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Farmers' Field School Operating Guideline on Quality Seed Production

Kisankalagi Unnat Biu-Bijan Karyakram (KUBK-ISFP) Page 0

Final Report on

Farmers' Field School (FSS) Operating

Guideline on Quality Seed Production

(A manual for field level Technicians)

Submitted to:

Kisankalagi Unnat Biu-Bijan Karyakram (KUBK-ISFP)

Program Management Office,

Jankinagar-3, Rupandehi

Prepared by:

MountDigit Technology (P.) Ltd. Dhobighat, Lalitpur GPO: 21197, Kathmandu Nepal

Phone +977-15522539 Email: [email protected], web: www.mountdigit.com

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Farmers' Field School (FSS) Operating Guideline on Quality

Seed Production

( A manual for field level Technicians)

Government of Nepal

Ministry of Agricultural Development

Kisankalagi Unnat Biu-Bijan Karyakram (KUBK-ISFP)

Program Management Office,

Jankinagar-3, Rupandehi Email: [email protected],URL:www.kubk.gov.np

Consultant

MountDigit Technology Pvt Ltd

Dhobighat, Lalitpur

Tel: 5522539 / 5520788

Email: [email protected]

Website: www.mountgidit.com

G.P.O. Box 21197, Kathmandu, Nepal

Suggested Citation

KUBK/MoAD (2017), Farmers' Field School (FSS) Operating Guideline on Quality Seed

Production,

Kisankalagi Unnat Biu-Bijan Karyakram (KUBK-ISFP),

Ministry of Agricultural Development, Government of Nepal; July

2017.

Copyright © 2017 KUBK/MoAD. All rights reserved.

Manual; July 2017


Kisankalagi Unnat Biu-Bijan Karyakram (KUBK-ISFP) Page i

Acknowledgement

Seed is the most vital input for agricultural crop production. The production of these cereal

and vegetable seed requires technical skill, knowledge and specialization depending on the

floral biology of these crop species. It was, therefore, the KUBK project thought necessary

to prepare a manual Farmers Field School (FSS) Manual dealing with the cereal and

vegetable quality seed production.

This manual is intended to provide information and knowledge on Farmers Field

School for the quality seed production. Basic principles of seed production including

importance of quality seed and its reflection in crop and food production, seed

certification, seed sampling, seed quality testing and supply and marketing systems and

the major seed actors are described in this manual. This manual is designed as a guide for

seed technologists and seed producers in Nepal with special emphasis to the seed personnel

in project target districts of the project.

This is to acknowledge the assistance rendered during the assignment by cereal and

vegetable scientists, seed technologists, extension workers, seed producing farmers and

seed cooperatives in the region. The continuous support of Mr. Kaushal Poudel,

Programme Manager of the KUBK Project is highly acknowledged and special thanks to

Mr.Lila Ram Poudel, Seed component Coordinator for the interest and untiring efforts

to prepare this manual. We express our gratitude to KUBK and IFAD for providing this

opportunity and financial support to prepare and publication of this manual.

We express our gratitude to experts, Janaki Prasad Khanal (Team Leader), Dr Shambhu

Prasad Khatiwada, Dr Arbin Srivastava (Team Members) and Madhusudhan Poudel

for their valuable time and contribution to prepare the manuscript of this manual.

MountDigit Technology Pvt Ltd

Dhobighat, Lalitpur

Tel: 5522539 / 5520788

Email: [email protected]

Website: www.mountgidit.com

G.P.O. Box 21197, Kathmandu, Nepal


Kisankalagi Unnat Biu-Bijan Karyakram (KUBK-ISFP) Page ii

Abbreviations and Acronyms

AEC Ago Enterprise Center

AESA Agro-Ecosystem Analysis

CBO Community Based Organization

CDD Crop Development Directorate

DADO District Agriculture Development Office

DCCI District Chamber of Commerce and Industries

PIU Project Implementation Unit

FAAB Farming as a Business

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FFS Farmers' Field School

FNCCI Federation of Nepal Chamber of Commerce and Industries

FYM Farm Yard Manure

GAP Good Agricultural Practices

IPM Integrated Pest Management

NACCFL Nepal Agriculture Cooperative Central Federation Limited

NARC Nepal Agriculture Research Council

NFE Non-Formal Education

NGOs Non Governmental Organization

PM & E Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation

PPD Plant Protection Directorate

PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal

PTD Participatory Technology Development

RSTL Regional Seed Testing Laboratories

SPAB Seed Production as a Business

SFDB Small Farmers Development Bank

VDD Vegetable Development Directorate


Kisankalagi Unnat Biu-Bijan Karyakram (KUBK-ISFP) Page iii

Table of Contents Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................................................... i

Abbreviations and Acronyms ................................................................................................................................. ii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 HISTORICAL BACK GROUND OF FFS ................................................................................................... 1

1.2. CONCEPTS OF QUALITY SEED PRODUCTION FFS ........................................................................... 1

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF FFS ................................................................................................................................. 2

1.4 PRINCIPLES OF FFS .................................................................................................................................. 2

1.5 MAJOR ELEMENTS OF FFS ..................................................................................................................... 3

1.6. STEPS OF FFS PROCESS .......................................................................................................................... 4

1.7. THE ROLE OF THE FACILITATOR ........................................................................................................ 6

1.8. ROLE OF IMPLEMENTING SUPPORT ORGANIZATIONS .................................................................. 7

1.9. PILLARS OF FFS ....................................................................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER II. IMPLEMENTATION OF QUALITY SEED PRODUCTION FFS ............................................. 10

2.1. APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................... 10

2.2. CREATING A PARTICIPATORY MONITORING AND EVALUATION PLAN ................................. 18

2.3 ECOSYSTEM ............................................................................................................................................ 24

2.3.1 ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS ......................................................................... 25

2.3.2 BIODIVERSITY ....................................................................................................... 26

2.3.3 LIFE CYCLES .......................................................................................................... 26

2.3.4 FOOD CHAIN .......................................................................................................... 26

2.3.5 FOOD WEB .............................................................................................................. 27

2.3.6 Agro-ecosystem Analysis .......................................................................................... 28

2.3.7 Insect Zoo .................................................................................................................. 36 2.4 IMPLEMENTATION STRUCTURE OF FFS ........................................................................................... 37

2.5 SEASON LONG LEARNING ACTIVITIES............................................................................................. 38

2.6 SEED PRODUCTION AS A BUSINESS .................................................................................................. 40

2.6.1 SEED ENTERPRISE SELECTION ......................................................................... 42

2.6.2 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS ................................................................................ 45

2.6.3 RISK ANALYSIS ..................................................................................................... 48

2.6.4 BUDGETING FOR THE FFS COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISE ............................. 50

2.6.5 ENTERPRISE MANAGEMENT ............................................................................. 53

2.6.6 SEED BUSINESS PLAN.......................................................................................... 55 2.7 ESTABLISHMENT OF FFS NETWORKS ............................................................................................... 59

CHAPTER III. PRINCIPLE OF QUALITY SEED PRODUCTION ................................................................... 62

3.1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF SEED PRODUCTION ..................................................................... 62

3.2 QUALITY OF GOOD SEED ..................................................................................................................... 67

3.3. SEED FIELD STANDARDS .................................................................................................................... 68

3.4. FIELD INSPECTION ................................................................................................................................ 69


Kisankalagi Unnat Biu-Bijan Karyakram (KUBK-ISFP) Page iv

3.5 SEED SAMPLING ..................................................................................................................................... 71

3.6 SEED TESTING ......................................................................................................................................... 75

3.7. SEED STANDARD................................................................................................................................... 77

3.8. SEED CERTIFICATION SYSTEM ......................................................................................................... 78

3.9. SEED PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS AND VEGETABLES ...................................... 83

3.9.1 RICE .......................................................................................................................... 83

3.9.2 MAIZE ...................................................................................................................... 96

3.9.3 WHEAT .................................................................................................................. 106

3.9.4 BROAD LEAF MUSTARD ................................................................................... 114

3.9.5 CAULIFLOWER .................................................................................................... 118

3.9.6 RADISH .................................................................................................................. 124

3.9.7 CARROT ................................................................................................................. 129

3.9.8 ASPARAGUS BEAN ............................................................................................. 133

3.9.9 FRENCH BEAN ..................................................................................................... 137

3.9.10 TOMATO .............................................................................................................. 145

3.9.11 ONION .................................................................................................................. 152 3.10. CRITICAL STAGES OF CROPS ......................................................................................................... 159

3.11 MANAGEMENT OF PESTS AND DISEASES .................................................................................... 161

CHAPTER IV: STUDIES AND TRIALS FOR FFS ......................................................................................... 169

4.1. SELECTION OF STUDY TRIALS ........................................................................................................ 169

4.2 DEMONSTRATION: ............................................................................................................................... 171

CHAPTER V: FORMATS AND GUIDELINES ............................................................................................... 174

5.1 FFS SESSION PLAN ............................................................................................................................... 174

5.2 MODULE: RICE SEED PRODUCTION (ILLUSTRATIVE) ................................................................. 175

5.3 GUIDELINE AND FORMAT FOR TECHNICAL REPORT ................................................................. 179

5.4 PERFORMANCE REPORT SUBMISSION ........................................................................................... 180

5.5 PERFORMANCE REPORT ORGANIZATION AND CONTENT ........................................................ 185

5.6 GUIDELINE AND FORMAT FOR FUND REQUEST .......................................................................... 186

5.7 TEMPLATE OF CONTRACT AGREEMENT ...................................................................................... 188

CHAPTER VI: SPECIAL TOPICS AND EXERCISES .................................................................................... 190

6.1. GROUP GOVERNANCE ....................................................................................................................... 190

6.2 MOIST CHAMBERS ............................................................................................................................... 191

6.3 SUSTAINABLE LAND MANAGEMENT AND CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE ..................... 192

6.4 PRA TOOL: PAIR WISE RANKING ...................................................................................................... 195

6.5 CONTROL OF PLANT DISEASE AND INSECTS THROUGH LOCAL HERBS ............................... 198

6.6 GENDER MATRIX ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................. 199

6.7 SEED MARKETING APPROACHES FOR THE SUSTAINABLE SEED SUPPLY SYSTEM:........... 199

6.8 SOIL TEXTURE DETERMINATION .................................................................................................... 200

6.9 SOIL WATER-HOLDING CAPACITY DETERMINATION ............................................................... 203

6.10. PLANT NUTRITION MANAGEMENT AND EXERCISE................................................................ 207

6.12. EXERCISE ON SEED GERMINATION TEST ON HUMIDITY BOXES. ........................................ 211


Kisankalagi Unnat Biu-Bijan Karyakram (KUBK-ISFP) Page v

6.13. IMPROVED COMPOST PREPARATION .......................................................................................... 214

CHAPTER VII: ICE BREAK AND ENERGIZERS ........................................................................................ 216

List of Tables

Table 1: Implementation Steps of Quality Seed Production FFS ..................................................................... 5 Table 2: Role of FFS implementing support organizations .............................................................................. 7 Table 3: Guide to develop indicators ................................................................................................................ 18 Table 4: Seed field standards of cereals and vegetables .................................................................................. 68 Table 5: Sample size under different seed lots ................................................................................................. 72 Table 6: Minimum sampling intensity for seed lots ......................................................................................... 73 Table 7: Seed standards of cereals and vegetables........................................................................................... 77 Table 8: Seed multiplication system in Nepal ................................................................................................... 79 Table 9: A comparison between seed certification and truthful labeling ...................................................... 82 Table 10: Some improved varieties of rice under potential production in Nepal ......................................... 83 Table 11: Recommended dose of fertilizers and manure for seed production of rice .................................. 88 Table 12: List of major broad-leaved and grassy weeds of rice crop ............................................................. 89 Table 13: List of maize varieties recommended and grown in Nepal ............................................................ 96 Table 14: Crop calendar of maize cultivation in Nepal ................................................................................... 97 Table 15: Seed treatments for maize seeds ....................................................................................................... 98 Table 16: Common weed flora of maize crop ................................................................................................. 100 Table 17: Some improved wheat varieties under effective production and their domains ........................ 106 Table 18: Recommended dose of fertilization for wheat crop (kg/ha) ......................................................... 108 Table 19: List of major weeds and objectionable of wheat crop .................................................................. 109 Table 20: Broad leaf mustard Varieties .......................................................................................................... 114 Table 21: Crop calendar for broad leaf mustard in different agro-ecosystems of Nepal ........................... 115 Table 22: Cauliflower varieties in the national list ........................................................................................ 118 Table 23: Radish varieties in national list ...................................................................................................... 124 Table 24: Carrot varieties in national list ....................................................................................................... 129 Table 25: Asparagus bean varieties in national list ....................................................................................... 133 Table 26: Bean varieties in national list .......................................................................................................... 137 Table 27: Pea varieties in national list ............................................................................................................ 141 Table 28: Tomato varieties in national list ..................................................................................................... 145 Table 29: Onion varieties in national list ........................................................................................................ 152 Table 30: Model FFS session plan ................................................................................................................... 176

List of Figures

Figure 1: Steps of FFS Process ............................................................................................................................... 4 Figure 2: Three pillars of FFS ................................................................................................................................ 8 Figure 3: The Learning Cycle in FFS .................................................................................................................. 17 Figure 4: The PM&E Model................................................................................................................................. 20 Figure 5: The Insect Zoo ..................................................................................................................................... 37 Figure 6: Implementation structure of quality seed production FFS ................................................................ 38



CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 HISTORICAL BACK GROUND OF FFS

The first IPM Farmer Field School started in 1989 in Central Java in Indonesia to reduce

farmer reliance on pesticides in rice. The Farmer Field School was introduced by Food and

Agriculture Organization (FAO) in an attempt to find solution to the brown plant hopper pest

in rice. IPM FFS soon caught up and FFS were carried out in a few other Asian countries and

was no longer limited to rice.

The historical context out of which the FFS approach emerged was dominated by the

agricultural projects of the Green Revolution. The final scenes of the Green Revolution were

played out to the accompaniment of a warning note sounded in the Philippines. Researchers

found that the projected demand for rice from increasing regional populations would

eventually overtake surpluses generated through Green Revolution projects in Asia.

If extension was having problems, plant protection experts were able to create their own

problems through the 1970s and 1980s by advocating the increased use of subsidized, broad-

spectrum insecticides. Massive insect outbreaks were occurring that demanded a

rethinking of crop protection approaches. The IPM FFS was developed in response to these

conditions.

The FFS approach featured several new departures from earlier IPM farmer education

models. Included among these innovations were season-long training for farmers, field

experiments, a focus on plant biology and agronomic issues, a new method for agro-

ecosystem analysis, the inclusion of human dynamics activities and a learning approach that

stressed participatory discovery learning. By the mid-1990, over 50,000 farmers had

participated in the first set of field schools in Indonesia. The IPM farmer field school was on

its way to becoming the single most effective new approach to farmer education in Asia. At

the 1999 regional meeting of countries who make up the membership of the FAO community

IPM programme, extension education expert Niels Roling stated that “IPM FFS is the model

for farmer education across the world. Other extension methods have been exposed as lacking

the capacity to provide the education that farmers require in the increasingly complex

agricultural systems that they manage.” (FAO Community IPM Programme 1999).

Nepal started FFS approach in 1997 in rice crop with the support of FAO. Since 1995, Plant

Protection Directorate (PPD) of Department of Agriculture (DOA) has been practicing

IPM FFS as an alternative strategy of pest management. The PPD introduced national IPM

program in Nepal in 1997. The Government of Nepal has prioritized FFS as an important

program and was incorporated in its periodic plans.

1.2. CONCEPTS OF QUALITY SEED PRODUCTION FFS

FFS is a "school without wall" and farmer centered approach where 20-25 participants are

learnt in their community for the duration of one cropping season (16-18 weeks) by learning

by doing as what problem they faced according to crop growth stages and becoming an

expert. Farmers, field trial for learning, venue, school day and norms are fixed through the



preparatory meeting. The direct involvement through experimentation, observation,

discussion, and the decision making capacity and skill increase of the participants through

FFS. Farmer and course evaluation will be text with a ballot box field method.

FFS trained participants have improved their analyzing capacity by own experiment and

farming practices to make rational decisions on crop management practices and use of

resources comparing with their environment and farming system. It is a participatory

approach to disseminate and the production technology in such a way that adoption rate

becomes high because of learning takes place in the field. The production technology based

on the location specific conditions and resources available with the farmers enhances the

adoption rate. The FFS approach is a direct response to the technical needs of the farmers.

Unlike other extension tools, FFS is a season long two-way communication between the

farmers and the facilitator who may be an extension worker or researcher.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF FFS

Broad Objectives

The broad objective of FFS is to bring farmers together to carry out collective and

collaborative inquiry with the purpose of initiating community action in solving community

problems.

Specific Objectives

1. To empower farmers with knowledge and skills to make them experts in their own

fields.

2. To sharpen the farmers' ability to make critical and informed decisions that renders

their farming profitable and sustainable.

3. To sensitize farmers in new ways of thinking and problem solving

4. Help farmers learn how to organize themselves and their communities.

1.4 PRINCIPLES OF FFS

What is relevant and meaningful is decided by the learner and must be discovered by the

learner. Learning flourishes in a situation in which teaching is seen as a facilitating process

that assists people to explore and discover the personal meaning of events for them.

1. Learning is a consequence of experience. People become responsible when they have

assumed responsibility and experienced success.

2. Cooperative approaches are enabling. As people invest in collaborative group

approaches, they develop a better sense of their own worth.

3. Learning is an evolutionary process and is characterized by free and open

communication, confrontation, acceptance, respect and the right to make mistakes.

4. Each person’s experience of reality is unique. As they become more aware of how

they learn and solve problems, they can refine and modify their own styles of

learning and action. (Jules N. Pretty, Regenerating agriculture)



FFS emphasizes to protect the environment while having crop production, human and animal

welfare. Participants learn new things by doing, innovation and experimentation through FFS.

The key principles of the FFS are:

a) Grow healthy crop: Healthy plant can grow when healthy seed, soil, water, manure,

fertilizer, equipment, variety/ species, and agronomical practice. Generally insect and

pathogen cannot attacked easily while the plant healthy. So, we should make the field

suitable for healthy plant growth. We should select the suitable variety according to

location, soil type, and moisture or irrigation facility. Similarly planting time, spacing,

fertilizing agronomical practices and plant management plays an important role to keep

the plant healthy.

b) Conserve natural enemies by using minimum use of pesticide: There is presence of

predators and parasites, microbes, weeds, and pathogens in nature but it varies in different

field situation. They are inter-dependent and survive by maintaining their food web unless

we disturb. The insects, animals or pathogens help to reduce the number of harmful

organisms by predation, parasitism or food competition. If we spray pesticide to control

the pests, natural enemies or farmers friends are the ones to be suppressed first. So, to

conserve them we have to think the alternative methods which will be most effective to

manage the pests.

c) Observe field regularly: When we observe the field regularly, we know the crop situation

such as age of the plant, disease, insects, natural enemies, weed condition, nutrients

deficiency, soil moisture and need of inter cultural operations. This helps in immediate

decision making to act upon the problems.

d) Farmer can understand the agro-ecosystem and become expert in their own field: The

farmer should be perfect in his field to tackle the problems. Field trial, studies in cup and

zoo, special class, and case study empower the participants and increases the knowledge

and skill for decision. Participant will be perfect on how to produce crop using local and

limited resources with profit.

1.5 MAJOR ELEMENTS OF FFS

The group

The group comprises of individuals (20-25 in number) who have a common interest, forming

the core of a Farmer Field School. The FFS tends to strengthen existing groups or may lead to

the formation of new groups

The Field

The field is the teacher. It provides most of the training materials like plants, pests and other

facilities. In most cases, communities provide a study site with a shaded area for follow-up

discussions..

The Facilitator

The facilitator is a technically competent person who leads group members through the

hands-on exercises. The facilitator can be an extension agent or a Farmer Field School

graduate.

The curriculum



8. Follow-up by Facilitators

7. Farmer-run FFS

5. Field Days

4. Evaluating PTDs

6. Graduations

2. Training of Facilitators

3. Establishment and running of FFS

1. Ground Working Activities

The curriculum follows the natural cycle of the subject, be it crop, animal, soil, or

handicrafts. This allows all aspects of the subject to be covered in parallel with what is

happening in the FFS field

Programme leader

The programme leader is essential to support the training of facilitators, get materials

organized for the field, solve problems in participatory ways, and nurture facilitators. The

programme leader should be a good leader who empowers others.

Financing

This is an important element since Farmer Field Schools can be expensive or low-cost

depending on who implements them and how they are conducted

1.6. STEPS OF FFS PROCESS

There are 8 key classical steps in conducting FFS

Figure 1: Steps of FFS Process

1. Conduct Ground working activities

Identify priority problems

Identify solutions to identified problems

Establish farmers’ practices

Identify field school participants

Identify field school sites

2. Training of Facilitators on

Seed production and protection technologies

Participatory technology development (PTD) with emphasis on the approaches and

developing guidelines on conducting PTD

Message delivery mechanisms using non-formal education methods (NFE) with

emphasis on what, when and how to use NFE in FFS

Group dynamics



Special topics to be addressed at every stage of training

3. Establishment and Running FFS

With the guidance of facilitators, the group meets regularly throughout the season,

and

Carries out experiments and field trials related to the selected enterprise.

Implement PTDs (Test and Validate)

Conduct AESA and morphology and collect data

Process and present the data

Group dynamics

Special topics

4. Evaluating PTDs

Analyze collected data

Interpret

Economic analysis

Presentation

5. Field days

During the period of running the FFS, field days are organized where the rest of the

farming community is invited to share what the group has learned in the FFS.

Field days are organized 1or 2 per season

Farmers themselves facilitate during this day

6. Graduations

This activity marks the end of the season long FFS.

The farmers, facilitators and the coordinating office usually organize it.

Farmers are awarded certificates

7. Farmer- run FFS

FFS farmer graduates now have the knowledge and confidence to run their own FFS

and will follow the process to run their own FFS.

Farmers themselves facilitate the FFS.

8. Follow up by facilitators

Occasionally the core facilitators will follow-up on schools that have graduated

preferably on monthly basis.

The core facilitators also backstop on-going farmer run FFS

Table 1: Implementation Steps of Quality Seed Production FFS

Steps Main Activity Actors Outputs

1 Ground Working Field Coordinator

Facilitators FFS Groups Selected

2 Group Organization Field Coordinator

Facilitators Agreement Register sheets

3 Selection of Seed Enterprise

and Preparation of Profiles Facilitators Members

Seed production enterprise

selected and profile

prepared



4 Selection of Host Farm and

Learning Site Preparation Facilitators Members

Host farmer selected

Preparation on learning site

5 Seed Production Planning Facilitators Members

Field comparative

experiment design and

proposals prepared

6 Establishment of Seed

Production Sites Facilitators Members

Seed production site

prepared

7 FFS Weekly Session Facilitators Members Weekly reports Monthly

reports

8 Farmer Facilitator Selection Facilitators Members Farmer Facilitators

9 Exchange Visits Facilitators Members Exchange visit reports

10 Participatory Evaluation Facilitators Members Participatory Evaluation

Reports

11 Field day Facilitators Members Field Day reports

12 Graduation Facilitators Members Farmer Experts

1.7. THE ROLE OF THE FACILITATOR

The role of the facilitator is crucial in an FFS. In general the facilitator:

organizes the field school;

facilitates the activities associated with the 12 to 16 meetings of the field school;

takes care of basic administrative issues; and

maintains constructive communications with local government officials, NGOs and

other agencies in the area where the FFS is located.

