food chain 30
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Food ChainFood Chain
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NUMBER 30 June 2002
The International Journal of
Small-scale Food Processing
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Information networks crucial to thesuccess of the food processing sectorAsk any small-scale entrepreneur what are
the main factors that are critical to theirsuccess and almost all of them will
highlight information. Information on a
range of topics, from the technical know-
how, where to access ingredients and
equipment, knowledge of the recent
developments in processing and packaging
technology and general information on the
market and market price.
Networks are an effective means of
communication and information exchange
and provide small-scale entrepreneurs an
opportunity to meet others in their field
and to exchange ideas and experiences.
Networks of food processors are active in
many countries and regions. Gisele Lopes
DAlmeida* describes the Interface
network for sub-Saharan Africa and the
role it plays in the development of the
food processing sector. Interfaceis a
network of African food processors that
was launched five years ago in
Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. The network
was established to try and respond to the
problems that the food processing sector
was facing, especially with the effects ofglobalisation on the local economies. The
network has grown into a forum for
exchange of ideas and experiences for
professionals in the sector and currently
covers thirteen countries in west Africa,
ranging from Mauritania to Nigeria,
including the western Sahelian countries.
It is gradually growing in the countries of
central, eastern and southern Africa and,
hopefully, will become a pan-African
organisation that works for African
entrepreneurs who are involved inregional and international trade of all raw
and processed agricultural produce.
The impacts of globalisation and
liberalisation of world markets means that
African food products have to compete
with European food products that are
often heavily subsidised and promoted in
the African domestic markets. The
challenge for local small and medium-
scale enterprises is to produce quality
products that can compete with the
imported goods. This is where Interface
plays a valuable role. The stance taken byInterfaceis to positively welcome
globalisation and look for the potential
opportunities it can offer to local
entrepreneurs.
Here we have to be more inventive and
more creative in finding viable niches in
the international market place. Secondly,
we have to devote more attention todeveloping our local, sub-regional and
regional markets. We know from
experience that they can be developed
profitably and we can improve their
performance by having better access to
key information such as product supply
and prices.
Development of the local food
processing sector cannot take place in
isolation. It needs the whole-hearted
support of other closely-related sectors
scientific research, especially in post-
harvest technology and biotechnology;close control over the production to
ensure that both quality and quantity are
sufficient to meet the demand; marketing
support to deliver products and labels of
quality that consumers know and
appreciate.
It is essential to recognise the leading
role played by the private sector in Africa
in the economic development of the
continent, and in particular by small and
medium-scale enterprises. They have to
be found a special place in decisionmaking bodies if they are to play their part
as the motor of development to the
utmost.
The success ofInterfaceand the food
processing sector in strengthening the
local economy will depend on the
initiatives of entrepreneurs themselves
and on their own ability to locate and
obtain the resources they need. In this,
there is a supportive role to be played by
programmes which will enable
entrepreneurs to access information,
technology, markets and finance.
This issue of Food Chain brings a range of
articles and information from across the
globe. As always we welcome your
comments and feedback on the articles in
this journal and your suggestions and
contributions for future issues. Please
contact us via e-mail
([email protected]) or at the postal
address on the back cover.
Sue Azam-AliProduction Manager
* This interview by Ms DAlmeida appeared in
Spore 97.
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Front Cover: Marketing
grains in North Darfur,
Sudan
M4X1.00.01 Economics
M Majzoub
Greetings
Gre
etings
Back Cover:
Packaging and labels for
honey processors in
BangladeshA4.BangladeshE1.21
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IntroductionFor the past five years women
entrepreneurs assisted by the SIDO
Women Entrepreneurship Development
Programme (WED) in food processing,
have learned and excelled in the
production of peanut butter.
Peanut butter, a smooth paste obtained
after grinding roasted peanuts (Arachis
hypogaea) is traditionally an importantproduct used for cooking purposes in
many homes in rural Tanzania. The paste
is used in preparation of side dishes and is
also cooked with vegetables, pearled
sorghum and maize to make a variety of
dishes.
This long-standing traditional use of
peanut butter prompted the WED
Programme to introduce it as a
commercial product on the training
programme for women entrepreneurs.
Commercially produced peanut butter
is used as a spread on bread, especially bythe urban middle classes who consume
bread as part of their meals, especially at
breakfast. In addition there is a growing
use of the product by housewives for
cooking. This has made the product one of
the best selling processed products of the
beneficiaries of the WED Programme.
Most peanut butter is packed in 400g
jars or in 250g and 500g sachets that are
targeted for household use in cooking.
The latter is mainly a plain paste without
any additives. On the other hand peanutbutter meant for use on bread, is either
salted or unsalted. Sugar, stabilizers and
sometimes hydrogenated oils are added
to improve its spreadability and flavour.
Processing
Making of peanut butter requires great carein the choice of raw materials as this has a
bearing on the final quality and safety of
the product. The peanuts should be mature
and dry, of uniform size and free from
fungal infestation. Fungal infestation can
be detected by a dark stain on the skin. The
dangerous toxin-producing mould
Aspergillus flavuswill grow on nuts that
have not been fully dried and any stained
nuts must be rejected.
The various steps in the making of
peanut butter are outlined below:
1. Cleaning
Nuts are cleaned to remove dust, twigs,
parts of packages and damaged nuts.
This is achieved by winnowing and
blowing away the light particles.
Broken and infested nuts are removed
by hand.
2. Roasting
This operation should be performed
carefully to achieve uniform roasting
without scorching any of the nuts.
Adequate heat is required to ensurecooking of the nuts. Roasting may take
10 to 30 minutes to obtain uniform
golden coloured (light brown to brown)
nuts. Proper roasting results in a
pleasant aroma.
3. Cooling
The roasted nuts are cooled before
proceeding with the next step.
Small-scale peanut butter processing inTanzania The experience of womenprocessors
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ITDG Food Chain 30
Keywords
Peanut butter,
stabiliser, training,
enterprise,
business
development
Africa
Tanza
nia
Happiness Mchomvu of the Small Industries
Development Organisation (SIDO) describes thesuccessful work carried out assisting women
entrepreneurs in peanut butter production. SIDO has
52 trainers working in 14 regions of Tanzania. A key
element leading to their success is the technical and
business skills training they provide. In addition to
the training is the relationship developed between
SIDO and a British company that enables SIDO to
purchase ingredients and equipment that are not
available in Tanzania. This business linkage enabled
SIDO to import a stabiliser that is needed to prevent
oil separating out of the peanut butter, thus
improving the quality and marketability of theproduct.
Figure 1: Peanut butter is
passed through the grinder
two or three times to get a
fine pasteA4ZimbabweA5.01
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4. Skinning and sorting
Roasting dries the nut and makes the
skin brittle, which cracks and can be
removed easily. The nuts are rubbed andwinnowed to separate the skins from the
kernels. After roasting some nuts may
have been burnt, these are removed.
Any nuts with undesirable qualities that
may have escaped the initial cleaning
operation are also removed.
5. Grinding
There are different types of peanut
butter as far as smoothness is
concerned. In Tanzania a finely ground,
smooth paste is preferred. The cleaned
kernels are ground in a hand operatedplate mill, available in the local market.
Sometimes two to three repeated
grindings are required to give the
required smooth consistency.
6. Mixing
Ground paste is then mixed with other
ingredients such as vegetable oil, sugar,
salt and stabiliser.Edible oil such as corn, sunflower or
groundnut is heated to 8090C before
adding a small quantity (about 25%) to
the paste to improve its spreadability.
Some producers add 6% of sugar or
maltose and 1.7% salt to improve the
flavour.
Peanut stabiliser is added to the paste
at a rate of 23%. This is best added at
the grinding stage to ensure thorough
blending with the butter. The stabiliser
prevents oil separation.
The paste, with added ingredients isthen heated to about 80C to ensure
that the stabiliser melts and is well
blended into the paste.
