folic acid instability and bacterial metabolism combine to ... · 1 folic acid instability and...
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1
FolicacidinstabilityandbacterialmetabolismcombinetoimpactC.elegansdevelopmentandageing
ClaireMaynard1,IanCummins1,JacalynGreen2andDavidWeinkove1*
1DepartmentofBiosciences,DurhamUniversity,SouthRoad,Durham,UK.DH13LE
2MidwesternUniversity,Illinois,Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
*Correspondingauthor:[email protected],+441913341303
ABSTRACT
Folicacidsupplementationisusedtopreventfolatedeficiency,butitisalsoassociatedwithnegative
effectsonhumanhealth.Littleisknownabouthowgutbacteriainteractwiththeuptakeofsynthetic
supplements,suchasfolicacid,andtheconsequencesforhosthealth.UsingthesimplifiedC.elegans-E.
colihost-microbemodelsystem,weexaminehowfolicacidimpactsE.colifolatesynthesis,andinturn,C.
eleganshealth.WefindthatfolicacidsupplementscontainabreakdownproductthatistakenupbytheE.
colitransporterAbgT,leadingtoincreasedbacterialfolatelevels.Weshowthatthisisthemainrouteby
whichfolicacidrescuesaC.elegansdevelopmentalfolatedeficiency,butisalsotheroutebywhichfolic
acidshortensadultlifespan.Together,thisworkshowshowfolicacidinstabilityandbacterialuptakecan
combinetoinfluencehosthealth.
.CC-BY 4.0 International licensewas not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. It is made available under aThe copyright holder for this preprint (whichthis version posted December 6, 2017. . https://doi.org/10.1101/230227doi: bioRxiv preprint
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.CC-BY 4.0 International licensewas not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. It is made available under aThe copyright holder for this preprint (whichthis version posted December 6, 2017. . https://doi.org/10.1101/230227doi: bioRxiv preprint
.CC-BY 4.0 International licensewas not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. It is made available under aThe copyright holder for this preprint (whichthis version posted December 6, 2017. . https://doi.org/10.1101/230227doi: bioRxiv preprint
.CC-BY 4.0 International licensewas not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. It is made available under aThe copyright holder for this preprint (whichthis version posted December 6, 2017. . https://doi.org/10.1101/230227doi: bioRxiv preprint
.CC-BY 4.0 International licensewas not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. It is made available under aThe copyright holder for this preprint (whichthis version posted December 6, 2017. . https://doi.org/10.1101/230227doi: bioRxiv preprint
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.CC-BY 4.0 International licensewas not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. It is made available under aThe copyright holder for this preprint (whichthis version posted December 6, 2017. . https://doi.org/10.1101/230227doi: bioRxiv preprint
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2
KEYWORDS
Folicacid;Microbiota;Ageing;C.elegans;bacterialmetabolism
INTRODUCTION
Folicacidsupplementationhasbeenamajorpublichealthsuccess,particularlyinthepreventionneural
tubedefects(Imbardetal.,2013),buttherearenumeroushealthconcernsrelatedtoover-
supplementation(ButterworthandTamura,1989;Coleetal.,2007;Kim,2007;Mareanetal.,2011;Milne
etal.,1984;Pickelletal.,2011;Portal-CelhayandBlaser,2012;Selhubetal.,2009).Folicacidisasynthetic
oxidizedfolate.Itcanbeabsorbedinthegutinthisform(Patanwalaetal.,2014)butunlikebacterialand
dietaryfolates,itmustbeconvertedintoareducedtetrahydrofolate(THF),beforeitcanbetakenupin
peripheralcellsbyreducedfolatecarriersandusedinmetabolism(DuckerandRabinowitz,2017;Visentin
etal.,2014).Theroutesoffolicaciduptakeandmetabolismarenotcompletelycharacterizedandits
interactionwithgutmicrobeshasnotbeenwellstudied(Visentinetal.,2014).
Somebacteriacantakeupfolatesdirectlybutmanycannot.Insteadtheyeithermakefolatedenovoor
takeupfolateprecursorssuchaspara-aminobenzoicacid(PABA,Figure1,(Carteretal.,2007;LeBlancet
al.,2013;Magnusdottiretal.,2015).FolicacidandTHFsareinherentlyunstablemolecules,comprisingofa
centralPABAmoietylinkedbyamethylenebridgetoapteridineringtoformpteroicacidandbyits
carboxylgrouptoaL-glutamicacidresiduebyapeptidebond(GreenandMatthews,2007).Themethylene
bridgeispronetodisassociationunderseveralparameters,includinglowpH,togeneratepteridineand
PABA-glutamicacid(PABA-glu)(DeBrouweretal.,2007;Gazzalietal.,2016;Gregory,1989;Hansonand
Gregory,2011;Maruyamaetal.,1978),wherePABA-glucanfurtherdissociatetogeneratePABA(Der-
Petrossianetal.,2007;Thiavilleetal.,2016).Thus,theacidicmicroenvironmentsofthestomachandupper
smallintestinemaycausefolatestodegradetoPABA-gluandPABA(SeyoumandSelhub,1998).Indeed,
PABAhasbeendetectedasasignificantfaecalexcretoryproductfollowingfolicacidsupplementation
(DenkoCwFau-Grundyetal.).MammalianstudieshaveshownthatinjectionoflabelledPABAintothe
cecumofrats(Rongetal.,1991)andpiglets(AsrarandO'Connor,2005)resultsintheincorporationof
bacteriallysynthesizedfolateintohosttissues.Humanstudieshaveshownthatbacterialfolatesynthesisin
boththehumansmall(Camiloetal,1996)andlargeintestine(Kimetal.,2004)canbeincorporatedinto
hosttissues.Itisnotknown,however,ifthisbacterialfolatesynthesisisenhancedbyfolicacid
supplementationandifitis,whetherthereareanyconsequencesformicrobiomefunctionandhosthealth.