Organizing an FFS requires a facilitator to:

determine the site for the FFS and identify study fields (see the section below,

“Implementation issues”);

identify potential participants, usually via a local agriculture group;

determine local endemic problems to be treated by the FFS; and

conduct preparation meetings.

Leading an FFS appears easy in the hands of an experienced facilitator. The key is confidence

and this only comes with experience. The above matrices detail what the role of a facilitator

is in the various FFS activities. In general, the facilitator introduces an activity, clarifies the

process, sets participants to work, asks open-ended and “what if” questions as groups make

their presentations, and summarizes presentations underlining the important points that were

learned during the exercise. This summary can also be done via questioning. An additional

role that is important is the procurement of materials and administration of the FFS.

Facilitators can best do this at the local level.

These activities could include:

Collect and report basic bio data such as name age, gender, education, access to land

(form of ownership or rental contract);

Contract agreement or buy-back guarantee with the traders



Report results of pre- and post-tests;

Save weekly results of agro-ecosystem analyses;

Prepare activity plans for each FFS meeting

Keep data on attendance, and relevant notes on field conditions; and

Interview a number of participants before the start-up or the FFS about their pre-FFS

farming practices; this data could be used as baseline data to determine changed

practices.

Bio data helps the facilitator to keep track of who has participated in FFSs in a particular

village. Pre- and post-test data can help sort out increased knowledge on the part of

participants and provide a record for reference. Activity plans and reports help the facilitator

and his or her supervisor to prepare for and review FFS meetings. Baseline data are useful if a

programme wants to determine whether farmers changed their practices because of attending

an FFS. Those participants who provided baseline data can be re-interviewed to determine

what changes they have made based on their FFS experience.

Constructive communications with local leaders and supporting agency staff essentially

means that the facilitator needs to keep these persons informed about what is happening in

the FFS. Simple steps to good communications with local leaders include inviting them to

FFSs, visiting their offices and perhaps taking them to see the FFS study fields. The field day,

an activity late in the FFS schedule, is meant, in part, to let these leaders see the results of an

FFS.

1.8. ROLE OF IMPLEMENTING SUPPORT ORGANIZATIONS

Different organizations play a supportive role in implementation of FFS in the seed

production pockets of the district. their roles and responsibilities are presented in table 1.2

below.

Table 2: Role of FFS implementing support organizations

Organizations Role

1. Local NGOs/CBOs

Support production, processing and marketing of seed

Resource management for the FFS

Social mobilization and empowerment of community

Group formation for FFS

2. District

Agriculture

Development Office

Implementation of FFS

Support seed production and distribution

Update seed statistics

Provide technical backstopping and resource management

Support in management of foundation/ source seed

Management of FFS facilitator

Provide agricultural and group information

Technical and financial helps in seed production, storage &

distribution



3. Nepal Agriculture

Research Council

Supply of newly released and pre released crop varieties for FFS

demonstration

Variety development, maintenance and technology generation

Identify farms for the production of breeders' seed of specified

crop/variety

Collection and preservation of indigenous crops/varieties

Development of hybrid varieties and their seed production

4. Regional Seed

Testing Laboratories

Support seed testing in respective catchment areas

Field inspection and on farm instruction

Provide technical backstopping

5. Crop Development

Directorate

Helps to promote seed production , storage and distribution in the

district level

Coordination between seed related organization to increase the

seed replacement rate of different crops

Monitoring and evaluation of farm and laboratory monitoring for

quality seed production and distribution.

6. Vegetable

Development

Directorate

Foundation/ Source seed production and management

Crop inspection and facilitating certification

Seed production programme development, coordination,

monitoring and technical backstopping

7 Kisanka lagi Unnat

Biu-bijan Karyakram

(KUBK)

Provide matching grants to seed producer groups and

cooperatives

Monitor the seed production activities

Help seed producers in finding out source seed for seed

production.

1.9. PILLARS OF FFS

FFS consists of three pillar activities titled Agro-Ecosystem Analysis (AESA), Group

Dynamics, and Special Topics, each making the FFS different and unique comparing with

other extension methods.

Figure 2: Three pillars of FFS



Agro-ecosystem Analysis (AESA)

AESA is the main monitoring and decision-making tool used in FFS, and it is formed by

1) AESA Taking,

2) AESA processing, and

3) AESA Presentation as explained in the table.

Group Dynamics

Group dynamics is a kind of energizer (icebreaker) such as a joke, exercise, game, dance, etc.

to refresh participants. Besides, it enhances relationship among the FFS members, and

accelerates team building in the FFS. Moreover, it is expected to help FFS members create a

new group and/or organization, such as a seed multiplication primary cooperative, after

graduating from the FFS. Group dynamics exercise for a particular season can be picked up

from CHAPTER VII

Special Topics

Importance in FFS is to create better environment and clearer understanding on technologies

that a famer may find it difficult to digest and apply subjects a farmer may find it interesting.

Special topics are included to increase the interest to the groups to facilitate the learning

process. FFS members are free to decide which enterprises they want to work on. Practically

speaking, it is a common practice for most FFS to choose one of popular crops to improve the

productivity to make it more beneficial. Special Topics are then selected that are of

importance or interests for a given enterprise, and are shared among the members. Facilitators

of the Special Topics can be farmers, extension officers, academicians, or anyone. Relevant

special topic can be picked up by the facilitator from the references provided in CHAPTER

VI.



CHAPTER II. IMPLEMENTATION OF QUALITY SEED

PRODUCTION FFS

2.1. APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY

Quality seed production farmers' field school will be implemented on the basis of following

approach and methodology. The participants will be the grantees of KUBK for seed

production of cereals and vegetables.

STAGE 0: GROUND WORKING

When you have to work in a situation where the farmers are neither motivated nor organized

in a group to perform the required business you have to start at zero. It means you have to

perform the following activities. However, in our case the seed producer groups are already

motivated and organized into groups or cooperatives. You have to check whether the

following information is being recorded in the groups/cooperatives.

Record keeping- Type of records to be kept- Comparative study records, Physical records,

Financial records, savings and credit records, group information record, Minutes book. Group

Formation- Making the constitution, Group action plan, Group development of the gap, the

gap has 5 stages represented by 5 sessions. It will take at least two weeks to complete the gap.

STAGE 1: CHOOSING THE STUDY ENTERPRISE

The study enterprise for quality seed production is already chosen in KUBK project district.

However, the learning activities need to be based on a problem the group wants to solve. The

facilitator will need to help members identify common problems they all face seed

production. When guiding the group discussion, remember the following:

The study enterprise should have an important role in the community farming system.

In most cases the study enterprise is a crop that the farmers currently grow.

Occasionally, it is a crop that is being introduced to the area.

• The group should use the study enterprise to address a problem it has observed. The

group should be familiar with the problem, but unsure of how to solve it.

• The problem the study enterprise will address should be complex. It should deal with

multiple issues. If the problem can be easily solved the FFS will learn very little. If it

is complex, you will be able to explore so much more!

Remembering these guidelines will ensure that everyone in the group can gain something

positive from solving the problem. Now that you know the goal of this stage, it’s time to lead

the group in an activity.

Goal of the Activity: For the group to determine the problem(s) it wants to solve

What You Will Need: Flipcharts, markers

PRA Tools to Use: Seasonal Calendar, Options assessment Format

Time: 2 hours

Step 1: Before gathering the group, use the flipchart to draw a blank seasonal calendar.

Step 2: Do the seasonal calendar activity.

Step 3: Have the group discuss how livelihood activities change throughout the year. Here

are some questions to ask:



Are there periods when activities are more frequent and periods when

activities are less frequent?

How does this impact on the group’s quality of life?

What livelihood activities are happening during the timeframe of the FFs?

Step 4: Now that participants have an overall picture of their livelihood activities over the

course of a year, ask them to identify the significant problems they face in

completing each of these livelihood activities. Like these problems on a flipchart.

You can use the options assessment format to get these answers. Just modify the

chart so that the bullet points in step 5 are listed in the columns and the listed crops

being discussed are identified in the rows.

Options Assessment Format

Seed Crop Rice Maize wheat Onion Radish

Valuable

Economy

Culturally

acceptable

Suitable

Anticipated

problems

Temporary

solutions to

problems

Environmentally

sustainable

Crop grown

during FFS

Step 5: Focus the discussion on the seed crops that the group has identified as business

activities in their community. As they look at each seed crop on the list, ask them to

think about issues like:

Is raising this seed crop a valuable economic activity? In other words, does

it make enough money to be worth planting and harvesting it?

Is it culturally acceptable? For instance, illegal drugs are not acceptable.

Is it suitable in the area? Will the crop grow there?

Are there any problems this crop can bring? Perhaps pests get into it easily

or it takes a long time to grow and hampers crop rotation.

Are there temporary solutions to these problems that the farmers know

about?

Are these solutions environmentally sustainable?

Does the community need/want this seed crop?

Is this seed crop grown during the period in which the FFS will be active?

Step 6: The seed crop that poses the most problems but which can be valuable in terms of

income, food security or nutrition represents the study enterprise the group should

pursue. (As a facilitator who has done proper ground working, the chosen crop

should be obvious to you.)



Step 7: Now, review the activities related to growing this seed crop as listed on the seasonal

calendar.

Are there other enterprises that can be pursued in conjunction with this one?

STAGE 2: ANALYSING THE PROBLEMS

After identifying the study enterprise in stage 1, the group needs to identify the most urgent

problems shared by its members related to this study enterprise. In this session you will use

the pair-wise ranking PRA tool to help participants prioritize the problems they face related

to the study enterprise.

Goal of the Activity: For the group members to develop an understanding of problems they

share related to the study enterprise


PRA Tools to Use: Pair-wise Ranking

Time: 2 hours

Step 1: Remind the group of the study enterprise it decided on during the last meeting.

Step 2: Ask the group members to brainstorm. Write their answers down on the flipchart. If

particular members have never grown this seed crop, ask them why they didn’t.

What problems did they anticipate?

Step 3: Read through the list with the group, analyze each point and ask members to discuss

why it is a problem. As you do this, write down the group members’ observations.

Step 4: Now that the problems have been discussed in detail, the group members should

rank each one to determine which ones are the biggest problems. Follow the

directions in Chapter 6 on pair-wise rankings.

Step 5: After you complete the pair-wise ranking, review the list in order from highest

priority to lowest priority. let the participants decide how many problems on the list

the FFS can try to solve.

Step 6: Make sure that there is a consensus that the group has selected the most important

problems. If there’s not, let the group continue discussing. Not everyone has to

agree on every point, but everyone should agree on most things.

STAGE 3: IDENTIFYING POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS

In this session, it’s time to find potential solutions to the problems the group has raised. Every

person will have their own ideas. Make sure to give everyone enough time to share.

Goals of the Activity: For the group to identify potential methods to solve the major

problems it has identified and to plan specific activities to test these methods and to be

excited about testing these methods


PRA Tools to Use: Problem/solution analysis table, Options assessment Format

Time: 2 hours

Step 1: Show the group the problems they brainstormed in stage 2 and review the results of

the pair-wise ranking activity.



Step 2: Introduce the problem-solution analysis table you have prepared (see Chapter 2). Do

an example problem with the group, writing answers into each column one by one.

Step 3: List the 3 or 4 biggest problems identified in stage 2 in the first column (“Problem”)

of the problem-solution analysis table.

Step 4: Working with the members of the FFs, fill in the table from left to right. Take one

problem at a time with the whole group or assign one problem to each mini group

and have them work together and share their results with the entire group.

Step 5: Now that you have several potential solutions, your group needs to decide which ones

to test in its study plots. There are several things to consider. The options

assessment format is a good way to do this (see Chapter 2).

Step 6: After completing the options assessment format you should have a good idea of

which problems you will be testing in your study plots. Review this information

with the participants and explain that in the next session they will be developing the

learning programme for the FFs.

STAGE 4: DEVELOPING THE LEARNING PROGRAMME

Now that the group members have identified the problems they want to explore as part of the

study enterprise and have decided on the solutions to these problems that they want to test in

their study plots, you need to help the farmers turn this into a learning programme that will

unfold over the coming months. The options discussed in the previous session will form the

basis of the learning programme, but there are other considerations. This session will help

you discover what issues are most important to your group. Later, you will need to combine

your group’s inputs with your own knowledge.

The learning programme should:

• Lead toward a better community understanding of the environment

• Be relevant to local conditions

• Allow farmers to discover solutions on their own

• Enable farmers to make their own decisions

• Be a partnership between the facilitator and the farmers

• Encourage collaboration among different community organizations

• Use what is available to the farmers

Goals of the Activity: For the group to develop a learning programme

What You Will Need: Flipcharts, markers, Crop Phenology Profile, season-long learning

Calendar

PRA Tools to Use: Options assessment Format, Pair-wise Ranking

Time: 3 hours

Step 1: Review the outcomes of the previous sessions with the group.

Step 2: Discuss broader community problems with the group that have an impact on group

members’ livelihoods. The FFs learning programme will be most successful if it can

also address non- farming problems. For example, are there sick relatives who need

access to a doctor? These problems can affect farming, so they need to be

discussed. Remember back to the community needs assessment you performed in

the ground working stage. Are there any other topics you’re missing?



Step 3: Prioritize the issues mentioned. The FFS Study period is only for a short time. If

useful, you can use the pair-wise ranking tool here.

Step 4: The next step is to integrate these topics with the main study enterprise in order to

create a holistic learning plan. Every topic should link to the study enterprise in

some way. Explore the linkages with the group.

Tomato crop phenology profile

Parameter

Crop growth stage

Seedling

Vegetative Flowering Fruiting

Maturity

Weeks after planting

Appearance

Susceptibility to pests?

Susceptibility to disease?

Nutrients needed?

Effect of weeds?

Water needed?

Critical management

needed at each stage?

AESA parameters critical

at the respective growth

stage

Relevant topics

Step 5: after a short break, show a crop life cycle profile (or phenology) to the group. This

profile helps the farmers observe the study enterprise from when they first plant the

seeds to when they harvest the crop. On the profile, they will track problems and

needs. The facilitator should use the profile to ensure that all the essential

management steps are covered throughout the life cycle. The facilitator should



integrate the outcomes from steps 1 to 4 onto the profile. Right now, the profile will

help you develop appropriate topics for the learning programme.

Step 6: building upon the output of step 5, make a season-long learning calendar. The

calendar is generated from the crop life cycle profile. It also includes other

livelihood topics that the group may prioritize. It should include session topics

which are linked with the crop growth stages. For each topic the key concept and

main objectives need to be highlighted. The calendar can be as simple as this:

Season-long learning calendar

Session

Weeks after

planting

Crop

Growth

Stage

Topic Objective(s)

Key

concepts

Required

materials

1 0

2 -

3 -

4 1

... ...

30 16

The learning activities (TOPIC) can be picked up from CHAPTER III and the special topics

from

STAGE 5: BUDGETING

You have already reviewed basic financial records with the group in the group formalization

phase. The group also elected a treasurer to handle financial documents. Now, it needs to

create the simplest financial record of all: a budget. This is not a budget for the FFS business

enterprise. It is for the cost of the FFS to run its experiments and overall learning programme

through a season. During the beginning phases of the FFs the group should receive a grant,

but it will still need to collect member fees to meet the costs of its activities. After the FFS

becomes fully independent it will use savings and a revolving credit fund to continue its

work.

Goals of the Activity: For the group to develop an operating budget


PRA Tools to Use: Seasonal Calendar

Records to Introduce: Inventory sheet

Time: 2 hours

There will be 8 different elements you will need to budget for:

1. Field inputs: these include fertilizers or seeds for farming projects.

2. General tools: These include hoes and wheelbarrows. Some members already have

these items and are willing to let the FFS use them. This can be part of their material

contribution to the group.

3. Stationery: The learning process will require some pens, paper, crayons, masking

tape, markers, flipcharts and other basic materials.

4. Comparative field experiments: The experiments cost money. How much will the

group need to do a proper experiment?



5. Field days: the FFS needs to be a good community member. How much will it cost to

host the community at the site for at least one day?

6. Exchange visits: The group should set aside money to visit other FFS for a day.

7. Facilitation: You and the group need to agree upon how many guest speakers you will

have throughout the FFS process. Use the learning programme to guide you. What is a

reasonable amount for the guests’ transportation and lunch? Facilitation should not

cost more than 50% of the total grant.

8. Graduation ceremony from the FFS: The group will need money for invitations,

certificates, transport, food and drink and anything else it deems necessary. Add the

amounts together to calculate the total amount the group needs for its activities. The

group has already discussed its savings goals. Now it must discuss a reasonable

amount for member contributions to the FFS. The group will need to secure a grant or

loan for any amount that is left over.

Congratulations! With the completion of this session your GAP is finished and the group

formalization process completed! You are ready for school to begin. But wait a minute.

Before you proceed, do you know how you will be assessing your progress? That is the focus

of the next section of this chapter.

You have helped your group make a GAP in order to create a learning programme that

addresses all its needs. It is up to you, however, to finalize the learning programme. To do

this, learning goals and project benchmarks must be added. The GAP, then, must be linked to

a participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM & E) programme.

The group action Plan is a participatory planning process in which the group develops its

learning programme. But how can you make sure that the group is properly following the

programme and learning from the sessions? You will need to monitor and evaluate the group

to make sure it is making positive changes.

Like the GAP, the monitoring and evaluation process should be participatory. PM & E shows

the group how much it has improved, building its confidence along the way. In a Farmer

Field School, the PM&E should be used to monitor and evaluate the FFS’s performance. You

will need to help the group build monitoring and evaluation into all aspects of the FFS.



Figure 3: The Learning Cycle in FFS

Records need

Analysis

Plan requires Records

Action requires

Plan

Learning requires Action

Sharing requires Learning

Analysis requires Sharing



2.2. CREATING A PARTICIPATORY MONITORING AND EVALUATION PLAN

As a facilitator you will be reporting your group’s performance to supervisors, colleagues,

donors and community leaders. What will you tell them? You need data to be able to show

the group’s progress. This manual cannot tell you what specifically to monitor because that

depends on the group’s objectives. However, the following material will provide you with the

guidance you need to develop a PM & E action plan that will assess whether the group is

achieving its goals. These sections will also provide you with the tools to demonstrate results

to the group and to any outsiders.

There are six questions you should ask yourself:

1. Why are we doing PM&E?

PM&E has many uses. It can be used to control, educate, provide feedback or facilitate

change. In the FFS, however, PM & E is mainly used to enhance the learning process by

identifying paths for further development.

2. What do I need to evaluate?

Every FFS has specific objectives built into its learning programme because the problems in

every community are unique. However, there are some basic goals that each FFS aims to

achieve. Here are some example parameters to evaluate (you can add more parameters or

modify these to fit your FFS):

Changes in farmers’ skills or knowledge

Evidence that farmers are adopting appropriate technologies to fit their

problems

Increased productivity

Increased income

Changes in social status

Increased nutrition levels

Evidence that the FFS message is being spread throughout the community

These parameters need benchmarks to measure the amount of change. These benchmarks are

called “indicators”. Indicators are areas that can be measured and should be used to track

progress in specific areas, measure achievements or determine the group’s level of

satisfaction. Stakeholders will be interested to know whether the group is succeeding or

failing in certain indicators. See below for help with developing indicators:

Table 3: Guide to develop indicators

Goals Desired Parameter Indicators Sources of

Information

To improve

production of

Wheat seeds

Members of the FFS

have acquired

knowledge and skills

in wheat seed

production

The number of

farmers practicing

skills and knowledge

acquired in wheat

seed production

• Attendance lists

• Training reports

• Pre- and post-

tests

• Production

records

The first column shows the group’s study enterprise. This FFS wants to improve production

of wheat seeds. The second column shows what needs to be measured: members’ knowledge.



The third column shows that the group wants to know how many members acquired the

knowledge. The fourth column shows what the group will use to assess this.

3. Who should be involved in the evaluation?

The monitoring and evaluation process is participatory. That means that the FFS participants

are the key actors in developing and implementing the plan. Your job as a facilitator is to

guide the process. Therefore, as the FFS develops its GAP, it should decide how it wants to

track each objective. Ideally, you will also involve people from outside the group. These can

be government officials, donors, other farmers or anyone else interested in the FFS process

that can provide feedback on the group’s activities. This allows stakeholders to be directly

involved and encourages the FFS to continue working toward its goals.

4. When should the evaluations take place?

You have already started the evaluation process! During the ground working phase, you were

taking a picture of the community before FFS. Now, the process continues. PM&E should be

built into every session until the end of the FFS project. It should also be built into other

activities, such as:

Work Plans: ensure that timelines and responsibilities are clear. You should

include benchmarks that will guide you to check progress.

Field Visits: Outside stakeholders will have valuable insight for your group.

You should create a report for visitors to fill out. These visitor reports can

point to any potential problems or success areas.

Stakeholder Meetings: Use the meetings to get feedback on your activities and

suggestions for improvement.

5. With what kind of resources should I do the evaluation?

The PM&E activities are incorporated in the FFS learning programme, so they will be paid

from the grant funds. The initial survey, the continuous evaluations and processing of final

results should come to about 2% of the FFS’s overall budget.

6. How should I use PM&E tools?

You can use many of the methods from the GAP stage for PM & E. These can include: maps,

interviews and group discussions, transect walks, records or AESA. The next section

provides you with specific tools that can introduce the group to PM&E.



PM & E MODEL

Figure 4: The PM&E Model

TOOLS FOR MONITORING THE LEARNING PROCESS

There are several helpful tools to use with your group to evaluate the members’

performances.

Pre-test and post-test (The ballot box test)

One tool is a test that members take at the beginning and the end of the FFS. The pre-test,

taken at the beginning of the FFS, records how much the group already knows about the

study enterprise and identifies knowledge gaps. The post-test, taken at the end of the FFS,

shows how much the group has learned from the FFS process.

Activity Plan

Goal of the Activity: to record participants’ knowledge about the study enterprise in a non-

threatening environment.

Materials: Ballot boxes, paper coins, specimens

Time: 2 hours

• Evaluation at the end of every session

• Evaluation of AESA activities and field experiments

• Mid-term evaluations of farmers’ knowledge

•Field days to share and gain feedback

•Analysis of all the results of the field validation or comparative experiments

•Post-test to assess changes in farmers’ knowledge

•Analysis of overall FFS results

•The GAP provides baseline information on the group’s problems and conditions.

•The pre-test assesses the group’s level of knowledge.

• The PM&E development process sets goals.

•The initial survey provides information on problems and conditions in the community. From this, the facilitator should determine potential entry points for learning activities.

Ground Working FFS ESTABLISHMENT

FFS IMPLEMENTATION

FFS CONTINUATION



Step 1: Establish 25 "balloting" stations (bamboo stakes with three small boxes and a

multiple-choice question attached) around the edge of a seed production plot. The

questions might include:

identification of the roles of various insects (the insects should be in clear plastic bags

or bottles attached to the question);

damage on plants (a string should run from the question and be attached to the

damaged area on a nearby plant); and

other relevant field questions that can be readily seen and identified with live samples.

Make the boxes having small slots in their tops through which ballots are entered. The

ballots are usually cardboard paper "coins" that are numbered.

Step 2: Each participant is given his/her roll number from one to twenty-five. Participants are

given a set of 25 paper "coins" with their number inscribed.

Step 3: Participants go from station to station and place their coins in the boxes that are

lettered according to the choices associated with each question.

Balot box "polling station"

No drawings or pictures are used and no abstract questions are asked that cannot be based on

a live sample. The pre- and post-tests should cover the same material and be of the same

relative difficulty.

The tests are usually conducted as part of the first and last meetings of an FFS.