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Africa
Tanza
nia
Table 1. Some common problems experienced during peanut butter processing and possibleremedies
Problem Reason How to resolve
Texture too soft q Stabiliser not thoroughly mixed q Add the stabiliser at the grinding stage to ensure thatinto the peanut paste it is thoroughly mixed with the paste
q Stabiliser did not melt during the q Heat the paste to at least 5C above the melting pointmixing process of the stabiliser before adding the stabiliser. Mix well
q Too little stabiliser used q Manufacturers of the additive usually advise on thelevels to be used. The exact amount required is
influenced by the quality of the peanuts and theprocessing conditions. Knowledge of the correct
amount to add comes with experience
q Temperature too high when the q Fill into the jars at around 40Cjars filled
Texture is q Un-melted stabiliser q Heat the paste to at least 5C above the melting pointnot smooth of the stabiliser before adding the stabiliser. Mix well
q
Un-dissolved sugar or saltq
Dissolve sugar or salt into clean boiling water beforeadding to the paste
Rancidity q Excessive head space in the jar q Only leave 2.5cm head space at the top of the jar
q Trapped pockets of air within the q Tap the bottles during filling to ensure there is nopeanut butter trapped air
q Containers are stored in strong q Store containers in a cool dry place, away from directsunlight sunlight
Oil separation in q Use of insufficient stabiliser q Follow manufacturers guidelinesthe product q Improper mixing of stabiliser q Ensure that the paste is of a high enough temperature
when the stabiliser is added and mix well
q Excessive use of vegetable oil q Do not add more than 25% oil to the paste
Spoilage within q Poor quality ingredients q Use good quality ingredients and discard any bad6 months peanuts
q Failure to adhere to good q Ensure that each stage of the process is carefully
manufacturing practice controlled and monitored. It is important that theroasting stage is carried out properly
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7. Filling
The butter is filled hot into containersthat have been cleaned and sterilised. It
is important to ensure that there are noair pockets within the product as thesecan cause the oil in the peanut butter to
oxidise and produce rancid off-flavours.The jars should be filled to within 2.5cm
of the top of the container and closedtightly with sterilised lids.
Quality controlDuring the processing of peanut butter, it
is important to ensure that the quality ofthe product is high and that there is
consistency between different batches.
Through experience, SIDO and the womenentrepreneurs have identified several
critical points during the process wherecare needs to be taken.
Table 1 identifies some commonproblems, the reasons for them and the
care that should be taken duringprocessing to avoid these problems.
Constraints and prospectsSince the introduction of peanut butter by
the programme, some 40 women
entrepreneurs produce on average 2.5tonnes per month. Individual capacities
range from 25 to 250kg per month.
These outputs are low because oflimited capacities of the technology used
(the manual roasting, winnowing, andgrinding). Most entrepreneurs use a handcorn grinder that can process 1kg of
kernels at a time and normally grinding hasto be carried out two or three times. These
technologies are certainly limiting for anentrepreneur who would like to grow. We
(SIDO) are thus searching for better and
higher capacity roasters and mills andwould appreciate any information fromreaders on where to obtain technologieswith a capacity for 3050kg per hour.
A second constraint, which discouragedthe early peanut butter makers was the oil-separation of the butter a few weeks after
processing. This problem has now beensolved by obtaining a supply of peanut
butter stabiliser from Midway TechnologyLtd of the UK (see the box below). By
using the stabiliser and adhering to good
manufacturing process throughout, theprocessors have managed to make apeanut butter that is stable for more thansix months. This is a great achievement for
the women. Their peanut butter isincreasingly being accepted by consumers
and is available in groceries and
supermarkets in Tanzania. The SIDO WEDprogramme greatly values and appreciates
the assistance of Midway in obtaining thevital ingredients and equipment.
A third challenge that the women face
is the problem of packaging. Despite the
good quality of peanut butter, its
packaging is still inferior to that of
imported products. The programme is
now focussing on improving the
packaging and presentation so that the
product can compete effectively with the
imported products.
Notwithstanding all these problems the
prospects for the peanut butter produced
by the women entrepreneurs are goodbecause of its acceptability among
consumers. We believe that concerted
technological and quality improvements
will ensure a lucrative business for the
producers.
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ITDG Food Chain 30
Africa
Tanza
nia
Midway Technology LtdMidway Technology Ltd (Midway) is a
small company dedicated to providing
assistance to small and medium-scale
food processing enterprises. In recent
years the company has been pilottesting a programme to provide
ingredients, packaging and small items
of equipment to agencies in Tanzania
and Uganda. As this case study shows,
making available a vital ingredient
(stabiliser) can overcome a local
constraint. Midway has also assisted
SIDO to obtain a wide range of inputs
for other products, including wine corks,
wine bottle capsules and bottle cappers
that are not available in Tanzania.
The small size of orders required by
agencies working with micro-enterprises
means that companies are often reluctant
to ship directly. Midway is thus acting as
a procurement company, purchasing
goods in the UK and then shipping a
mixed order to the client. Midway wishes
to expand this role, working with
development agencies, and is currently
preparing a catalogue of goods and
services that are available.
For further information on the
services offered by Midway, please
contact [email protected]
Happiness Mchomvu, Small Industries
Development Organisation (SIDO), PO Box 2476,
Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania ([email protected])
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IntroductionFish are an important component of the
diet of people in Asian countries,
providing much needed protein, minerals
and essential fatty acids. However, freshfish are highly perishable, especially in
tropical temperatures, and need to be
processed to preserve for longer periods.
Refrigeration or storage on ice will
prolong the shelf life, but even this
method is only useful for 1 to 2 days and
is not really appropriate for consumers in
rural areas. Salting, lactic acid
fermentation, drying and smoking are
various simple methods that have been
used to preserve fish. Over the course of
time, a wide range of fermented fish-based products has been developed to
preserve this highly perishable
commodity.
The fermentation conditions for fish
products varies widely from place to place
and between different batches of the same
product. Research at MARDI seeks to
improve and standardise some of the
traditional fermentation processes used
for fish.
Fermented fish productsFermented fish sauces and condiments
are widely used in Asian cuisine, where
they add nutritional value, flavour, andvariety to the bland rice-based diet. The
fermented fish products can be divided
into two broad groups:
q Those with a very high salt content,
typically 1525%, in which preservation
depends on the salt level and low
moisture content of the product.
q Those with a much lower salt content in
which fish is fermented with salt, sugar
and rice or another cereal such as millet
or flour. The amount of added
carbohydrate and the salt concentrationcontrol the extent of acid fermentation
and the keeping quality of the product.
This type of fermentation is carried out
by bacteria of the Lactobacillifamily,
which results in the formation of lactic
acid. The presence of lactic acid
increases the acidity of the product to a
level that restricts the growth of food
poisoning organisms.
An example of the first group of preserved
fish products is Belacan or shrimp paste,
which is made by fermenting shrimpswith salt. During the fermentation,
enzymes and proteins in the fish react
with the micro-organisms present,
producing compounds with savoury
flavours. The final product is a paste with
a strong, characteristic odour. A typical
production method is shown in Figure 1.
Analysis of the belacan by MARDI
showed a considerable fall in the number
of micro-organisms during the process.
This indicates that the breakdown of the
tissue is largely due to the action ofenzymes present in the shrimps. It is
believed that the micro-organisms are
more involved in the development of
flavour. Microbiological tests on the final
product could not detect any organisms
with a public health significance.
The products made in the laboratory at
MARDI were analysed and compared with
samples of commercially produced
belacan. The results of the analysis are
shown in table 1.
Regulations in Malaysia require belacan
to have at least 15% salt, 30% protein andless than 40% moisture. As can be seen in
table 1, some of the commercial samples
do not meet these criteria with regards to
moisture content.
Fish plays a central role in the diets of many Asian
and south Asian countries. Due to the perishable
nature of fish, traditional methods of preservation
have been developed over the years, resulting in awide variety of fermented and processed fish
products. The Malaysian Agricultural Research and
Development Institute (MARDI) is actively involved
in the development and improvement of fisheries
products. In this article the authors describe their
work to improve traditional fermented fish products.
