fish (food) - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

8/22/2019 Fish (Food) - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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Fish and chips with lemon and sauces

Fish (food)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

See also: Seafood

Fish is a food consumed by many species, including

humans. The word "fish" refers to both the animal

and to the food prepared from it. In culinary and

fishery contexts, the term fish also includes shellfish,

such as molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms.

Fish has been an important source of protein for

humans throughout recorded history.

Contents

1 Terminology2 Species3 Nutritional value

4 Health benefits5 Health hazards

5.1 Allergens

5.2 Biotoxins5.3 Mercury and other toxic metals5.4 Persistent organic pollutants5.5 Parasites

6 Fish and meat7 In religion8 Taboos on eating fish9 Preparation

10 Dishes11 See also12 Notes

13 References14 External links

Terminology

English does not distinguish between fish as an animal and the food prepared from it, as it does with pig

versus porkor cow versus beef.[1] Some other languages do, as in the Spanishpeces versus pescado. The

German speisefisch means fish as a food or fish suitable for eating. English also has the term seafood,

which covers fish as well as other marine life used as food.

The modern English word for fish comes from the Old English word fisc (plural:fiscas) which was

pronounced as it is today.

Species


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Over 32,000 species of fish have been described,[2] making them the most diverse group of vertebrates.

However, only a small number of species are commonly eaten by humans.

Common species of fish used for food [3]

Mild flavour Moderate flavour Full flavour

Delicate

texture

basa, flounder, hake, porgy, smelt, rainbow

trout, hardshell clam, blue crab, peekytoecrab, spanner crab, cuttlefish, eastern oyster,Pacific oyster

anchovy, herring,

lingcod, moi, orangeroughy, Atlantic oceanperch, Lake Victoria

perch, yellow perch,European oyster, seaurchin

Atlantic

mackerel

Mediumtexture

black sea bass, European sea bass, hybridstriped bass, bream, cod, drum, haddock,

hoki, Alaska pollock, rockfish, pink salmon,snapper, tilapia, turbot, walleye, lake

whitefish, wolffish, hardshell clam, surf clam,cockle, Jonah crab, snow crab, crayfish, bay

scallop, Chinese white shrimp

sablefish, Atlanticsalmon, coho salmon,

skate, dungeness crab,king crab, blue mussel,

greenshell mussel, pinkshrimp

escolar,chinook

salmon, chumsalmon,

American shad

Firmtexture

arctic char, carp, catfish, dory, grouper,

halibut, monkfish, pompano, Dover sole,sturgeon, tilefish, wahoo, yellowtail,Abalone, conch, stone crab, American

lobster, spiny lobster, octopus, black tigershrimp, freshwater shrimp, gulf shrimp,Pacific white shrimp, squid

barramundi, cusk,

dogfish, kingklip,mahimahi, opah, makoshark, swordfish,

albacore tuna, yellowfintuna, geoduck clam,squat lobster, sea scallop,

rock shrimp

barracuda,

Chilean seabass, cobia,croaker, eel,

blue marlin,mullet,sockeye

salmon,bluefin tuna

Nutritional value

"Fish provides a good source of high quality protein and contains many vitamins and minerals. It may be

classed as either whitefish, oily or shellfish. Whitefish, such as haddock and seer, contain very little fat

(usually less than 1%) whereas oily fish, such as sardines, contain between 10-25%. The latter, as a result

of its high fat content, contain a range of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) and essential fatty acids, allof which are vital for the healthy functioning of the body."[6]


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Comparison of high-value nutrients in fish typesWhitefish

Alaska pollock[4]Oily fish

Atlantic herring[5]

Halibut fillet (a whitefish) on top of a

salmon fillet (an oily fish)

Energy (kcal) 111 203

Protein (g) 23 23

Fat (g) 1 12

Cholesterol (mg) 86 77

Vitamin B-12 (g) 4 13

Phosphorus (mg) 267 303

Selenium (g) 44 47

Omega-3 (mg) 509 2014

Health benefits

See also: Health benefits of eating seafood

Research over the past few decades has shown that the nutrients and minerals in fish, and particularly the

omega 3 fatty acids found in pelagic fishes, are heart-friendly and can make improvements in brain

development and reproduction. This has highlighted the role for fish in the functionality of the human

body.[7]

Health hazards

Fish is the most common food to obstruct the airway and cause choking. Choking on fish was responsible

for about reported 4,500 accidents in the UK in 1998.[8]

Allergens

A seafood allergy is a hypersensitivity to an allergen which can be present in fish, particularly in shellfish.