The results should point out weak areas of knowledge (in the case of the pre-test) or the

learning needs of participants. The post-test, when compared to the pre-test, can be used to

indicate improvements in knowledge among FFS participants and to determine needs for

follow-up activities.

Step 4: When the test is completed, count the paper coins in each ballot box. Calculate the

members’ results and record them. An example score sheet is shown below:

Test Score Sheet

S. No

Name of

Farmer

Participant

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 %

correct 1 √ x x √ x √ √ x x x 40

2 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 100

3 x √ x x x √ x x x x 20

4 x √ √ √ √ x √ √ √ √ 80

5 √ √ x √ x √ √ √ x x 60

6 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ x x 80



7 √ √ √ x √ √ x √ x x 60

8 √ √ x x x x √ x x √ 40

9 √ √ x x x x x x x x 20

10 √ x √ √ x √ √ √ √ x 70

11 √ x x √ x √ √ √ x x 50

12 √ √ √ x √ √ x x x √ 60

13 √ x √ √ √ √ √ √ √ x 80

14 √ x √ √ √ √ √ √ x √ 90

15 √ √ √ x √ x √ x √ x 60

16 √ x x √ √ x √ √ x x 50

17 x x √ x x √ √ x x x 30

18 √ √ x x x x √ x x x 30

19 √ x x x x x x x x x 10

20 x √ √ √ √ x √ √ √ √ 80

Total% 80 60 55 55 50 60 75 55 30 30 55

Step 5: Discuss the questions and answers with the participants. ask the members why they

chose the answers they did. While the answer sheets will give you a baseline of the

participants’ knowledge, a discussion with the group will give you information on

how to develop the learning programme to check the group’s strengths and

weaknesses.

At the end of the FFs you should give the farmers the same test a second time. Compare their

results to show what the farmers have learned.

Mood meter

A good facilitator will always be anxious to get feedback from the participants on their

impression about the day’s session. Constant feedback helps the facilitator to make

improvements that will enhance the learning process. The mood meter is one of the simplest

and most popular tools used in the FFS.

Activity plan

Goal of the Activity: to record participants’ impression of the day’s session

What You Will Need: a blank format of the mood meter on a flipchart and markers

Time: You will need 30 minutes to introduce the wheel; after that you will

need 10 minutes at the end of every session to complete the mood meter

Step 1: Brainstorm with the farmers to identify some of the parameters that may affect the

learning process. list all the submissions and ask the group to prioritize at least six. Fill the

parameters into the mood meter format. explore the farmers’ interpretations of the three

moods being represented in the mood meter (i.e. Happy, Not Sure and Unhappy)



Parameter/ Mood

Topic of the day

Attendance

Group

participation

Time

management

Facilitation

AESA/experime

nts

Energisers/icebre

akers

Step 2: At the end of the session, participants mark their mood against each of the

parameters using a marker.

Step 3: Count the marks in each of the boxes.

Step 4: Try to establish reasons for any of the parameters that have negative outcomes.

Which items seemed to annoy the participants? What improvements could be made next

time?

Evaluation Wheel

Another tool you can use is the Evaluation Wheel. It is used to track whether the FFS is

achieving its aims. The Evaluation Wheel should be updated every FFS session so that the

group can visualize its progress. The members will also see areas in which they are not

improving and take steps to improve in these areas.

Activity Plan

Goal of the Activity: To record participants’ satisfaction with the FFS process on a weekly

basis

What You Will Need: A blank copy of the wheel on a flipchart, any past wheels you have

used, markers

Time: You will need 30 minutes to introduce the wheel; after that you will

need 15 minutes every session to complete the wheel.

Step 1: Prepare and display the wheel on a flipchart. Explain that each spoke in the wheel

represents an indicator of FFS improvement. The group should decide on the

indicators, but some basic types of indicators include attendance at sessions, overall

satisfaction with the FFS and happiness with the topics of the day. See the example

below for what a wheel looks like after it has been filled out.



Step 2: Ask the group to rank each indicator with a score from 1 to 5. (1 = Very bad; 2 =

bad; 3 = Fair; 4 = Good; 5 = Very good)

Step 3: Each rank should be plotted on the wheel. Then connect the dots. The closer the

dots are to the centre, the more improvements need to be made, according to the

group.

Step 4: If there are any scores below 3, the group should discuss what solutions could help

the score go up.

Step 5: The evaluation wheel should be done at the end of every session. Show the group

the last evaluation wheel to see if progress has been made.

EVALUATION WHEEL

2.3 ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is a natural system of interactions between living and nonliving things in a

particular environment. These interactions are dynamic, meaning that nutrients and energy

move throughout the system. For example, as animals die and decompose, their bodies

provide nutrients for other living things and the soil. Their energy is transferred to the soil,

which transfers it to plants.

It is important for the FFS to study the various interactions within the local ecosystem where

it works. Different interactions affect the environment differently. Some interactions are good

for farmers because they lead to increases in productivity. Other interactions lead to losses in

productivity.

AESA/ex

periments Topic of

the day

Quality of

facilitation Lessons

learnt

Participation of

all members

Attendance/Pu

nctuality

Group

work

Level of

overall

satisfaction

FFS

5

4

3

2

1

0



If farmers understand these interactions, they can maximize positive effects and minimize

negative ones through proper farm management.

Within an ecosystem there are:

LIVING ELEMENTS NONLIVING ELEMENTS

Plants

Insects

Micro-organisms

Weather elements (temperature, relative

humidity, wind, sunshine, rain)

The ecosystem is also affected by weather. Sun and rain help plants grow, but wind or

temperature shifts can damage plants and alter organisms’ life cycles.

2.3.1 ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS

Each element in the ecosystem has special characteristics which influence the distribution and

population of living organisms. For instance, only plants have the ability to convert solar

energy into forms that can be consumed by other living things through photosynthesis. Yet

the same plants will require water and nutrients to complete the process. On the other hand,

micro-organisms facilitate the decomposition process, which is important for the release of

nutrients back into the soil. All these relationships are strongly linked. Thus, any disturbance

affects the balance of the whole ecosystem. Ecosystems are complex. There are several levels

of interaction. A typical ecosystem has roughly 4 distinct levels of organisms.

1st level organisms

These are plants, which produce organic materials. This means that they are “primary

producers”. Weeds are one type of plant that produces organic material, but weeds compete

with other plants for water, light, nutrients and space. Therefore, even though a weed is a

producer, it’s not very helpful to farmers like other plants that humans can eat.

2nd

level organisms

These are animals and other organisms that feed on plants. They are often called “primary

consumers”. Some 2nd level organisms include insects, rats, virus or fungi. These organisms

can damage farmers’ plants. If there are very few primary consumers, they can’t cause too

much damage. However, as their populations grow, they can cause much more damage and

become “pests”.

3rd

level organisms

These feed on the 2nd level organisms. They include the parasites and predators. They are

also called “farmers’ friends” or “natural enemies” because they attack organisms that could

become pests. Integrated pest management techniques preserve these organisms to keep

populations of 2nd level organisms low.

4th

level organisms

These are decomposers because they feed on dead parts of the ecosystem. They include

bacteria, fungi, and insects that feed on dead plants and other organisms. Decomposers



recycle the nutrients from these dead organisms back into the soil. They are essential to the

ecosystem because they keep it in balance. Without them, dead plants would pile up and the

soil would not replenish itself with new nutrients.

2.3.2 BIODIVERSITY

A healthy ecosystem has a high degree of diversity. There should be many species as well as

genetic diversity among that species. In practice, it means that we can see various kinds of

plants and animals. Some beneficial animals include earthworms, which help increase soil

fertility, as well as spiders, beetles, frogs and lizards that help suppress pest populations. If

we do not find many of these beneficial organisms in an agro-ecosystem, there is a problem

that is probably being caused by one of the following reasons:

The pesticides being used are killing beneficial organisms.

There is not enough food for the natural enemies. Most natural enemies at the larval

stage eat other insects such as caterpillars and leafhoppers, whereas the adults may

live on honey or pollen produced by wild plants in the environment. The adults need

adequate food to be able to produce eggs for the next generation. A variety of plants

are needed to maintain the populations of these natural enemies. The more diverse the

vegetation in an agro-ecosystem, the more diverse the natural enemy populations will

be. Thus, pest populations will be controlled naturally.

The soil texture does not support the life of earthworms and insects. Unfavorable

conditions for the soil inhabitants are often caused by low organic matter content or

flooding of a field. The soil becomes hard and/or short of oxygen. The disappearance

of the soil organisms will cause further deterioration of the soil.

2.3.3 LIFE CYCLES

Life cycles are the series of developmental changes an organism goes through. Most primary

consumers go through complete metamorphoses. It is important to know about life cycles

because organisms have different activities during different stages of life. For example, the

maize stalk borer starts as an egg, grows into a larva, then a pupa and finally becomes an

adult. The eggs are laid by adult moths on maize plants. After nine days, the eggs then hatch

into larvae which feed on young leaves for two to three days before they crawl up the plant

into the funnel. They enter inside the maize stems and start tunneling. When larvae are fully

grown, they pupate and remain inside the maize stem for about two weeks. Adults emerge

from pupae and come out of the stem. They mate and lay eggs on maize plants again and

continue damaging the crop. By understanding the most destructive stages of the pest life

cycles, farmers are able to position control measures appropriately.

2.3.4 FOOD CHAIN

A food chain shows how each living thing gets its food. Some animals eat plants and some

animals eat other animals. It shows the interaction between plants, pests and farmers’ friends

and how energy flows from one level of the ecosystem to another as organisms feed on each

other.



2.3.5 FOOD WEB

A food web is the interaction of food chains. Most organisms are part of more than one food

chain and eat more than one kind of food in order to meet their food and energy requirements.

Session Plan

Goals of the Session: For the group to be able to explain the relationship between the living

and nonliving things in the environment and to appreciate the importance of a balanced

ecosystem

What You Will Need: Notebook, pen/pencil, container

Time: 2 hours

Step 1: Ask each mini group to go to the field and identify and list all the living and

nonliving things that they see in a given area, say in a 1 meter by 1 meter area. They

should collect samples of insects and plants. (Please see later in this chapter for

information on how to construct an “Insect Zoo” and “Insect Box” that will house

these insects.) They should discuss how they think each one is connected to the

others.

Step 2: Each group should make a sketch showing all the things they observed, drawing

lines to show how things are connected and illustrating how they affect each other.

Step 3: You should visit all of the mini groups. What are the ecological relationships

between the organisms they have found? Help them to make the connections

between the living and nonliving things.

Step 4: Let each mini group present and explain its drawing to the other groups. The other

groups should listen and provide feedback. Perhaps the mini group missed

something. As a facilitator, you have the technical knowledge to make sure that the

mini groups are observing all the elements they should. You can also determine if

their recommended decisions are good ones.

Step 5: Synthesize all the information the mini groups have gathered. Now, using

information from the discussions, introduce the concept of an agro-ecosystem.

Explain the importance of studying an agro-ecosystem and maintaining its stability.

An ecosystem is like a community. There are living organisms like plants and insects. There

are also nonliving things like rain and dirt. All of the living and nonliving things interact with

each other. An agro-ecosystem is an ecosystem on a farm setting. Farms are used to grow

crops or raise animals, so an agro-ecosystem deserves special attention.

The environment determines the health of a crop or animal. The environment includes the

weather, soils and pests around the farm. Farmers should at all times conserve the natural

enemies present in the environment to keep the population of primary consumers low.

Otherwise, these primary consumers will become pests. This is a good way to manage an

agro-ecosystem. It is much better than using an “input-intensive” approach.

In an input-intensive approach, farmers purposely use inputs like pesticides to kill off pests or

harmful herbicides to suppress weed growth. These inputs greatly influence interactions in

the ecosystem. Pesticides kill many large pests but also those pests’ enemies. Thus, overuse



of pesticides has led to the reappearance of many minor pests without any natural enemies to

kill them. Similarly, the continuous use of ammonium-based fertilisers in agro- ecosystems

has led to new weed species.

Pesticides and fertilisers eliminate major problems, but they also create new ones. The

ecosystem becomes unbalanced and production becomes unsustainable. IPPM is a better

approach for creating a healthy, balanced agro-ecosystem. Farmers can learn how to

maximize productivity without destroying the ecosystem.

2.3.6 Agro-ecosystem Analysis

Defining AESA Parameters

AESA Parameters differ from crop to crop and place to place. It is necessary to identify right

the parameter before starting the AESA in the field.

Objective: Participant will be able to understand AESA and identify and select the parameter

for monitoring of yield attributing characteristics including disease, insect pest and weeds soil

nutrients, water requirement and growth stages of the crop .

Method: Participatory discussion

Duration: 2hour

Materials Required: Brown paper, marker, plastic bags, viles aspirator, lens, bottles

Procedure:

1. In an interactive session, ask what kind of information is needed to make

decisions regarding crop and pest management.

2. List down all the responses in brown paper.

3. Draw the crop plant in centre (for facilitation) and ask participants what

parameters should be taken. Probe them what are the major changes will occur

during crop growth period?

4. Facilitate them to select parameter within plant morphological characters and

other parameters that have direct relation to plant health.

5. For plant (crop) parameter (Biotic): Discuss major yield attributing parameters

(plant height, no of stems/tillers/branches, no of leaves, no of fruits/ flowers etc

where applicable) and crop growth stage.

6. For other biotic parameter discuss what kind of organism will play major role in

crop management decision practices.

o Insect pests

o Natural enemies

o Neutral insects/ decomposers

o Weeds

o Diseases

7. For abiotic factors discuss what parameter we should take that will help in

decision making practices and has the role in crop and abundance of insect pests

and diseases. Eg.

o Weather

Sunny/ rainy/ cloudy

Soil moisture

o Soil type



8. Discuss whether these ecosystem is changed by human intervention and necessary

to include in AeSA parameter such as

o Variety

o Planting distance

o Manure and fertilizer application (Dose, methods and timing).

o Application of pesticides

o Irrigation methods and timing

o Weeding/ earthing ups

o Etc.

9. Discuss how we will take observation of these parameters.

10. Conclude and Finalize the parameters of AESA

Samplings for AESA

Objective:

Participants will be able to identify and select the representative sample plant in

fields.

Method: Practical Exercise, Demonstration, Participatory discussion.

Duration: Half an hour

Materials Required: Peg, sickle, spade, sharp stick, tags, rope, iron nail, measuring tape etc.

Procedure:

1. Discuss about sampling, importance of sampling and sampling method.

2. Discuss how many plants should be observed and how these plants should be

chosen. (Usually 5 to 10 plants are observed).

3. One method to select sample plants is by using U or S or diagonal walking paths

along which plants are chosen at random. Another method to select sample plants

is to count the 5th plant from the edge, then move 1-2 rows and then count the 5th

plant from that position, etc., until sufficient plants are sampled.

4. Sample the x number of plants as agreed in the classroom session.

5. Pegging of samples by participants in their respective field.



AESA (Agro- eco- System Analysis)

Objective: To build awareness of relationships that exists between organisms and things

in the environment and crop Supports to improve observation skills, analytical skill,

presentation skill and decision making capability of the farmers.

Participants will be able to identify the problems and take appropriate decision to address the

problem.

Learning method: Practical exercise, Field visit and Observation

Duration: 2.5 hours

Materials Required:

Brown paper, marker, white board, scale, pencil, standard format, eraser, plastic bag/cups,

file, vial, sweep net, lens(10X), masking tape, Field, divided into a Farmer practice (FP) plot

and an IPM plot, Notebooks or AESA observation format for each group, Poster paper and

crayons, Jars / vials, plastic bags for collection of insects, plant parts that need to be drawn,

Paint brush to carefully collect insects for use in follow-up studies, Hand lens (one for each

group)

Procedure:

Discuss how the crop should be observed to collect all the necessary information to

make proper crop management decisions.

Each week, plants should be observed information recorded and discussed and then

take necessary action in the field. This discussion should lead to the standard agro-

ecosystem analysis as used in all IPM training courses.

A. Field observation

Each group observes the FP and the IP plot

1. Record the weather condition and soil moisture.

2. Carefully observe each whole sample plant and record any larger pests and beneficial

found on the different branches and leaves of the plant. Start from the top of the plant

and work downwards. Observe the flowers and fruits for any insects present or any

injury symptoms. Also observe the soil surface for any soil-dwelling pests or

beneficial.

3. Select three leaves from each sample plant, one taken from the top, one from the

middle and one from the bottom of the plant. Pick or turn the leaf and count the

number of thrips, leafhoppers, white flies, aphids (count winged and wingless aphids

separately), tiny spider mites and fast-moving predatory mites on both sides of leaves.

Use a hand lens! Record different leaf spot disease symptoms and count the number

of spots on the sampled leaves.

4. Count the egg masses, larvae and adults of leaf feeding insect pests (such as

caterpillars) per sample plant. Assess the percentage of fruits affected by fruit feeding

insect pests (such as boll worm, fruit fly) and count the insects present.

5. Count the branches that are affected by die-back or other shoot diseases per sample

plant. Assess the percentage of fruits affected by fruit affecting diseases (such as fruit

rot).

6. Out of the x sample plants, assess the number of plants with virus symptoms.

Likewise for wilting symptoms. Pull wilting plants and observe symptoms on the

roots, wilting parts of the plant.

7. Measures the samples plants according to selected yield attributing parameters.



8. Out of the x sample plants, note the number of plants with flowers/fruits to assess the

percentage of plants flowering/fruiting.

9. Do a walk-through: walk through the whole plot to assess whether any other

beneficial, pest or disease, not observed on the 10 sample plants, is occurring. Note

the general growth condition of the crop. Make records of the soil condition, water

availability, cultural practices, and presence of weeds (observe the different kinds of

weeds and the severity).

B. Drawing and processing:

Find a place to gather in nearby area from the FFS plot and make colour drawings on the

large piece of brown paper. Draw the plants with injury symptoms (disease symptoms, holes

due to insect feeding). On the left hand side of the plant, draw the pest insects and disease

symptoms found (use hand lens!):

Insect and disease

Indicate total number of pest insects found on the x sample plants

Indicate the total number of branches infected with disease on the x sample plants and the

percentage of plants with virus and wilting symptoms

If a wilted plant, that was uprooted, shows root damage, draw the damaged root.

Carefully indicate root deformations, colour differences, etc.

Indicate the percentage of fruits with injury symptoms

On the right-hand side of the plant, draw the beneficial found. If you don't know whether an

insect is a pest or a beneficial, draw it on the right-hand side with a question mark. Discuss

during the presentation how you can find out. Again indicate the total numbers found (and

calculate the average per plant). If weeds are occurring, draw the different weed species next

to the plant. Describe the general condition of the plant. Note weather, soil condition, etc as

well as last week’s management practices. Note on the posters what, if any, measures should

be taken (management decisions).Discuss crop condition, weather, soil, pests (including

diseases and weeds) and how these factors interact. Discuss in small group and finalize the

decision of group for action.

The parameters for “pests”, “natural enemies” and “crop development” are all spot

observations. Each mini group should report back the results of these observations as

well as its general observations about its plot.

During the field observation farmers collect samples of insects and plants with

unfamiliar conditions. The insects are observed in an insect zoo and later preserved in

an insect box. The farmers will be guided into making the insect zoo and insect box

after they have completed the four AESA stages.

(Prepare drawing according to AESA presentation format)

Farmers' Field School Operating Guideline on Quality seed production


AESA No.:

Name of FFS:

Name of Sub-group:

Date of observation M

General Information

Date of sowing Date of transplanting Weather condition

Crop: Age of Crop:

Variety: Plant growth stage

Method Fertilizer Dose: Kg/ropani Top dress date of fertilizer application: Moisture:

Samp

le No.

Plant

height

(cm)

Leaf/b

ranch

No.

Plant

canopy

(cm)

Pests Natural enemy Disease Weeds Remarks

1

2

3

4

5

Total

Avera

ge

Other Observation

1

2=

Analysis: Recommendation :



AESA Data Collection Compilation Sheet for Rice

Group:

Date:

Time:

Parameters FFS Sub-groups Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Pests

Natural enemies

Crop development Average

Average plant

height

Average # of tillers

Average # of leaves

Average # of

panicles

Average panicle

length

Average # of

grains/panicle

Average # of

full grains/panicle

Average # of empty

grains/panicle

General Observations

Soil moisture

Weed status

General crop appearance (uniformity, vigour and colour)

Any disease symptoms

Any nutritional deficiency disorders

Weather condition

C. Presentation in big group:



When all groups have finalized their drawings and answered the questions, the groups present

their work in front of the other groups. They explain the sampling, explain the drawings and

discuss the recommended decision on the measures that should be taken. Each week, a different

person of each group should do the presentation. The agro-ecosystem analysis drawings of

previous weeks should always be available for comparison and to discuss development of the

crop and insects populations. It is easily forgotten what the field looked like earlier in the season,

what insect populations were found, and what control measures were taken. Were the decisions

made in the previous agro-ecosystem analysis effective? If not, why not? After the group

presentations, a facilitator should summaries the recommendations of each group. Together with

all groups, a final decision is made which management measures will be taken in the different

plots. Also discuss which new problems were identified and how these will be investigated in the

following days.

AESA Presentation Format

Name of Farmers Group/Cooperative: AESA No. +

Observation Date:

Planting Date:

Transplanting Date:

Fertilizer:

Age of Plant:

Growth stage of Plant:

No. of seedling:

Planting Distance

Weather Condition

Observation

Parameter

Farmers Practice Improved Practice

difference Last week This

week

Difference Last

week

Difference

Canopy

Height

No. Of leaves

Unknown Insect

Pest

NE

Known Insect

Pest

NE

Other

Observation

Analysis Decision Analysis Decision



Step 8: Close the session. In the next session you will take your group through the next three

steps of AESA.

Analysis, Presentation and Synthesis

Observations are useless without analysis. Merely observing the height of a plant doesn’t tell

farmers much. They need to know whether the plant is as tall as it should be and what the plant’s

height means for the crop’s overall health. Once they make an analysis, they will need to present

their ideas to the group, which will make a management decision based on all the presentations.

Session Plan

Goals of the Session: For the FFS members to learn how to analyze their observations and

make decisions

What You Will Need: Flipcharts, markers, data sheets of the previous field observation

Time: 2 hours

Step 1: Remind the farmers of the observations they made in the last session.

Step 2: Introduce the analysis stage. The group has already done a mini- analysis in the session

on biodiversity. The goal now is to get the group to expand upon its observations.

Explain the following:

After every field observation, each mini group returns to the meeting site to summarize the data

collected and draw the agro-ecosystem.

Each member of the mini group will be involved with the activity. They will have discussions

about the data the mini group collected. Each mini group did a spot observation of several

stations. The group should take the data from all the stations and calculate the total population of

each type of insect and the averages for the respective crop development parameters.

A better way to answer the question is to ask more questions, such as, “Is the whole plant

affected? Have you seen this before? Is it a common condition in your fields at home?”

In case of insects, you might ask the participant, “Where did you find it? What was it doing?

Were there many of them?” The idea here is to promote learning by discovery and to lead the

person toward his/her own analysis.

Using the knowledge it has begun to gain from the learning activities, the group should develop

ideas on what immediate management actions to take.

On a well-labeled flip chart, each mini group draws the outcome. This is the AESA sheet and

generally has the following features:

General information about the field: These are parameters that may not regularly change over

the growth cycle and are usually recorded just once. General information may include species,



variety, treatment of the study, date of planting/transplanting, spacing, plot size, previous crop on

plot, etc.