Improving some traditional Malaysianfish products
6
ITDG Food Chain 30
Keywords
Fish, fermentation,
lactic acid, snack
foods
As
iaMalaysia
Figure 1. The preparation of
belacan
Sort shrimps, remove foreign matter
and drain off excess water
Add 10% salt and sun-dry until 50%
of the original weight is lost
Mince and pack into a jar closed with muslin and
allow to ferment for 1 week at room temperature
Sun dry again and re-mince
Repack and continue fermentation
Repeat the process several times,
the whole process taking 68 weeks
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As
iaMalay
sia
Researchers at MARDI are currently
involved in trials to investigate packagingalternatives to prolong the shelf life and
increase the marketability, with
possibilities of export. They have also
developed a fully dried powdered form of
belacan that is a convenient ready-to-use
product with a shelf life of more than 18
months. This product is considered to
have good export potential.
Pekasan is an example of the second type
of fermented fish products. It is made by
fermenting species of fresh water fish
commonly found in rice paddy fields withsalt and rice. This type of product is
limited to rice growing areas in north west
Malaysia.
Production of pekasanThe traditional preparation of pekasan
involves fermenting the fish for about 5 to
6 weeks. After gutting, the whole fish are
washed and mixed with 20% salt and
packed into an earthenware container
where they are left overnight. The
following day 20% of the weight ofroasted rice is added. Spices such as
turmeric or tamarind may also be added
according to taste. The container is tightly
closed and allowed to ferment for 5 to 6
weeks.
The final product consists of complete
fish but the flesh has broken down to a
powdery texture. It is normally fried for
consumption and has a sour, salty flavour.
Research at MARDI aimed to reduce the
fermentation time while at the same time
ensuring consistent quality of the product.
During laboratory trials, the fermentation
conditions were varied to try and reduce
the fermentation time and to standardise
the product. The cleaned fish were mixed
with toasted rice, tamarind and brown
sugar and then covered with saturatedbrine. It was found that small fish were
fermented in 2 weeks, while larger ones
required 3 to 4 weeks.
The preparation of pekasan depends on
the fermentation of carbohydrates (rice,
sugar) to lactic acid. The use of a brine,
rather than dry salt, ensures a more
uniform product and speeds up the
fermentation. The addition of tamarind is
important as it lowers the pH and retards
the growth of spoilage organisms. During
fermentation the initial pH of 6 falls to4.14.6 with the production of lactic acid.
The product, if packed in sealed bottles
and covered with the fermentation brine,
has a shelf life of 6 months. Since the salt
content is only 10%, pekasan can be eaten
as a main dish rather than used as a
condiment.
In conclusion we would like to mention
another example of the many traditional
fish products made in Malaysia. The first
is Keropok crackers that are made from
fish, shrimps or molluscs. These are
produced by over 100 small-scale
producers. The fish flesh is
mixed with flour (usually
sago or tapioca) and
spices and filled into a
casing, rather like a
sausage. This is then
steamed, cooled, sliced
and finally dried. It is
quickly cooked in hot oil
before consumption.
Rokiah Mohamad and YeohQuee Lan, Food Technology
Division, Malaysian Agricultural
Research and Development
Institute, Malaysia
Table 1. Analysis of laboratory samples andcommercial samples of belacan
Laboratory Commercial
samples samples
pH 7.5 7.27.8
Moisture % 27.2 36.347.2
Ash % 27.7 21.227.7
Salt % 27.9 20.927.4
Protein % 37.5 22.236.4
Fat % 0.6 1.21.7
Ref R Awang, 1983
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Entrepreneurs need practical guidance on
how to conduct simple yet effective
marketing research a key tool for
gathering information which will help
them make the best business decisions on
what to produce. Analysis of consumers
and markets can help entrepreneurs
identify potential selling opportunities for
their products. This article is the first in a
series for Food Chain on marketing and
has been partly based on advice offered in
a new book Drying Food for Profit (see
end note for more details).
Marketing, in simple terms is about
making products that will sell, rather than
trying to sell what has been made! A
simplified definition of marketing is:
Seeing things as your customers seethem and doing something about it tomake money.
A more formal definition of marketing
from the UKs Chartered Institute of
Marketing:
Marketing is the managementprocess responsible for identifying,anticipating and satisfying customerrequirements profitably.
The first definition is helpful because itemphasises the importance of getting to
know and understand the customer.
Small-scale entrepreneurs are often well-
placed to do this when their customers are
local, but for opportunities outside their
community the exercise becomes more
challenging.
The second definition draws attention
to the fact that marketing is a process.
Marketing research activities are key steps
in this process which can identify the
potential customers for a product. It cantell a business who will buy, when, where,
what quantities and at what price. Figure 1
shows a simplified representation of the
marketing process.
Step One Market segments or identifying a customer groupThe very first question any entrepreneur
should ask is who are the expectedcustomers? Existing businesses will
already have a group of customers who
they can get to understand better. They
can also identify other groups of
customers they could sell to. The
entrepreneur should ask a series of
questions about existing and potential
groups of customers (see Figure 2).
The first step, therefore, is to assess the
options and decide which groups or
market segments could be targeted.
Examples of possible market segmentsq Children and/or young people
q Men or women
q People interested in healthy foods or
with special dietary needs
q Restaurants and hotels
q Institutions such as prisons, hospitals,
schools, government departments
q Processors, such as bakeries, using the
product as an ingredient
q Regional or international buyers
It is important to understand the different
characteristics and requirements of each
of these groups if a business wants to
target them with products. Children using
pocket money to buy a sweet snack will,
for example, be influenced by aspects
such as small packs
at a low price, the use
of bright packaging
and a convenient
location to purchase,
perhaps close to aschool. The catering
trade, institutions and
processing
enterprises, on the
other hand, would
Starting with the Market The importance of marketing research
8
ITDG Food Chain 30
Figure 1: The Marketing
Process
1. Identify a customer group(s)
2. Learn what they want that you can do/make
3. Do/make something to meet the needs better
than competitors
4. Tell customers about it
Figure 2: Key questions for
the entrepreneur
5. Keep improving
q Who buys from you now?
q What groups of customers can you identify?
q Which groups buy most from you?q Which groups pay the best prices/are most
profitable?
q What characteristics do these groups share?
q Where can similar potential customers be
found?
q What other groups of customers have you
considered selling to?
Agar/Shekleton(1999)
G
loba
l
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G
loba
lnot be interested in attractive packagingbut would be concerned with price, qualityand reliability of supply.
These broad market segments can bebroken into more clearly defined
segments. Families as consumers, for
example, can be divided into groups by
their income (rich, middle-class or poor),
their occupation (e.g. office workers) and
their location (rural, urban or peri-urban)
which will result in different expectations
and demands.
The buying habits and reasons for
selecting a particular product will vary
from group to group. Finding out as much
as possible about their lifestyles and what
they are likely to want from products, suchas convenience, is important so that
products can be developed which are
targeted to specific groups.
Having identified some customer
groups the next step is to find out what
these customers want in more detail.
Step Two Market surveys or finding out what these customers wantMarket surveys are a way of gathering and
analysing information so products are
developed to meet the needs of potentialcustomer groups. Specialist market
research agencies can be commissioned
to conduct surveys but this can be costly
and there are benefits if the entrepreneur
carries out the market survey themselves.
It may be useful to have some help from
advisors to design the survey. The process
of carrying out the surveys allows the
owner of a small enterprise to gain a deep
understanding of the potential customers.
It is argued that the most effective method
of research for a small business is to talk
to potential customers directly, find out
what they buy now, what problems they
have, what would make their lives easieror better (see Figure 3).