This can result in an overreaction of the immune system and lead to severe physical symptoms.[9] Most

people who have a food allergy also have a seafood allergy.[10] Allergic reactions can result from ingesting


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Specially prepared dish of the

poisonous blowfish fugu, Japan

seafood, or by breathing in vapours from preparing or cooking seafood.[11] The most severe seafood

allergy reaction is anaphylaxis, an emergency requiring immediate attention. It is treated with

epinephrine.[12]

Biotoxins

Some species of fish, notably the puffer fugu used for sushi, and

some kinds of shellfish, can result in serious poisoning if notprepared properly. These fish always contain these poisons as a

defense against predators; it is not present due to environmental

circumstances. Particularly, fugu has a lethal dose of tetrodotoxin

in its internal organs and must be prepared by a licensed fugu chef

who has passed the national examination in Japan. Ciguatera

poisoning can occur from eating larger fish from warm tropical

waters, such as sea bass, grouper, and red snapper.[13] Scombroid

poisoning can result from eating large oily fish which have sat

around for too long before being refrigerated or frozen. This includes scombroids such as tuna and

mackerel, but can also include non-scombroids such as mahi-mahi and amberjack.[13] The poison is

odourless and tasteless.[14]

A lot of fish eat algae and other organisms that contain biotoxins (defensive substances against predators).

Biotoxins accumulated in fish/shellfish include brevetoxins, okadaic acid, saxitoxins, ciguatoxin and

domoic acid. Except for ciguatoxine, high levels of these toxins are only found in shellfish. Both domoic

acid and ciguatoxine can be deadly to humans; the others will only cause diarrhea, dizzyness and a

(temporary) feeling of claustrophobia.[15][16]

Shellfish are filter feeders and, therefore, accumulate toxins produced by microscopic algae, such asdinoflagellates and diatoms, and cyanobacteria. There are four syndromes called shellfish poisoning which

can result in humans, sea mammals, and birds from the ingestion of toxic shellfish. These are primarily

associated with bivalve molluscs, such as mussels, clams, oysters and scallops.[17] Fish, like anchovies can

also concentrate toxins such as domoic acid.[18] If suspected, medical attention should be sought.

fish and shellfish poisoning

poisoning

typesymptoms duration toxin antidote sources

fish

Ciguatera

Nausea, vomiting anddiarrhea, usually followedby headaches, muscle

aches, paresthesia,numbness, ataxia, vertigo,and hallucinations.

weeks to

years

ciguatoxin andsimilar:maitotoxin,scaritoxin and

palytoxin

none

known[19][14]

Scombroidfood

poisoning

Skin flushing, throbbingheadache, oral burning,

abdominal cramps,nausea, diarrhea,

palpitations, sense ofunease, and, rarely,

collapse or loss of vision.Symptoms occur usually

usually fourto six hours

histamine,possibly others

Oral anti-histamines

[19][20]


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within 1030 minutes of

ingesting spoiled fish.

Haff disease

Rhabdomyolysis, that is, a

swelling and breakdownof skeletal muscle (with arisk of acute kidney

failure) within 24 hours

after consuming fish

a toxic cause issuspected buthas not been

proven

noneknown

[21]

Ichthyo-

allyeinotoxism

Vivid auditory and visualhallucinations similar insome aspects to LSD.

can last for

several days[22]

shellfish

AmnesicPermanent short-termmemory loss and braindamage

fatal insevere cases

domoic acid,which acts as aneurotoxin

noneknown

[19]

Diarrheal

diarrhea and possibly

nausea, vomiting andcramps.

symptoms

usually setin withinhalf an hourand last

about a day

okadaic acid,which inhibits

intestinal cellularde-phosphorylation.

[23]

Neurotoxic

Vomiting and nausea and

a variety of neurologicalsymptoms such as slurredspeech. Not fatal though itmay require

hospitalization.

Brevetoxins or

brevetoxinanalogs

[24][25]

Paralytic

Includes nausea,vomiting, diarrhea,

abdominal pain, andtingling or burningsensations. Other

symptoms also possible.

occasionallyfatal

principal toxinsaxitoxin

[26]

The toxins responsible for most shellfish and fish poisonings, including ciguatera and scombroid

poisoning, are heat-resistant to the point where conventional cooking methods do not eliminate them.[14]

Mercury and other toxic metals

Main article: Mercury in fish

Fish products have been shown to contain varying amounts of heavy or toxic metals. Toxicity is a function

of solubility, and insoluble compounds often exhibit negligible toxicity. Organometallic forms such as

dimethyl mercury and tetraethyl lead can be extremely toxic.