Thisstudyusesasimplifiedhost-microbemodelsystemtoexaminehowfolicacidaffectsbacterialfolate
synthesisandhosthealth.Themodelorganism,thenematodeCaenorhabditiselegansismaintainedonlab
strainsofE.coliforwhichitdependsonforfolateaswellasforothervitamins(YilmazandWalhout,2014).
.CC-BY 4.0 International licensewas not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. It is made available under aThe copyright holder for this preprint (whichthis version posted December 6, 2017. . https://doi.org/10.1101/230227doi: bioRxiv preprint
3
LikeseveralotherProteobacteria,E.coliiscapableofdenovofolatesynthesisandthesalvageofPABAand
PABA-glutomakefolate(Carteretal.,2007),butcannottakeupintactfolates(NickersonandWebb,1956;
Webb,1955)Figure1).Here,wefindthatthemajorrouteoffolicacidsupplementationisanindirectroute
thatthisisdependentonthebreakdownoffolicacidintoPABA-gluandsubsequentuptakeviatheE.coli
transporter,AbgT.TheresultantincreaseinbacterialfolatesynthesisisbeneficialforC.elegansduring
development,buthasadetrimentalimpactonC.elegansageing.Thisisconsistentwithourpreviouswork,
whichhasdemonstratedthatE.colifolatesynthesisshortensC.eleganslifespan(Virketal.,2012)most
likelyduetoabacterial-dependentchronictoxicity(Virketal.,2016).Importantly,wealsodetectPABA-glu
andPABAinthreefolicacidsources,withthehighestquantitiesinacommercialfolicacidsupplement.
Together,thisworkhighlightsanunappreciatedbacterial-dependentrouteviawhichfolicacidcanhave
bothpositiveandnegativeeffectsonhosthealth,andthushaswiderreachingimplicationsforthe
importanceofthemicrobiotaindetermininghealthoutcomesfollowingvitaminsupplementation.
Figure1.SchematicoftheindirectuptakeoffolicacidbyE.coli.FolicacidiscomposedofacentralPABAmoietylinkedbyamethylenebridgetoapteridineandtoasingleglutamicacidresidueviaapeptidebond.FolicacidisunstableanddisassociatestogeneratePABA-glutamate(PABA-glu),whichcanfurtherdisassociatetoPABA.E.coliisabletosalvagePABA-gluviatransportbytheinnermembraneprotein,AbgT.PABA-gluisthencleavedintracellularlybytheheterodimericcarboxypeptidaseAbgA/BintoPABA,whereitcanbeusedasaprecursorforfolatesynthesistogeneratetheactiveformoffolate,tetrahydrofolate(THF)whichisusedinthefolatecycle.PABAcanalsodiffuseacrossbiologicalmembranes.E.coliisalsocapableofdenovofolatesynthesisbygeneratingPABAfromchorismateandglutaminethroughtheactionofPabA,PabBandPabC.E.coliisunabletoimportfolicaciddirectly.
2 O H
PABA
Chorismate +glutamine
AbgT
PabA FOLATECYCLE
PABA-glu
PABA
AbgA AbgB
THF
2 PABA-glu
E.COLI
FOLATESYNTHESIS
FOLICACID
PABA pteridine
glutamicacid
4
RESULTS
FolicacidsupplementationrescuesC.elegansdevelopmentalfolatedeficiencyviaE.coliabgT
Inordertotestwhetherfolicacidinteractswithbacterialfolatesynthesistosupplementhostfolateinour
modelsystem,weusedthepreviouslycharacterizedC.elegansfolateuptakedeletionmutant,gcp-2.1
(ok1004)(Virketal.,2016).Thegcp-2.1mutantstrainlacksGCP-2.1,theC.eleganshomologueoftheGCPII
glutamatecarboxypeptidaseenzymethatremovesglutamatesfrompolyglutamatedfolates,aprerequisite
forfolateabsorption(Halstedetal.,1998).Thisstrainexhibitsaseveredevelopmentalfolate-deficiency
whenmaintainedonE.colitreatedwiththesulfonamidedrugsulfamethoxazole(SMX)(Virketal.,2016).