Agronomic/Husbandry data: These are parameters that change over time like the growth stage,

average number of fruits, crop height or average number of damaged fruits. It can also include

management activities the group undertakes such as the dates for pruning, weeding, fertilizer

application, top dress, spraying, etc.

Diagram of the plant: The primary study element should be drawn as it appears at that growth

stage.

Insects: The population of pests and natural enemies.

Weather condition: This can be represented on the AESA sheet by pictures of clouds, rain

drops, and sun or tree branches being blown by wind for storms.

Observations and possible causes: These mainly include qualitative aspects like soil moisture,

weed status, crop vigor, field condition (weather), nutrient deficiency and disease symptoms,

conditions of the fruits, any physiological disorders, and damage by stray animals, etc.

Step 3: Each mini group will present the findings on their AESA sheet to the entire FFS. This is

the presentation part of the AESA cycle.

Management decisions

Step 4: After each presentation the FFS members should seek clarifications or make alternative

suggestions to the decisions being made by the mini group. It is time for the facilitator

to use his technical knowledge to “synthesize” the contributions of each mini group.

S/he must guide the discussion toward the most appropriate crop management decision

by assisting the participants in relating the various concepts applicable at this crop

growth stage to the observations they have made. The group as a whole will make a

final management decision.

2.3.7 Insect Zoo

Many questions about insects can be answered by setting small experiments in an insect zoo. Use

transparent boxes with fresh leaves. Or use potted plants inside a small cage. Always make sure

that the insects have fresh food. Keep the zoo in a shaded place to avoid high temperature. Take

care that the environment inside the zoo does not get too dry or too humid.

Assign responsibility for the zoo to one or more farmers. They have to make sure that the insects

have sufficient food, and they have to make daily observations.

Use insect's zoos for:

Study the life cycles of insects

Keep caterpillars and see how they feed and how they pupate and develop to adult

butterflies

Study feeding behavior of insects

What do they eat?

How do they eat?



Figure 5: The Insect Zoo

How much do they eat?

Study predators

How do they feed?

How many insects can they eat in one day?

Study parasitoids

Keep larvae and pupae of insects and see if they are parasitized

Other experiments

Session Plan

Goals of the Session: For the group to keep insects in insect zoo and take care of them

What You Will Need: Clear plastic boxes, pens, exercise books

Time: 1 hour

STEP 1: Ask the group members who have collected the insects to some plant parts, on which

the insects feed, on the zoo.

Step 2: Place insets as per the objective of the study listed above.

Step 3: Discuss the observations to be made throughout the study period.

Step 4: Assign responsibility of group member for observation and record keeping.

2.4 IMPLEMENTATION STRUCTURE OF FFS

The implementation of quality seed production FFS will be done by farmers group and

cooperatives with the assistance of

Trained FFS facilitator from DADO for technical support



DCCI for establishing linkage with the traders and processors through having buy back

contract/guarantee

PIU for grant management and monitoring support

Municipality for additional assistance and establishing promotional pathways as well as

monitoring the activities

Figure 6: Implementation structure of quality seed production FFS

2.5 SEASON LONG LEARNING ACTIVITIES The learning curriculum in FFS follows the lifecycle of the primary study enterprise. For seed

crops the group will follow its crop from seed to seed. It is important for the facilitator to go

through each stage of the life cycle. This usually is season-long and in some instances may be up

to two farming seasons. The season-long duration of the learning process is to ensure that all

development stages of the study enterprise are studied and all management decisions are seen

through to their economic ends. It provides ample time for the farmers to experiment and

validate different aspects of the enterprise development. By the end of the training, the farmers

become proficient in handling the enterprise they have studied.

The reasons for adopting a season-long learning approach are:

Seed Producing FGs/Coops

Ministry of Agricultural

Development

Program Management Office

Implementing Partners

Heifer International AEC/FNCCI SFDB/ NACCFL

Seed Companies DCCI DPIU DADO

Quality Seed Production FFS

Municipality



Only some of the management problems may occur throughout the growth cycle, but

variations in insect population dynamics and disease epidemics are often specific to

certain stages.

Depending on the development stage, each crop exhibits different responses to stress

factors like nutrient deficiencies, moisture and physical damage. Phenomena like plant

compensation, excessive vegetative growth or fruit abortions can only be appreciated by

farmers after thorough observation.

The outcomes of management decisions made during one crop stage are observable only

at another later crop stage, and most often at harvest in terms of yield, quality or

profitability.

The season long learning activities can be chosen from CHAPTER IV.

SPECIAL TOPICS

Whereas the technical content of the season-long curriculum is developed around a selected

entry point which forms the basis for the core learning activities, FFS discuss broader aspects

that may not be related to the study enterprise but have bearing on the participants’ livelihoods.

Some of the special topics are identified during the Ground working stage and you will

incorporate them into the curriculum during the Group Action Plan development stage. A few

topics often emerge in the course of the learning cycle. The special topics are usually slotted in

whenever there is no critical core topics related to the crop growth stage. Special topics will vary

from community to community, but some of the common important inclusions have been:

Social inclusion in development activities

Gender-based violence and gender discrimination

Basic principles of nutrition and food security

Reproductive and family health care

Water, sanitation and hygiene

The importance of immunization

Basic principles of environmental management

water and soil conservation

Basic financial management skills

In addition to providing a break for farmers from the routine subject matter, special topics show

the members that the FFS is responsive to their needs by providing a forum in which they can

discuss problems within their own local context and seek local solutions with minimal external

influence. This phenomenon has been a fundamental factor in maintaining continuous attendance

and developing farmers’ confidence to determine their destinies. Some references for special

topics have been provided in CHAPTER VI.



2.6 SEED PRODUCTION AS A BUSINESS Most of the FFS participants will be subsistence farmers. Whatever they grow, they eat. While

subsistence farming helps farmers meet their basic food needs, it’s a dangerous lifestyle. If the

crop fails, the farmers have no safety net. They will need to get help from outside sources. The

FFS approach emphasizes the value of moving from subsistence farming to commercial farming.

If the participants make good management decisions, they can feed themselves and create their

own safety net. The next time a crop fails, the farmers will remain financially secure because

they will have learned how to select the right enterprises, diversify their activities, save money

and maximize profits. The starting point of the FFS process is a small plot of land that farmers

can use to experiment and practice farming techniques. The goal, however, is for the FFS to use

this practice and the knowledge it has gained from the learning programme to develop a

sustainable commercial activity. The FFS method treats farming as a business. You will need to

lead your group in a session so that it becomes comfortable with the concept of Farming as a

Business (FAAB). This manual will explore these concepts in more detail later.

The goal of Farming as a Business is profit maximization. There are three major factors that

contribute to profit maximization:

1. Minimum costs

2. Maximum yield

3. Higher prices

Minimum Costs

High Cost Option Low Cost Option

Fertilizer Green manure/FYM

Hire labour to weed FFS members weed

Individual input purchase Bulk buying through groups/cooperatives

In order to increase profit, a farmer must first reduce production and marketing costs. Often costs

can be reduced without sacrificing crop health or environmental sustainability.

Maximum Yield

The farmers will develop good agricultural practices from their study plots. They must use these

practices to maximize yield. The farmers will attain higher yields if they:

Plant in a timely manner

Use improved inputs

Properly manage soil and water use

Keep the fields free of weeds

Control pests and disease

Harvest promptly

Higher Prices



Farmers can add value to their products by adding features. Even though the farmers want to cut

costs they should be willing to spend on product improvements that will bring higher prices. For

example, packaging the product costs money but adds value because consumers will pay more

for a clean, easy-to-handle product. Simple seed processing like cleaning, grading and packaging

almost doubles the price at which farmers can sell their product. Alternatively, if the FFS groups

are organized under a network and have made legal buy back guarantee with the seed

processors/traders, they can decide to sell their produce in competitive price and earn more.

The Right Combination

The goal is to balance the 3 elements to achieve profit maximization. Of course, it is easy to

lower costs-a farmer could simply cut off the inputs to buy. However, this is not a very good

business practice because farmers cannot earn profit if they do not invest in their business.

Farmers can add value to most products, but they can only charge high prices if consumers are

willing to pay for such improvements.

Session Plan

Goals of the Session: For the group to understand the value of moving from subsistence farming

to commercial farming


Time: 90 minutes

Step 1: Begin with farmers’ thoughts about the vegetables and cereals seed production in their

community.

You should lead them to talk about general observations about farmers of KUBK project districts

which include:

They usually have small plots

Crops and animals share the same small plot

They have difficulty controlling diseases and pests on the crops

They lack modern farming skills, making production unsustainable

There is little economic importance attached to seed production

They do not attach any cost to the factors of production

Step 2: Discuss their understandings of farming and business. Do they see them as separate

ideas? Do they know anyone who has a commercial seed production business? Ask

them to contrast commercial production versus seed production, commercial seed

production versus subsistence seed production. Do most seed producers approach seed

production like a business? What are the common businesses in their community? Is

seed production one of them?

Step 3: Present the objectives of Seed production as a business:

For farmers to appreciate that seed production is a form of business

For farmers to gain the business management skills necessary for a successful FFS seed

business enterprise



For farmers to be able to adapt what they have learned from the FFS process to a

successful enterprise

Step 4: Define and discuss the methods of SPAB. Explain the three keys for maximizing profit:

low costs, maximum yield and high selling prices. What ideas does the group have

about how to keep costs low, maximize yield and attain high prices?

2.6.1 SEED ENTERPRISE SELECTION

When the FFS made the Group Action Plan, it chose a study enterprise. The members may have

decided to study maize, rice, wheat, vegetable seed production. Once the study fields have been

established and the learning programme is in progress, you will need to move the FFS toward

developing a commercial enterprise to enable them to apply the skills and information from the

learning.

An enterprise is any activity a person or group does to generate income. In an FFS, the goal of an

enterprise is to maximize profits. These profits should be reinvested into the enterprise to

increase the size of the business or to increase savings. As the size of the business increases,

profits should increase as well.

An entrepreneur is a person who takes risks to try to earn money. An entrepreneur establishes

enterprises. He takes a lot of risks because he must invest much money before the enterprise can

even begin production.

There are several factors that can lessen the risk for an entrepreneur and increase the chance of

success for her/his enterprise:

A reliable market: Is there a shortage of a certain product in the community but a strong

demand for it? For example, if only one person in the area sells onions seeds to the trader or

processor in high price and he frequently runs out, there is room for an onion enterprise in the

community.

Profitability: Can the product fetch high prices?

Capital requirements: Is starting the enterprise too expensive? If start-up costs are high, a

group can run out of money midway through implementation. Such an enterprise would have to

be part of a longer-term plan.

Availability of resources: Does the group have the resources it needs to properly run the

enterprise? If not, are these resources easy to attain?

Location: Does the crop grow well in the area?

Risks: What are the risks involved? Is the group comfortable with taking these risks?

Sustainability: Is there long-term potential for the product?

Duration: How long will the enterprise run before it accrues returns?

Productivity: Because most FFSs will be starting with a small plot, they should choose

enterprises that use the space effectively. Some crops produce more than others.

Availability of space: Is there room to properly undertake the enterprise?

Matches skill level of group: The group members should choose an enterprise that uses the

skills they have learned in the FFS.

Session Plan



Goals of the Session: For the group to select a profitable commercial enterprise for its FFS


PRA Tools to Use: Options Assessment Format, Pairwise Ranking

Time: 2 hours

Step 1: Recap the discussion from the previous session introducing SPAB. Make sure the group

understands the SPAB message.

Step 2: Explore the farmers’ understandings of enterprise and entrepreneurship. Do they know

what these concepts mean? Do they know any entrepreneurs in the community? What

are some examples of enterprises in the community? Are these successful? If so, why?

Do they lower costs, add value or both? What enterprises failed?

Step 3: Discuss the factors for success in an enterprise.

Step 4: Break into mini groups. Ask each group to discuss:

Whether the FFS should establish a group enterprise

The types of enterprises the FFS can undertake

The challenges to starting a group enterprise

Step 5: Each mini group should present a proposal for a group enterprise. It should also briefly

describe the challenges to establishing this specific enterprise.

If the group is having trouble, you can use an options assessment format and/ or pair-wise

ranking to agree on the 5 best business ideas.

Step 6: Begin the enterprise selection process, using the proposals from the mini groups as

options. Place each proposal into categories so they can easily compare them: farmers

may choose between cereals and vegetables, In cereals the options could be rice, maize

or wheat and in vegetables it could be cauliflower, broad leaf mustard, radish, carrot,

cow pea, pea, French bean, tomato, onion.

You must also develop the criteria for selecting the enterprise. The success factors

listed above are some criteria the group can use but they may think of more. For

example, members might ask how long the crops take to mature. Talk about each

potential enterprise and whether it can meet the success factors. Try to narrow the list

down to 5 potential business ideas for the group to analyze in more detail.

Step 7: From this smaller list of business ideas, have the group get more in-depth into the criteria

it should use to select its enterprise. Help the farmers decide which criteria are the most

important. You can do this by “weighting” the criteria. Every criterion gets a numerical

value. The most important criterion gets the highest number (e.g. 10) and the least

important gets the lowest number. Here is an example of a weighted list of criteria and

the group’s reasons for the order.



Weight

Criterion

Reason

10 Profitability The ultimate goal of the FFS is to earn maximum profits, to

this gets the highest weight.

9 Market availability Availability affects profitability.

8 Start-up costs The group does not have a lot of capital, so it requires an

enterprise with low start-up

costs. 7 Duration to maturity

The money made in the enterprise needs to be used to pay

back the group's welfare fund as soon as possible.

6 Risks The group is comfortable with risk-taking after the learning

program. weighted lower than most criteria.

5 Skills The group has developed skills it can use in each of the 5

categories. Thus, skills get the lowest weight.

The criteria in the table are just an example and the criteria can change depending on the

enterprise (except for profit maximization and market availability which should always come

first.) For example, in vegetables like tomatoes and cauliflower that are highly affected by

weather, the risk will weigh more than duration to maturity.

Step 8: Ask the farmers to vote on each of the criteria. The Weighted Table on the next page

shows how the voting process might look given the criteria above. This particular group

has focused on 5 potential enterprises: rice, wheat, tomato, onion, French bean seed

production.

Weighted Table

1. Based on the local experience, have the group reflect on the status of each enterprise in its

village independent of the other 4 enterprises. Ask participants to vote by a show of hands.

Count the number of participants who agree with the following statements:

Growing (enterprise A) in our village is profitable.

There is market for (enterprise A) in our village.

The start-up costs for establishing a (enterprise A) business is low.

(Enterprise A) takes a short time to mature

There are low risks associated with a (enterprise A) business.

We can attain the skills to grow and handle (enterprise A).

Tally the votes against the respective boxes as shown in the table below

Enterprise Profit

W= 10

Market

W = 9

Start-up

costs

W=8

W= 8

Duration

W = 7

Risks

W = 6

Skills

W = 5

Total

score Rank

Rice 7= 70 13= 117 8= 64 18=126 18=108 13=65 550 3



Enterprise Profit

W= 10

Market

W = 9

Start-up

costs

W=8

W= 8

Duration

W = 7

Risks

W = 6

Skills

W = 5

Total

score Rank

Wheat 18=180 23=207 9=72 4=28 7= 42 18=90 619 2

Tomato 6=60 13=117 15=120 20=140 27=162 6=30 629 1

Onion 17=170 18=162 9 = 72 1 =7 15=90 7=35 536 4

French bean 13=130 19=171 1=8 7=49 8=48 16=80 486 5

Multiply the tallies for each criterion by the weight

Add the scores for all the criteria for each enterprise to get the total score

Rank the enterprises by total scores. The highest score ranks #1.

Step 9: The outcome of the weighted ranking will be based on the group’s local knowledge and

experience with the enterprises being compared. To ensure that the enterprise it has

selected is technically viable and potentially profitable, the group needs to do further

analysis. In the next session the group will do a profitability analysis of the top three

potential enterprises. In this case, the group will look at tomato, wheat and rice.

2.6.2 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS

The group has already narrowed its potential enterprises down to three. During the next two

sessions it will determine the enterprise it will undertake. The group will explore which of its

final three enterprises is the most profitable. A profitability analysis has two parts. The first part

is a gross margin analysis. The second is a risk analysis.

Gross Margin Analysis

Profit refers to the amount of money a person makes from a business. Profit equals total revenue

minus total costs. A businessperson wants to earn more money from sales than the amount he/she

invested in the business. Here’s an example:

A farmer spends Rs 40, 000 on transport, seeds and fertilizers to grow a tomato crop for seed

production. After the tomatoes have produced seeds he/she sells all of them to a seed merchant

on Rs 100, 000. How much profit has he/she made?

Total Sales = Rs100,000 tomato seeds

Total Cost = Rs 40,000 for transport, seed and fertiliser

PROFIT = Rs 60,000

Rs 60,000 profit goes directly to the farmer. She/he can use it for food or clothing; invest it back

into his/her business or save it. He/she decides how to use it.

A gross margin analysis will help the group estimate the profit. It matches the estimated costs of

the enterprise, such as production and marketing, against the estimated revenue from the

enterprise.



Session Plan

Goals of the Session: For the group to carry out a profitability analysis of the 3 enterprise for its

FFS

What You Will Need: Flipcharts, markers, Record to Introduce: Gross Margin Analysis

Time: 90 minutes

Step 1: The facilitator should review what was discussed and decided at the last session.

Step 2: Discuss terms that will be used in the gross margin analysis.

Gross margin: The estimated profits.

Total costs: The amount you spend on producing the product.

Total revenue: The total amount that you earn from selling all your products.

Yield/Output: The amount of a product you produce.

Price: The amount for which you sell each product item.

Step 3: Ask the FFS to start with one of the 3 enterprises it listed in the previous session.

Have the FFS break into mini groups. Ask them to:

List all the activities the group would need to implement from the start to the end of the

enterprise.

List all the inputs it would need to run 1 ropani of the enterprise. These inputs could

include land, labour, tools, seeds, equipment and advertisements.

Estimate the cost of each input, using personal experience as a guide.

Calculate the total costs of the inputs.

Ask members to estimate the total output of the enterprise, using their own experiences with the

crop as a guide.

Establish the projected market price per unit of the product (this information should come from

market surveys or farmers’ experiences).

Calculate the expected returns by multiplying the output by the market price per unit.

Subtract projected total costs from expected returns to calculate the gross margin.

Step 4: Each mini group should present its findings. Each one will have slightly different

results. What inputs were left out? Ask the group to agree on the costs listed until it has

a gross margin analysis that every group agrees on.

Step 5: Repeat for each potential enterprise.

Example of Gross Margin Analysis and Risk Analysis of French bean seed production in 5

ropani

Gross Margin Analysis Risk Analysis




Expected Yield = 1000 kg

Selling Price per kg = Rs200

Expected Revenue (1000 kg x 200 ) =

Rs 2,00,000

Total Production Cost = 150,000

Revenue – Total Production Cost = 50,000

profit

10% Yield Decrease

100 kg – (10% of 100) = 90 kg

10% Price Decrease

Rs 200 – (10% of Rs 200) = Rs180

10% Production Cost Increase

Rs150,000 + (10% of 250,000) = Rs 175,000

NEW GROSS MARGIN

If there is a 10% decrease in yield:

(900kg x Rs 200) – Rs 150,000 = Rs 30,000

profit

If there is a 10% decrease in price:

(1000kg x Rs 180) – Rs 150,000 = 30,000

profit

If there is a 10% increase in productions costs:

(1000kig x Rs 200) – Rs165,000 = 35,000

profit

If there is a 10% decrease in revenue and a 10%

increase in production costs:

Rs180,000 – Rs 165,000 = 15,000 profit




Expected Yield = 1000 kg

Selling Price per kg = Rs200

Expected Revenue (1000 kg x 200 ) =

Rs 2,00,000

Total Production Cost = 150,000

Revenue – Total Production Cost = 50,000

profit

10% Yield Decrease

100 kg – (10% of 100) = 90 kg

10% Price Decrease

Rs 200 – (10% of Rs 200) = Rs180

10% Production Cost Increase

Rs150,000 + (10% of 250,000) = Rs 175,000

NEW GROSS MARGIN

If there is a 10% decrease in yield:

(900kg x Rs 200) – Rs 150,000 = Rs 30,000

profit

If there is a 10% decrease in price:

(1000kg x Rs 180) – Rs 150,000 = 30,000

profit

If there is a 10% increase in productions costs:

(1000kig x Rs 200) – Rs165,000 = 35,000

profit

If there is a 10% decrease in revenue and a 10%

increase in production costs:

Rs180,000 – Rs 165,000 = 15,000 profit

Similarly analyze gross margin and risks for other three enterprises and decide the most

profitable one.

2.6.3 RISK ANALYSIS

Farmers face various risks. For example, a crop’s market price could suddenly drop. If this

happens, the farmer could lose a lot of money. Or weather conditions could change, ruining a

crop.

Risk analysis is aimed at determining how negative changes to the following factors affect

overall profitability:

Cost of production (increase)

Outputs/yields (decrease)

Market prices (drop)

Rain-fed agricultural enterprises are open to much risk. Drought, water-logging, and the presence

of pests and diseases are all risks associated with such enterprises. A change to any of these

factors can greatly alter the overall profitability of the enterprise. Sometime this is to the farmer’s

advantage. If, for example, disease wipes out others farmers’ onion seed crops, market prices for

onions seeds will go up because there are not as many. If the FFS is able to prevent disease from

destroying its onion crop, it will be able to sell its onions seeds for much higher prices than it had

planned.

Often, however, changes are to the disadvantage of farmers. That is why the FFS must consider

the risks associated with each enterprise.



Session Plan

Goals of the Session: For the group to carry out a risk analysis of the 3 enterprises

What You Will Need: Flipcharts, markers, Gross Margin Analysis from last session

Time: 90 minutes

The risk analysis is difficult. It requires basic algebra skills to do correctly. Even with math

skills, the process can take some time. To make it easier for the participants, do an example with

small numbers so that they can understand the concept.

Step 1: Risk analysis builds on the work the group did in the last session. The secretary should

review what was discussed and decided.

Step 2: Brainstorm the risks in farming. What problems have the farmers encountered before?

Explain that a risk analysis will help determine the effects of changes to costs of

production, output or prices.

Step 3: Display the gross margin analyses from the last session. The group will use this for the

risk analysis.

Step 4: Compute how projected gross margins change with a 5% or10% change in yield, price

and production costs.

Step 5: Some enterprises have very low gross margins even under ideal circumstances.

Therefore, a small decrease in revenue or increase in production cost can make

completely unprofitable. Calculate the percentage at which each enterprise becomes

unprofitable. If it is less than 10% the enterprise should be considered risky. Anything

less than 5% is very risky.

CROP

Gross Margin Analysis Risk Analysis Score

Expected

Total

Revenue

A

Total

Production

Costs

B

Original

Gross

Margins

C =

(A-B)

New TC

after 10%

increase

D

New

price

after 10%

decrease

E

New

yield

after 10%

decrease

F

New

expected

revenue

G =

(E x F)

New

gross

margin

H =

(G – D)

Return

per unit

Cost [new

GM ÷

new TC]

I =

(G÷C)

Rice

Wheat

Tomato

It is important that you as a facilitator guide the group in drawing appropriate conclusions from

the profitability analyses. High gross margins are important, but so are low production costs. A

crop with a low cost of production is one in which every rupee invested produces the highest

return.



In making a final decision, all factors must be considered. These factors include:

• Household food security and nutrition

• Weather patterns

• Changes in market patterns

• Gender limitations

The FFS has selected its business enterprise based on a detailed criterion. It has a good idea of

how profitable the business is. The FFSs members now need to prepare for its implementation.