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mercury/omega-3 levels[27]

omega-3 low mercury< 0.04 ppm

medium mercury0.040.40 ppm

high mercury> 0.40 ppm

high> 1.0%

salmonsardine

Atlantic mackerelflatfishhalibut

herring

Spanish mackerelswordfishtilefish

medium0.41.0%

pollock hoki

tuna

king mackerel

shark

low< 0.4%

catfish

shrimp

cod

snappertuna canned light

grouper

orange roughy

mercury/omega-3 levels in commercial fish and shellfish

species

mercury[28]

(meanppm)

omega-

3[29][30]

(meanpercent)

habitat notes trophiclevel[31] max age(years)[31]

Tilefish 1.450 1.06 pelagic 3.6 35

Swordfish 0.995 1.14 pelagic 4.5 15

Shark 0.979 0.98 pelagic

King mackerel 0.730 0.42 pelagic 4.5 14

Orange roughy 0.571 0.033 demersal 4.3 149

Marlin 0.485 * pelagic 4.5Mackerel(Spanish)

0.454 1.65 pelagic 4.5 5

Grouper 0.448 0.27 demersal 4.2

Tuna 0.391 0.77 pelagicAll species,fresh/frozen

Patagoniantoothfish

0.354 demersal 4.0 50+[32]

Halibut 0.241 1.01 demersal 4.3

Snapper 0.166 0.26 demersal

Bass 0.152 demersal 3.9

Perch 0.150 freshwater 4.0

Tuna 0.128 0.24 pelagicAll species,canned, light

Perch (ocean) 0.121 * demersal

Cod 0.111 0.23 demersal 3.9 22

Carp 0.110 freshwaterLobster

(American)0.107 demersal

Lobster (spiny) 0.093 demersal


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Whitefish 0.089 demersal

Herring 0.084 1.94 pelagic 3.2 21

Trout 0.071 freshwater

Crab 0.065 demersalBlue, king andsnow crab

Hoki (bluegrenadier)

0.058 0.48 demersal 3.5

Flatfish 0.056 * 0.56 demersalFlounder, plaiceand sole

Haddock 0.055 demersal Atlantic

Atlanticmackerel

0.050 1.64 pelagic

Mullet 0.050 pelagic

Pollock 0.031 0.53 demersal

Catfish 0.025 0.31 demersal 3.9 24

Squid 0.023 pelagic

Salmon 0.022 * 1.76 pelagic Fresh/frozen

Anchovies 0.017 pelagic 3.1

Sardine 0.013 1.94 pelagic 2.7

Tilapia * 0.013 freshwater

Oyster 0.012 demersal

Clam * 0.009 demersal

Salmon 0.008 * pelagic Canned

Scallop 0.003 demersal

Shrimp 0.001 * 0.12 demersal 6.5[33]

Greenshell

mussel0.35 demersal

Sydney rock

oyster1.11 demersal

* indicates methylmercury only was analyzed (all other results are for total mercury)

According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the risk from mercury by eating fish and

shellfish is not a health concern for most people.[34] However, certain seafood contains sufficient mercury

to harm an unborn baby or young child's developing nervous system. The FDA makes three

recommendations for child-bearing women and young children:

1. Do not eat shark, swordfish, king mackerel, or tilefish because they contain high levels of mercury.2. Eat up to 12 ounces (2 average meals) a week of a variety of fish and shellfish that are lower in

mercury. Four of the most commonly eaten fish that are low in mercury are canned light tuna,salmon, pollock, and catfish. Another commonly eaten fish, albacore ("white tuna") has moremercury than canned light tuna. So, when choosing your two meals of fish and shellfish, you mayeat up to 6 ounces (one average meal) of albacore tuna per week.

3. Check local advisories about the safety of fish caught by family and friends in your local lakes,


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Differential symptoms of parasite

infections by raw fish. All have

gastrointestinal, but otherwise

distinct, symptoms.[40][41][42][43]

rivers, and coastal areas. If no advice is available, eat up to 6 ounces (one average meal) per week of

fish you catch from local waters, but don't consume any other fish during that week.

These recommendations are also advised when feeding fish and shellfish to young children, but in smaller

portions.[34]

Persistent organic pollutants

See also: Marine pollution#Toxins

If fish and shellfish inhabit polluted waters, they can accumulate other toxic chemicals, particularly fat-

soluble pollutants containing chlorine or bromine, dioxins or PCBs.[35] Fish that is to be eaten should be

caught in unpolluted water. Some organisations such as SeafoodWatch, RIKILT, Environmental Defense

Fund, IMARES provide information on species that do not accumulate much toxins/metals. [36][37][38][39]

Parasites

See also: Fish diseases and parasites

Parasites in fish are a natural occurrence and common. Though not

a health concern in thoroughly cooked fish, parasites are a concern

when consumers eat raw or lightly preserved fish such as sashimi,

sushi, ceviche, and gravlax. The popularity of such raw fish dishes

makes it important for consumers to be aware of this risk. Raw

fish should be frozen to an internal temperature of 20C (4F)

for at least 7 days to kill parasites. It is important to be aware that

home freezers may not be cold enough to kill parasites.[44][45]