Thisgrowthdefectisrescuedwithhighconcentrationsoffolicacid(Virketal.,2016).Itisnotclear,
however,whetherthissupplementationisdirect(C.elegansuptake)orindirect(restorationoffolate
synthesisinE.coli).HereweshowthattheC.elegansgcp-2.1mutantgrownontheE.colipabAmutanton
definedmedia(DM)hasthesamegrowthdefectasthesewormsgrownonwildtypeE.colitreatedwith
128µg/mlSMX(Figure2a).Folicacidwasfoundtoincreasegcp-2.1mutantbodylengthonthepabA
mutantinadose-dependentmanner(Figure2b).AsE.colicannotuptakeintactfolicacid,weexaminedthe
dependenceoffolicacidrescueontheexpressionoftheE.coliabgTgene,whichisresponsibleforthe
uptakeofPABA-glu.Aweakerresponseofthegcp-2.1mutanttofolicacidwasobservedontheabgTpabA
doublemutantcomparedtowormsonthepabAsinglemutant.Incontrast,gcp-2.1mutantsmaintainedon
pabAwithaplasmidoverexpressingabgT(Carteretal.,2007)(pabA(abgTOE))weremoreresponsiveto
folicacid(Figure2b).Analysingtheexperimentbytwo-wayANOVA,wefindthatthereisasignificant
interactioneffectofstraintype(F=102.67,p<0.0001)andfolicacidconcentration(F=123.55,p<0.0001)on
C.elegansgcp-2.1bodylength.MutationofabgTalonedidnotinfluencegrowthofthegcp-2.1
(SupplementaryFigure1a).Rescueofgcp-2.1developmentalfolatedeficiencywasachievedata10-fold
lowerconcentrationandindependentlyofabgTexpression,withtherelativelystableTHF,folinicacid
(SupplementaryFigure2),suggestingthatC.eleganstakesupfolinicaciddirectly.Theseresultssuggest
thatthemajorrouteoffolicaciduptakebythewormisthroughE.coliviauptakeofthefolicacid
degradationproduct,PABA-glubytheAbgTtransporter.
FolicacidsupportsE.coligrowthviaAbgT-dependentuptakeofPABA-glu
TheabgT-dependenceoffolicacidtorescuethegcp-2.1developmentalfolate-deficiencystronglysuggests
thatPABA-gluisavailabletoE.colifollowingfolicacidsupplementation.TotesttherelativeabilityofE.coli
totakeupPABA-gluandfolicacid,weaddedthesecompoundstopabA,abgTpabAandpabA(abgTOE)E.
coliandassessedgrowthonDMagarplatesafter4daysincubationat25°C.Undertheseconditions,we
foundthatallstrainscontainingthepabAmutantshowedslowergrowththanwildtypeandabgT
expressiondeterminedtheresponsetofolicacidandPABA-glu;10µMfolicacidrescuedgrowthofthe
5
Figure2.FolicacidsupplementsC.elegansviaanE.coliabgT-dependentrouteduringdevelopmenta)bodylengthofwild-typeandgcp-2.1mutantC.elegansatL4stageraisedonDMagarplatesseededwithWTE.coli(control),pabAmutantorWTE.colitreatedwith128μg/mlSMXb)bodylengthofgcp-2.1mutantC.elegansatL4stageraisedonDMagarplatesseededwithpabAmutant,abgTpabAdoublemutantorpabAmutantover-expressingabgTwithincreasingconcentrationsoffolicacid.Bytwo-wayANOVAanalyses,wefindthatthereisasignificantinteractioneffectofstraintype(F=102.67,p<0.0001)andfolicacidconcentration(F=123.55,p<0.0001)onC.elegansgcp-2.1bodylength.Over-expressionisconferredbytransformationwithahighcopynumberplasmid,pJ128.pabAandabgTpabAstrainaretransformedwiththeemptyvector,pUC19.ErrorbarsrepresentstandarddeviationofC.elegansbodylength;n≥40.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Control pabA SMX
Celeg
ansb
odylength(m
m)
WT
gcp-2.1
pabA
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
2 4 8 16 32 64 128
gcp-2.1bo
dylength(m
m)
[Folicacid](µM)
pabA
abgTpabA
pabA(abgTOE)
b)
2a)
6
pabAmutant,whereas100µMwasneededtoachieveanequivalentrescueintheabgTpabAdouble
mutant(Figure3ai).10µMfolicacidincreasedthegrowthofthepabAstrainover-expressingAbgTabove
thatofthepabAmutantaloneorthewildtypestrain.SupplementationbyPABA-gluhadasimilareffect
butata10-foldlowerconcentrationthanfolicacid(Figure3aii).PABA,whichcanfreelydiffuseacross
biologicalmembranes(TranandNichols,1991),rescuedbacterialgrowthwasindependentofabgT
expressionandachievedatnanomolarconcentrations(Figure3aiii).Overall,rescueofbacterialgrowthby
folicacidatlowconcentrationscanbeexplainedbyPABA-gluuptakebyAbgTwhilelowconcentrationsof
PABApresentinfolicacidpreparationsmayexplaintheabilityof100µMfolicacidtorescueE.coligrowth
andC.elegansgcp-2.1developmentalfolate-deficiencyindependentlyofabgT(Figure2).
FolicacidincreasesE.colifolatelevelsinanAbgT-dependentmechanism
ItordertoverifythatE.coligrowthfollowingfolicacidsupplementationisattributabletorestoredbacterial
folatesynthesis,weusedLC-MS/MStodetectE.colifolatelevelsundertheconditionsusedintheabove
experiment.LevelsofthemostdetectableandthuslikelythemostabundantTHFspecies,5-methylTHF-
glu3,arepresentedinFigure3b.Intheabsenceoffolicacid,folatelevelsinthepabAmutantstrainswere
significantlylowerthaninWTextracts(Figure3b,SupplementaryFigure3).Additionoffolicacidincreased
folatelevels,wherethescaleofincreasewasdependentonabgTexpression;with100µMfolicacid,folate
specieswerehighestinpabA(abgTOE)followedbyWT,pabA,andfinallylowestintheabgTpabAdouble
mutant.OtherTHFspeciesfollowedthesametrendas5-methylTHF-glu3andarepresentedin
SupplementaryFigure3.Insummary,folicacidsupplementationincreasesE.colifolatelevelsinanabgT-
dependentmechanism.
