Evaluating E-government adoption and usage in South Africa

by Andrea Andiloro & Haza Newman

MCS/Global Perspectives on Social Change and Digital Media

Cecilia Strand

Uppsala University

Uppsala, Sweden

16 Mar 2016

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Introduction ICTs are considered a very important tool, which can assist with the transforma-tion and reformation of developing countries. One use of ICTs that has seen various ap-plications in western countries is e-government. We believe that speaking about e-gov-ernment in developing countries is very important, given the vast literature on the topic. This highlights the undeniably positive aspects of these particular applications of ICTs, while failing to grasp its shortcomings and limits, and not noticing that a simple “copy-and-paste” local implementation of successful e-government projects (in the western countries), does not necessarily correspond to successes in less developed countries (Muambe, et al., 2008). According to the Gartner group, “more than 60 percent of all e-government initiatives either fail or fall short of expected outcomes”, which means that e-government implementers should not put blind faith into this ICT, without analysing what also causes its failures.

E-government can be broadly defined as the use of ICTs to promote a more effi-cient and effective government, to facilitate access to services offered by this same gov-ernment, allowing in this way a greater public access to information, while at the same time enhancing transparency and government accountability to citizens (Mutula, Mostert, 2010). Baqir and Iyer (2010), tell us of the many advantages that come with the adoption of e-government, among others reducing costs, enhancing transparency, increasing convenience. The only direct reference to “people” is a very general outlook, which as-sumes that e-government empowers citizens.

With this in mind we must ask ourselves: “has the adoption of e-government projects at a national level empowered citizens and in which ways?” With this research question we decided to focus our efforts on whether an answer could be found within the scope of South Africa. We chose this particular country because of its considerable ef-forts in promoting ICT usage globally, ICT skills towards its citizens, and its considerable investments in ICT infrastructures (i.e. optical fibre network). Before the 2010 FIFA World Cup (the first one to be hosted by an African country), authorities deemed neces-sary to reinforce the country’s ICTs infrastructure, stimulating and encouraging further ICT adoption in the country (Bualya, Mutula, 2014).

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Research designWe gathered literature using the Uppsala University library portal, which was very

useful in finding both physical and digital copies, as well as other researches online, mostly Google Scholar, JSTOR, and the University of Bologna (Italy) library portal. By making general combined searches for terms such as “ICTs”, “e-government”, “South Africa”, “development”, “poverty”, we selected a number of articles, some of which were finally discarded after reading the abstract and not finding it useful or correspondent to what our research question was.

We opted to limit our research chronologically to texts, articles and publications that were within the timeframe of 1994 until present day. The reason for this is that it was in that year that the Batho Pele (People’s First), the particular South Africa’s constitu-tionally mandated public service delivery philosophy, was developed (although it was in 1995 that the philosophy was formalised with the publication of the White Paper on Transformation of Public Service, followed in 1997 by the White Paper on Transforming Public Service Delivery, or Batho Pele White Paper, specifically aimed at integrated and seamless public service delivery, with references to ICTs, which is our particular interest right now) (Visser, Twinomurinzi, 2009).

In the body section we included an overview of several definitions of e-govern-ment (with particular emphasis to its relation within developing countries), in order to have a clear idea of what we are dealing with, the main arguments in favour or against it, and the most recent developments. We then proceeded to give a definition of empow-erment and analyse how this is related to ICTs. Finally, we also give some examples of e-government projects in South Africa, while trying to understand if and how they could contribute to the empowerment of citizens.

Definition of key terms Like most innovative theories and ideas, E-government is constantly changing

and in constant battle between intellectuals and proponents, which all seem to have their own outlooks and definitions of the topic itself. According to the 2014 “United Na-tions e-government survey”, e-government is defined as “the use of ICT and its applica-tion by the government for the provision of information and public service to the people”, which is quite a vague definition. Another general and vague definition is the one given us by the OECD (another international organisation), which defines e-government as

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“the use of information and communication technologies, and particularly the internet, as a tool to achieve better government” (OECD, 2003).