Traditionally, fish that live all or part of their lives in fresh water

were considered unsuitable for sashimi due to the possibility of

parasites (see Sashimi article). Parasitic infections from freshwater

fish are a serious problem in some parts of the world, particularly

Southeast Asia[citation needed]. Fish that spend part of their life

cycle in brackish or freshwater, like salmon are a particular problem. A study in Seattle, Washington

showed that 100% of wild salmon had roundworm larvae capable of infecting people. In the same study

farm raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae.[46]

Parasite infection by raw fish is rare in the developed world (fewer than 40[47] cases per year in the U.S.),

and involves mainly three kinds of parasites: Clonorchis sinensis (a trematode/fluke), Anisakis (a

nematode/roundworm) and Diphyllobothrium (a cestode/tapeworm).[47] Infection risk of anisakis is

particularly higher in fishes which may live in a river such as salmon (sake) in Salmonidae or mackerel

(saba). Such parasite infections can generally be avoided by boiling, burning, preserving in salt or vinegar,

or freezing overnight. In Japan it is common to eat raw salmon and ikura, but these foods are frozen

overnight prior to eating to prevent infections from parasites, particularly anisakis.

Fish and meatMeat is animal flesh that is used as food.[48] Most often, this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat,

but it may also describe other edible organs and tissues.[48] The term "meat" is used by the meat packing


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Hawaiian cuisine: Seared ahi and

wasabi beurre blanc sauce

Nutritional content of fish compared to meat

110 grams (4 oz or .25 lb)

Source calories protein carbs fat

fish110140 2025 g 0 g 15 g

chicken breast 160 28 g 0 g 7 g

lamb 250 30 g 0 g 14 g

steak (beef top round) 210 36 g 0 g 7 g

steak (beef T-bone) 450 25 g 0 g 35 g

Roast fish

industry in a more restrictive sensethe flesh of mammalian species (pigs, cattle, etc.) raised and prepared

for human consumption, to the exclusion of fish and poultry.

Vegetarians don't eat fish, and consider that fish is meat, since it is

the flesh of an animal.

However, pescetarians eat fish and other seafood, but not mammals and birds. The Merriam-Websterdictionary dates the origin of the term "pescetarian" to 1993 and defines it to mean: "one whose diet

includes fish but no meat."[49] Pescatarians may consume fish based solely upon the idea that the fish are

not factory farmed as land animals are (i.e., their problem is with the capitalist-industrial production of

meat, not with the consumption of animal foods themselves).[50] However, this is an incorrect assumption,

as fish are often raised in artificial environments, with the same types of cramped, unnatural, and often

unsanitary conditions that land animals are raised in.[51] Some eat fish with the justification that fish have

less sophisticated nervous systems than land-dwelling animals. Others may choose to consume only wild

fish based upon the lack of confinement, while choosing to not consume fish that have been farmed.

In religion

Religious rites and rituals regarding food also tend to classify the

birds of the air and the fish of the sea separately from land-bound

mammals. Sea-bound mammals are often treated as fish under

religious laws - as in Jewish dietary law, which forbids the eating

of whale, dolphin, porpoise, and orca because they are not "fish

with fins and scales"; nor, as mammals, do they chew their cud

and have cloven hooves, as required by Leviticus 11:9-12

(http://bibref.hebtools.com/?book=%20Leviticus&verse=11:9-

12&src=!) . Jewish (kosher) practice treat fish differently from

other animal foods. The distinction between fish and "meat" is

codified by the Jewish dietary law ofkashrut, regarding the

mixing of milk and meat, which does not forbid the mixing of milk

and fish. Modern Jewish legal practice (halakha) on kashrutclassifies the flesh of both mammals and birds

as "meat"; fish are considered to be parve, neither meat nor a dairy food. (The preceding portion refers

only to the halakha of Ashkenazi Jews Sephardic Jews do not mix fish with dairy)

Seasonal religious prohibitions against eating meat do not usually include fish. For example, non-fish meat

was forbidden during Lent and on all Fridays of the year in pre-Vatican II Roman Catholicism, but fish

was permitted (as were eggs). (See Fasting in Catholicism.) In Eastern Orthodoxy, fish is permitted on

some fast days when other meat is forbidden, but stricter fast days also prohibit fish with spines, while

permitting invertebrate seafood such as shrimp and oysters, considering them "fish without


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blood."[citation needed]

Some Buddhists and Hindus (Brahmins of West Bengal, Orissa and Saraswat Brahmins of the Konkan)

abjure meat that is not fish. Muslim (halaal) practice also treats fish differently from other animal foods, as

it can be eaten.

Taboos on eating fish

See also: Taboo food and drink#Fish

Among the Somali people, most clans have a taboo against the consumption of fish, and do not intermarry

with the few occupational clans that do eat it.[52][53]

There are taboos on eating fish among many upland pastoralists and agriculturalists (and even some coastal

peoples) inhabiting parts of southeastern Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Kenya, and northern Tanzania.