The FFSs needs to organize all the resources (human and material), that will be required to run

their enterprise (business). This is for the FFSs to ensure that their time and limited resources are

optimally utilized and costs are minimized as much as possible. This process is called Business

Planning and must be done before implementation of the enterprise starts.

The Business Planning process involves

Organization of resources, which involves the following 5 key steps:

Determining the scale of production

Budgeting which involves computing the start up costs including operational and fixed

costs

Drawing rules and regulations

Assigning roles and responsibilities and

Drawing the work plan

Implementation, which involves drawing the business plan and management.

2.6.4 BUDGETING FOR THE FFS COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISE

The FFS has selected its business enterprise based on detailed criteria. It has a good idea of how

profitable the business is. But to ensure that the enterprise meets the group’s expectations, it will

need to budget its resources, plan well and manage the business properly.

To ensure that the enterprise meets the group’s expectations, it will need to budget its resources,

plan well and manage the business properly.

Budgeting is the process of deciding where your resources will come from, where they will go

and how they will be utilized. The FFSs will need to develop a budget in order to evaluate

whether they have enough capital to implement the selected enterprise. The FFSs will also need

to project the cash flow after budgeting, to further enable them ascertain whether they will be in

a position to undertake the implementation at every stage, or if they will need to find alternative

funding sources.

A typical FFS budget has 5 components: fixed costs, variable costs, a financial plan, projected

returns and projected cash flow.

Fixed Costs

This is a cost that stays the same whether production goes up or down. See the example below.

This FFS needed materials to build a threshing floor for seed extraction of wheat. These are fixed

costs because they do not recur.



Budget for Fixed Costs

Item (inputs) Detailed description Quantity Unit cost Total cost

Sand

River sand for masonry 3 m3 10,000 90,000

Cement Ordinary Portland cement 1 m3 35000 35,000

Aggregate Sand stone aggregate 6 m3 20,000 120,000

Stones Locally available hard stones 5 m3 10,000 10,000

Skilled labor Mason 10 MD 1000 10,000

Unskilled labor General 20 MD 500 10,000

Subtotal Fixed Cost 275,000

Variable Costs

Variable costs are also known as operational costs. These costs go up the more that is produced.

For example, to produce more seeds a farmer needs more foundation seeds. Each additional

kilogram of foundation seed costs more money. All the items should be added to determine the

estimated operational costs for the enterprise. The operational costs plus the fixed costs equal the

total projected cost for the first cycle of the enterprise.

Budget for Variable Costs

Item (inputs) Detailed description Quantity Unit cost Total cost

Seed Source seed for seed production 60 kg 120 7200

Fertilizer Recommended dose of fertilizer 50 kg 30 1500

Plant

protection

Bio-pesticides 2l 2000 4000

Labor Human labor for land preparation,

weeding etc. 40 500 20000

Bullock For land preparation and threshing 5 2000 10000

Sub-total Operational Costs 42,700

Total Cost = Fixed Costs + Variable/Operation Costs

Therefore Total Cost = (A + B) = 275,000 + 42700 = 3,17,700

Financial Plan

This budget component shows how the FFS will get the money to implement the project. Look

at the example below. This group has identified five sources of funding. Most of the funding will

come from a KUBK grant, but the group will also use FFS savings, member contributions, small

loans and charitable contributions to implement its project.

Source of funding Amount

1. Members’ contributions



2. FFS savings

3. KUBK grant

4. Grant from Rural municipality/municipality

5. Loan

Other sources

Total contributions

Total projected costs

Deficit

Projected returns

The group should use the profitability analysis to determine the projected return of the enterprise.

Projected returns

Product Yield/output Market price Total return

Main product

By-product

Total

Projected Cash Flow

A cash flow statement is an estimate of what the group’s financial standing will be at any time. It

ensures that there is enough cash to pay for future expenses. It helps the FFS make decisions

about how to manage its money. On the other hand, it can enable the group to decide whether to

go ahead and implement the enterprise or not, depending on how the costs will be spread over

the implementation period. At times of the year when the group’s cash is invested in outside

activities, the FFS can decide to request member contributions, borrow from a bank, take out a

loan or borrow from a microfinance institution.

Projected Cash Flow

Expenses/

Income

Period (2017/18)

April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March

A. Expenses

(outflows)

TOTAL

OUTFLOW

B. Income



Total Inflow

Net Inflow

(Total

inflow-total

outflow)

Session Plan

Goals of the Session: For the group to prepare a budget for its enterprise

What You Will Need: Flipcharts, markers, calculators, Work Plan

Records to Introduce: Budget, Cash Flow Statement

Time: 2 hours

Step 1: The secretary should review the decisions made at the last session. Explain that the next

step of planning an enterprise is preparing a budget.

Step 2: Brainstorm the importance of budgeting for FFS businesses.

Step 3: Guide the members through the process of developing a budget for their enterprise.

Take them through each of the five budget components.

Step 4: Review the work plan with the group. Is the group ready to implement it?

2.6.5 ENTERPRISE MANAGEMENT

After drawing the budget and making the cash flow projection, the FFSs will be in a position to

decide whether

To start implementation if the cash projection is manageable

To wait until they have raised enough resources or select an alternative enterprise

The scale of production is appropriate or there is a need to scale down or up

Once the FFSs decide to start the implementation of the enterprise, the next step is to draw a

business plan to organize the required resources for the management and implementation.

Making a Business Plan

Creating a profitable business requires thorough planning. A business plan is a tool for guiding

an enterprise. The group must make a business plan that utilizes its members’ time well and

keeps costs low. Business planning includes the following activities:

Writing a brief description of the business product:

What will the business produce?

To whom will the business sell the product?

What makes this business unique?



Writing a detailed description of the products or services the business will offer

Providing a detailed description of the market (customer base):

Who are the potential customers?

How many potential customers are there?

In how large an area do these customers live?

How much of the product will customers want?

When is there the most demand for the product?

How much will customers pay?

Are there any competitors selling similar products?

What do the competitors charge?

Providing the scale of production and how much capital is required to start the business

and what inputs are needed:

How much of each input does the group need?

Assigning roles and responsibilities to members in managing the enterprise

Keeping good records

Marketing the product

Session Plan

Goals of the Session: For the group to prepare a business plan and a work plan

What You Will Need: Flipcharts, markers, Inventory Sheet, Gross Margin Analysis Records to

Introduce: Business Plan, Work Plan

PRA Tools to Use: Seasonal Calendar

Time: 2-3 hours

Step 1: The secretary should review the minutes of the previous session. Make sure he explains

which enterprise the group chose and why.

Step 2: Explain how the enterprise selection process relates to business planning. A good

business plan identifies what resources the group needs, when the group needs each

resource, and from where the group will get each resource.

Step 3: Ask participants to brainstorm why the FFS should have a business plan. Build on their

responses to explain why a business plan is good for the FFS:

A business plan identifies resources.

It gives the group a direction because it divides the business goal into

individual activities.

It states the results the group hopes to achieve.

It determines how much investment is needed to start the business.

Step 4: Discuss the key obstacles the group faces in planning the business. Does it not know the

cost of certain resources? Is it uncertain about the time frame of the enterprise?

Step 5: Use a blank business plan to describe each of the components on the sheet. Look below

for an example of a simplified business plan.

Step 6: Begin filling out the business plan. Ask the group to summarize its objectives. This

should be simple: the goal of every FFS enterprise is profit maximization. The group



just needs to identify what enterprise will help it earn profits. The specific objectives of

every group are also the same. To maximize profits the group will need to maximize

yield, minimize costs and sell at a high price. Exactly how will the group maximize

yield? What will it do to minimize costs? What strategy does it have to demand high

prices? Write all of this on the business plan.

Step 7: Based on the budget estimates drawn and cash flow projection, decide and agree on the

scale of production and estimated start-up and operating costs for the enterprise. Place

the scale of production, estimated start-up costs and sources of funding on the business

plan.

Step 8: Assign roles and responsibilities to members. This includes agreeing on the rules that

every member must follow such as members’ financial contributions towards financing

the enterprise. Make sure the group indicates what the penalties are if members break

the rules. Write out these roles on the business plan.

Step 9: Begin writing out a simple work plan. The members should use the cash flow together

with the budget and their own knowledge of the enterprise to determine specific

activities that they will need to do and when. The group can use a seasonal calendar if

appropriate to determine when each step must take place.

2.6.6 SEED BUSINESS PLAN

NAME OF FFS: ……………..Farmer Field School

VILLAGE: Rural municipality/municipality: DISTRICT:

Group Enterprise:

Overall Objective: To maximize the group’s income through commercial production of

………….seeds

Specific Objectives

• To maximize yield through use of improved varieties

• To minimize costs through use of group labour

• To get premium prices by selling high quality seeds

Estimated Start-up Costs: Rs…………..

Sources of Funding

• Members’ contributions, Rs ……

• Group Fund, Rs….

KUBK grant Rs

Scale of Enterprise

Start with ……………………….and expand to……………….

Members’ Roles and Responsibilities

4 working committees under the leadership of a coordinator



• Purchases committee (3 members)

• Production committee (4 members)

• Finance committee (Treasurer and 3 members)

• Marketing committee (3 members)

Rules and Regulations

• All members to pay contribution of Rs…….. each

• All members to work on group production plots at least once a week

• A fine of Rs…. for absenting from group work

• All members to carry out monthly monitoring visits

Activity When Where Responsible person Resources Expected

output

Ploughing

Seed purchases

Planting

Weeding

Harvesting

Drying &

threshing

Sorting &

bagging

Marketing

Implementing the Business Plan

Now that the FFS has made a plan, it’s time to use it. In this session, the group will organize

start-up operations. There will need to be a lot of coordination at this stage because some

activities may take place at the same time. The key operations areas to consider at this stage are:

Securing funds for the business: This will depend on the financial plan laid down. Will this be

done through members’ contributions, FFS savings, loans or some other method? It is

recommended that most of the financing for the enterprise come from the FFS’s own fund, but

members may wish for your guidance in writing grant proposals.

Securing enough land or an appropriate site for the business: Lack of land is often the

biggest obstacle to FFSs starting enterprises. The FFS may hire land or purchase its own where it

is deemed cost effective and it has the resources. Relying on members to provide the land can

become a problem because it causes a power imbalance in the group. However, where it

happens, there should be clear agreement on how the member will be compensated.



Finding locations where the business can operate: These locations can be either owned or

hired by the FFS.

Getting supplies/inputs that are needed to start the business: The sooner equipment and

supplies are purchased, the sooner the FFS can begin its enterprise.

Preparing to sell its product: The group should identify in what exact shops or stalls it wants to

sell its product. It should also consider how to advertise its product. People will not buy the

product if they do not know about it. Advertising is often the most neglected aspect of enterprise

development. Therefore, it needs to be addressed at the planning stage.

Management is about using all the FFS resources in the best possible way. These resources can

be material, financial or human. There are three key business objectives that contribute to

increased profitability. Your group will need to properly manage each of these business

objectives.

Minimizing Costs

The less the group spends, the more it can make. The group can cut spending without reducing

product quality by:

Selecting an appropriate scale for the enterprise: Based on projected cash flow, the group

now has the information it needs to definitively decide on the scale of the enterprise. If

the enterprise is too large, the group may have to spend a lot of money on transport. If the

enterprise is too small in scope, however, the FFS will not be spending efficiently

because the output will be too small to enable it to recover all its costs. The group should

determine a scale that is affordable, achievable and with a sizeable gross margin.

Using locally available materials: Locally available materials cost much less to transport.

Purchasing from dependable sources: It is important to build trust between the FFS and

suppliers. A supplier who is not dependable may supply the wrong inputs, which will cost

the FFSs more resources to acquire the desired inputs. In addition, as the FFS enterprise

proves to be a good customer, it may ask for discounts from suppliers.

Purchasing in bulk through FFS networks: Suppliers give discounts to organizations that

buy in bulk. If your group coordinates its orders with other FFSs in the area, it can save

quite a bit of money.

Undertaking its own work: The more work activities the members do themselves; the less

they have to pay for outside labor.

Purchasing in bulk: FFSs can coordinate purchases within their network to save money.

Adopting collective marketing: If there are more FFS groups engaged in the same enterprise,

they may source the market, bargain jointly and pool costs. For instance, they can use the same

supplier to procure supplies in bulk, thus taking advantage of economies of scale. Maximizing

Output



The more the group produces, the more it can sell. The goal of the FFS learning programme is to

develop local farmers into experts. A very large part of the learning programme will be studying

and experimenting on which farming methods increase output. The FFS enterprise can maximize

output by:

Using labor-saving technologies

Using best practices: spacing, weed control, pest and disease control, timely harvesting

and post-harvest management

Operating on a timely, regular basis

Fetching Best Market Prices

The last step of the profit maximization goal is ensuring that the group is being paid a good price

for its products. It can do this by:

Operating on a timely, regular basis: Good management is critical to the enterprise’s

success at every stage.

Producing in the off-season: Customers will pay more for goods produced in the off-

season because they are harder to find.

Contracting farming

Improving the quality of the product by:

Adding value: Consumers will pay more for a product if it is well-packaged.

Storing and selling later: FFSs can wait until the market price is high to sell its products.

Using collective marketing for bargaining power to negotiate higher prices

Session Plan

Goals of the Session: For the farmers to understand how to manage business enterprises

effectively

What You Will Need: Flipcharts, markers, Business Plan, Work Plan

Time: 1 hour

Step 1: The secretary should read the minutes of the previous session.

Step 2: Introduce the concept of enterprise management.

Step 3: Brainstorm on the importance of FFS enterprise management.

Step 4: Review the business objectives: minimizing costs, maximizing yields and getting the

best market prices.

Step 5: Brainstorm on how each of these three objectives can be achieved. Use the examples

listed above to help the group think of more ideas.

Step 6: Review the management functions listed in the work plan. How can the group link the

ideas it has brainstormed to these management functions? Does anything need to be

altered in the work plan to meet the group’s objectives?

Step 7: Using the work plan, determine who is in charge of each of the 5 areas of operations

listed at the beginning of this section. Ensure that there are no gaps and that everyone

understands their responsibilities.



GRADUATION

Holding a graduation ceremony is one way to motivate farmers to take part in the learning

programme. The supporting agency awards participants with certificates to recognize their

efforts and celebrate their achievements. There are two typical requirements for graduating:

1. A passing score in a field skills test: Pre- and post-tests boost participants’ confidence. They

can see how much improvement they have made. For many farmers, the FFS is the first

opportunity that they have had for receiving official recognition of their farming skills, a

point of great pride for many families.

2. A good record of attendance at FFS sessions: A good attendance record is often above 75%.

Because FFS is a hands-on process, attendance is crucial to gaining farming knowledge. Help

the group organize a graduation at the end of the learning cycle. The group should have an

official ceremony. It can also demonstrate some of the activities it completed during the FFS

process. The group should invite community members, government officials and neighboring

communities to the graduation. Other community members may become interested in the

FFS process. This will help to spread the FFS method.

After the graduation ceremony, the FFS normally continues. In many cases, the FFS group wants

more training. This training can either be in the same enterprise activity or in a different

enterprise. With your help the group can evaluate its strengths and weaknesses. Then, together

you can develop an action plan based on what it has learned and what knowledge or skills it

lacks. The FFS should take the following steps:

Plan new sessions with different topics (or more in-depth learning of the specific topics).

Implement commercial plots or enterprises: Donors usually do not give grants to FFSs to

perform follow-up activities. These grants are given to the poorest farmers in the

community. Therefore, existing FFSs should develop commercial plots to finance their

activities. Groups that raise their own capital have been extremely successful. Does your

group know that alternative sources of funding are available? Where can it get a loan?

Does the private sector support Farmer Field Schools?

Link with researchers, extension workers and other FFSs.

2.7 ESTABLISHMENT OF FFS NETWORKS A FFS network is an informal federation of a number of FFSs with a common interest which is

based within well-defined geographical boundaries such as province or districts. As the number

of FFSs in a community grows and they broaden in their level of operation, new issues and

challenges emerge that cannot be solved effectively by the individual groups, necessitating

higher-level farmer organizations. Similarly, as the number of FFSs increases in a given location,

there are more opportunities for them to take advantage and enjoy economies of scale. By

forming a network, FFSs can better share information, improve access to resources and markets,



participate in community projects and articulate their interests to local leadership (advocacy and

lobbying).

The provincial FFS network structure will be drawn from the FFSs in those respective districts

and will be composed of a committee comprising a chairperson, treasurer and secretary.

Depending on the needs of the network, various working committees can be established, some of

which may include finance and planning, savings and loans, marketing information services,

assets management or a works committee.

The FFS networks form business units which provide a sustainable exit. They engage in a range

of collective commercial activities including market linkage and information brokering. They

also facilitate fundraising and help to coordinate marketing activities. Being part of a FFS

network has several advantages:

• It supports economic activities: FFSs in a network have more capital to use. Individual

groups or members can take out loans. Also, the network can pool groups’ resources to

start an enterprise that is too big for just one group to undertake.

• Groups can coordinate learning activities: Each FFS serves a different group of people

with different problems. As groups pursue new learning activities, they can use local

experts from other FFSs who studied those topics as part of their learning programme.

CREATING LINKAGES

There are several ongoing government initiatives and groups to which the FFS should consider

linking. First, the FFS has a duty to spread the knowledge it has gained to the rest of the

community.

Second, it should seek support directly from outside sources. The trained facilitator will no

longer be available to link the FFS with stakeholders. Instead, the FFS must seek out

opportunities on its own. It should contact microfinance institutions for funding support. The

Provincial Agricultural Development Office and municipality level Agricultural Development

Office can provide programmatic support. In addition, it should work with extension and

research organisations to ensure that it is informed of new farming innovations. The members

may get an idea to develop a new enterprise.

MANAGEMENT OF ASSETS

The FFS will acquire a number of assets during the learning process. Some of the capital assets

are shared with other FFSs in the same locality. Prior to completion of the learning cycle, the

facilitators should ensure that each FFS and FFS network has a plan for management and

sustainability of any inputs and assets accumulated. The facilitators should help the groups to put

in place the necessary records. This includes reviewing the constitution to develop clauses on

how the proceeds will be shared so that vulnerable members of the group like women and the

elderly are safeguarded.

CHALLENGES FOR RUNNING FFS



The challenges are related to maintaining quality of farmers’ education, sustainable use of

scientific knowledge by the farmers and continuing policy level support for achieving

environmental goals and gaining targeted growth in the production of cereals and vegetable

seeds. The resource available under KUBK for seed production has just begun after elapse of

considerable project period and the famers are not trained yet. The national and federal structures

have limited capacity to expand Master Facilitators cadre for backstopping and quality

monitoring of FFS presently implemented by various public and private sector organizations.

The existing scale of national needs demand a continuous support for; i) ensuring the sustainable

use of services of seed production FFS facilitators for promoting farmers’ science, ii)

establishing a network of FFS-based community organization or FFS alumni through conducting

refresher courses, organizing farmers’ congresses etc. iii) backstopping and process monitoring

of FFS. Rapid scaling up of FFS-based seed production approach with government extension

agents is difficult, as there are limited numbers of public sector extension employees in relation

to the seed producer farm families.

FFS is a cost intensive method of extension and requires continuous flow of budget to carry out

season long and in some cases yearlong learning activities.



CHAPTER III. PRINCIPLE OF QUALITY SEED PRODUCTION

3.1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF SEED PRODUCTION

Genuineness (trueness to type) of a variety and other quality attributes are most important in

order to achieve the full potential of a superior variety. Therefore strict attention must be paid to

maintain genetic purity and other seed qualities during seed production. Different factors

affecting seed production are mentioned below

Genetic principles

Genetic purity (trueness to type) of a variety deteriorates due to several factors during seed

production cycles. The important factors that deteriorate the crop varieties at genetic level are

Developmental variation

Mechanical mixtures

Natural crossing and

Selective influence of diseases

Developmental Variation

Each and every seed variety has its own growing domain and accordingly is grown in an

adaptable area minimizing the developmental variation. But if a seed variety is grown in

different agro ecological conditions other than its natural one (i.e., different environment,

different soil and fertility conditions, and altitudes) for several consecutive generations, the

developmental variation may occur. To minimize the probability for such shifts to occur,

varieties should be grown in their areas of adaptation and growing seasons.

Mechanical Mixture

Mechanical mixture may take place at the time of sowing, during harvesting and threshing,

processing and packaging operations. For example, the mixing could happen if more than one

variety is sown with same seed drill which is not properly cleaned after use or through different

varieties grown in adjacent fields.

Two varieties growing in fields alongside each other are often mixed during harvesting and

threshing operations. Threshing and processing equipment are often contaminated with seeds of

other varieties. These equipment need to be cleaned well to prevent contamination.

Likewise, the gunny bags and seed bins are sometime responsible for mechanical mixture with

seeds of other varieties. The bags could wrongly be used during handling. Growing of volunteer

plants in seed plots also mixes the seed harvest with admixtures.

To avoid mechanical mixtures, it is necessary to rogue the seed fields and care should be taken at

the time of harvesting, threshing, and handling.

Natural Crossing

In sexually propagated crops, natural crossing is the most important source of varietal

deterioration. The deterioration in varieties due to natural crossing occurs in three ways



Natural crossing with undesirable type

Natural crossing with diseased plants

Natural crossing with off- type plants

Genetic contamination in seed field due to natural crossing depends upon the following factors

The breading system of species (pure line, composite, cross, and hybrid.)

Isolation distance (space or time)

Pollinating agents (self or cross pollination).

Isolation between plots with different varieties maintains the genetic purity of a seed

crop. With the increase in isolation distance, the contamination decreases. Isolation of

seed crop is a primary factor in the seed production of crop plants of cross pollinated by

wind or insects.

Selective influences of diseases

Crop varieties are often selective to specific micro-organisms. During the varietal development

phase, genotypes are identified as resistant, tolerant, or susceptible to certain bacterial, fungal,

and viral organisms. However, the crop varieties often become susceptible to diseases caused by

the new races of these organisms.

Agronomic Principles

Besides the genetic factors, different agronomic principles are involved in maintaining the

quality of the crop during seed production. Location specific and optimum agronomic practices

are undertaken for maximum possible yield per hectare and highest quality of seeds of the

specific crops. Following special managements for seed production are briefly discussed below.

Suitable agro-climatic region

A crop variety should be grown for seed production in an area where it is adapted to the

prevailing photoperiod and temperature conditions. The assigned crops are of different biology,

cropped in different seasons, and require an ideal growing environment for optimal growth,

flowering, pollination and seed setting which affect the productivity and quality of a crop. The

environmental factors affecting the crop production includes the temperature, rainfall, sunshine,

wind velocity, micro-organism, and insect pest activity and their relationship with varietal

adaptations in a locality where seed is produced.

Selection of suitable seed fields

The seed fields require more management and planning in advance as the preceding crop may

have either favorable or unfavorable influences on seed production. Crop rotation and the

isolation either in space or time are two important factors in seed production with special

significance for the suitability of field for seed crops. Therefore, the seed plot selected must be

free from volunteer plants,

free from weed plants,

free from soil borne diseases and insects pests and



have good soil texture and fertility.

Selection of crop/variety

The crop and the variety of seed production must be carefully selected and should possess

disease resistance, earliness, grain quality, high yielding potential, and adapted best to the agro-

climatic conditions of the region.

Group of seed growing farmers/seed producers

The seed growers of the notified crop varieties under certification system should be progressive

and innovative towards the seeds crops. They should have experience on seed production and

management together with reasonable good resources/farm lands/facilities/equipment for all

operations from sowing to harvest and storage space protecting against the weather. They must

have willingness to carry out the necessary cultural practices and maintain the prescribed field

and seed standards.