In marketing research language this is
gathering primary data. Marketing surveys
can include two broad types of data:
primary and secondary. Primary data is
the most valuable and collected directly
through activities, which include:
q Personal interviews in the street or
shops
q Observation
q Discussions with groups of potential
customersq Questionnaires and postal surveys
q Telephone surveys
q Visiting potential buyers
Secondary data is taken from existing
reference material and includes:
q Trade associations and journals
q Internet sites
q Yellow pages of telephone directories
q Government and official records
q Competitors literature
The first step in conducting a marketsurvey is to decide what information is
required and where and how this will be
obtained. Where possible this is best done
as a team, made up of business partners,
family members or employees, who will
produce a list of what information should
be gathered and from where.
Designing consumer surveysThe most valuable information that can be
gathered will be from the likely purchasers
of the product end consumers andintermediary buyers (e.g. restaurant and
shop owners, supermarket buyers). Small
businesses should focus their limited
resources on consumer surveys, rather
than extensive studies of market
conditions. Interviews with existing and
potential customers can be structured or
unstructured, often a mixture of the two.
To guide the interview process it is usual
to prepare a questionnaire, similar to the
example shown in table 1, which is a
structured interview with a consumer.
Sensitivity is needed when deciding
which questions to ask. In general, it is
important to avoid direct personal
questions, for example about income.
Open ended questions such as what typeFigure 3: Key questions
about groups of consumers
q Why are they buying at all what need are
they trying to meet?
q What do they buy now (from you and others)?
q Why do they buy from you (and from your
competitors)?
q How often do they buy?
q In what quantities?
q When/where do they buy?
q How much do they pay?
q Who does the buying (in the family, in thebusiness), who influences the decision, who
uses the product what is the buying
process?
And so on
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of dried fruit do you prefer? rather than
closed questions such as which do you
prefer dried mango or dried pineapple?
give more useful data.
How many interviews to conduct SamplingInterviewing one customer will not
provide reliable information. The value of
the exercise will be increased if say ten
people are surveyed and even more so if
the sample is increased to twenty or more.
As the sample size is increased, it will be
found that results begin to repeat
themselves. This indicates that a
representative sample of customers is
being surveyed.
ClassificationIt can be useful to classify the
interviewees according to their social
class. Typical questions are:
q Where do you live? (Urban or rural)q Which school do your children go to?
(May provide information on class)
q Do you have a TV? (If yes, would
indicate middle or upper class)
q Which shops do you
use? (Richer people
tend to use higher
price shops)
When this information
is analysed it will help
to determine which
market segments theproduct should be
targeted at. For
example it would be
better to develop
products for urban
middle income
customers if the
research indicates theyare more likely to buy
dried fruit than rural
low income customers.
Analysis What is theinformation saying?Having gathered the
information it is vital
that it is analysed in a
useful way. The more
data that has been
collected the more
accurate the results will
be, but it will be time
consuming to analyse. It can be kept
simple, for example, 15 out of 20
interviewees said they preferred mango,
i.e. 75%.
The aim of the analysis exercise is to
get a summary about what the consumer
groups want, which will inform the
decisions about what to produce (and how
to target the product to specific groups).
Since the survey exercise cannot possibly
include all potential customers a furtherstep is to estimate the market size and
value.
Market size and valueTo estimate the potential total market
demand for a given product it is possible
to extrapolate the results from the small
sample of potential customers to the total
market under consideration.
For example, a survey of the demand
for dry onion rings, aimed at the hotel and
restaurant sector, has shown that 30% ofowners indicated a positive interest in
using the product. The next step is to
determine how many hotels and
0
ITDG Food Chain 30
Table 1. Example consumer questionnaire for dried fruit snackproducts
Market survey form Dried fruit snacks
1. Do you buy snacks in the street? Yes No
2. How often? Daily Weekly Monthly
3. Where else do you buy from?
4. What kind of snacks do you like?
5. Do you buy dried fruit snacks? Yes No
6. If yes, what do you like about them? Taste Healthy Price Other
7. If no, why not?
8. Which fruits do you prefer? Mango Papaya Pineapple
9. How much are you prepared to 25c 35c 45c
pay for a pack this size?
Table 2. Total market demand for dry onion slices
Number of hotels surveyed 100
% stating they would purchase dry onion 30%
Demand per month
Per hotel (range) (1 to 3 kg)
Average 1.5
Total demand from 30 interested establishments 45kg/month
Number of hotels registered in the city 500
Total demand based on marketing survey 225kg/month
G
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restaurants exist in the city. This can be
done in several ways.
Firstly the city can be divided into areas
and a physical count of all suchestablishments made. Alternatively, it is
often possible to use secondary data such
as tax information or registration of hotels
and restaurants by public health bodies to
obtain a full list. This type of analysis will
typically give data as shown in table 2.
The danger of this exercise is that it
makes assumptions about the potential
market which may turn out to be incorrect.
This would be a problem if the
entrepreneur has invested in the business
on the strength of the likely market
potential.
There is a saying that markets dont
buy anything, customers do, which
means that the promises of good market
potential may not be translated to
purchases. Getting to know customers,
serving them better, selling more to them
and expanding to new customer groups
gradually may offer a less risky route for
small entrepreneurs.
Step 3 Understanding Market share and reviewing the competitionThe above example assumes that the
enterprise in question has no competition,
which is very rarely the case. The total
market for a product will be divided
between the competition. The market
share which a particular enterprise can
expect to gain will depend on severalfactors:
q The number of competitors
q The size of the competitors
q Whether the products are similar or
different
q The pricing and presentation of
competitive productsAssessing the advantages and
weaknesses of the competition against
your own products advantages and
weaknesses is a helpful exercise. It can
help to identify a potential competitive
advantage. In a saturated local market it
could be through little improvements,
either in quality, price or service. In an
international market it is essential. For
example, certain fruits, like apples from
the Southern hemisphere have found
markets in the North not because they arecheaper but purely
because they are
available when
European apples are
not. However, as the
market has become
crowded with
suppliers, the
producers must find
out what special
features of their
particular variety they
can draw attention to
e.g. sweeter, crunchier,
cheaper.
It should be
remembered, even in a
situation where
competition seems
weak, if a good opportunity exists then
new competitors may quickly enter the
market.
In the next editions of Food Chain we
will look at the other steps in the
Marketing Process understandingproduct development and promoting the
product and the business, and finally
developing a marketing strategy.
Sources:Drying Food for profit, B Axtell 2002, ITDG
Publishing, London.
Marketing for the Local Market, J Agar 1999.
Marketing Services for Entrepreneurs,
Mikkelsen 1999.
Alison Griffith, Marketing Specialist, ITDG,Schumacher Centre for Technology
and Development, Bourton on Dunsmore,
Rugby, CV23 9QZ
11
ITDG Food Chain 30
Finding out what your
consumer wantsA4BangladeshC5.10
NeilCooper G
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IntroductionGroundnuts (Arachis hypogaea)are an
important food and industrial crop in
Ghana and provide food and income for
small-scale farmers and urban dwellers.
Shelling must be performed before any
other post-harvest processing takes place.
The traditional shelling methods of hand
separation or beating with planks are slow
and tedious.Groundnut shelling can be classified
into two main categories as shown in
figure 1.
q Manual hand separation, which
involves beating the nuts with stones or
wood
q
Mechanical shelling which can be byhand or pedal cranking or using a
power source. Mechanical shellers can
be divided into reciprocating (semi-
rotary) types and continuous or rotary
types.
Manual shellingIn Ghana hand-shelling peanuts by
beating with wood or stones is one of the
oldest and the most popular methods in
rural areas but is slow, inefficient and
laborious. The output depends on the
efficiency of the worker, the ease of
breakage of the pods under pressure,
moisture content and the variety. Figure 2
shows manual shelling methods practised
by women in Ghana.
Manually operated groundnut shellersThe semi-rotary sheller (see figure 3) of
Indian origin is widely used. It consists of
a hopper, wire mesh, a shelling bar and a
reciprocating arm. The hopper is a semi-
cylindrical trough with the wire mesh
attached to the bottom. The shelling bar isattached to the lower end of the
reciprocating arm.