The World Bank gave this somewhat more detailed definition of e-government which can be found on its website (2015):

“‘E-Government’ refers to the use by government agencies of information tech-nologies (such as Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and mobile computing) that have the ability to transform relations with citizens, businesses, and other arms of government. These technologies can serve a variety of different ends: better de-livery of government services to citizens, improved interactions with business and industry, citizen empowerment through access to information, or more efficient government management. The resulting benefits can be less corruption, in-creased transparency, greater convenience, revenue growth, and/or cost reduc-tions.”

By reading the definition it appears clear that when speaking of e-government, we are not merely dealing with computerisation of government systems and services, but with a belief in technology and its capacity to improve various levels of those same govern-ments, achieving therefore a transformation of the nature of politics and the relations be-tween governments and citizens (Dada, 2006).

Thakur and Singh (2012), tells us that defining e-government is in fact problemat-ic, given the broad spectrum of activities which are its prerogatives, and they agree with the definition given by Grant and Chau (2005), who describe e-government as “a broad based transformation initiative, enabled by leveraging the capabilities of information and communication technologies; to develop and deliver high quality seamless and integrat-ed public service. Baqir and Iyer (2010), recognises that comprehensively describing e-government in one statement would be impossible, although adding that a general un-derstanding is that e-government refers to the use of information and communication technologies, web-based applications in particular, aimed at providing faster, cheaper, easier, more efficient access, and offering information to the public, business or other governmental entities/public services/NGO. While some of these definitions are quite vague we find that common themes around the usage of ICTs, especially through means of Internet, are used to adopt new ways to link and manage government with participa-

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tion of local citizens. However, the success of such programs requires all partners to be linked as equals in a network, which is not always possible due to poverty and infrastruc-tural challenges (Palvia, Sharma, 2007).

A Participatory approach is required in order for any program that involves com-munities, ICTs related, or not, to succeed. This approach requires, according to Freire, “basic-education teachers… to present the general program of [an] educational cam-paign. The people will find themselves in [these] program[s]; [and] it will not seem strange to them, since [the idea to be a part of it] originated with them.”

This means that a certain initiative is required on behalf of the group or person that is to be taught. Freire believes that a theme that must be considered as central and indispensable is “the anthropological concept of culture” (Freire, 2001). The approach considers that it is of no matter whether men or women are poor peasants, or city work-ers. The process of learning (reading, etc), is a part of their quest to learn and under-stand the world. This curiosity is an instrument, which shows awareness of reality and leads to the development and acquiring of further freedoms and abilities (Freire, 2001).

In order for ICTs to be a success, this Participatory development approach must be utilised in order to create engagement and ultimately give community members more autonomy and freedom.

“Freedom…require[s] [citizens] to eject this image [of oppression or non-access to capabilities] and replace it with autonomy and responsibility. Freedom is acquired by conquest, not by gift. It must be pursued constantly and responsibly. Freedom is not an ideal located outside of man; nor is it an idea which becomes myth. It is rather the indispensable condition for the quest for human completion” (Freire, 2001).

This leads us to the next concept, which can be a result of participation and creat-ing freedoms for the individual and the individuals within that society.

The discourse of development and empowerment is often linked to the Capability approach. Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum are the two main scholars leading the discussion regarding the capability approach. Part of Sen’s main arguments regarding the capability approach is that economics are not the only important aspects of devel-opment. As the approach’s name suggests, capabilities are seen as equally important to

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economical development (Sen, 2002). This is because the acquiring of capabilities al-lows free individuals to exert agency and live a better quality of life in the long term, through freedom of choice. This outlook allows for the acquiring and expansion of free-doms at different phases of life (Sen, 1999a). According to Sen, development must fo-cus more on enhancing our lives by expanding these freedoms. This makes us fuller, better social persons that will be more likely to become involved within one’s society (Sen, 1999b).That entails exercising one’s own volitions, as well as speaking out and interacting with others to influence the world that we live within (Sen, 2002).