FolicacidpreparationscontainPABA-gluandPABA
Together,thedatapresentedhereindicatethatthemainrouteofC.elegansfolicacidsupplementationis
indirectviaE.coliuptakeofPABA-gluandPABA.WeusedLC-MS/MStotestfortheexpectedpresenceof
thesebreakdownproductsinfolicacidpreparationsfromSchircks(usedinallotherexperimentsinthis
study),SigmaAldrichandBoots,aUKretailer.Wealsotestedtheimpactoftheexperimentalconditions
usedhereonfolicacidbreakdownbyanalysingextractsfromagarmediasupplementedwithSchircksfolic
acidandincubatedat25°Cfor4days.WedetectedPABA-gluinallthreefolicacidsourcesatbetween0.3%
(Schircks)and4%(Boots)(Figure3ci).UndertheconditionsusedforC.elegansexperimentsPABA-glu
increasedto1.18%,suggestingfurtherbreakdown.PABAwasfoundatbetween0.01%(Schircks)and0.06%
(Boots)(Figure3cii).
7
Figure3.FolicacidbreakdownsupportsbacterialgrowthandincreasesfolatelevelsviaAbgT-uptakeofPABA-glua)growthofE.coliWT,pabA,abgTpabAandpabAover-expressingabgT(abgTOE)onagarplatessupplementedwithi)folicacidii)PABA-gluandiii)PABAasmeasuredbyOD600after4daysgrowthat25℃(seemethods).Eachdatapointistheaverageof8plates.Errorbarsrepresentstandarddeviation.AsterisksdenotetheteststatisticfromStudent’sttestcomparisonofmeans,where*=P<0.05comparedtoWTgrowthonthesameconditionb)5-methylTHF-glu3levelsinextractsofE.coliWT,pabA,abgTpabA,pabA(abgTOE)mutantssupplementedwith10µMand100µMfolicacid.FolatecountsfromtheLC-MS/MSarenormalisedbydividingbycountsofaninternalMTX-glu6spike.Extractsweremadeafter4daysofbacterialgrowthat25°Consolidagarplates.SeeSupplementaryFigure3forfullfolateanalysis.c)Levelsofi)PABA-gluandii)PABAdetectedbyLC-MS/MSinfolicacidpreparationsfromSchircks,Sigma,BootsandSchircksfolicacidafteradditiontotheagarmediaandincubationfor4daysat25˚C.Errorbarsrepresentstandarddeviationovertriplicateindependentpreparations.
Control
1000.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
5-methyl-T
HF-glu
3:MTX-glu
6
100µM
10µM
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
10 100
[PAB
A-glu](µ
M)
[Folicacid](µM)
Schircks
Sigma
Boots
Schircksinmedia
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
10 100
[PAB
A](µ
M)
[Folicacid](µM)
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0 1 10
Bacterialgrowth( O
D60
0)
[PABA-glu](µM)
WT
pabA
abgTpabA
pabA(abgTOE)
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0 10 100
Bacterialgrowth(O
D600)
[Folicacid](µM)
*
*
*
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0 0.1 1
Bacterialgrowth(O
D600)
[PABA](µM)
pabA
(abgTOE)
3ai)
aii)
aiii)
b)
ci)
cii)
*
8
FolicacidshortensC.eleganslifespanviaAbgT-dependentuptakeofPABA-gluduringadulthood
Inhibitingbacterialfolatesynthesis,withoutaffectingbacterialgrowth,isknowntoincreaseC.elegans
lifespan(Virketal.,2012;Virketal.,2016).Itwasthereforehypothesizedthatfactorsthatincrease
bacterialfolatesynthesis,suchasfolicacid(asshownhere),mayshortenC.eleganslifespan.Consistent
withourpreviousfindings(Virketal.,2016),wefindthatC.elegansmaintainedonanyE.colipabAmutant
arelong-livedcomparedtoC.elegansfedwildtypeE.coli(Figure4,SupplementaryTable1),whereasthe
abgTmutationalonehadnoimpactonC.eleganslifespan(P=0.4312,SupplementaryFigure1b).10µM
folicacidwasfoundtodecreaseC.eleganslifespanonpabAby9.4%(P=0.0052),anddecreaselifespanon
thepabAmutantover-expressingabgTfurther(by16.3%,P<0.0001,Figure4a).Incontrast,10µMfolicacid
hadnoeffectonlifespanontheabgTpabAdoublemutant(P=0.1901,Figure3a).100µMfolicacid
decreasedlifespanonpabAE.coliby23.9%(P<0.0001),whereasthisconcentrationonlyshortenedlifespan
ontheabgTpabAdoublemutantby4.7%(P=0.0467,Figure4a).Lifespansonmediasupplementedwith
PABA-glushowedanabgT-dependentresponsesimilartothatobservedwithfolicacidsupplementation,
butata10-foldlowerconcentration(Figure4b).Incontrast,PABAsupplementationshortenedC.elegans
lifespaninallcasesindependentlyofabgTexpression,consistentwithitsabilitytodiffuseacrossbiological
membranes(Figure4c).FolicacidhadnoeffectonthelifespanofC.elegansmaintainedonWTE.coli
(SupplementaryFigure4).Together,theseresultssuggestthatfolicacidshortensC.eleganslifespanon
folate-deficientE.coliviaAbgT-dependentuptakeofPABA-gluduringadulthood.
9
Figure 4. Folic acid shortensC. elegans lifespan via an E. coli abgT-dependent route during adulthood.MeanlifespanofWTC.elegansmaintainedfromday1ofadulthoodonpabA,abgTpabA,orpabA(abgTOE)E.coliwithsupplementationof(a)folicacid(b)PABA-gluand(c)PABA.Errorbarsrepresentstandarderror.Asterisksdenotethe Log-rank non-parametric statistical test of survival, where: *P<0.05; **P<0.01; ***P<0.005 compared tolifespanonthenon-supplementedconditionofthesamestrain.FulllifespandatainSupplementaryTable1.