The Tamale Implement Factory (TIF) in
Ghana produced a hand-operated rotary
Researchers at the Kwame Nkrumah University in
Ghana, in collaboration with groundnut farmers,
have developed a groundnut cracker-winnower that
can either be manually operated or run with a smallengine. The machine has been field tested and its
efficiency compared with other machines available
in Ghana and also with the traditional hand shelling
process. The trials measured the shelling efficiency,
capacity, cleanliness and damage to nuts. The best
result was achieved using a variable speed motor at
160180rpm and a feed rate of 240250kg/hr of
nuts, which gave 1214% of broken nuts. When the
machine was powered by a 2.5hp Yamaha petrol
engine and field tested the shelling capacity,
shelling efficiency, cleanliness and breakage were
6080kg/hr, 9597% and 1.54% respectively,which compares favourably with other methods.
No more fingertip shelling: The TEKgroundnut cracker to the rescue
2
ITDG Food Chain 30
Keywords
Groundnut, peanut,
shelling,
decortication,
manual, powered
Afr
ica
Ghana
Figure 1. Groundnut shelling
techniques
Manual Motorised
Shelling techniques
Finger-tip
breaking
and
separation
Beating
and
separation
as two
distinct
operations
Beating
with
sticks/stones
followed by
separation
Hand
cranking
Power
operated
Semi-rotary
(to and fro motion)Rotary
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13
ITDG Food Chain 30
Africa
Ghana
groundnut sheller on a commercial scale.
The Sheller has a feed hopper, a rubber
tyre roller with a fixed cover, a concave
sieve through which the shelled nuts drop
to the floor followed by a hand-winnowingoperation to separate the clean nuts from
the shells. A crank handle turns the tyre
roller. The shelling efficiency is 80%, while
broken kernels constitute 8%. The output
is 18kg/hr of clean nuts.
The Tek groundnut cracker/winnowerThe Tek groundnut cracker/winnower (see
figure 4) has been developed by the
Agricultural Engineering Department of
the Kwame Nkrumah University in
response to the drudgery associated with
fingertip shelling, which still predominatesin Ghana. The machine can be operated
either by hand cranking or a motor. It
consists of a hopper, a crank lever
mechanism, a rotating pneumatic shelling
drum, a blower assembly, a nut discharge
spout and husk outlet chute.
The groundnut pods are cracked
between the rotating cylinder, a
pneumatic tyre, and a stationary concave
sieve. The broken shells and nuts pass
through the sieve. After leaving the
shelling chamber, the nuts and husk fall
into a duct meeting an air stream from the
fans of the blower assembly and are
winnowed. The lighter shell passes out
through the husk outlet chute and heavier
nuts fall onto an inclined plate and are
collected through a spout. The clearance
between the drum and the sieve is
adjustable to accommodate various sizes
of groundnuts. The best clearance is1618mm. For optimum performance, the
blower is set at a speed of 560rpm. The
motorised version was tested with a
variable speed motor, a 2.5hp Yamaha
petrol engine and a 750-watt single-phase
electric motor.
The blower (winnowing unit) is run
through a chain and sprocket transmission
using the same power source. The
shelling drum and blower speeds are
variable between 180220rpm and
500560rpm respectively. The degree ofshelling is controlled by the intake slide
(flap gate), which regulates the amount of
pods falling into the shelling chamber. The
separation of shell from nuts is regulated
by the blower speed, which can be
adjusted to suit the variety and condition
Figure 3. Manually operated
semi-rotary groundnut
sheller
EBobobee
Figure 2. Manual shelling
methods practised by
women in Ghana
EBobobee
Figure 4. The Tek groundnut
cracker/winnower
EBobobee
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of pods being
treated. In this way,
impurities are kept
to the minimum.Operation,
servicing and
cleaning of the
machine are very
simple.
The TEK
groundnut
cracker/winnower
was developed with the objective of
producing a multi-pulse sheller cum
winnower for a range of commodities
such as groundnut, bambara beans (Vigna
subterranea), jatropha (Jatropha curcasL),neem seed (Azadirachta indica) and
sunflower (Helianthus spp). Farmer
participation in the development of the
machine and the evaluation of its
performance were critical for the
successful development and adoption of
this machine. The equipment was tested
in the University workshop for functional
performance and later taken to the end-
users in a predominantly groundnut
growing area for farmers acceptance
trials. During acceptance trials, severalquality parameters were assessed. These
included the following:
q percentage broken nuts,
q cleaning ability of the fan (blower unit),
q proportion of unshelled pods blown
with the chaff and those whole pods
retained in the shelling chamber,
q fuel consumption,
q output of the equipment.Several modifications were made to the
concave sieve, the pulleys and the blower
fan to improve performance and to
process other crops. A variable speed
motor was used to fine-tune the design
especially to determine the optimum
operating speeds of the cracking and
winnowing units. The existing finger-tip or
hand shelling techniques were examined
thoroughly to determine critical points for
intervention. A series of tests were
conducted on the manual shellingprocess. The time taken to crack a pre-
determined quantity of pods was noted
and translated into output (kg/hr). This
was followed by comparative tests on
some existing mechanical shellers in the
country to determine their capacities,
4
ITDG Food Chain 30
Table 1. Characteristics of groundnut samples used in the experiment
Average measurements
Variety Pod Pod Nut Kernel Moisturediameter length diameter weight content
(mm) (mm) (mm) (g) of pods
at shelling (%)
Mani pinta (red) 12.6 31.9 7.8 1.4 1222
Chinese (white) 11.6 26.3 7.5 1.0 12.28
Afr
ica
Ghana
Table 2. Performance test of various shelling methods
Shelling Time Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Break- Shelling Cleanli- Output Nut
methods (min) sample unshelled clean husks cracked age efficiency ness (kg/hr) recovery
(g) pods (g) nuts (g) (g) nuts (g) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Finger-tip 90.5 1000 0 657 343 0 0 100 100 0.44 100
Beating and 83.7 1000 0 568 366 66 10.7 100 89.5 0.41 89100
separation
at once
Beating 67.4 1000 0 508 414 78 13.2 100 87.8 0.45 85100
followed by
separation
TIF Sheller 15.5 1000 204 550 199 47 7.9 79.6 92.1 2.13 79.6
Tek Sheller 2.4 1000 357 340 207 96.7 1022.1 66 77.9 8.53 64.3
(hand-cranking
operation)Tek sheller 1.2 1000 88.4 645 240 26.8 1.52.5 91.2 9498 6080 91.2
(motorized)
small engine/
motor
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shelling and cleaning efficiencies and
damaged nut percentage. The tests were
limited to two varieties of groundnut
(white and red). The moisture content of
the pods was determined prior to
cracking. The characteristics of
groundnuts used in the test are shown in
table 1. Modifications are now underway
to adapt the equipment to run on the
existing 8 hp corn mill engines used in
many rural areas of the country to process
more difficult-to-crack seeds such as
jatropha and castor.
Results and discussionThe results of tests performed are shown
in table 2. Data collected from thepreliminary testing indicate that when the
equipment is coupled to a variable speed
motor at 180200 revolutions per minute,
its output is in the range of 240250kg/hr
with a breakage of 1014%.
When equipped with a 2kW Yamaha
petrol engine and or a 0.75W single-phase
motor, output values were 6080kg/hr. The
lower value of 60kg/hr was obtained when
the equipment is set to operate
automatically (without an attendant),
while the higher value is obtained when it
is attendant operated.
When the equipment is operated by
hand cranking, the output is 810kg/hr.
These results are encouraging when
compared with outputs from fingertip
shelling and beating with wood which
yielded 0.721.15kg/hr. These results show
that the equipment performs the functions
of shelling and winnowing more
satisfactorily than the existing shellers.
The equipment was modified and used
to crack and clean jatropha and castor
seeds with encouraging results at rates of
1220kg/hr and 2030kg/hr respectively.Proposals are now being considered for
introducing the equipment on a pilot basis
in predominantly groundnut producing
areas to monitor its impact on the
beneficiary communities.
Emmanuel Bobobee, Kwame Nkrumah University
of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.