This is sometimes referred to as the "Cushitic fish-taboo", as Cushitic speakers are believed to have been

responsible for the introduction of fish avoidance to East Africa, though not all Cushitic groups avoid fish.

The zone of the fish taboo roughly coincides with the area where Cushitic languages are spoken, and as a

general rule, speakers of Nilo-Saharan and Semitic languages do not have this taboo, and indeed many are

watermen.[53][54] The few Bantu and Nilotic groups in East Africa that do practice fish avoidance also

reside in areas where Cushites appear to have lived in earlier times. Within East Africa, the fish taboo is

found no further than Tanzania. This is attributed to the local presence of the tsetse fly and in areas

beyond, which likely acted as a barrier to further southern migrations by wandering pastoralists, the

principal fish-avoiders. Zambia and Mozambique's Bantus were therefore spared subjugation by pastoral

groups, and they consequently nearly all consume fish.[53]

There is also another center of fish avoidance in Southern Africa, among mainly Bantu speakers. It is notclear whether this disinclination developed independently or whether it was introduced. It is certain,

however, that no avoidance of fish occurs among southern Africa's earliest inhabitants, the Khoisan.

Nevertheless, since the Bantu of southern Africa also share various cultural traits with the pastoralists

further north in East Africa, it is believed that, at an unknown date, the taboo against the consumption of

fish was similarly introduced from East Africa by cattle-herding peoples who somehow managed to get

their livestock past the aforementioned tsetse fly endemic regions.[53]

Certain species of fish are also forbidden in Judaism such as the freshwater eel (Anguillidae) and all

species of catfish. Although they live in water, they appear to have no fins or scales (except under a

microscope) (see Leviticus 11:10-13[55]). Sunni Muslim laws are more flexible in this and catfish andshark are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish. Eel is generally considered permissible in

the four Sunni madh'hab, but the Ja'fari jurisprudence followed by most Shia Muslims forbids it.[56][57][58]

Many tribes of the Southwestern United States, including the Navaho, Apache, and Zui, have a taboo

against fish and other water-related animals, including waterfowl.[59]

Preparation

Fish can be prepared in a variety of ways. It can be uncooked (raw) (cf. sashimi). It can be cured bymarinating (cf. escabeche), pickling (cf. pickled herring), or smoking (cf. smoked salmon). Or it can be

cooked by baking, frying (cf. fish and chips), grilling, poaching (cf. court-bouillon), or steaming. Many of

the preservation techniques used in different cultures have since become unnecessary but are still


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performed for their resulting taste and texture when consumed.

Dishes

BokkomsBouillabaisse

BourdetoCevicheCioppinoCrab stick

Crappit heidCroquetteCurantoFish and chips

Fish ballFish slice

FishcakeFish chowder

FishstickGefilte fishKamaboko

KipperLoxPaellaPoke (Hawaii)

Pompano en PapilloteQuenelles LyonnaisesRakfisk

RemouladeRissoleSashimiSeafood birdsnest

Smoked salmonSoused herringStargazy pieSurimi

Surstrmming

SushiTuna fish sandwich

See also

AnisakisBoneless fishBoning knife

Fish headFish processingFish productsFishmonger


12/15

Got Mercury?

IchthyoallyeinotoxismKudoa thyrsitesOily fish

Oroshi hochoPescetarianismPhosphatidylserineSeafood Watch

Notes

1. ^cf. culinary names

2. ^ FishBase: June 2012 update. (http://www.fishbase.org/search.php) Retrieved 18 June 2012.

3. ^ Peterson, James and editors of Seafood Business (2009) Seafood Handbook: The Comprehensive Guide to

Sourcing, Buying and Preparation (http://books.google.co.nz/books?id=s-r5bx-

SG6kC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22seafood%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Xhe3T9qsK4P4mAX0r8GoCQ&ved=0

CGsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=%22seafood%22&f=false) John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470404164.4. ^ United States Department of Agriculture (September 2011). "Nutrient data for 15067, Fish, pollock, walleye,

cooked, dry heat" (http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/4510) . USDA National Nutrient Database for

Standard Reference, Release 24. http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/4510. Retrieved 22 July 2012.

5. ^ United States Department of Agriculture (September 2011). "Nutrient data for 15040, Fish, herring,

Atlantic, cooked, dry heat" (http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/4483) . USDA National Nutrient Database

for Standard Reference, Release 24. http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/4483. Retrieved 22 July 2012.

6. ^ Fellows P and Hampton A (Eds.) (1992) Fish and fish products

(http://www.fao.org/Wairdocs/X5434E/x5434e0f.htm#11.%20fish%20and%20fish%20products) Chapter 11

in: Small-scale food processing - A guide for appropriate equipmentIntermediate Technology Publications,

FAO, Rome. ISBN 1 85339 108 5.