14
16
18
20
22
0 0.1 1
Meanlifespan(days)
[PABA](µM)
14
16
18
20
22
0 10 100
Meanlifespan(days)
[Folicacid](µM)
***
***
**
*
***
14
16
18
20
22
0 1 10
Meanlifespan(days)
[PABA-Glu](µM)
pabA
abgTpabA
pabA(AbgTOE)***
***
***
**
pabA(abgTOE)
4a)
b)
c)
10
DISCUSSION
Folicacidsupplementationgeneratesasupplyoffolateinadditiontothatprovidedbythedietandgut
microbiota.Itisnotclear,however,exactlyhowfolicacidsupplementshostfolate.Consideringthe
conflictingreportsofthesafetyoffolicacidsupplementationonhosthealth,itisimportanttounderstand
allpossibleroutesofuptake.UsingtheestablishedC.elegans-E.colihost-microbemodelinwhichbacterial
folatesynthesishasbeenshowntoinfluencehosthealth(Chaudharietal.,2016;Hanetal.,2017;Virket
al.,2016),thisstudyshowsthatfolicacidcanincreasebacterialfolatesynthesis(Figure3b)inaroutethatis
dependentonitsbreakdownintoPABA-glu(Figure3c)anduptakebythebacterialtransporterAbgT.We
haveshownthatthisroutecanhavebeneficialconsequencesinthecaseofC.elegansdevelopmental
folate-deficiency(Figure2)butitcanalsohaveanegativeimpactonlong-termhosthealth,byshortening
lifespan(Figure4).Ourpreviousworkindicatesthatlifespandecreaseisduetoabacterialfolate-
dependenttoxicity.Together,wehaveuncoveredaroutebywhichfolicacidinteractswithbacterial
metabolismtoimpacthosthealth(Figure5).
ThedetectionofsignificantquantitiesofPABA-gluandPABAinthreefolicacidsourcesinthisstudy,
includinginacommercialfolicacidsupplement(Figure3c)indicatesthatthisroutemayhaveimplications
forhumanfolatesupplementation.Indeed,investigationsintofolicacidsupplementshavereported
significantfailingsofsupplementstomeetUS(Hoagetal.,1997)orUK(Sculthorpeetal.,2001)standards
fordissolution.Inlightoftheseissueswithfolicacidstability,manufacturershaveadoptedapolicyof
‘overages’inordertoensuresufficientvitaminisreleased(Andrewsetal.2017).AstheE.coliPABA-glu
transporter,AbgT,caninfluenceC.eleganshealthfollowingfolicacidsupplementation,dependingonboth
bacterialandhostgenotype,itishypothesizedthatsupplementstabilityandgutmicrobiotacomposition
maybetwopreviouslyunexploredvariablesinunderstandingthehealthconsequencesoffolicacid
supplementation.
TheAbgTproteinisamemberofaconservedfamilyofover13,000transporters,manyofwhichare
encodedforinthegenomesofseveralpathogenicbacteriaofthehumangutmicrobiome,including
Enterobactercloacae,N.gonorrhoeae,Salmonellaenterica,ShigellaboydiiandStaphylococcusaureusin
additiontoE.coli.Interestingly,severaldiseasesareassociatedwithanincreasedabundanceoffolate-
synthesizinggutbacteria,suchasinflammatoryboweldisease(IBD(Shinetal.,2015)andsmallintestinal
bacterialovergrowth(SIBO,(Camiloetal.,1996).Humantrialsarenecessarytoexaminehowmicrobial
folatesynthesisandmicrobialcompositionalchangesinthehumangutmicrobiotafollowingfolicacid
supplementation.Wehypothesizethattheremaybespecificgroupsofpatientswhereeffectsoffolicacid
11
onmicrobialfolatesynthesisneedtobeconsidered.Itmaybenecessarytodesignalternativestrategiesto
preventfolatedeficiencywithoutincreasingbacterialfolatesynthesis.
Figure5.SchematicoftheimpactoffolicacidsupplementationonC.elegansviaindirectuptakeofbreakdownproductsbyE.coli.FolicacidisnottakenupwellbyC.elegansdirectly.WefindthatthemajoruptakeoffolicacidbyC.elegansisdependentonitsbreakdownintoPABA-gluanduptakebytheE.coliAbgTtransporter.Thisrouteincreasesbacterialfolatesynthesisinbothwild-typeandpabAmutantE.coli.Underconditionsoffolate-deficiency(pabAmutantE.coli),increasingbacterialfolateviathisrouteisbeneficialforC.elegansdevelopment.DuringC.elegansadulthood,thisroutehasanegativeimpactonlongevityasitpromotesabacterialfolate-dependenttoxicity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
WethanktheC.elegansGeneticsCenter,theC.elegansKnockoutConsortium,andNBRP-E.coliatNIGfor
strainsandwethankSushmitaMaitraandJohnMathersforusefulcommentsonthemanuscript.Thiswork
wassupportedbyaBBSRCDTPstudentship.
