farm,

– develop and implement practices and systems that will prevent these hazards from affecting the food,

– require and monitor compliance to these practices on the farm.

Safety hazards in primary production:

Conclusions

Chemical, microbiological and physical hazards during primaryproduction can pose a significant threat to food safety and suitability.

Safe plant products destined for food or for animal feed play a significant role in ensuring a safe food system.

Food raw materials carrying potential hazards from primary productioncannot always be reliably identified during receipt at a food businessand separated.

Many of the hazards cannot be corrected by processing nore canmicrobial hazards be completely eliminated in production.

Food producers must therefore carefully choose and monitor theirsuppliers. Often suppliers are required to restrict their sources to GAP-certified farms.

This presentation is from the course “Primary Production” of the FAO

Good Hygiene Practices (GHP) Toolbox.

Readers are encouraged to visit the online resource for a full

learning experience.

You have reached the end of the presentation

“Food Hygiene Issues in Primary Production”