7. ^ "Nutritional Aspects of Fish (http://www.bim.ie/templates/text_content.asp?node_id=742) ." Irish SeaFisheries Board

8. ^ "Accident Statistics : 1998 - Home and leisure accident report Summary of 1998 data p.16 Department of

Trade and Industry (UK)" (http://www.hassandlass.org.uk/query/reports/1998.pdf) (PDF).

http://www.hassandlass.org.uk/query/reports/1998.pdf. Retrieved 2011-10-29.

9. ^ National Institutes of Health, NIAID Allergy Statistics 2005

http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/allergystat.htm

10. ^ Allergy Facts and Figures, Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America http://www.aafa.org/display.cfm?

id=9&sub=20&cont=518

11. ^ "Seafood* (Fish, Crustaceans and Shellfish) - One of the nine most common food allergens"

(http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/labeti/allerg/fispoie.shtml) . Canadian Food Inspection Agency. 2009-

06-12. http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/labeti/allerg/fispoie.shtml. Retrieved 2009-06-21.

12. ^ National Report of the Expert Panel on Food Allergy Research, NIH-NIAID 2003

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/about/organization/dait/PDF/june30_2003.pdf

13. ^ ab Poisoning - fish and shellfish (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002851.htm) US

National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 21 July 2012.

14. ^ abc Swift A, Swift T (1993). "Ciguatera". J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol.31 (1): 129.

doi:10.3109/15563659309000371 (http://dx.doi.org/10.3109%2F15563659309000371) . PMID 8433404

(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8433404) .

15. ^ EOS magazine, JulyAugust 2010

16. ^ Natuurlijke toxinen in voedingsmiddelen (http://www.chemischefeitelijkheden.nl/Uploads/.../CF-186-

fycotoxinen.pdf)

17. ^ Silver, Mary Wilcox (2006), "Protecting Ourselves from Shellfish Poisoning", American Scientist94 (4):

pp.316325

18. ^ Domoic Acid Poisoning (http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/hab/habs_toxins/marine_biotoxins/da/index.html)

Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA. Retrieved 16 July 2012.

19. ^ abc Clark RF Williams SR Nordt SP Mano uerra AS 1999 . "A review of selected seafood oisonin s"


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(http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2314) . Undersea Hyperb Med26 (3): 17584. PMID 10485519

(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10485519) . http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2314. Retrieved 2008-08-

12.

20. ^ Guss DA (1998). "Scombroid fish poisoning: successful treatment with cimetidine" (http://archive.rubicon-

foundation.org/2294) . Undersea Hyperb Med25 (2): 1235. PMID 9670438


12.

21. ^ Buchholz U, Mouzin E, Dickey R, Moolenaar R, Sass N, Mascola L (2000). "Haff disease: from the Baltic

Sea to the U.S. shore" (http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol6no2/buchholtz.htm) . Emerging Infectious Diseases6 (2): 1925. doi:10.3201/eid0602.000215 (http://dx.doi.org/10.3201%2Feid0602.000215) . PMC 2640861

(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2640861) . PMID 10756156

(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10756156) . http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol6no2/buchholtz.htm.

22. ^ de Haro, L.; Pommier, P. (2006). "Hallucinatory fish poisoning (ichthyoallyeinotoxism): two case reports

from the Western Mediterranean and literature review.". Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia)44 (2): 1858.

PMID 16615678 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16615678) .

23. ^ Dawson, JF; Holmes CF (Oct 1999). "Molecular mechanisms underlying inhibition of protein phosphatases

by marine toxins.". Front Biosc4: D646-58.. PMID 10502549 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10502549) .

24. ^ Watkins, S. M.; Reich, A.; Fleming, L. E.; Hammond, R. (2008). "Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning"

(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2579735/pdf/md-06-00431.pdf) (PDF). Marine Drugs6 (3):

431455. doi:10.3390/md20080021 (http://dx.doi.org/10.3390%2Fmd20080021) . PMC 2579735(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2579735) . PMID 19005578

(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19005578) .

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2579735/pdf/md-06-00431.pdf.

25. ^ Landsberg, J. H. (2002). "The Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms on Aquatic Organisms". Reviews in

Fisheries Science10 (2): 113390. doi:10.1080/20026491051695

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F20026491051695) .

26. ^ Clark RF, Williams SR, Nordt SP, Manoguerra AS (1999). "A review of selected seafood poisonings"

(http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2314) . Undersea Hyperb Med26 (3): 17584. PMID 10485519


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27. ^ Smith KL and Guentzel JL (2010) "Mercury concentrations and omega-3 fatty acids in fish and shrimp:Preferential consumption for maximum health benefits"

(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X10002882) Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60 (9):

16151618. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.06.045,

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.marpolbul.2010.06.045%2C)

28. ^ The mercury levels in the table, unless otherwise indicated, are taken from: Mercury Levels in Commercial

Fish and Shellfish (1990-2010) (http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/Product-

SpecificInformation/Seafood/FoodbornePathogensContaminants/Methylmercury/ucm115644.htm) U.S. Food

and Drug Administration. Accessed 8 January 2012.