2 O H
PABA
Chorismate +glutamine
AbgT
PabA FOLATECYCLE
PABA-glu
PABA
AbgA AbgB
THF
2 PABA-glu
E.COLI
C.ELEGANS
FOLATESYNTHESIS
DEVELOPMENT ü Increased
fitness
FOLICACID
PABA pteridine
glutamicacid
TOXICITY
ADULTHOOD × Decreasedlongevity
12
MATERIALSANDMETHODS
Folatesandrelatedcompounds
Folicacid,Folinicacid,PABA-Glu,5-formylTHF-Glu3,5-methylTHF-Glu3,methotrexate-Glu6wereobtained
fromSchircks,Switzerland.PABA,VitaminB12andfolicacidwerefromSigmaAldrichandfolicacid
supplementfromBoots,UK.
Cultureconditions
Definedmedia(DM)waspreparedasdescribed(Virketal.,2016),exceptthat10nMB12wasadded.B12,
folicacidandantibioticsareaddedpost-autoclavingforagarplates.DMforliquidcultureisfilter-sterilised.
0.1µMPABAaddedtotheliquidDMmediausedtoseedtheplatesinordertomaintainbacterialgrowth
(apartthegrowthexperimentsinFigure3a).30µlof3mlfreshovernightLBcultureisusedtoinoculate
5mlDM(15mlFalcontube).25µg/mlkanamycin(50ug/mlampicillinifnecessary)addedtobothLBand
DMpre-incubation.DMliquidculturesareincubatedfor18hrat37°C,220RPM.
13
AllstrainsderivedfromtheKeiocollection(Babaetal.,2006).Seetable.WT-Kan(Virketal.,2016).
abgTpabAdoublemutantwasmadeusingP1transductionprotocolasdescribedin(Moore,2011).The
abgTover-expressionplasmid(pJ128)(Carteretal.,2007)andemptyvector(puc19)(Yanisch-Perronetal.,
1985)weretransformedintoappropriatestrains.
C.elegansstrainsused
SS104glp-4(bn2),UF208(wild-type),andUF209gcp-2.1(ok1004)(Virketal.,2016).
E.colipreparationandgrowthassay
TableofE.colistrainsusedinthisstudy
Strain Genotype Plasmid Characteristics Source
BW25113/pGreen0029
WT pGreen0029 kanr Virketal2016
JW3323-1 ΔpabA n/a kanr Babaetal2006
JW5822-1 ΔabgT n/akanr
Babaetal2006
CMabgTpabA ΔabgTΔpabA n/a kanr Thisstudy
CM1 WTpUC19‡,pGreen0029
kanr,ampr Thisstudy
CM2 ΔpabA pUC19 kanr,ampr Thisstudy
CM3 ΔabgTΔpabA pUC19 kanr,ampr Thisstudy
CM4 WT(abgTOE) pJ128‡,
pGreen0029
kanr,ampr Thisstudy
CM5 ΔpabA(abgTOE) pJ128 kanr,ampr Thisstudy
CM6 ΔabgTΔpabA(abgTOE)
pJ128 kanr,ampr Thisstudy
14
E.coliwaspreparedasfollowsforallE.coliandC.elegansexperiments.30µlofanovernightLBcultureof
E.coliwastransferredinto5mlDMandincubatedfor18hrat37◦C,220RPM.100µltheDMculturewas
seededontoDMagarplatesand incubatedat25°Cfor4days.E.coliwasremovedbypipetting1mlM9
ontotheplateandaglassspreadertoscrapeoffthebacteriallawn.Thebacterialsuspensionwaspipetted
into a 1.5ml Eppendorf and the volumewas recorded (v). Tubeswere vortexed vigorously to obtain a
homogenisedsolution.100µlwastakenanddilutedwith900µlM9inacuvette.Aspectrophotometerwas
used to read bacterial growth at 600 nm. Bacterial growth was calculated by multiplying OD600by the
volumeofthesample(v).
E.colifolateextraction
BacteriallawnswerescrapedfromplatesintomicrocentrifugetubesusingM9solutionandkeptonice.
Volume(v),multipliedbytheOD600ofthesolution(diluted1:5)givesameasureoftheamountofmaterial.
Sampleswereconcentratedinchilledmicrocentrifugeandpelletsweresnapfrozeninliquidnitrogen.
Pelletswerethawedandresuspendedinavolumeofice-cold90%methanol:10%folateextractionbuffer
(FEB:50mMHEPES,50mMCHES,0.5%w/vascorbicacid,0.2MDTT,pH7.85withNaOH)inproportionto
bacterialcontent(37.5×OD600×v).FEBisspikedwith10nMmethotrexate-Glu6asaninternalstandard.
Sampleswerevortexedvigorouslyandleftonicefor15minbeforecentrifugationinacooled
microcentrifugefor15minatfullspeed.Supernatantswereusedforanalysis.
FolateLC-MS/MSanalysis
Folatesweredetectedbymultiplereactionmonitoring(MRM)analysisusingaSCIEXQTRAP6500
instrument.MRMconditionsforfolicacid,PABA,PABA-Glu,5-Me-H4PteGlu3(5-methylTHF-Glu3)and5/10-
CHO-H4PteGlu3(formylTHF3)wereoptimisedbyinfusionofstandardsintotheinstrument.Theoptimised
conditionsfor–Glu3folateswereappliedtootherhigherfolatesusingMRMtransitionsdescribedbyLuet
al.,2007(Luetal.,2007).Furtherconfirmationofidentityforfolatesofinterestwasachievedby
performingenhancedproductionscansandcomparingthefragmentspectrawithknownstandards.
TheQTRAP6500wasoperatedinESI+modeandwasinterfacedwithaShimadzuNexeraUHPLCsystem.