Preparation of land

The practice of seed bed cultivation and sowing for seed production are generally similar to

those for commercial crop production. However an extra care is needed for the seed production

of specified crops. The seed plots whether in nursery bed or main fields should have a good tilth

allowing access to oxygen, water, and growing of the roots and shoots. A good land preparation

leads to improved germination, good stand establishment, and destruction of potential weeds. It

also helps in water management and proper irrigation.

Fertilization

Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and several other elements play an important role for proper

development of plants and seed. It is essential to know and identify the nutritional requirements

of seed crops and recommended dose in a location for applying adequate fertilizers at the

required stages. For example, heavy applications of nitrogen to cereal crops increases incidences

of the foliar diseases, excessive vegetative growth and sometime lodge the plants. Green and

brown manuring with legumes is to be practiced for supplying essential elements as well as

enriching the soil with organic matters.

Irrigation

Irrigation is important at planting for seed crops on dry soils to ensure good uniform germination

and adequate crop stands. Excess moisture or prolonged drought adversely affects germination

and results in poor crop stands. The method of application of water also affects the crop stand. In

seed production, surface irrigation is preferred through canal or pump and irrigation water should

not be allowed to flow to other crop fields. Normally, if possible it is advised to follow the water

supply at 4 crop stages.

Establishment and vegetative growth up to initiation of flowering – ample water



Flowering – limited water

Early phase of seed development of seed – ample water

Ripening – no water

Source of seed

Usually source seed should be of a class higher than the class of seed planned to be produced and

it should be procured from an authorized source and should have certification tag with

information about the seed kind, variety, seed class, genetic and analytical purity, germination,

and its validity, This tag is kept intact with the producer for the evidence in case if any defects

become apparent.

Seed treatment

If the untreated seeds are procured, these seeds should be treated with prescribed pesticide or

fungicide in recommended dose before sowing to control the soil borne, seed borne diseases, and

insect pests. However in a seed crop of legume, the seeds should be mixed with inoculants of

correct strain of Rhizobium bacteria, if the crop is grown for the first time in the particular plots.

Seed Rate and plant population

Plant population is important in management of seed production. The quantity of seed planted

per hectare and its germination rate determines the density of the plant population within a crop.

A correct seed rate depending on the species should be adopted. Low or high seeding rates both

have the advantages and disadvantages with respect to light interception, facilitation for rouging,

weed infestation, and high requirement of moisture etc.

Time of planting

The seed crops should be sown at their normal planting time. Depending upon the incidence of

diseases and pests, some adjustments, could be made, if necessary but following factors should

be taken into consideration

the need to plant when soil conditions are favorable for good seedling emergence,

the need to provide adequate soil moistures throughout the crop growth period,

the need to have dry periods during crop maturation period,

the need for an appropriate photo-thermal stimulus or a vernalization status for some

species

Method of sowing

Planting or sowing methods vary widely among these species. In some crops, hand sowing using

the conventional local equipment like kuto, kodalo or country plough may be appropriate. The

most efficient and ideal method of sowing of wheat is by mechanical seed drill which have been

adopted in Nepal. Manual transplanting of rice is main method of planting rice seedlings. For



getting good emergence and uniform plant stand, sowing in rows is preferable and likewise the

ridge planting could be good in the case of poorly drained soils during rainy season.

Seed depth

Depth of sowing is extremely important in ensuring good plant stand. An even depth of sowing

results an evenness of maturity of a seed crop. Desirable sowing depth for a crop species vary

with the texture and structure of the soil, its moisture content, its temperature and the size of the

seed. It is often in practice that small seeds are usually be planted shallow, but large seeds are

planted a little deeper.

Isolation of Seed crops

The seed crop must be isolated from other nearby fields of the same crops and the other

contaminating crops as per requirement of the certification standards.

Rouging

Adequate and timely rouging is extremely important in seed production. Rouging in most of the

field crops may be done at following stages as per needs of the seed crop.

Vegetative / pre-flowering stage

Flowering stage

Maturity stage

Weed management

Good weed management is the basic requirement in producing good quality seed. Weeds may

cause contamination of the seed crop and reduce the yield. There are weeds that have been

identified by seed laws as objectionable weed seeds for specified crops. These weeds ripen at the

same time of the crop, harvested together, and are difficult to separate during processing. Thus a

proper method for weed management should be followed specific to the seed crop.

Disease and insect management

Successful disease and insect control is an important factor in raising healthy seed crops. Apart

from reduction of yield, the quality of seeds from diseased and insect damaged plants is

invariably poor. The field and the seed crops should be managed to be protected against the

insect pests.

Supplementary pollination

Provision of honey bees in hives in close proximity to the seed fields of crops largely cross

pollinated by the insects, ensure good seed set, thereby increases seed yields. e.g. broad leaf

mustard

Harvesting and threshing of seed crops



It is important to harvest a seed crop at proper time when seed quality is at its best and

production is at maximum. Harvesting of crops comprises two operations – cutting off parts of

the plants followed by separation of the seeds which is threshing. Harvesting and threshing

depends on the type of the crop and moisture content of the seed. These operations are

traditionally performed manually by cutting with local equipment and threshed on a smooth floor

or done by the machine. In large farms, the mechanization is practiced using machines like

tractor drawn reaper, combine harvester, and mechanical thresher.

Drying of seeds

Seeds are, in general, not ready for storage immediately after the threshing process. It requires

further drying which depends upon the climate of the region, harvest method followed, and the

contaminant of the various impurities like chaff, pieces of stem/culm, leaf, and weed seeds. The

seeds should be pre-cleaned of these impurities and then sun and wind dried in thin layer spread

over the tarpaulin. The seeds are stirred periodically for uniform drying. Seeds should not be

dried too rapidly or too slow to safe moisture content without any effect on seed viability,

germination capacity, and vigor.

Storage of raw seeds

The best method of sowing seed for short periods is in sacks or bags in ordinary buildings or go

downs with cleanliness and proper aeration. During this short storage, extra care must be taken to

prevent any damage of seeds due to rodents, termites, storage pest, high temperatures, and damp

environment.

3.2 QUALITY OF GOOD SEED

Quality seeds are the seeds of improved varieties/hybrids, that are genetically pure, have good

germination capacity and good storability, and are vigorous, high yielding, and uncontaminated

by weeds and pathogens. It is therefore the composite of genetic, physical, physiological and

phytosanitary characteristic of a good seed. These are described in brief below:

Seed Health

Quality seeds with good germination capacity and vigor should also be devoid of insect damage

and infestation by any microbes like bacteria, virus and fungi.

Physical purity of seeds

The physical purity of the seeds in certification should be maintained with the seeds to be of

uniform size and shape without any damage and deform. The seeds should be pure of the said

variety with devoid of inert matter (dust particles, stones, chaffs, broken seeds); seeds of other

crop varieties, and weed seeds. After harvest, seeds should be separated from chaffy seeds and

insect or disease affected seeds in order to maintain the physical purity of the seeds.



Genetic (Varietal) purity of seeds

Genetic purity of the seed is the trueness of the variety characterized by inherent traits. It is

maintained in order to ensure the quality of the seeds in production. The characteristics of the

progeny should exactly resemble to its mother plant.

Seed weight and density

Seed size is obviously different among seeds in populations or lots and among varieties. It is a

genetic as well as the physical quality of seed and consistently associates with seed germination

and vigor. It is measured by 1000 grains weight at constant moisture level. It is therefore the seed

produced on harvest is graded during processing to a uniform seed size and the shrunk and under

developed seeds from the lot is discarded.

Moisture content

Seed moisture content is an important quality parameter that regulates all biological processes.

Seeds with high moisture content will lose its germination, vigor and viability soon. Hence, it is

necessary to maintain correct moisture content of the seeds in order to ensure the good

germination capacity and viability. It is also essential to protect the seeds from pest and diseases

infestation in storage. Seeds should be stored at a safe moisture level of 9-13%.

Germination capacity/vigour/viability of seed

Germination is an important physiological seed quality trait that impacts its pricing, use, and

success of the crop. It is the capability of seed to emerge and develop a seedling with all

essential structures to develop into a mature plant under favorable condition. This trait as a

capacity to germinate develops soon after few days of anthesis depending on the floral structure

of the crop species. Vigour and viability are the relative terms of germination used in comparing

the seed lots.

3.3. SEED FIELD STANDARDS

Field standards for different crop seeds have been assigned by the seed certifying authority of

Nepal. They are presented in table 5 below.

Table 4: Seed field standards of cereals and vegetables

Crop

Isolation

distance

(m)

Number

of

inspection

Maximum

off-types

(%)

Maximum

diseased plants

(%)

Objectionable/designated disease

FS CS FS CS FS CS Disease Weed

Rice 3 3 2 0.05 0.20 0.20 0.5 Neck blast

Maize 300 200 5 1

cob 2 cob

Wheat 3 3 2 0.05 0.30 0.1 0.5 Loose smut Hiran khur,

Ragate jhar,



Kutil kosa

Broad Leaf

Mustard 1600 1000 3 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.5 Alternaria on pods

Cauliflower 1600 1000 3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2

Alternaria on pods

Leaf spot

Black rust

Radish 1600 1000 3 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.50 Alternaria spot on

pods

Carrot 1000 500 4 0.1 0.20 .10 0.20

Cowpea 50 25 3 0.1 0.5 0.1

0.1

0.2

0.5

Bean Common

Mosaic

Anthracnose

Pea 10 5 2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 Pea Mosaic Virus

Tomato 30 5 3 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.5

Tomato mosaic

virus

Bacterial leaf spot

Early blight

Onion 1000 500 5 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.5 Purple blotch

3.4. FIELD INSPECTION

Rice: A seed crop needs to be inspected and certified by the field inspectors for genetic and

analytic purity under the scientific seed production system. The seed crop needs regular

inspections and examination of plant population from the emergence in nursery and in field after

transplantation for plant growth, weed infestation, diseases, and insect pest attacks and off-types

to be removed. Field inspection is carried at least twice at following stages:

At vegetative stage after ear emergence and during flowering when seed has started to

develop

Latter at maturity stage when panicles get complete dry and seeds have low moisture

content

The seed inspector checks the standing crop following the pathway for meeting the minimum

field standards for off-types, other plants, weeds, and diseased plants.

Maize: Inspection of field, threshing floor, and corn shelling equipment’s are done to prevent

contamination during pre and post-harvest practices. Generally five inspections are carried at

five different critical stages of maize:

At vegetative stage but before emergence of tassels

On full emergence of tassels

At the time of pollination

At silking and initiation of cobs

During selection of mature cobs



Wheat: A seed crop needs to be inspected and certified by the field inspectors for genetic and

analytic purity on stand under the systematic seed production system. As per regulation, field

inspection in wheat is carried at least twice at following growth stages:

After ear emergence and during flowering when seed has started to develop

Later when the ears get dry and mature and color of glume and seeds could be observed

The inspector checks the crop stand following the pathway for meeting the minimum field

standards for off-types, other plants, weeds, and diseased plants. For this, one should provide the

information about the field and crop to the certifying agency by filling the pre-information sheet

developed by seed certification agency

Broad Leaf Mustard: A minimum of three field inspection should be carried out:

1st on 20-30 days after sowing in nursery,

2nd before flowering and

3rd during flowering.

Cauliflower: At least three field inspections should be carried out

first during initiation of curd,

second at full curd stage and

third during flowering.

Off type, early bolters and late bolters should be rouged out to maintain the minimum field

standards.

Radish: At least minimum three field inspection should be carried to ensure true to the type

plant. At every field inspection off type plants, diseased plant should be removed.

1st field inspection at 20-30 days after sowing,

2nd after lifting of roots (in case of root to seed method) to verify true to type and

3rd during flowering and off type removed on the basis of inflorescence and flower

character, diseases.

Carrot: A minimum of four field inspections are made as follows:

1st when lifted the roots and re-planted

2nd during pre-flowering to check the off-types

3rd at flowering till the end of it

4th at maturity but before to shatter seeds.

Cowpea: At least three field inspection should be carried out to maintain the varietal purity.

First, before flowering that is during vegetative growth,

second during flowering and

third during pod formation

French bean: To maintain the varietal purity at least three field inspections should be made



before flowering,

during flowering and

during pod formation

Pea: Two inspections are carried in following stages of plant for off-types and the diseased

plants to maintain the prescribed field standards under certification seed system. These are at

at flowering and

after pod formation

Tomato: Certification has not been implemented in tomato but the regulation has prescribed the

minimum field standards and number and stages of field inspection of tomato seed crop.

1st - pre-flowering

2nd - at 100 % flowering and before formation of fruits

3rd – on maturation of fruits

Onion: In onion seed production using the bulb to seed method there are undertaken the field

inspections altogether 5 times at different stages as follows:

1st - when bulbs lifted and roughing for diseased and off type bulbs

2nd - 20-30 days after transplanting bulbs

3rd - pre-flowering

4th - flowering stage

5th - at harvest maturity

3.5 SEED SAMPLING

An amount of seed sampled from a seed lot for seed testing under certification is the seed

sample. Only a minute amount of the sample is tested in seed testing laboratory and it tells the

quality of the sample. It is therefore one should take care and put efforts that sample should

represent accurately the composition of seed lot in question and it should also be homogenous.

Sampling is therefore a process on which a sample is obtained from the seed lot by taking small

portions at random from different positions of the seed lot. While sampling, the rules developed

by SQCC (based on ISTA Rules, 2011) should be followed to ensure the proper sampling.

The objective of sampling is to obtain a representative sample of a size suitable for test. A

sample originates from seed lot and it is expected that the results reflect the average quality of

the seed lot.

Sampling principles

General principle in sampling is that a sample is obtained by taking small portions (primary

samples) at random from different portions of a seed lot contained in many containers or in heap

and combining them (composite sample) together. This sample is homogenized by mixing and

dividing manually or using the dividers (Boeners’ grain/soil/gamet) and prepared the sample for

seed testing by sample reduction procedures discarding each time the half portion of each divide.



Sampling is done for various purposes: for premium payment to farmers, to check quality at

different stages of production and for certification. Under seed certification programme only

trained and experienced officials are authorized to undertake sampling.

Seed samples drawn during sampling from a seed lot could be defined and divided into 4

different kinds as per the principle of sampling. Their definitions are as follows:

Primary sample

Primary samples are the small portions of seeds drawn from different portions or containers of a

seed lot at random. Number of primary samples of a seed lot depends on the rules and intensity

of sampling based to size of a seed lot.

Composite sample

Number of primary samples drawn from a seed lots are combined together, homogenized and

formed the composite sample. It is large in size.

Submitted sample

It is the sample prepared for seed testing from the composite sample following the procedure of

mixing and dividing. It is submitted to seed testing laboratory in the area with description of

sample and request of seed testing by filling information the in the prescribed format.

Working sample

It is the sample prepared from the submitted sample for carrying seed testing requested by the

seed produce or sender. It is prepared in seed testing laboratory using the mixing and dividing

equipment to ensuring the representation of the submitted sample.

Seed lot and its sizes

Seed lot is a specified quantity of seed which is physically and uniquely identifiable. A seed lot

is prepared of the seed produced in different fields but of same variety, same seed class, of same

quality standard and uniform and no evidence of heterogeneity. It is the huge quantity of seed

combined together and they are bagged in one to many containers and each is marked and

labeled with a lot number. The size of seed lots depends on the seed type/size and species. Seed

lot number is given following a standard rule that provides information on production group,

location, year etc.

Maximum size (weight) of seed lots and minimum size (weight) of the samples of the mandatory

crop species of the project are given below which is subject to not exceed of 5 % tolerance.

Maximum size (weight) of seed lots and minimum size (weight) of the samples of the mandatory

crop species of the project are given below which is subject to not exceed of 5 % tolerance.

Table 5: Sample size under different seed lots

Crop Maximum Minimum weight



weight of lot

(kg)

Submitted

sample

(g)

Working

sample (g)

Working sample for

count of other species

(g)

Rice 30,000 700 70 700

Maize 40,000 1,000 900 1,000

Wheat 30,000 1,000 120 1,000

Broad leaf mustard 10,000 40 4 40

Cauliflower 10,000 100 10 100

Radish 10,000 300 30 300

Carrot 10,000 30 3 30

Cowpea 20,000 1,000 400 1,000

Bean 30,000 1,000 700 1,000

Pea 25,000 1,000 900 1,000

Tomato 10,000 15 7 -

Onion 10,000 80 8 80

Sampling intensity and procedure

Seed lots should be arranged for sampling conveniently and accessible from all sides.

Before sampling, the seed lot whether it is in bulk or in containers should be checked for

acceptable level of uniformity and no heterogeneity.

Intensity of drawing primary samples from a seed lot depends on the size of seed lot and the type

of containers which could either be

<15 kg but not exceeding 100 kg or

>100 kg or in bulk

Primary samples should be drawn following the tables below:

Table 6: Minimum sampling intensity for seed lots

Minimum sampling intensity for seed lots in

containers of 15-100 kg capacity

Minimum sampling intensity for seed lots of

more than 100 kg or in bulk

Number of

containers

Minimum number of primary

samples to be drawn

Seed lot size

(kg)

Minimum number of primary

samples to be drawn

1 – 4 3 primary samples from each

containers Up to 500 5 primary saples at least


containers 501 – 3000

1 primary sample for each 300

kg but not less than 5


containers

3001 –

20000



16 – 30 15 primary samples in total 20001 to

above





31 – 59 20 primary samples in total

60 – more 30 primary samples in total

But for the seed lots in small containers: tin, cartoons or seed pouches or packets, a 100 kg

weight of seed is taken as the basic unit. The small containers are thus combined to form

sampling units not exceeding 100 kg, for example:

20 containers of 5 kg each



Primary samples taken from a seed lot should be approximately of equal size and should be

drawn from random positions of the lot.

Sampling primary samples from a seed lot could be done either by sampling probes, triers, spoon

or manually using hands not damaging the seeds.

The samples containers especially the seed bags should be closed or sealed again or transferred

to new container.

Sampling instruments and methods

Samples can be drawn using hand alone, and using hand-held instrument or by means of

automatic samples. However one must estimate the size of the seed and the impurities that may

occur in the seed lot and the most suitable seed sampler should be used for the species in

question.

Stick or sleeve type trier

It consists of a hollow tube inside a closely fitting outer shell or sleeve with coinciding open slots

in their walls and a handle at the outer end for operating the instrument. The sizes of these triers

vary depending upon the seed size of species and seed containers.

It can be used horizontally or vertically while drawing the primary samples from a seed

lot.

It should first be checked before sampling that it is clean or not.

It should be inserted into the seed containers diagonally by closing the slots

Then turn the trier that open the slots and gently agitate it to fill the slots completely with

seeds and close the slots and withdraw the trier.

Empty it into a seed pan or on a piece of paper and repeat the process to obtain the

minimum number of primary samples from a seed lot.

Nobbe trier

It consists of a long tube pointed at one end with an oval hole near the pointed end and it suits for

sampling seeds in jute bag. The size in length and diameter vary to suit different crop species

and their seeds.

First check the trier for its cleanliness and inserted into the bag at angle of 30o to the

horizontal with the hole facing downwards.

Then turn the trier in half a turn of 180o to bring the hole facing upwards and flow the

seeds in the trier.



Withdraw the trier out gently agitating with a catch of a quantity of seeds as primary

sample.

Empty it and repeat the process for another primary sample.

Automatic trier

Automatic triers are the samplers as part of large seed processing machines. It is designed to

draw sample automatically from stream of seed passing along a conveyor. Seed flows uniformly

from entire cross section of the seed stream.

Sampling by hand

Insert hand flat with fingers tied together into bag or bulk of seed.

Hold a tight fist as the handful of seeds and agitate the excess seeds and withdrawn out.

Check that none of the seed in the handful of primary sample is lost.

Repeat taking of primary samples following the steps again and again.

Preparation of submitted and working samples –

Submitted sample is the part of composite sample prepared following the unbiased reduction and

halving process of the ISTA Rules. It is therefore a quantity of seed representing a seed lot sent

to the laboratory for seed analysis. It should be packed properly and dispatched to RSTL in the

area for seed analysis accompanied with detail information of sample and the request of seed

testing format as a national certification requirement. The sample should be dispatched in

moisture proof containers if there is request of testing for determination of moisture content or

any container but not moisture proof if there is request of testing only for purity and

germination.

Dispatch of the submitted sample

The seed sample should be dispatched to the seed testing laboratory with information about the

seed lot. The kind of information required to be filled by seed sampler in the sampling test

request form is given below. Firmly close the sample bags, which are strong enough to stand any

kind of transport to be used. Use separate containers as for the test request e.g a moisture proof

containers for the test of determination of moisture content. Mark the sample bags as required

and attach "Request Form for Seed Analysis" with each sample on dispatch. Finally send them to

the laboratory without any delay.

3.6 SEED TESTING

Seed Moisture Content Testing

Seed moisture is one of the most important factors affecting loss of seed quality during threshing,

drying, cleaning and storage. It is important because seeds are living and they respire. On

respiration both heat and water are produced as by-product and creates the environment for

insect attack, mould growth and finally kills the seeds. All seed contain dry matter and water

molecules as moisture in them. The mass of water contained in seed is the moisture and

expressed as a percentage. A physical quality/property of seed related to harvest, cleaning,

processing, transportation and storage is the amount of water in seed. It has a major effect

causing seed damage during their operations.



Moisture in seeds occurs in two forms:

Free water in between molecular spaces in the seeds, capable of freely moving from

inside of seed to surface and can easily be removed

Bound water held tightly and associated with the composition of molecules, difficult to

remove without causing oxidation, breakdown of cell structure, or loss of volatile

materials eg oil

Only the free water is removed in moisture content testing and no volatile materials, no oxidation

and no decomposition occurs.

Moisture Content and Relative Humidity

Seed Moisture Content is a relative term as a function of relative humidity and temperature.

Seeds are hygroscopic in nature. They absorb or loose moisture depending on humidity of

surrounding atmosphere. Seeds attain Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) at ambient condition

of storage. EMC of seed varies among seed kinds. EMC of oily seeds is lower than starchy seeds

Importance of Seed Moisture Content

Each seed has natural life span. A small change in seed moisture affects the seed quality,

storability and longevity, susceptible to cracking, breakages, deteriorates the nutritive values,

decompose the chemical compositions and lowers feeding values, develop the mould and

microorganism growth. Mycotoxin development lowers the viability of seed lot. It is therefore

necessary to dry seeds to a safe moisture level and hold at a safe moisture level until be planted.

Safe moisture content depends on type of grain, type of storage and storage conditions. The seed

has tendency of absorbing environmental moisture during storage in ambient condition.

Methods of Seed Moisture Content Determination

Air oven methods (ISTA recommended)

Electrical Methods - use of electronic moisture meters

Universal moisture meter

Dole moisture meter

Wily moisture meter

Osaw moisture meter

Any of the methods can be used but should be close to accurate which depends on the electronic

precision and results always expressed to one decimal. Seed moisture is always determined on

wet weight basis for making comparisons between samples.

Calculation of Seed Moisture Content

Formula for samples not required pre-drying



Formula for samples required pre-drying

where S1 = Percentage moisture content from first stage of drying and S2 = Percentage moisture

content from second stage of drying.

3.7. SEED STANDARD

Seed standards of different crops for the purpose of seed certification is set by the seed certifying

authority of Nepal and has been given here in table 8 below.