29. ^ "Fish, Levels of Mercury and Omega-3 Fatty Acids" (http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?

identifier=3013797) . American Heart Association. http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?

identifier=3013797. Retrieved October 6, 2010.30. ^ Kris-Etherton, Penny M.; William S. Harris, Lawrence J. Appel (2002). "Fish Consumption, Fish Oil,

Omega-3 Fatty Acids, and Cardiovascular Disease" (http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/106/21/2747) .

Circulation106 (21): 27472757. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000038493.65177.94

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1161%2F01.CIR.0000038493.65177.94) . PMID 12438303

(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12438303) . http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/106/21/2747.

31. ^ ab Trophic levels and maximum ages are, unless otherwise indicated, taken from the relevant species pages

on Rainer Froese and Daniel Pauly (Eds) (2012) FishBase (http://www.fishbase.org/home.htm) January 2012

version. Where a group has more than one species, the average of the principal commercial species is used

32. ^ Collins MA, Brickle P, Brown J and Belchier M (2010) "The Patagonian toothfish: biology, ecology and

fishery" (http://books.google.co.nz/books?hl=en&lr=&id=iwF-

jNVj41gC&oi=fnd&pg=PA227&dq=%22The+Patagonian+toothfish:+biology,+ecology+and+fishery%22&ots

=yEvLpNfQp_&sig=LM2X3DH49C6PVkTmwjpVlob_uKk#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Patagonian%20toothf

ish%3A%20biology%2C%20ecology%20and%20fishery%22&f=false) In: M Lesser (Ed.) Advances in Marine

Biology, Volume 58, pp. 229289, Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-381015-1.

33. ^ "A bouillabaisse of fascinating facts about fish" (http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/faq/) . NOAA: National Marine


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Fisheries Service. http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/faq/. Retrieved October 22, 2009.

34. ^ ab "What You Need to Know About Mercury in Fish and Shellfish"

(http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/admehg3.html) . Cfsan.fda.gov. 2009-09-17.

http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/admehg3.html. Retrieved 2011-10-29.

35. ^ PCBs in Fish and Shellfish (http://www.edf.org/page.cfm?tagID=15904) Retrieved 22 March 2010.

36. ^ "RIKILT" (http://www.rikilt.wur.nl/UK/) . RIKILT. http://www.rikilt.wur.nl/UK/. Retrieved 2011-10-29.

37. ^ "EDF Health Alerts about fish" (http://www.edf.org/page.cfm?tagID=1540) . Edf.org.

http://www.edf.org/page.cfm?tagID=1540. Retrieved 2011-10-29.

38. ^ "IMARES" (http://www.imares.wur.nl/uk) . IMARES. http://www.imares.wur.nl/uk. Retrieved 2011-10-29.39. ^ "SeaFoodWatch" (http://www.montereybayaquarium.org/cr/seafoodwatch.aspx) . Montereybayaquarium.org.

http://www.montereybayaquarium.org/cr/seafoodwatch.aspx. Retrieved 2011-10-29.

40. ^ For Chlonorchiasis: Public Health Agency of Canada > Clonorchis sinensis - Material Safety Data Sheets

(MSDS) (http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/msds-ftss/msds34e-eng.php) Retrieved on April 14, 2009

41. ^ For Anisakiasis: WrongDiagnosis: Symptoms of Anisakiasis

(http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/a/anisakiasis/symptoms.htm) Retrieved on April 14, 2009

42. ^ For Diphyllobothrium: MedlinePlus > Diphyllobothriasis

(http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001375.htm#Symptoms) Updated by: Arnold L. Lentnek,

MD. Retrieved on April 14, 2009

43. ^ For symptoms of diphyllobothrium due to vitamin B12-deficiency University of Maryland Medical Center >

Megaloblastic (Pernicious) Anemia (http://www.umm.edu/blood/aneper.htm) Retrieved on April 14, 200944. ^ "''Parasites in Marine Fishes'' University of California Food Science & Technology Department Sea Grant

Extension Program" (http://seafood.ucdavis.edu/Pubs/parasite.htm) . Seafood.ucdavis.edu. 1990-08-07.

http://seafood.ucdavis.edu/Pubs/parasite.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-29.