SampleswereseparatedusingaThermoPA2C18column(2.2µm,2.1x100mm)withagradientof0.1%
formicacidinwater(mobilephaseA)andacetonitrile(mobilephaseB).Samplesweremaintainedat4⁰C
and2µLaliquotswereinjected.Thecolumnwasmaintainedat40⁰Cwithaflowrateof200µL/min,
startingat2%B,heldfor2minutes,withalineargradientto100%Bat7minutes,heldfor1minute,before
a7-minutere-equilibrationstepat2%Bthatwasnecessaryforconsistentretentiontimes.Thecolumn
15
eluateflowtotheMSwascontrolledviatheQTRAPswitchingvalve,allowinganalysisbetween4and8
minutestominimiseinstrumentcontamination.Folateswerequantifiedwithreferencetoexternal
standardsandmatrixeffectswereassessedbyspikingofstandardsintoextractedsamples.
Lifespananalysis
Survivalanalyseswereperformedasdescribed(Virketal.,2012).glp-4(bn2)wormsweremaintainedat
15°Candshiftedto25°CattheL3stage.AttheL4/youngadultstage,animalswereplacedonbacteria
undertheexperimentalconditions.AlllifespandataisinTableS1.Statisticalsignificancewasdetermined
usingLogRankandWilcoxontestsoftheKaplan-Meiersurvivalmodel.
16
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19
SUPPLEMENTARYINFORMATION
SupplementaryFigure1.TheE.coliabgTdeletionhasnoeffectonC.elegansdevelopmentandlifespana)bodylengthofwild-typeandgcp-2.1mutantC.elegansatL4stageraisedonabgTmutantorwild-typeE.coli(errorbarsrepresentstandarddeviation)b)survivalcurvesofwild-type(glp-4)C.elegansonE.coliwild-typeandabgTmutant.SeeSupplementaryTable1forfurtherdetails.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
WT gcp-2.1
C.elega
nsbod
ylength(m
m)
C.elegansgenotype
WT
abgT
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Survival
Dayofadulthood
WT
abgT
1a)
b)
20
SupplementaryFigure2.FolinicacidrestoresgrowthofC.elegansgcp-2.1independentlyofE.coliabgT.Bodylengthofgcp-2.1mutantC.elegansatL4stageraisedonDMagarplatesseededwithpabAmutant,abgTpabAdoublemutantorpabAmutantover-expressingabgTwithincreasingconcentrationsoffolinicacid.Over-expressionisconferredbytransformationwithahighcopynumberplasmid,pJ128.pabAandabgTpabAstrainaretransformedwiththeemptyvector,pUC19.ErrorbarsrepresentstandarddeviationofC.elegansbodylength;n≥40.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
2 4 8 16 32 64 128
gcp-2.1bo
dylength(m
m)
[Folinicacid](µM)
pabA/puc19
abgTpabA/puc19
pabA/pJ128(abgTOE)
21
SupplementaryFigure3.LC-MS/MSdetectslowerlevelsofTHFsinpabAmutants,whereabgTdeterminesresponsetofolicacid.LevelsofTHFsdetectedinextractsofWT,pabA,abgTpabA,pabA(abgTOE)mutantsdisplayedasaratiowithaninternalMTX-glu6spikefornormalization.Extractsweremadeafter4daysofbacterialgrowthat25°C.AsterisksdenotetheteststatisticfromStudent’sttestcomparisonofmeans,where*=P<0.05.Errorbarsrepresentstandarddeviationoverfourreplicates.
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0 10 100
Folate:M
TX-glu6
5-methyl-THF
*
**
0.00
0.15
0.30
0.45
0 10 100
5/10-formyl-THF
*
*
*
0.00
0.35
0.70
0 10 100
Folate:M
TX-glu6
[Folicacid](µM)
5,10-methenyl-THF
* *
*
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0 10 100[Folicacid](µM)
THF
*
*
*
0.00
0.03
0.05
0 10 100
Folate:M
TX-glu6
[Folicacid](µM)
5,10-methylene-THF
WT
pabA
abgTpabA
pabA(abgTOE)
**
22
SupplementaryFigure4.TheimpactoffolicacidsupplementationonC.eleganslifespanonwild-typeE.coli.SurvivalcurvesofC.elegansmaintainedfromday1ofadulthoodonplatessupplementedwith10µMand100µMfolicacid.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Survival
Dayofadulthood
WTcontrol
WT+10µmfolicacid
WT+100µmfolicacid
WTcontrol
WT+10µMfolicacid
WT+100µMfolicacid
SupplementaryTable1:SummaryoflifespandataAlllifespansconductedondefinedmedia(DM)agarplatesincubatedat25ºC
Fig. Groupname n Censor Meanlifespan Std.error %change pvalue(Logrank) pvalue(Wilcoxon) Supplement Bacterialgenotype Plasmid Antibiotics
5 WT 108 0 15.79 0.53 n/a n/a n/a Alkalinecontrol CM1 pGreen0029,pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA 94 3 20.08 0.52 Control n/a n/a Alkalinecontrol CM2 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA+0.1µMPABA 107 0 19.30 0.46 -3.89% 0.0973 0.3296 0.1µMPABA CM2 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA+1µMPABA 118 0 15.91 0.45 -20.78% <.0001* <.0001* 1µMPABA CM2 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA+1µMPABA-Glu 110 2 18.58 0.40 -7.49% 0.0030* 0.0277* 1µMPABA-Glu CM2 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA+10µMPABA-Glu 125 10 16.43 0.46 -18.16% <.0001* <.0001* 10µMPABA-Glu CM2 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA+10µMfolicacid 93 5 18.20 0.55 -9.36% 0.0052* 0.0061* 10µMSchircksfolicacid CM2 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA+100µMfolicacid 112 1 15.28 0.45 -23.93% <.0001* <.0001* 100µMSchircksfolicacid CM2 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