Nussbaum’s take on the capability theory focuses more on justice, and is based on maintaining the dignity of human beings. She has created a list of capabilities that are central to human beings, which include being able to live life and not dying prema-turely, having access to good health (reproductive and nourishment, shelter), and the ability to move freely without being subjected to violences. According to Nussbaum, part of being human means using the senses to reason and think. In order to obtain such a state, one requires basic training in subjects such as science and mathematics. That ability to reason leads us to affiliation with other humans, which simply means that hu-mans have the right to engage, live and socialise with others based on self-respect and nondiscrimination towards all. These types of capabilities lead to one’s control over their own life and environment (Nussbaum, 2001).

Thus development through this approach can be an amalgamation of agency, meeting empowerment and creating freedoms that be used to to effect change. Empow-erment is about agents controlling their destinies. This empowerment naturally comes with preconditions that can be limited by access to resources or an institutions ability to ensure distribution of resources (Uphoff, 2005).

The role of ICTs in empowermentSen claims that ICTs technologies can play a role in creating a status of empow-

erment. This is because the technologies can help a person expand their freedom. Even a small act such as making or receiving calls, can increase freedom at an individual lev-el, but at the same take it adds to the freedom of others. However, income, that is mone-tary resources, is a major influence on developmental policies. It influences its evalua-tion as well. Thus ICTs technologies, and their implementation must be evaluated in

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terms of ultimate goals for a society, community or nation. The ICTs are a “mere means, not ends in themselves” (Ossterlaken, 2015).

Successes and failure of e-Government projects at a national level in South AfricaE-government projects in South Africa have seen mixed results. One project that

was indeed successful is the Batho Pele National Gateway Portal, which was launched in 2004. The portal works as a one-stop service centre, where citizens can gather infor-mation on a wide range of government services such as visa applications, birth certifi-cates, marriage certificates, death certificates, temporary and permanent residence permits, application for registration as voter, and unemployment insurance fund registra-tion. Citizens can also gather information on access to government department web-sites, various acts, bills and draft bills, and government speeches (Naido, 2011).

Another reported success the National Traffic Information System (eNaTis), used for the application of driving licences and the registration of licensing of motor vehicles and notification of change of ownership, among other things, with most transport offices around the country able to provide the transactions and services. During the first half of 2008 more than 75 million transactions were performed on eNaTis, with virtually non-ex-isting downtime and impressive system performances (Mutula, 2010).

This figure is very different from the one depicted by Naido (2011), who wrote about technical limitations at launch one year before, causing embarrassment to the de-partment because of the several crashes in the first days after launch. In fact, during its first months, eNaTis was either completely broken down or had very slow processing on transactions, causing long queues outside offices and angering members of the public and motor industry, and further alienating end-users. eNaTis could be useful for the De-partment of Transport, as it allows to record details of collision and their circumstances, which can be used for prevention interventions, however eNaTis is faulted for under-re-porting (Seedat et al., 2009). Mutula’s findings seem to indicate a drastic improvement in performances and quality over the first year of launch, proving the dedication of the gov-ernment towards the project. However, as of today (March 2016), the website is down and not accessible.

In 2004, the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC), in partnership with mobile phone service providers, made it possible for voters to send SMS containing their identi-ty numbers and receive a reply indicating their eligibility to vote and the voting station’s

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detail, and for the commission to register voters through a satellite-enabled network (Mu-tula, 2010).

The most successful e-government project is probably the South African Revenue Service (SARS) e-filing service, introduced in 2001, and aimed at improving operational efficiencies in order to deliver a better and quicker service. However this service is main-ly G2B focused, allowing corporate entities to submit and pay certain tax returns online, while private citizens are still limited to provisional tax returns, annual individual returns not being available yet (Naido, 2011).

One project that wasn’t as successful as hoped was the National Welfare Agency Project, which aimed at addressing problems associated with payment delays and incor-rect recordings of figures. The initial plan was to computerise 100% of the system within three years, but six year later, only 40% of the system is yet computerised. Costs weren’t cut, moving from US$43m to US$60m. The only success of the project was to reduce lead times (Mutula, 2010).