Table 7: Seed standards of cereals and vegetables

Crop Certification Truthful label

Purit

y (%)

Inert

matte

r (%)

Other

seeds

Maximu

m

(seeds./k

g)

Objectionab

le weeds,

maximum

Seeds/kg

Off-

types

maxim

um

seeds/

kg

Germinati

on (%)

Moistu

re (%)

Purit

y

(%)

Germinati

on (%)

FS/C

S

FS/C

S

FS CS FS CS F

S

CS

Rice 98 2 10 20 2 5 1

0

20 80 13 97 80

Wheat 98 2 10 20 2 5 1

0

20 85 12 97 80

Maize 98 2 5 10 0 0 1

0

20 85 12 97 85

Cowpea 98 2 0 0 0 0 5 5 75 10 97 70

BLM 98 2 5 10 5 10 - - 75 8 97 75

Bean 98 2 0 0 0 0 - - 75 10 97 70

Carrot 96 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 65 9 94 65

Cauliflo

wer

98 2 0 0 0 0 - - 75 8 98 70

Onion 98 2 5 10 5 10 - - 70 9 97 65

Pea 98 2 0 0 0 0 5 10 75 10 97 70

Radish 98 2 5 10 5 10 - - 75 8 97 70

Tomato 98 2 5 10 0 0 - - 70 9 97 70



3.8. SEED CERTIFICATION SYSTEM

A variety developed by a breeder is always in a small quantity, which needs to be multiplied

through several generations before there is enough seed to meet the farmers demand. During this

multiplication, it is important to safeguard the genetic identity (quality) and other quality

attributes of the variety so that the variety will continue to reproduce of the same type as the

breeder selected for the variety. It is only possible by controlling the seed production through

seed certification. Seed certification is therefore the process designed to secure, maintain and

make available high quality seed and propagating materials of superior crop varieties so grown

and distributed to ensure desirable standards of genetic identity, physical purity and other quality

attributes.

Seed certification in Nepal was initiated in early seventies with wheat and later extended to rice,

maize, some pulses and vegetables with commercial values. Under the Nepal Seed Act, 1945,

2008; it is a legally sanctioned system enacted across the country for the purpose of seed

multiplication and quality assurance.

Kinds and concept of seed certification in Nepal

Any kind of seed that is used for the planting purpose should be provided with the quality

information under the Act. In general, the quality of the seed under production is controlled by

two means:

Seed certification, which is voluntary

Truthful labeling, compulsory

In certification, the production of seed is being carried to follow the control measures from field

to seed store to meet the quality standards set by the seed regulation. These measures are

performed in several phases under the supervision of the seed quality control authority. Where

as in truthful labeling process, it is obligatory and the seed producer or seller himself is

responsible for the quality standards of the contents. Agricultural operations during production

and post-harvest are managed on his own and should have affixed the ‘Truthful Label’ provided

the seed quality information and should meet the minimum seed standards set by the seed

regulation.

Sources and classes of seed

The seed certification scheme recognizes in general 4 distinct seed classes. They are based on the

number of generations of increase (multiplication ratio, seed rate and the biology of the crop)

from the initial breeder seed produced under the maintenance breeding programme. The

permitted number of seed classes/generations specified under Act, 1945 is as:

Breeder’s seed (BS): It is the seed directly controlled by the originating or sponsoring plant

breeder of the breeding programme of the institution, national commodity programme under

NARC. It is therefore produced under direct control and supervision of the plant breeder. It is

produced in small quantity and is the source for the production of foundation seeds. The tag

newly imply for BS is of wood colour with golden coloured letter of specifications.



Foundation seed (FS): It is the progeny of breeder seed. Foundation seed production is

supervised and approved by the certification agency and be so handled as to maintain specific

genetic identity and purity and required to confirm to certification standards specified for the

crop being certified. The certification tag for FS is of white color with black letter of

specifications.

Certified seed (CS): It is the progeny of foundation seed and its production is handled by the

certified seed growers as to maintain satisfactory genetic purity and identity according to the

standards specified for the crop and which has been approved by the certifying agency.

Certification tag allowed is white with blue band on one side.

Source seed (SS): It shall be the progeny of BS equivalent to FS in TLSS as indicated in figure

8.1. Its tag shall be of blue color with black letter for specification. However, it is not yet on

implementation.

Truthful label seed (TLS): It shall be the progeny of SS, FS, CS and its production is handled

and managed by the producers themselves to maintain the seed quality standards set for TLS.

There will be no certification that the producers will declare and guarantee the quality of seeds.

The tag or label will be of yellow with black letters of specifications

Seed Multiplication System

The seed multiplication system involves production of different seed class starting from breeder

seeds to improved seeds. The seed class and the seed producers/multipliers are as shown in table

9 below.

Table 8: Seed multiplication system in Nepal

Seed Class Producers/Growers Remarks

Breeder

Seed

Commodity research programs under breeder's

control

100% genetically pure,

available in small size and

source seed for FS

Foundation

Seed

Agriculture research farms/stations, NSC and

approved agencies for FS

Maintained genetic purity,

limited availability, White

tagged and source seed for

CS

Certified

Seed

ASC/DADOs/private seed

companies/CBOs/NGOs/INGOs/cooperatives/farmers

groups

Largely available,

maintained the quality,

labeled with white tag with

blue band, source seed for

improved seed.

Improved

seed

ASC/DADOs/private seed

companies/CBOs/NGOs/INGOs/cooperatives/farmers

Easily available, labeled

with yellow tag and used



groups for grain production

Seed is thus multiplied through a series of multiplication in 2-4 years depending upon the crop

and ensures the risk of seed deterioration genetically and physically through inspection of the

seed field and lots against field and seed standards and make available these quality seeds to

farmers.

Rules and the organizations of certification

Under the Nepal Seed Act, 2045, National Seed Board (NSB) has been formed with three sub-

committees. Seed Quality Control Centre (SQCC), MoAD is the seed regulatory and certifying

body for formulation of the established seed rules and regulations, field and seed standards to

carry out certification through central seed testing laboratory and certification unit on it. It is

therefore, SQCC and the regional seed testing laboratories under Department of Agriculture

(DoA) are responsible for certification and monitoring of the seed situation in the country with

technical assistance of respective institutions. With the expansion of seed production and also

provision of licensing system, the certification activity has been delegated to the agronomist or

horticulturist in District Agriculture Development Offices (DADOs) in the districts to inspect the

seed fields in their district. Minimum seed certification standards as field and seed standards,

minimum number of field inspections and the stages of inspection, procedures for field

inspection, seed processing, seed lot and storage, seed sampling for testing, and issue of tags

have been established for some of these crops.

Seed certification Standards

There have been established a general seed certification standard, field standards and seed

standards for maintaining genetic purity and quality of seeds produced under certification

scheme.

General seed certification standards

Seeds of only the notified varieties in national list released by NSB shall be eligible for

certification.

SQCC is the central authorized agency for certification and it could delegate the authority as

provisioned in the Act and Regulation. All classes of seed multiplied under this scheme should

have an established seed source. One must be in position to submit documentary evidence like

certification tags, sales record when demanded by certifying agency. Seed growers of any classes

of seed should be registered and strictly follow the recommended cultural practices and roughing

at different stages.

In case of incidence of new disease, pest or weeds, samples should be sent to the nearest

laboratory for examination and identification.

Field standards

Field standards have been established for those factors which affect the genetic and analytical

purity and seed health of the standing crop. These are as follows:



Unit of certification: The minimum area for production of certified seed should be one hector in

terai and one fourth a hectare (0.25 ha or 5 ropani) in hills for cereals; and 0.25 ha in terai and

0.1 ha in hills for vegetable seed production. This area may be owned by

an individual farmer or a group of farmers merged to grow same source and class of seed.

Land requirement: Land should be free of volunteer plants. The same kind of crop must not

have been grown within one season unless that crop was grown from the certified seed of the

variety. However, in the case of cauliflower and radish, fields which have grown legumes in past

two seasons should be avoided.

Minimum isolation requirement: Amongst the species assigned, maize, broad leaf mustard,

cauliflower, radish to an extent are the cross-fertilized crops. Based to the extent of

contamination likely to occur in these species, there have prescribed the minimum isolation

distance for the kind of seed in respective sections of chapter 2.

Minimum crop specific number of field inspection: The seed crops have to be inspected at

least the minimum numbers of inspection to avoid the contaminations of the crop at different

stages. The number and stages vary among the crop species. The assigned number of inspection

for the crops are provided in Seed Inspection Section of this manual.

Minimum seed crop standards: In this section, the standards have been established for the

maximum permissible percent or number of plants for

off types

designated disease

objectionable weed

designated other crops

The percent or number vary among the crop species. The assigned percent or number of

permissible limit for the crops are provided in Table 3.1 above.

Seed standards

Likewise to control the contamination during post-harvest handling to storage, there have

established the minimum seed standards and maintain the genetic and analytical purity of the

seeds produced under certification and truthful label systems. The standards are checked through

seed inspection in threshing floor, processing units, temporary storage and seed sampling and

testing of samples in seed testing laboratory. The minimum seed standards particularly for pure

seed, germination and moisture content prescribed for the species assigned under certification

and truthful label systems are provided in Table 3.4 above.

Tagging, labeling and sealing



All seeds sold for planting as foundation and certified seeds under certification should have

certification tag affixed to each container and properly sealed. Likewise any seed as a planting

material sold in the market should also have affixed the truthful label .The colour of tags for

specified class of seed have been described above.

The certification as well as the truthful label tag shall have provided the information such as kind

of crop and variety, class of seed, lot number, year of production, minimum standards for seed,

and date of test of germination, germination percentage, purity percentage and validity of the tag

and so on.

Validity of tag

Certification shall be valid for one season from the date of test if seed is properly maintained in

the storage.

Seed certification and truthful labeling

According to the Seeds Rules, seed quality control will be done either through seed certification

or through truthful labeling. Major differences between these two methods are presented in Table

10.

Table 9: A comparison between seed certification and truthful labeling

SN Seed certification Truthful labeling

1 Breeder seed – Foundation seed –

Certified seed – Improved seed

Breeder seed – Source seed – Label seed –

Improved seed

2 Voluntary Compulsory if certification is not done

3 Done by authorized agencies (SQCC and

RSTLs)

Done by seed producers

4 Set of procedure is followed Flexible, producers can allocate available

time to monitor and check the quality

5 Certification agency is responsible Producers are self-responsible



3.9. SEED PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS AND VEGETABLES

3.9.1 RICE

Rice is the most important cereal grain crop of Nepal, plays a significant role in terms of area

under cultivation and importance for employment generation and contribution to food security at

both national and household levels. It has a broad adaptation to a wide range of growing

environments across the agro-ecosystems. It is grown from tropical plains to the highest altitude

of 3050 masl Chhumjul of Jumla, Nepal (Bhujel et al., 2011). It occupies over 1.5 million ha of

total agricultural land and produces over 4 million mt of grain covering 42.5 percent of the total

area under food grains and 51.6 percent of total grain production (MoAD, 2013).

Table 10: Some improved varieties of rice under potential production in Nepal

Varieties Maturity

(days)

Yield

(mt/ha)

Domain

Taichung 176 144 7.9 Mid-hills

Sabitri 140 4.0 Terai & Inner Terai

Bindeswori 128 4.0 Terai & Inner Terai

Chaite 2 125 4.8 Irrigated lowlands in Terai

Chaite 4 118 4.5 Irrigated lowlands in Terai

Khumal 4 144 6.3 Kathmandu Valley and similar regions

Makawanpur 1 150 4.8 Terai

Khumal 5 154 6.7 Mid-hills



Chhommrong 164 4.2 High- and mid-hills

Chaite 6 123 4.8 Terai & Inner TYerai upto 300 m

Radhakrishna 9 150 3.8 Terai & inner Terai & similar irrigated lands

Radha 4 125 3.2 Terai & inner Terai & similar irrigated lands

Machhapuchhre 3 174 5.0 High-hills


Rampur Masuli 135 5.6 Terai and Mid-hills

Chandannath 1 191 5.9 High-hills

Chandannath 3 192 5.7 High-hills


Manjushree 2 149 10.1 Mid-hills

Hardinath 1 120 4.0 Terai, Inner Terai and River basin


Loktantra 130 3.6 Terai, inner terai and river basin

Ramdhan 137 7.2 Terai and Inner Terai & siwalik range

Barkhe 3004 157 3.8 Terai and Mid-hills

Jethobudho 185 2.6 Western mid-hills



Varieties Maturity

(days)

Yield

(mt/ha)

Domain

Hardinath 2 125 4.2 Terai & Inner Terai

Ghaiya 1 115 3.5 Upland and Kathmandu valley

Sukhadhan 1 125 4.2 Eastern and Western Terai & Mid-hills



Sworna sub 1 155 5.0 Eastern and Western Terai & Mid-hills

Sanwamasuli sub 1 150 4.0 Eastern and Western Terai & Mid-hills

Lekali 1 158 4.1 High-hills

Lekali 3 152 3.9 High-hills


Climate and Soil

Rice is grown in wide range of climatic conditions across the agro-ecosystems of the country.

Temperature, solar radiation and intensity of rainfall are the important climatic factors. It is the

only crop adapted to both flooded and non-flooded soils. It is possible to have two rice crops in

sub-tropical terai, inner terai, and hills up to 700 meters (tars) with enough irrigation where as in

mid-hills and high-hills, only a single crop is possible.

Land Requirement

The land selected for rice seed production should be

Fertile and light textured with good drainage and adequate water holding capacity.

Silty clay, clay loamy and loam soil containing enough organic matter

Free from weeds and volunteer plants from previous paddy crop

Homogeneous plot with good exposition to sun for synchronous flowering and seed

maturation

No infestation of serious pests and diseases

An adequate source of irrigation for both irrigated and rain-fed rice cultivation

Land Preparation:

Nursery bed and field preparations

A proper land preparation is necessary to minimize competition with weeds in nursery bed as

well as in transplanted fields. Depending upon the season, location and type of variety, the seed

beds and fields should be prepared before the onset of rains.

The nursery bed should be

smooth as fine as the seeds,

well leveled with good drainage and should not be water logged,

raised above the ground and free from weeds and diseases

dry or wet depending on the traditional practice of a location or the type of variety



In transplanting field, following practices should be undertaken

remove the roots, debris, stumps, and field wastes

plough and harrow well and make a good tilth

construct the bunds in sloppy land to hold the rain water and good drainage

level the field for uniform water depth for a good seedling establishment and

translocation of nutrients

Isolation requirement

Rice is a completely self-pollinated crop which is ensured by the mechanism of cleistogamy

within the same flower. In certification system, the seed fields should maintain following

isolation distance for pure seed production reducing the contaminations of the foreign pollens of

other variety, admixtures, other cereal crop seeds, and serious seed borne diseases (foot rot,

blast).

3 meters of stripe isolation distance be maintained surrounding the seed plot by planting

non-cereal crop or left un- cropped

5 meters of isolation distance be maintained between the seed plots of same variety if the

varietal purity of one of the plots is doubtful

Crop rotation

Crop rotation facilitates production of quantity and quality rice seeds. Rice is often grown in

rotation with wheat, maize, legumes, and potato etc. Legumes like lentil and soybean etc. are

commonly used in rotation because of their nitrogen fixing property. They are quite beneficial to

rice as they break up the life cycle of many pests of rice and facilitate efficient use of nutrients in

soil.

Selection of variety

Based on growing environments, the rice varieties are categorized as chaite rice (early) with

assured irrigation, main season rice with partial or full irrigation, high-altitude rice with rain fed

or partial irrigation, upland rice totally rain fed and deep water rice (submerged). According to

the season of planting, they again could be of chaite rice, main season rice, bhadaiya rice, late

rice and boro (winter) rice. Based on land types and growing season, right variety should be

selected.

Source of seed

The seed producer should obtain certified seed from the sources approved by certification agency

with quality information on genetic purity, physical purity, and seed moisture content. The seed

for planting should be managed a week ahead and should have been tested for quality

(germination, physical purity, SMC below 13 %. Cleaned seed should be soaked in salt water

and floating seeds should be skimmed off.

Seed dressing and treatment of seedlings with Trichoderma



The source seed before seeding in nursery beds should be dressed with systemic

fungicide/pesticide (derosal, bavistin or thiram) for controlling blast disease and other

contamination from soil borne diseases and damages by insect pests.

Trichoderma, a beneficial fungus, has been found to be useful in managing the infection of many

diseases in rice. Its application as treatment agent for seedlings facilitates development of biotic

and abiotic stress tolerant capacity leading to increased production. Seedlings are soaked in a

liquid mixed with spores of trichoderma @ 10 lakhs/ml of water for 10 minutes and then

transplanted in the field.

Seed rate and seedling rate calculation

The recommended seed rate in rice is 50-60 kg per ha. In upland rain-fed condition, seeds are

sown in high rate to achieve the optimum plant population. However, seed rate for a seed crop is

determined by the seed size, seed purity, and seed germination capability. It could be calculated

using the formula as follows:

Seed germination

Pure seed that gives seedlings to survive

Recommended seed rate ( 100 % pure seed with 100 % germination)

Area to be planted

Seed amount required for the area

Seedling transplantation spacing

For seed rate:

Seed Rate = Recommended seed rate (kg/ha) x area (meters2 to be planted)/germination (%) x

pure seed (%)

Pure seed = 98 %; germination = 80 %; area to be transplanted = 1 ha (10,000 m2) Total normal

seedlings produced by pure seed = 80x98/100 = 78

Seed Rate = 50 x 10,000/ 98 x 80 = 63.78 kg

For the seedling rate

Area to be planted = 1 ha (100m x 100m = 10,000m2)

Hills/ha at 20cm x 20cm spacing = 10,000 m2/(0.2m x 0.2m) = 250,000

Seedlings per ha at 2 seedlings per hill =250,000 x2= 500,000

Therefore total number of seeds per ha = 500,000 seeds Weight of 1,000 seeds = 30g

Wt of 500,000 seeds = 500,000/1,000 x 30g = 15000 g= 15 kg

% germination for rice = 80%

Pure seed giving seedlings to survive = 98%

Seed needed at 80% germination and 98 % pure seed = 15kg/0.8 x 0.98 = 19.15 kg

Raising Seedlings



Two types of nurseries are used in Nepal: wet bed nursery and dry bed nursery depending upon

the location and situation.

Wet bed nursery:

The raising of rice seedlings in wet bed method is carried out on raised beds. The beds should be

approximately one meter (1m) wide with a narrow strip around it. The relatively narrow width

ensures that any area within the bed can easily be reached from either sides, spaced

approximately 40 cm between the beds for use later as irrigation channels and raised 10 cm

above the original surface of the plot. The surface of the bed is prepared smooth using a board or

any flattened hard object.

Seeds are soaked overnight and pre-germinated seeds are broadcasted on the beds in a way to

achieve an even distribution preventing dense spacing. After sowing, seeds are covered with a

thin layer of soil to protect against heavy rain or birds. The sown seeds beds could also be

covered with banana leaves, grass, or paddy straw and moistened from the top or irrigated

through the channel to be kept moist all the time. The seedlings in wet seed bed grow very fast

and become ready for transplanting from 14 days onwards. However, it depends on the variety

and the nursery bed conditions. Younger seedlings are always preferable, as they establish

themselves more quickly. The "fourth leaf" stage is generally regarded as optimal age of seedling

for transplanting.

Dry bed nursery

It is same as the wet bed nursery but the bed is dry. Pre-germinates seeds are broadcasted on the

bed and covered completely with a thin layer of soil or mulched with leaves. The beds should be

watered thoroughly immediately after planting and twice every day thereafter. The bed can be

watered along the channels or splashed onto the beds otherwise. Seedlings growing, on dry bed

surface are totally dependent on rain or irrigation/ hand splashing water from top. Dry bed

seedlings will not grow as fast as wet bed seedlings. Seedlings from the dry bed become ready

for transplanting from 21 days onwards. These beds should be saturated with water before

uprooting the seedlings, making soil moist and loose.

Method of planting

There are two methods of rice planting as direct seeded rice planting in upland condition and

traditional transplanting of rice seedling in irrigated/rain fed lowland conditions.

In direct seeded rice, seed drill method and simple broad casting are in practice depending upon

the soil type, location, and variety. In seed drill planting, the seeds are dropped manually and

thinly in a line at approximately 2 cm spacing on a smooth, leveled seedbed ensuring seeds are

planted at depths of 2-3 cm. The benefit of drill seeding is that fertilizer can be applied

during seeding. Manual weeding is much easier in drill seeded crops than in broadcast seeded

crop.



However, in transplanting method, the seedlings of right stage, normally of 21 days old are

manually transplanted in flooded/well puddled field with pre application of nutrients in spacing

of 20-25 cm and at depth of 2-3 cm at 1-2 seedlings for a good establishment. Dibbling is

another rice planting method on which seedlings are transplanted with 4 to 6 seeds in each hole

and seeding at 3-4 seedlings per hill at a spacing of 30 x 15 cm.

Fertilization

Rice plants exhibit markedly effective response to fertilization. Green manuring, use of compost,

mixed and inter-cropping with legumes, application of fertilizers for NPK, dressings, and

fortification of seeds for specific micro-elements are some of the practices as sources of

fertilizers in crop and seed production of rice.

Generally there are two sets of recommendations of fertilizers for rice production.

Table 11: Recommended dose of fertilizers and manure for seed production of rice

Rice crop Organic manure (t/ha) Nitrogen (kg/ha) Phosphorous

(kg/ha) Potash (kg/ha)

Irrigated 6 100 30 30

Unirrigated 6 60 20 20

Source: AICC (2015)

The fertilizers in rice are normally applied in split as basal application with one third of nitrogen

and complete dose of phosphorus and potash just prior to transplanting for nourishing the

transplanted seedlings. First top dressing is done with one third of nitrogen at active tillering and

panicle initiation stage and second top dressing with remaining one third of nitrogen at panicle

emergence and dough stage. Nitrogenous fertilizers as ammonium sulphate or urea should be

applied in drained plots and puddled well before flooding. It could be lost into air in gaseous

form due to denitrification or run off down to earth due to leaching if applied in standing water.

Green manuring with Dhaincha/Azolla

Few farmers practice in-situ green manuring by growing dhaincha or other leguminous crop in

the land prior to rice crop in some places. It enriches the soil with organic matter and nutrients.

During land preparation, dhaincha plants are cut, ploughed, harrowed and left to decompose in

the field. However in hills, ex-situ green manuring is in practice to enrich the soil through the use

of compost. Farmers often use the livestock waste and green waste from community forests.

Further, Azolla, a natural nitrogen fixing lower plant could also be grown along the rice and

supplement nitrogen for the growing rice plants by fixing atmospheric nitrogen.

Method of calculating fertilizer requirements

The amount of fertilizer can be calculated using the following formula.

Amount of fertilizer=Recommended rate (kg nutrient/ha)X Area (ha)÷ % nutrient in commercial

fertilizer X100

Irrigation



During and after transplantation of rice seedlings, the field should be continuously flooded to

maintain a uniform water level of 2.5 to 5 cm and should not be dry till panicle emergence and

milking stage. But during the fertilization, field should be drained and re-irrigated later after

absorption of nutrients.

Weeds and weed control

Weeds compete with rice for sunlight, nutrients and water, cause economic loss through

increased cost of production and reduction in the yield and quality of rice. Direct seeded

(especially dry direct seeding) and upland rice are often exposed to greater pressure of weeds

than the traditional transplanted rice. Therefore, timely control of weeds is critical for high yield

and quality of rice. Hand weeding, mulching, crop rotation, and herbicides applications are used

to control the weed infestation in rice.

Start hand weeding at 2 weeks after sowing or even earlier, depending on the level of

weed infestation,

Second weeding at 4–5 weeks, and

Third weeding at 7–8 weeks, depending on the duration of maturity of the rice crop and

the level of weed infestation.