15
ITDG Food Chain 30
Africa
Ghana
This handbook attempts to provide a
comprehensive guide to potential
entrepreneurs considering the setting-up
of a food drying enterprise. In this aim the
author is largely successful; it is refreshingto read a realistic and non-propagative
volume on small-scale drying. Chapters
are included on basic food drying
principles, marketing factors, drying and
associated processing technology,
production plant design, costing and
operation, and guidelines on dryer design
and construction. Whilst these subjects
are covered separately in numerous other
publications the strength of this book is
that appropriate, not token, emphasis is
given to all aspects required for the
development of a successful business.
Useful case studies are included
throughout outlining both successful and,
equally importantly, failed enterprises.
The book is well referenced on a practical
level, both for
further
information
and for
developmentand business
contacts.
Minor
criticisms
are that page layout could
have been more effectively utilised and
that the usefulness of some diagrams and
figures are restricted by their small size. I
would strongly recommend this book as
essential reading for both development
workers and would-be entrepreneurs
interested in the establishment of food
drying enterprises.
David S Trim
Agro-processing Consultant
B Axtell (2002), ITDG Publishing, London, UK.
ISBN 1 85339 520 X 120 pp
Drying Food for Profit A Guide for Small Businesses
Bo
oks
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6
ITDG Food Chain 30
A series of five fact-sheets describing
under-utilised tropical fruits has been
produced by the International Centre for
Underutilised Crops (ICUC) at
Southampton University UK. The fact
sheets give a brief description of the fruit,
including its morphology and form,
agronomic and climatic requirements andthe locations in which it is commonly
found. Basic details are provided on how
to grow and cultivate the fruit and the
economics of its production.
The uses of the fruit and reasons for
growing it are also outlined, along with
details of processing where appropriate.
These fact sheets give a good basic
overview to several potentially valuable
under-utilised species of tropical fruit.
They are useful starting material for
those who are interested in finding out
more about the fruits, and who have a
potential interest in cultivating and
processing the fruits.
References for further reading and
advice are included with each fact
sheet.
The following fact sheets:
Tamarind (Tamarindus indicaL.)
Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana
Lam.) (also known as Indian
jujube)
Baobob (Adanasonia digitataL.)Safou (Dacryodes edulisL.)
Annona (Annona spp)
are available from the International
Centre for Underutilised Crops (ICUC),
University of Southampton,
Southampton SO17 1BJ
In addition to the fact sheets, a
series of monographs and field
manuals for extension workers on the
same species have been produced by the
Fruits for the Future project at ICUC. At the
time of writing, only Tamarind and Ber
monographs and extension manuals are
available from ICUC. The remaining three
monographs and extension manuals will
be available
towards the
end of 2002.
Fruits for the Future
Book inesL
B
ooks
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IntroductionIn sub-Saharan Africa, small-scale beer
brewing is primarily a household-based
business that is carried out by women.
Brewing may be one of the few income-
generating activities that rural women can
be widely and thoroughly involved in, but
it is equally important to stress that it is by
no means a minor enterprise, and not justthe peripheral scraps on the rural
economic plate. On
aggregate, beer-
brewing is a major
element of the rural
economy and in many
individual cases, a
relative business
success for the women
involved. This does not
imply that village
brewing is a money-spinner; micro-
economic studies
usually show that the
financial returns to
womens labour are
poor, but that is true for
most rural womens
enterprises in Africa.
The heavy labour
inputs and the
relatively high risk of
product failure are the
key factors thatdetermine profitability.
The importance ofbrewing to the localeconomyRural and small-scale
urban brewing is a
major income earner
for small-scale brewers
(the majority of whom
are women) and is vital
to their function in therural economy and
society. However, the
significance of artisanal
brewing is consistently
under-valued and ignored by
governments and donors alike (McCall
1996, Saul 1981, Pradervand 1990). The
ignorance is due, in the first instance, tothe paucity of studies on rural or urban
artisanal brewing, and beyond that by
ideological and interpretative factors.
The figures in table 1 give an indication
of the importance of brewing to peoples
livelihoods in a selection of African
countries. The proportion of villagers
actually brewing is difficult to generalise,
depending so much on cultural and
especially religious traditions, as well as
the resource base. Local beer accounts for
a very large portion of intra-village money
flows, and particularly of trans-gendercash flows between men and women
Brewing is womens business
17
ITDG Food Chain 30
Keywords
Beer, fermentation,
women, Africa,
brewing
A
frica
Table 1: Brewing is womens business and brewing is householdincome (various sources)
Womens household Location Year
business & women incomes
Findings from Botswana
2050% of households brew between Five villages 1985
one and seven times a week
In top 4 of household income sources Five villages 1985
By far highest income source for women In sample villages 1990
2nd highest household income In sample villages 1990
source (after cattle sales)
Findings from Burkina Faso
3rd highest household income source National sample 1990
(after farm produce sales & wage labour) survey
Findings from Tanzania
73% women brew at some time National sample survey 1983
25% households brew regularly FAO national 1984sample survey
2nd highest household income source Tanga Region 1994
(after agriculture as a whole)
75% state it is main income source of women National survey 1983
75% of women brewers state it Survey of female 1992
is their main income source brewers, Usangu Plains
Findings from Zambia
60% of households brew regularly Northern Province 1985
25% of female-headed households brew Chipata District 1985
Main cash source for women (ahead Mkushi District 1990of wage labour and charcoal)
77% of respondents state it is 1st or Luapula District 1985
2nd main income source for women
Most common income source for women Northern Province 1985
Michael McCall, with inputs from Sue Azam-Ali,
highlights the importance of small-scale brewing to
the livelihoods of African women. Because of
various reasons the importance of this income-generating activity is often overlooked by donors and
development agencies.
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(McCall 1996, Nkhoma 1992, Gattegno
1987, Tellegen 1997). Although a
considerable proportion of women drink,
the customers are primarily men,including the brewers own husbands. The
consumption of local brew in rural areas is
very high, a common figure given in
eastern and southern Africa being 1/2 to 1
litre of brew per adult per day. Brewing
also provides opportunities for women
(and men) to be employed by the female
brewers for activities such as cutting and
transporting firewood or the arduous job
of carrying water.
Beer brewing is not without its
problems. The process is fairly time
consuming and demands large amountsof water and fuel for the various stages. A
SADC rule of thumb estimates that on
average between 1 and 2kg wood fuel is
required to produce 1 litre of local beer
(Kaale 1990). Variations in fuel
consumption depend on the different
types of brew, and the fuel used, and thus
the technology in use. This raises cause
for concern over environmental
degradation and the time required by
women to collect fuel wood. In a typical
sub-Saharan village, where beer is brewedfor home use, for ceremonies and for sale
in village bars, it is estimated that this
accounts for between 5 to 30% of annual
wood consumption.
Benefits of brewingFermentation is a form of food
preservation that has been used for
centuries to improve the nutritional value
and the safety of foods and to add variety
to the diet. The traditional diet of many
cultures includes lightly fermentedbeverages with a low alcohol content.
These products are made by fermenting
cereals or vegetables to produce a low
alcohol drink. The transformation by
bacteria and yeasts breaks down complex
carbohydrates into sugars that are easier
to digest, breaks down poisonous and
toxic compounds (such as the cyanide in
cassava) and can increase the availability
of certain minerals and vitamins (for
example the B group of vitamins).
Families have traditionally made weak
alcoholic beverages by fermenting locallyavailable cereals. The fermentation
process entails a lengthy boiling process
to produce the fermentable substrate,
followed by a fermentation with yeast.
The whole family (including children)
consume this sweet drink. One of the
major health benefits of producing the
fermented drink, is that water is boiledduring the process and thereby made safe
to drink. In some countries, home-brewing
of any alcoholic beverage without a
licence is not encouraged. Although the
reasons for this are justified, the positive
benefits of fermentation, such as the
improved safety of drinking sources, is
overlooked.