All of the successful projects managed to empower citizens (or were at least de-veloped with that goal in mind), by enhancing their capability to deal with their govern-ment at all times (through a computer or mobile phone). These new capabilities are af-forded to citizens, that may not otherwise have access due to limitations such as travel time or distance (in relation to municipalities) or money. This way of interacting saves a lot of paperwork and travel time, diminishing the time that citizens have to spend dealing with bureaucracy or simply waiting in line (Layne and Lee, 2001). Furthermore they em-power citizens by allowing them to exercise more control over their political representa-tives and service providers, giving them the tools to submit questions, comments and suggestions for future improvements. This feedback is then used by the government to adjust the content and the information provided, and customise them based on citizens’ needs and requirements (Ndou, 2004).

Challenges for ICTs in South AfricaSouth Africa suffers from large levels of poverty and inequality (15% of house-

holds in metropolitan areas and up to 50% in local municipalities). These forms of pover-ty include limited access to informational infrastructure services. This refers to the lack of access to ICTs, which facilitate electronic transactions and government online services (only about 4 per cent) (Abrahams and Newton-Reid, 2008). The Digital Divide contin-

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ues to be high in different parts of South Africa. Most people that have access to voice and data communications are in the middle to high-income classes. The majority of the population has low levels of access to ICT system, except for mobile communications based on SMS messaging, which most have access to. A community survey showed that 49% of households in Gauteng had access to a mobile phone. This was more than double those that had access tyo a normal landline phone. The statistics show that a substantial number of households has the potential to go online through mobile or fixed-line Internet. In spite of the available infrastructure, the rate of Internet usage is con-strained by the lack of affordability (Abrahams and Newton-Reid, 2008).

RIA (Research ICT Africa) showed that competitiveness rates in South Africa, or lack of, between telecommunication companies actually increased the lack of access due to much inefficiency on their behalf. They found that “privatisation of the state-owned fixed-line operator was carried out in such a way so as to maximise the return on the state asset” (Elder, et al., 2013). Unfortunately, guarantees and returns for the mar-ket share holders are affecting the development of a competitive sector, which ultimately can lower the cost for most users (Elder, et al., 2013). This requires regulation to ensure that “monopolies, duopolies and oligopolies do not negatively affect affordability of telecommunications services” (Elder, et al., 2013). The RIA believes that increased competition is needed, as well as decreasing taxes on communication services. This in-cludes removing customs or VAT on handsets (that cost below US$50). In terms of in-ternet access they suggest that municipalities work to lower costs of internet-enabled mobile devices. They also suggest that they extend and create public access points and introduce internet training at educational institutions (Elder, et al., 2013).

Poverty reduction is also a key factor in the development of ICTs in developing countries. Although global levels of poverty have declined in the previous decade many still cannot even afford daily food requirements. 1.4 billion people, in 2008, identified as being income poor. Their interest is likely not on what they can learn that day, but if they will find enough food to survive. Measuring poverty and creating a threshold for that poverty is key for developing countries to make decisions about welfare costs and eligi-bility. These types of measurements show that poverty is not only a lack of food or mon-etary income, but it can also be measured in terms of digital poverty. In other words digi-tal poverty is the lack of digital knowledge and sees connectivity, communication and in-formation through ICTs as a form of capital. In terms of a Sen perspective, these can

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also be interpreted as additional capabilities (Elder, et al., 2013). That is because these capabilities (additional freedoms) strengthen the ability of individuals to participate within an information society. Without access to communication and information systems they are unable to participate (Barja and Gigler, 2007).

Technical solutions must be developed and implemented in developing countries to address the digital divide. Attempting to come up with solutions (such as creating local wireless networks in rural communities), in order to catalyse access, immediately showed the International Development Research Centre’s ICT4D team that ending the digital divide requires a change in communication and regulatory policies. This means that policy and regulatory research must be done within the context of the location. It must also demonstrate how changes in that local policy can lead to increased access. Furthermore, the success of these ICT’s heavily relies on usability and value to the user. Therefore focusing on ease of use, such as making a user friendly interface is vital. Lastly, a local transformation via the assistance of local institutions must exert a will to battle issues such as illiteracy. Initial access to ICTs connectivity is really only the be-ginning of the process. The following challenges require that institutions ensure access to locals in order to understand the knowledge within the infrastructures (Elder, et al., 2013).