45. ^ Vaughn M. Sushi and Sashimi Safety (http://seafooduniversity.com/?p=16)

46. ^ Deardorff, TL; ML Kent (1989-07-01). "Prevalence of larval Anisakis simplex in pen-reared and wild-

caught salmon (Salmonidae) from Puget Sound, Washington"

(http://www.jwildlifedis.org/cgi/content/abstract/25/3/416) (abstract). Journal of Wildlife Diseases25 (3): 416

419. PMID 2761015 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2761015) .

http://www.jwildlifedis.org/cgi/content/abstract/25/3/416. Retrieved 2008-03-03.

47. ^ ab WaiSays: About Consuming Raw Fish (http://www.13.waisays.com/fish.htm) Retrieved on April 14,

200948. ^ ab Lawrie, 1.

49. ^ Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009. "pescatarian." [Online] Merriam Webster, Inc. Available at

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pescatarian [Accessed 17 July 2009]

50. ^ VegDining.com

51. ^ "Factory Farming" (http://www.farmsanctuary.org/issues/factoryfarming/fish/) . Farm Sanctuary.

http://www.farmsanctuary.org/issues/factoryfarming/fish/. Retrieved 2011-10-29.

52. ^ Frederick J. Simoons,Northwest Ethiopia: peoples and economy?, (University of Wisconsin Press: 1960),

p.158

53. ^ abcd Frederick J. Simoons,Eat not this flesh: food avoidances from prehistory to the present, 1994, p. 261-

265, ISBN 0-299-14254-X Google Books (http://books.google.com/books?id=JwGZTQunH00C&pg=PA262)

54. ^ J. E. G. Sutton, "The Aquatic Civilization of Middle Africa" The Journal of African History15:4 (1974), p.

542. at JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/180989) (subscription required)

55. ^ Leviticus 11:10-13 (http://bibref.hebtools.com/?book=%20Leviticus&verse=11:10-13&src=HE)

56. ^ "Sea Food in the Four Madhahib" (http://www.albalagh.net/qa/sea_food_madhahib.shtml) .

http://www.albalagh.net/qa/sea_food_madhahib.shtml. Retrieved 2007-02-16.

57. ^ "Is Catfish Halal?" (http://www.shariahprogram.ca/eat-halal-foods/catfish-halal.shtml) .

http://www.shariahprogram.ca/eat-halal-foods/catfish-halal.shtml. Retrieved 2007-02-16.

58. ^ "Is Shark Meat Halal?" (http://www.shariahprogram.ca/eat-halal-foods/shark-meat-halal.shtml) .

http://www.shariahprogram.ca/eat-halal-foods/shark-meat-halal.shtml. Retrieved 2007-02-16.

59. ^ Washington Matthews, "Ichthyophobia" The Journal of American Folklore11:41 (AprilJune, 1898), pp.

105-112 at JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/533215) (subscription required)

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Aquamedia, "Consumption of Fishery Products" retrieved from

http://www.feap.info/economics/Tradebalance_en.asp on 2007-09-17.Paston-Williams, Sara (2006) Fish: Recipes from a Busy Island(http://books.google.co.nz/books?id=aJoDxN4T-eEC&pg=PA132&dq=%22Arbroath+smokie%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dCHRT8_4E-

nQmAWS0tmaDw&ved=0CE8Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=%22Arbroath%20smokie%22&f=false) National Trust Books. ISBN 9781905400072.Sweetser, Wendy (2009) The Connoisseur's Guide to Fish & Seafood(http://books.google.co.nz/books?

id=eHrvJQGiObEC&pg=PA194&dq=%22Arbroath+smokie%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dCHRT8_4E-nQmAWS0tmaDw&ved=0CIoBEOgBMA4#v=onepage&q=%22Arbroath%20smokie%22&f=false) Sterling Publishing Company,. ISBN 9781402770517.

Tidwell, James H. and Allan, Geoff L., "Fish as food: aquacultures contribution Ecological andeconomic impacts and contributions of fish farming and capture fisheries", 2001-11-15, retrievedfrom http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1084135 on 2007-09-17.University of Michigan Health System, "Fish & Seafood" retrieved from

http://www.med.umich.edu/umim/clinical/pyramid/fish.htm on 2007-09-17.VegDining.com, "Frequently Asked Questions-Definitions" retrieved fromhttp://www.ivu.org/faq/definitions.html on 2007-09-17.

The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000, 2000, retrieved fromhttp://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/3_foodconsumption/en/index5.html on 2007-11-17. WorldHealth Organization.

External links

The dictionary definition of meat at WiktionaryScience Daily (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/10/061018094758.htm) Benefits Of

Eating Fish Greatly Outweigh The Risks, New Study SaysScience Daily (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/02/030210080251.htm) Experts SayConsumers Can Eat Around Toxins In FishScientific American (http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?

chanID=sa003&articleID=4CD31D31E16AC873F5F421D5880E88D6) Soy and fish protect fromcancer: study.Seafood Recipes (http://www.gourmetrecipe.com/recipes/ingredients/seafood-recipes) fromGourmet Recipe.

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