abgTpabA 91 3 20.10 0.44 Control n/a n/a Alkalinecontrol CM3 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
abgTpabA+0.1µMPABA 91 6 18.72 0.49 -6.88% 0.0631 0.0477* 0.1µMpABA CM3 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
abgTpabA+1µMPABA 102 1 16.71 0.45 -16.86% <.0001* <.0001* 1µMpABA CM3 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
abgTpabA+1PABA-Glu 101 11 18.11 0.52 -9.94% 0.1733 0.0076* 1µMPABA-Glu CM3 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
abgTpabA+10µMPABA-Glu 106 4 19.00 0.46 -5.49% 0.1817 0.0512 10µMPABA-Glu CM3 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
abgTpabA+10µMfolicacid 110 1 19.20 0.43 -4.49% 0.1901 0.114 10µMSchircksfolicacid CM3 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
abgTpabA+100µMfolicacid 100 3 19.16 0.40 -4.67% 0.0476* 0.0743 100µMSchircksfolicacid CM3 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA(abgTOE) 62 10 19.90 0.52 Contol n/a n/a Alkalinecontrol CM5 pJ128 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA(abgTOE)+0.1µMPABA 121 1 18.55 0.45 -6.72% 0.0049* 0.0184* 0.1µMPABA CM5 pJ128 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA(abgTOE)+1µMPABA 104 2 16.07 0.50 -19.19% <.0001* <.0001* 1µMPABA CM5 pJ128 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA(abgTOE)+1µMPABA-Glu 104 1 17.01 0.43 -14.47% <.0001* <.0001* 1µMPABA-Glu CM5 pJ128 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA(abgTOE)+10µMPABA-Glu 117 0 15.05 0.41 -24.33% <.0001* <.0001* 10µMPABA-Glu CM5 pJ128 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA(abgTOE)+10µMfolicacid 119 0 16.65 0.42 -16.30% <.0001* <.0001* 10µMSchircksfolicacid CM5 pJ128 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA(abgTOE)+100µMfolicacid 117 0 16.19 0.42 -18.61% <.0001* <.0001* 100µMSchircksfolicacid CM5 pJ128 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
Sup.1 WT 91 9 13.85 0.44 Control n/a n/a n/a WT pGreen0029 25µg/mlkan
abgT 114 3 12.68 0.35 -8.48% 0.4312 0.0963 n/a JW5822-1 n/a 25µg/mlkan
Sup.2 WT 108 0 14.58 0.40 Control n/a n/a Alkalinecontrol WT pGreen0029 25µg/mlkan
WT+10µMfolicacid 115 0 15.00 0.39 2.86% 0.4448 0.4588 10µMSchircksfolicacid WT pGreen0029 25µg/mlkan
WT+100µMfolicacid 106 1 14.57 0.48 -0.10% 0.566 0.844 100µMSchircksfolicacid WT pGreen0029 25µg/mlkan
Repeatexpt. WT 102 9 15.96 0.48 Control n/a n/a Alkalinecontrol CM1 pGreen0029,pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
(notshown) WT+10µMfolicacid 98 12 15.96 0.58 0.03% 0.8268 0.4283 10µMSchircksfolicacid CM1 pGreen0029,pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
WT+100µMfolicacid 102 18 16.01 0.48 0.36% 0.866 0.7792 100µMSchircksfolicacid CM1 pGreen0029,pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA 113 10 18.35 0.56 Control n/a n/a Alkalinecontrol CM2 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA+10µMfolicacid 90 11 17.44 0.64 -4.95% 0.2527 0.2605 10µMSchircksfolicacid CM2 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA+100µMfolicacid 122 3 15.86 0.40 -13.57% <.0001* 0.0019* 100µMSchircksfolicacid CM2 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
abgTpabA 136 14 18.93 0.50 Control n/a n/a Alkalinecontrol CM3 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
abgTpabA+10µMfolicacid 115 26 19.22 0.52 1.51% 0.6416 0.5684 10µMSchircksfolicacid CM3 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
abgTpabA+100µMfolicacid 93 11 19.26 0.60 1.71% 0.5868 0.4482 100µMSchircksfolicacid CM3 pUC19 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA(abgTOE) 101 23 18.42 0.56 Control n/a n/a Alkalinecontrol CM5 pJ128 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA(abgTOE)+10µMfolicacid 124 0 15.84 0.47 -14.00% 0.0005* 0.0035* 10µMSchircksfolicacid CM5 pJ128 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
pabA(abgTOE)+100µMfolicacid 105 0 15.77 0.50 -14.36% 0.0003* 0.0041* 100µMSchircksfolicacid CM5 pJ128 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
WT(abgTOE) 110 9 16.11 0.50 Control n/a n/a Alkalinecontrol CM4 pGreen0029,pJ128 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
WT(abgTOE)+10µMfolicacid 99 4 16.05 0.57 -0.37% 0.9479 0.8905 10µMSchircksfolicacid CM4 pGreen0029,pJ128 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan
WT(abgTOE)+100µMfolicacid 127 4 15.78 0.39 -2.02% 0.3698 0.8168 100µMSchircksfolicacid CM4 pGreen0029,pJ128 50µg/mlcarb,25µg/mlkan