According to Isabirye, et al., “it is difficult to articulate what the rural communities need from ICT or what functions they need ICT to perform” (2015). ICTs can bring de-velopment, but not without understanding the local context. This applies for all stake-holders involved within the projects or within the communities themselves. The local community needs to involved in order to identity what keeps them from access, such as having no job or poor living conditions (Isabirye, et al., 2015).

A local level project (not at the national level) which took place in the Mbashe Municipality (a rural area in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa) called the The Siyakhula Living Labs Project, focused on creating telecom centres that would foster ICT growth and skills development and show the locals the potential of ICTs. It was also meant to show the impact ICTs could have on development in their rural location. It is the best example of what most national level projects fail to do, and that is to include the locals in the entire process. This maximises efforts and creates a sustainable process in that region.

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Most of the project activity was within Dwesa, which has a population of only 20,000. Over 30% of the population is younger than 15 years old. Despite Dwesa having much potential in terms of being a tourist rich destination, the Mbashe Municipality pre-viously stated that little development had occurred in that area. Relationships with the community and Rhodes University and the University of Fore Hare led to the ICT4D project (Isabirye, et al., 2015).

The universities each focused on developing and testing prototypes of a multi-functional communication platforms that would be suitable for use in rural areas in South Africa. These projects were carried out directly within the community and the knowledge acquired was done so through the participation of Dwesa’s community members. The SLL has grown from a single school test in 2005, to being implemented in 17 schools by 2012. Over 200 community members as well as 4500 “learners” are a part of the project today.By aligning the project with the promotion of education, development (with a rural context), and technological advancement they have been able to acquire government funds as it is identified by the institution to be of importance in terms of national devel-opment (Isabirye, et al., 2015).

Although the SLL has had some success in establishing learning centre’s, they did not get there without challenges. Some of these challenges included the original lack of community centres, electricity, computer access. Another issue that proved to be chal-lenging was communicating between Dwesa and Rhodes and Fort Hare university tech-nicians. However, that has been mitigated by taking sustainability approaches to training community members to identify issues and solve them by either fixing them directly or giving them the tools to accurately report the issues (Isabirye, et al., 2015).

GapsWe encountered some problems during this literature review. More specifically,

when analysing more in depth e-government projects implemented in South Africa, we couldn’t find much literature dealing with the evaluation of such projects. Given the com-plex nature of the implementation of e-government projects, and the multiple stakehold-ers with different value dimensions (political, economical, social), a multiple value and stakeholder perspective for evaluation of each e-government projects would be desir-able (Chircu, 2008). Furthermore, the literature that we did find is not exactly completely up to date. More research dealing with this particular matter would therefore be advis-

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able. Even though there has been at least one article dealing with e-government evalua-tion specifically in South Africa, the generalisability of its findings are debatable, and we agree with the authors when the say that one researcher cannot study e-government without considering the speed with which the technologies that enable e-government are evolving. Researcher must be aware of the most recent developments in the field, and there seems to be a gap in the literature involving the last 4-5 years (Kaisara and Pather, 2011).

Conclusion There is no one particular, one size fits all application or strategy to ensure ICTs

success. ICT access and infrastructure is key to local and national developments in to-day’s global era (World Bank, 2016). The supply of these ICTs infrastructures and skills, in most developing contexts, are unfortunately under-researched and much information and research is still left undone.

Development through ICTs can be questioned due to the high costs of creating, maintaining and developing ICT in developing areas. As well as the lack of social and local economic development, which lessens locals engagement. The lack of access to these systems require a focus on changing policy to combat the digital divide, as well as cultural factors within local institutions. These local factors must be taken into account and must be used to catalyse access to ICT systems. At the same time locals must be engaged in the usage of these systems and must exert a will to learn. Obtaining agency and freedom is a process. Which consists of agents making free decisions and educat-ing themselves through reason and critical thinking (Sen, 2002).This agency is intrinsi-cally valuable because the practice of agency can bring changes that help better all lo-cal’s lives (Sen, 1999b).

Any future attempts that use ICTs must consider the context in where they are applied, which can include cultural factors. The context directly affects the local con-sumption and use of technology, which also can affect the interaction with ICT’s imple-mentation and usage (Misuraca, 2007).

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