Of course beer brewing and alcohol
consumption are not accepted by all
customs and cultures. The dangers of
excess alcohol consumption and the
impact this can have on personal healthand family status are well known. We are
not advocating alcoholism, but are
highlighting the real potential for rural and
urban small-scale business offered by
beer brewing.
The technique behind brewing skills andbrewing lossesArtisanal beer brewing is an inherently
risky operation. The technical processes
are not as simple as they look and each
stage involves continuous care and skilledmanagement. Some argue that it is one
reason that brewing is an art that has
been left as a womens enterprise, even
in male-dominated societies. The risks are
great and losses can easily be up to 90%
or 100%, usually due to over-fermentation
or failure to ferment.
There is no single brewing recipe,
indeed there are wide variations even
within a particular farming system
because an important determinant of the
brewing method, and thus the fuelrequired, is the source material. Mbege
banana beer for instance from Kilimanjaro
or Rwanda, requires bananas to be boiled
for 5 to 6 hours but uses much less wood
than sorghum beer.
The basic technique of brewing beer is
characterised by three stages: malting,
brewing, and fermentation. Normally, all
three stages are completed in 7 to 10
days, from the first preparation to
drinking. Thus in many cultures, local
sorghum beer is called seven days
brew. Water is needed for both the first
two stages, but the high levels of firewood
use are in the stage of brewing. This stage
of brewing or mashing places the
maximum demand on fuel wood supplies.
8
ITDG Food Chain 30
A
frica
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First stage: Malting
In the first stage, starch contained in the
grain is broken down into sugars (mainly
maltose) by germination. The grain issoaked and left to germinate in drums or
large vessels, taking up to 7 or 8 days.
Soaking the grain requires 3 to 3.5 litres of
water per kilo of grain. It is essential that
the water used is clean and potable. The
malting stage has to be carefully
controlled to balance quality against malt
volume. It is important to check the
degree of germination in the early stages
as this affects the final alcohol content and
acidity of the brew.
Second stage: BrewingThe germinated grain is dried, usually by
spreading out to dry in the sun, and the
dried sprouted grains are ground into a
flour. The quality of the wort (the technical
name given to the liquid made from warm
water and malted grain) will be affected
by the fineness of grinding of the grain.
The wort is prepared by adding water to
the ground grain (about 25 litres of water
per kg of grain). The mixture is heated and
boiled for about 1 to 2 hours. At this point,
extra sugar can be added to the wort ifdesired (up to 1kg per 25 litres of water).
After heating the wort is cooled down
and is strained.
Quality control at this point is essential
to the final quality of the beer. Too little
wort leads to thin beer with a poor taste
and low alcohol content whilst too much
produces a brew that is heavy to drink and
with a higher alcohol content. The cooking
period is also crucial to monitor under
cooking results in low alcohol contents
but over-cooking can produce a beer with
a burnt taste and aroma, which isunacceptable to the consumer.
Third stage: Fermentation
A starter culture, either yeast or a small
amount of beer left over from the previous
batch, is added to the wort. The bucket is
covered with a lid or cloth and allowed to
ferment for several days. When the foam
dies down on the top of the beer, the
fermentation is over and the beer is ready
to drink. Fermentation proceeds quite
rapidly in the tropical heat, but
occasionally the mash is heated to speed
up the process. The product may contain
enough of its own yeasts, but sometimes
yeast is added to speed up the process.
The alcoholic strength of the beer is
dependent on the conversion of sugars to
alcohol and carbon dioxide, which relies
on the length and rate of fermentation.
The length and rate of fermentation isaffected by several factors:
q the ambient temperature
q the amount and activity of yeast
q the amount of sugar present at the start
of fermentation.
The alcohol content is lower, the slower
the rate of fermentation or if a low sugar
content was present at the start of
fermentation. Brewers need to take care
during fermentation to ensure that the
alcohol is not converted into acetic acid
(as in vinegar production) which producesa sour-tasting beer.
The end product is a dense milky beer
that contains suspended particles of grain,
malt, yeast and starch. The beer is a live
product and therefore has a relatively
short shelf life of up to 2 weeks. It can be
consumed anytime after 1 or 2 days of
fermentation. As time passes, the beer
becomes stronger as fermentation is still
proceeding. However, there comes a point
when the sugar has all been converted
into alcohol and the yeast dies off. Afterthis time the alcohol may be broken down
into acetic acid (vinegar) by the
acetobacter species and the beer spoils.
Storing in a cool environment to slow
down the rate of fermentation will prolong
the period that the beer is good to drink. It
will also help the beer to clear.
It is possible to extend the shelf life to
several months by bottling and
pasteurising the beer after fermentation.
This process however, incurs additional
costs for the processor.
Improving the brewing processThe beer produced by this traditional
method is a sweet, cloudy alcoholic
suspension with a distinctive flavour of
the main ingredients. The colour varies
according to the ingredients used. For
example, rice beer is a whitish liquid
whereas sorghum and millet beers are a
darker reddish brown colour. Quality of
the beer varies from batch to batch and
the alcoholic strength depends on how
soon it is drunk after fermentation.
Spoilage of the beer is quite rapid,
especially in the humid tropics which
makes the whole art of beer brewing a
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fairly risky business for small-scale
brewers.
There are a few simple improvements
that can be made to the traditionalbrewing process that will significantly
improve the quality of the product.
q Attention to hygiene. Although the raw
materials are sterilised by boiling, the
wort is an excellent substrate for
microbial growth. It is therefore
essential that all equipment is
thoroughly sterilised to prevent
contaminating bacteria from competing
with the added yeast and producing
acid instead of alcohol. This can be
done by cleaning with boiling water orwith chlorine solution. Care is
necessary to wash the equipment (with
boiled water) to remove traces of
chlorine as this interferes with the
action of yeast. Only potable water
should be used for cleaning the
equipment and for adding as an
ingredient to the beer. If available,
sodium metabisulphite is an excellent
sterilising agent.
q Use of quality raw material. Grain
should be harvested when fully mature
to maximise the carbohydrate content.
The dried grains should be of the
correct moisture content and should be
stored properly to prevent moisture
uptake, which would allow mould
growth and reduce amylase activity.
q Proper grinding of the grain. The
germinated grain should be ground as
finely as possible (to pass through a
1mm sieve) as this increases the
surface area and maximises amylase
activity.
q Controlled time and temperature ofboiling. The grain should be boiled for a
sufficient amount of time to break down
the carbohydrates to sugars so that
they are more available for yeast action.
q Addition of sufficient yeast. The yeast
should be active and a sufficient
amount added to complete the
fermentation of sugars.
q Controlled temperature of
fermentation. The wort should be
cooled to an optimum temperature
(room temperature) for the yeast to act.If the temperature is too low the
fermentation time will be extended and
the beer may spoil before the alcohol
level is increased. If the temperature is
too high (above 45C), the yeast will be
inactivated.
q Filtration. If a clear product is required,
the beer can be strained afterfermentation and allowed to stand in a
cool place so that the sediment falls to
the bottom.
q Bottling and pasteurisation. To extend
the shelf life and improve the
appearance of the product, beer can be
bottled and pasteurised. It is essential
that clean, sterile bottles are used and
that after filling these are heated to
8090C for 30 minutes to pasteurise
the beer. This process will obviously
result in a product with a different taste
and appearance, which may or may notbe acceptable to local taste. It will
however have a shelf life of several
months when stored in a cool place
away from the direct sunlight.
Processors should test the acceptability
of such products before investing in the
necessary equipment.
ZERO, an organisation working in
Zimbabwe, is one of the few organisations
that recognises the value of and supports
small-scale brewing. The organisation has
produced a training manual for brewers
(Nyabeze, 1994) which reviews some of
the problems faced by small-scale
brewers and attempts to improve the
quality of the products.
Developments in the traditional brewingsectorThe penetration of the small-scale
womens enterprise sector by the
commercial brewing giants is by now
well-established and is having serious
effects on small enterprises in urbanareas. It is rapidly extending to rural areas
as well.
A significant technical advantage for
the small producer has always been that
local brew cannot store and must be
consumed quickly, which precludes an
extensive distribution system from a
central brewery, and partly explains why
there have been so few attempts to
commercialise it. Only in the dense urban
markets of southern and eastern Africa is
grain beer (chibuku) brewed with large-scale modern equipment by big
commercial breweries.
In South Africa in 1997, the market for
sorghum beer was estimated to be 2 to 3
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billion litres, of which 200 million litres
was made from a dry-base powder.
Powdered sorghum beers.Commercial companies are starting tomarket powdered beer concentrates for
the production of traditional beer
(chibuku). Traditional Beer Investments
(TBI) which belongs to the South African
Breweries giant markets Chibuku and
Elephant brands. Chibuku Breweries in
Zimbabwe makes Chibuku and Thabani
brands. Chibuku Breweries also produces
in Mozambique and Zambia.
Of great significance for artisanal
brewers throughout Africa, are the
technical developments by CSIR (Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research) in
South Africa. CSIR has developed stable
sorghum beer products, including a wort
concentrate that can be later diluted and
fermented to make beer. All are safe to
transport over long distances and keep in
storage.
For example, CPC Tongaat Foods (a
subsidiary of South African Breweries
(SAB)) in South Africa is already
marketing Funa Beer Powder, made of
maize grits, sorghum malt and yeast. 175litres of warm water are added to a 25 kg
sack and fermented for a day to make one
drum of sorghum brew. (CPC Tongaat
website),
CPC Tongaat Website:
http://www.cpctongaat.co.za/products/trad
itional.html
South African Breweries (SAB) Website:
http://www.sabplc.com
Conclusions
Beer brewing is a relatively simpletechnique that has been carried out by
families for centuries. It contributes to
improved food safety, involves thousands
of small-scale female entrepreneurs and
has the potential to be a source of
household income.
Support for the improvement of
brewing facilities does place a
government agency or NGO in a difficult
position. But the arguments to bring beer
onto their agendas should overwhelm any
moral qualms or social sensitivities.
Small-scale brewing is central to womens
livelihood and is a potential key to their
economic empowerment, yet in its current
condition it is environmentally damaging
as well as being technically andcommercially under-developed, because it
is being ignorantly undervalued, if not
deliberately scorned.
The forthcoming publication by
Deborah Bryceson makes useful reading
for those involved in alcohol production.
D.F. Bryceson (ed.) (2002). Alcohol in
Africa. Mixing Business, Pleasure and
Politics. Westport CN: Greenwood.
References1. Gattegno, Isabelle (1987), Woodfuel and
Small Scale Food Processing, Massy,
France: ALTERSIAL
2. Kaale, Bariki K (1990), Women dominate
rural industries in the SADCC region.
SADCC Energy, [Luanda], 8, (no 22), 5357
3. McCall, Michael (1996), Rural brewing,
exclusion and development policy-mak-
ing, Gender and Development, 4, (3),
2938
4. Nkhoma-Wamunza, Alice (1992), The
informal sector: a strategy for survival in
Tanzania., 197213, in: D R F Taylor and F
Mackenzie (eds) (1992), Development fromWithin, Survival in Rural Africa, London,
Routledge
5. Nyabeze, Washington (1994), Beer Brew-
ing. Improvements to Existing Technolo-
gies for Beer Brewing Industries in Zim-
babwe, Training Manual (ed: Carmel
Mbizvo), Harare: ZERO Regional Environ-
ment Organisation (11pp)
6. Pradervand P (1990), Listening to Africa.
Developing Africa from the Grassroots,
Praeger, New York
7. Saul, Mahir (1981), Beer, sorghum andwomen: Production for the market in rural
Upper Volta, Africa, 51, (3), 74664
8. Tellegen, Nina (1997), Brewing beer or
brewing trouble? Paper given at Confer-
ence on Alcohol in Africa: Multiple Utilities
and Meanings, African Studies Centre, Lei-
den, June 1997, (10pp)
Michael K McCall, Social Science Division, ITC,
PO Box 6, 7500 AA Enschede, The Netherlands
With inputs from Sue Azam-ali, ITDG,Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby, UK
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IntroductionTamarind (Tamarindus indicaL) is found
throughout much of the tropics, where it
grows unattended in backyards, on
roadsides and on wastelands. It is a tree
with a multitude of uses, some of which areunknown from one region to the next. It is a
valuable timber species, widely used for
making furniture, tool handles, charcoal
and fuel-wood. The leaves are an important
source of food and herbal medicine and the
edible pulp of ripe fruits is used as a
flavouring agent in cooking, soups, jams,
chutneys and sauces. The fruit pulp of
tamarind forms the tamarind of
commerce. It is the richest natural source
of tartaric acid (818%) and is the chief
acidulant used in the preparation of foods
in India and many other Asian countries.
The major industrial product is the seed
kernel powder (TKP) which is an important
material used in the sizing of textiles, paper
and jute. The tamarind kernel powder can
also be made into a pectin substitute that is
known commercially as jellose.
The use of pectinPecitin is used as a gelling agent in thepreparation of jams and jellies. Some
jams and jellies do not need pectin as the
fruits they are made from containsufficient natural gelling agent. However,
other fruits will not form a gel when
heated with sugar and it is advisable forprocessors to use pectin to ensure that
each batch they produce is of consistentquality. The problem for small-scaleprocessors in developing countries is that
pectin is fairly costly and quite difficult toobtain. Processors can make their own
pectin from fruit wastes, such as appleskins and passion fruit seeds (see box 1).
Preparation of tamarind kernel powder(TKP)Tamarind kernel powder is made from the
seeds of tamarind, which are otherwisediscarded. The tamarind kernel powder is
prepared by decorticating the seed andpulverising the creamy white kernels. Thekernels are ground to the required mesh
size by machines to obtain a yield of5560%. The resultant powder is not very
stable, particularly under humidconditions and deteriorates quite rapidly
during storage. To prolong the storagelife, it can be mixed with 0.5% sodium
bisulphate and stored in a cool, dry place.One of the uses of TKP is in the
preparation of a pectic-like gelling
substance called jellose. Thepolysaccharides in tamarind seed kernels
form mucilaginous dispersions with water
and can form a gel with sugar concentrates,
in much the same way that a fruit pectin
works. However, unlike fruit pectins,
tamarind polysaccharides can form a gel
over a wide pH range (fruit pectins require
acidic conditions to form gels). Also,
tamarind polysaccharides are not affected
by boiling in neutral aqueous solutions for
long periods (fruit pectins lose up to two
thirds of their gelling strength when boiled
for one hour). Tamarind polysaccharide canbe useful as a gel formation agent and may
be substituted for fruit pectin in jams and
jellies. Since tamarind polysaccharide does
not contain galacturonic acid, which is a
principle component of pectin, it cannot be
called a pectin and instead is referred to as
jellose.
Preparation of jelloseJellose is made on a large scale by addingtamarind kernel powder to 30 to 40 times
its weight of boiling water that containscitric or tartaric acid at a concentration of0.2%. The solution is stirred vigorously
and boiled for a further 30 to 40 minutes,then left to settle overnight. The following
day the supernatant liquid is siphoned off
The preparation of pectin from tamarindkernel powder
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Key words
Tamarind, pectin,
gelling agent, fruit
Asia
Small-scale manufacturers in developing countries
find it notoriously difficult to obtain pectin for the
preparation of jam and jellies. It is fairly costly and
quite difficult to obtain. An effective gelling agent,known commercially as jellose, can be produced
from tamarind kernels. This article by Professor
Gunasena from Sri Lanka describes the preparation
of tamarind kernel powder and the gelling agent
jellose.
Tamarind for sale in
polypaks
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and concentrated under vacuum, then it ispassed through a filter press and dried in
a drum drier. The resultant product ispulverised in a ball mill. A good sample of
jellose should have a relative viscosity of5.0% at 35C in 0.5% solution, which is
higher than cornstarch. Jellose is much