Use mulching of direct sown rice fields and dry nursery beds with moist straws that will reduce

the growth of weeds and hand-weed after emergence of seedlings.

Apply recommended dose of pre-planting (application before crop is planted), pre- emergence

(application after planting, but prior to emergence of weeds) or post emergence (application after

emergence of weeds) herbicides at right time depending upon the infestation of weeds using

correctly calibrated sprayer.

Following herbicides are used in rice seed production and are available in market

Glyphosate, pre-plant

Pendimethalin, pre-emergence

Anilophos, pre-emergence

Pretilachlor, pre-emergence

Butachlor, pre-emergence

Azximosulfuran, post-emergence

Pyrozosulfuran, pre-emergence

Bispyribac, post-emergence

These herbicides are of contact, systematic, or selective in nature. Avoid continuous cultivation

of same crop in the same plot, instead rotate rice and other crops that will inhibit built up of

weeds specific to rice crop. Avoid weeding operations when the rice crop has flowered, as it

causes low yield due to flower abortion.

Major weeds (broad and narrow-leaved plants and the objectionable weeds) that grow along with

rice plants in different agro-systems affecting the seed yields are listed below

Table 12: List of major broad-leaved and grassy weeds of rice crop

S. No English name Nepali name Plant type Means of transmission



1 Goat weed Gandhe Annual Seed

2 Joint vetch Vetch Annual Seed

3 Aligator weed Patpate Annual Seed

4 Bhiringi Annual Seed

5 Day flower Kane Annual Seed

6 False daisy Bhangraiyo Perennial Rhizome & seed

7 Galliant soildier Chitlange Annual Seed

8 Water hyacinth Jalkumbhi Perennial Rhizome

9 Bermuda grass Dubo Annual Seed

10 Barnyard grass Sanwa Annual Seed

11 Jumgle grass Sawa Perennial Seed

13 Knot grass Ghode banso Perennial Rhizome & seed

14 Nut sedge Mothe Annual Seed

15 sedge Mothe Annual Seed

Rouging

Weed plants, diseased plants, insect damaged plants, and off-types not meeting the standards

should be rogued out and the seed field should be cleaned before undertaking the field inspection

from certification agency. In general rouging could be carried at any stage of the plant. But in

certification, three to four rouging are normally recommended to be done in seed crop of rice to

avoid mixing with other crop and contaminant.

First rouging at heading but before flowering stage to rogue out the obvious off-types at

this stage

Second rouging after completion of flowering

Third rouging at maturity but before harvesting

In rouging, obvious off-types plants like different in panicle color and shape, plants susceptible

to diseases (blast), tall plants, plants with false smut balls, early heading plants, and volunteer

plants from previous crop should be removed. In rouging the plants infected with blast and false

smut should be collected properly and buried or burned far away from the seed plot.

Rice diseases and control measures

High humidity, rain, and heavy dew are associated with increased activity of disease-causing

organisms during rice cultivation. As a result, rice cultivation is subject to a number of diseases

leading to a heavy crop loss every year. Following are some important diseases of rice crop.

Blast

Neck blast and Leaf blast are the important diseases often associated with nutritional

imbalances in rice with economic loss even up to 100 %.

Lesions are typically oval or spindle-shaped, with a grayish center and a brown halo.

When several lesions join, the infected leaf appears blighted.



Lesions on the leaf surface inhibit the plant's ability to photosynthesize and thus reduce

yields.

Apply the recommended dose of fertilizers including of NPK and stagnant flooding of

rice field.

Use of the recommended varieties which have blast tolerant characters

Treat the seeds with tricyclazole (Beam76 WP) @ 1-1.5 g/kg of seed

Spray the seedlings at tillering stage with edifenphos (Hinosan 50 EC) 21.5 ml/l of water

at interval of 15 days for 2-3 times

Brown leaf spot

This disease is associated with nutritional deficiency and/or drought stress and is also

spread by seeds

It affects the crop at any stage of growth and often appears as early as seedling stage.

Small, circular to oval, dark brown lesions with a light yellow halo around their outer

edge.

Infection can spread to cover the entire leaf surface, particularly in stands of upland rice.

Use the recommended dose of fertilizers and healthy and treated seeds with Diathen 45-

M @3 g/kg of seed or spray the seed bed with Dithene 45-M @ 3g/l of water.

Foot rot

Diseased seedlings and plants grow fast and look tall, start yellowing and rots the lower

parts of plants to death.

Develops the roots from the lower nodes of the culm.

Uproot the diseased plants at early stage and use the healthy seeds treated with Bavistin

505 WP or Derosal 50% WP @ 2g/kg of seeds.

Sheath blight

Initial symptoms appear as grayish-green lesions on the leaf sheath between the surface

of irrigation water and the leaf blade.

Adjoining lesions often merge stem and causing it to topple

The lesions may also extend on susceptible varieties.

Use of balanced application of fertilizers and right spacing between the plants

On severe attack of disease, use Validomycin @ 2ml/l of water

Bacterial blight

Symptoms appear as brown wavy stripes on leaf blades which later starts yellowing and

the whole plant dies that starts from tips of leaves.

Use of recommended dose of NPK and treatment of seeds with Agrimycin -100 @ 0.25

g/l of water for 20 minutes before seeding in nursery bed.

Drain the field on appearance of these symptoms and use resistant varieties and also use

the dry seed bed.

Khaira disease



Disease is caused by the deficiency of zinc in soil with the symptom of khaira spots on

lower leaves which extends and turns the leaf to red and tillering is stopped.

Adopt the crop rotation of rice and sugarcane in cane growing area

Supplement the soil in combination with zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) @ 400 g and lime @

2500 g/1000 liter of water/ha at interval of 10 days for 2 times.

Drain off the rice field for few days to control the disease.

False smut

Infection by false smut occurs after heading and affects the ripening grains.

Infection results in the transformation of the individual grains into greenish spore ball of

velvety appearance.

The balls are slightly flattened, smooth and yellow, and covered by a membrane. With

growth the membrane swells and bursts, exposing the orange content of the ball.

Usually, only a few grains on the panicle are infected and the rest remain normal.

Uproot the whole plant and bury it far away from the seed crop.

Insect pests and their management

Insect pests are the major problem in rice. The climatic conditions during rice cultivation favor

the proliferation of insects and double-cropping practices in rice further provide a steady

habitat for feeding and breeding the insect pests. In order to take preventative measures against

insect pests, the one must be able to recognize the crop damage and identify which insect pest is

responsible. Following are the major insect pests of rice causing economic loss

Stem Borers:

One of the important destructive pests of rice affecting the plant stand from seedling to maturity

There are five different types of stem borers in rice growing environments.

White stem borer

Yellow stem borer

Striped stem borer

Dark headed stem borer

Pink stem borer

Damage the culm making hole and feed on the culm wall and dry the young tillers into brown

with a bad smell called dead heart during attack at vegetative stage.

Sometime attack developing panicles and no grains formed and panicles turn into ‘white heads’

that is easily pulled out.

Rice Hispa

A small spiny insect damage the young leaves and leaf epidermal membranes

A problematic insect in pockets with double cropping of rice and damage the leaves with

white streaks and patches

Clean the crop residues and weeds and collect the insects and damaged leaves and burn.



Spray Cyathin 50 liquid @ 2ml per litre of water or Phentothrian @1ml/l of

water on severe attack.

Rice Gundhi Bug

It is an important rice grain sucker pest. It becomes active with the beginning of monsoon

and is prevalent in both rainfed upland and wetland rice fields

Preferably attack the rice field at grain filling stage and damage the grain quality with

reduced filling, discoloration or pecky rice which breaks on milling

Clean crop residues/weed plants from the fields and use the right variety maturing at the

same time, use the light trap

On severe attack, use the pesticides Thiodan 3 EC @ 15 ml or Atramethrine 2EC @ 2 ml

or Phen Phen 20% EC @ 2 ml/ l of water for spraying the rice fields.

Leaf hoppers

Common rice pests with 4 different types with similar damage in rice fields

Attack at any cycle of rice growth but causes heavily damage at the seedling and tillering

stage and dries the seedlings and inhibits tillering and panicle initiations

Clean the fields around, use light traps, drain and flood the rice field at interval of 3-4

days and use the pesticide spray of roger 30% EC @ 1 ml/l of water or use Furadan 3G

granules @ 20-40 kg/ha.

Mealy bug

Both adult and nymph suck the plant sap and dries out the plant to yellow color

Damaged plants are stunted, yellowish, and panicles with unhulled spikelets.

On drought condition, the damages could be seen in patches in rice field.

Flood the rice field well and use the Thimet 10% G granules or Furadan 10% G @ 20-40

kg/ha of rice field.

Root feeder

Attacks the roots of the rice plants and feed on living tissue and cause stunted growth or death of

seedlings. Often root feeders make their homes inside the bunds venturing forth into the plots

only to feed. They could be of different types as Seed bed beetle Mole cricket

Treat the soil during land preparation with either of Bladge 20 EC @ 1ml/l of water and irrigate

the field before transplanting

Harvesting and Threshing

Timeliness and proper technology and practices of harvesting are important in rice crop for yield

and quality of the seed. It is often seen that irrigated rice tend to ripen irregularly. Therefore, the

seed crop should be allowed to mature completely on stand and soon after the harvest maturity, it

has to be harvested to avoid the losses due to shattering, sprouting on standing crops because of

the rainy and stormy weather on delayed harvest. As the harvest time approaches, following

actions should be taken to harvest a good seed crop of rice:



Inspect the plants daily most particularly the panicles on mature tillers and note

the exact duration of maturity that plant reached from days to heading and 85 % of

panicles and grains have changed color from green to straw

Drain the water off and leave the standing crop to complete ripening leading to drying of

the grains at hard dough stage

Normally, 21-24 % of seed moisture is suitable. The grain should be hard.

Harvest the crop by cutting the bunch of plant in the field for few days to further dry the

plant

Rice stalks in bundle are threshed out using the thresher, or manually beating on stone

and farmers’ fields.

Cleanliness is maintained of the harvesting and care is taken in handling the seed

during mechanical damages and admixtures.

Drying, Processing, Cleaning

Delayed drying may result in non-enzymatic browning (stack-burning), microbial growth, and

mycotoxin production. Harvested grain are sun-dried over tarpaulin for 2-3 days and constantly

turned for uniform drying and seeds are brought to 13 % moisture content for safe storage. In

humid environment, the modern novel technology of seed drying using zeolite drying beads

could be used for efficient drying and dried seeds should be stored in sealed pack at 8-9 % SMC.

Check whether it is dried enough or remains wet following the local method:

Take a glass jar with screw lid, Put a handful of dried grains and add a spoonful of salt, and seal

the jar and left for 24 hours. Examine the salt whether it is in clump or remain dispersed. If salt is

in clump, the seeds are wet and needs drying or if remains dispersed, seeds are well dried.

Dry seeds are cleaned by winnowing during threshing in open air. Further processed using air

screen cleaner, length separator, gravity separator to remove the empty hulls, dust particles,

pieces of stalks/awns, broken seeds, weevil infested seeds, weed seeds, and other crop seeds.

Seeds are graded for uniform size and dried once again if necessary. The recommended moisture

content for storage of rice seed in ambient condition is 13%.

Bagging, Tagging and Storage

After cleaning and drying, seeds are bagged in recommended seed containers and size with

proper labeling. The size of bag for rice seed is normally 30- 35 kg and proper kind of seed

containers recommended by certification are 200 guaze lined jute bag, Super GrainPro bags,

PICs bags and improved metal bins. Seed is treated with Derosal or Bavistin to protect the seeds

in storage.

For analytical and physiological testing, a submitted sample of ½ kg representing the seed lot is

sampled following sampling rules and dispatched for testing in STL. These test results will be

valid for at least six months in storage till next planting season. Stack bags on wooden pallets in

the storage, allow good ventilation with free air movement and not allowed to be contact on floor

and walls



Seed store could be fumigated and should be free from rats (rat trap), water proof (not leaking)

and cool and dry.



3.9.2 MAIZE

Maize is the second major food grain crop in Nepal after rice. It is cultivated across the country

for food, feed and sometimes as fodder in upland conditions in hills. It is efficient even under

high temperature and dry- land conditions and has wide adaptability. It is grown across the agro-

ecosystems of the country from high-hills to lowlands in Terai around the year as normal, spring,

summer and winter maize. It is one of the most diverse and ideal cereal crop suited for hybrid

seed production in commercial scale. However, the hybrid seed production requires additional

agronomic management for assured quality standards than in open pollinated maize seed

production.

Floral Biology and seed Morphology

Maize is a monoecious and highly cross-pollinated plant with determinate growth habit. About

95% of the pistillate flowers on a cob receive pollen from nearby other plants and only 5% of the

kernels on a cob are produced as a result of self-pollination. Maize is generally protandrous, that

is, male spikelets mature earlier than the female spikelets. The pollen shedding normally begins

1-3 days before the emergence of silk and continues 3-4 days after the silks are receptive and

ready for pollination. Wind borne nature of pollen and protoandry facilitate cross-pollination.

Maize Varieties

Maize research programme has developed many improved OP and hybrid varieties suitable to

different agro-ecosystems of the country with desirable phenotypic, physiologic and economic

traits. Besides a number of hybrid varieties are introduced and are under commercial production

in the country. Few popular OP and hybrid varieties of maize in production are briefly described

in Table 14.

Table 13: List of maize varieties recommended and grown in Nepal

Varieties Maturity

(days)

Yield

(mt/ha)

Domain

Khumal panhelo 130 4.9 Mid-hills

Rampur composite 105 4.7 Terai & Inner terai

Arun 2 90 2.2 Terai, mid- & high-hills

Manakamana 1 130 4.0 Mid-hiils & Terai in winter

Ganesh 2 180 3.5 High-hills & Terai in winter

Rampur 2 110 4.0 Terai & Inner terai

Arun 1 100 4.0 Terai and 9mid-hills in Western Nepal

Ganesh 1 175 4.0 High-hills

Manakamana 3 142 5.5 1000 to 1700 m in Western regions

Deuti 135 5.7 Mid-hill

Shitala 135 6.1 Mid-hill

Manakamana 4 117 5.3 Mid-hill

Poshilo makai 1 155 5.3 Mid-hill



Varieties Maturity

(days)

Yield

(mt/ha)

Domain



Rampur hybrid 2 160 7.0 Mid & Eastern Terai

Khumal Hybrid

Makai 2

152 9.1 Mid-hills in summer , Terai/Inner Terai in wnter

Arun 3 100 3.9 Terai & Mid-hills



Soil and climatic requirements

Land Requirement

Maize has been successfully grown in different soils ranging from loamy sand to clay loam. Soils

with good organic matter and having high water holding capacity with neutral pH are considered

good for higher productivity. Maize is sensitive to moisture stress particularly excess soil

moisture. Fields with proper drainage should be selected for cultivation of maize.

Depending upon the altitude, day temperature and the time of the pre- and post-monsoon rainfall,

maize can be grown across the country in all the seasons as spring, winter and summer maize.

The optimal condition for maize cultivation is temperature ranging from 25o to 30o Celsius and

60” rainfall. However it is grown even in high-hills on minimum temperature of 10o C and

heavy rainfall of 150” to 500” rainfall but with a good management of drainage.

It is grown in mid-hills between the second weeks of March to second week of April. It is sown

about a month earlier in Khet land where rice is established in July after the maize harvest.

Summer maize in the Terai is sown in June, a month later than the mid-hills. Winter and spring

maize are also sown in the Terai with irrigation during October and February, respectively. In the

high-hills, maize is sown as early as March, but it matures later than in the mid-hills.

Table 14: Crop calendar of maize cultivation in Nepal

Maize (season) Terai/inner terai Mid-hills High-hills

Summer Baisakh - Jestha Chaitra - Baisakh Phalgun - Chaitra

Spring Phalgun - Chaitra

Winter Bhadra - Kartik

Crop Rotation

Maize is cultivated in sequence with different crops under various agro-ecologies of the country.

There are different maize based cropping systems: maize-wheat, maize-mustard, maize-



chickpea, maize-maize, cotton-maize, maize-rice etc. Maize based cropping systems make better

use of available resources and water use efficiency. Maize is also intercropped with different

crops but for seed production it should be grown as sole crop.

Land Preparation

Land preparation begins after the first rains in March/April for summer maize whereas it starts

during last week of September or early October for winter maize. It is plowed twice using oxen

plough or tractor drawn cultivator followed by de-cloding before sowing. During the second

plowing, farm yard manure is mixed into the soil. In smaller plots and narrow corners, where

plowing is difficult, manual digging is done. There is practice of carrying manure to the field,

piled and spread after the first plowing or one or two days before sowing.


Maize seed has to be replaced more frequently, since mixing as a result of natural cross-

fertilization with other varieties in adjacent fields is common. Seed of composite varieties of

maize may have to be replaced after three years, whereas hybrids must be renewed each year if

their original yield potential is to be maintained.

Seed Rate

In general seed rate is 20 to 30 kg/ha. In some cases it could be increased to ensure that enough

plants develop despite possible low germination rates and soil-pest problems. In mid-hills it

ranges from 25 to 35 kg/ha and is 35 kg/ha in the high-hills.

Seed treatment

To protect the maize crop from seed and major soil borne diseases and insect-pests, seed

treatment with fungicides and insecticides before sowing is recommended. Followings are the

recommendations of seed treatment for maize seeds.

Table 15: Seed treatments for maize seeds

Disease/insect pests Fungicide/pesticide Rate of application

(g-1 kg of seed)

Turcicum leaf blight, banded leaf

blight, sheath blight, maydis leaf blight

Bavistin + Captan in 1:1 ratio

or Agrosan GN or Thiram

2.0

Pythium stalk rot Captan 2.5

Termite and shoot fly Imidachlor2pit 4.0

Method of planting

There are two distinct methods of maize planting: dropping the seed in the plough mark or

broadcasting before plowing. In seed production, the first method dropping seeds in plough is



suitable and it is planted in well-leveled moist field in rows with spacing of 75 x 25 cm and in

depth of 5 cm at the rate of 2 seeds/hill. It maintains the optimum plant population of 53,000/ha.

On emergence and establishment of the plants, the soil is earthen up and raised as ridge and

furrow for draining the excess water.

It is also directly planted in raised bed during monsoon and winter seasons both under excess

moisture as well as under rain-fed conditions. In commercial seed production, the raised bed

planter with the system of seed and fertilizer dropping are used for planting and it facilitates

placement of seed and fertilizers at proper place in one operation.

Fertilizers

Maize is responsive to the nutrients applied either from organic or inorganic sources.

Recommended dose of fertilization is broadly 120:60:40 kg NPK per ha for open pollinated

maize production and 200:60:40 kg NPK per ha for hybrid maize production. Full dose of P, K

and half of N is applied as basal during preparation of land or along planting in raised bed using

seed cum fertilizer drill and other half of nitrogen is top dressed at first weeding during

knee height stage of maize. However, for efficient use of N and better yield, N could be applied

in five splits at different stages of maize as shown below:

Basal (sowing) : 40 kg

Four leaf stage : 20 kg

Knee height stage : 30 kg

Tasseling stage : 20 kg

Grain filling stage : 10 kg

A supplement application of FYM at 10-15 tons/ha is done during land preparation. It is also

recommended to apply 25 kg ZnSO4/ha in case if soil is deficient of Zn.

Irrigation

Average amount of water required varies between 500-800 mm. Maize is cultivated during

monsoon season particularly under rain-fed condition. Following are the critical periods of

growth when irrigation should be done in areas with assured irrigation.

Knee high stage,

Tassel formation stage,

Grain formation stage, and

Grain maturity stage

Irrigation water can be applied in alternate furrow in raised bed planting system to save water. In

rain-fed areas, tied-ridges are helpful in conserving the rainwater for its availability in the root

zone for longer period. For winter maize, it is advisable to keep soil wet and protect the crop

from frost injury. However on heavy rainfall, the water should be drained out within 24 hours as

the crop is sensitive to water logging.

Intercultural practices and weeding



Weeds compete with maize for nutrient and causes yield loss so, timely weed management is

necessary. In general two weeding should be done: the first weeding about a month (20-25 days)

after seeding and second weeding about 50-60 days after seeding. Besides hand weeding,

following herbicides can be used to manage the weeds in maize.

Pre emergence application of Atrazine (Atratraf 50 wp, Gesaprim 500 fw) @ 1.0-1.5 kg/ha

in 600 litre water checks broad spectrum of weeds

Pre-emergence application of Atrazine Alachlor (Lasso) @ 2-2.5 kg/ha , or Metolachlor

(Dual) @ 1.5-2.0 kg/ha, or Pendamethalin (Stomp) @ 1-1.5 kg/ha controls many annual

and broad leaved weeds.

One to two hoeing are recommended for aeration and uprooting of the remaining weeds, if

any.

For areas where zero tillage is practiced, pre-plant application (10-15 days prior to seeding)

of Glyphosate @ 1.0 kg/ha in 400-600 litre water or Paraquat @ 0.5 kg/ha in 600 litre

water is recommended.

Under heavy weed infestation, post-emergence application of Paraquat can also be done.

Table 16: Common weed flora of maize crop

S. No Common name Local name Plant type Means of transmission

1. Pigweed Lunde Annual Seed

2. Goat weed Gannejhar Annual Seed

3. Beggar’s stick Kurkure Annual Seed

4. Day flower Kanne Annual Seed

5. Quail grass Sarwari Annual Seed

6. Woods orel Amilo jhar Perennial Runner/seed

7. Wild gajar Jungali gajar Annual Seed

8. Lambs quarters Bethe Annual Seed

9. Bermuda grass Dubo Annual Seed

10. Bam yard grass Sawa Annual Seed

11. Weeping grass Charidana Annual Seed

12. Yellow nut sedge Mothe Perennial Runner

13. Brown nut sedge Mothe Perennial Runner

Rouging

The plants are thinned out to maintain one healthy plant per hill. It should be done at early stage

without disturbing the root. In roguing, unhealthy, damaged and off-type plants, seedlings are

rogued out. Rouging starts right from the seedling stage at 15-20 days after seeding and it

continues throughout the growth stages till the harvest of the cobs. At early stages, the diseased

and poor growing seedlings are rogued out. Later the tassels of deformed and off-type plants

should be rogued out to avoid pollination and even the cobs with deformed husk coverings

should be rogued.



Diseases and control measures

The major diseases of maize affecting yield are described below:

Turcicum leaf blight

Prevalent in cool condition with high humidity in mid- and high-hills

Long, elliptical, grayish green or tan lesions (2.5-15 cm) appear on lower leaves

progressing upward.

Use of resistant and proper varieties for the location and follow need based sprays of

mancozeb @ 2.5 g/litre (with adjuant @ 0.05%) at 8-10 days interval on heavy

infestation.

Maydis leaf blight

Major disease in the maize areas having warm humid temperate to tropical climate during

cropping period.

Lesions on the leaves elongated between the veins, tan with buff to brown or dark reddish

brown borders

Growing of resistant variety and apply need based sprays of mancozeb or zineb @

2.5g/litre of water

Common rust

Attacks maize growing in mid-hills and high-hills.

The circular to elongate, golden brown to cinnamon brown pustules are visible over both

leaf surfaces changing to brownish black at plant maturity.

Use of early maturing and short duration varieties in rust prone areas.

Spray of mancozeb@ 2.5g/litre of water at first appearance of pustules.

Banded leaf and sheath blight

This disease appears in hot humid foot hills of the country

White lesions develops on leaves and sheath with purplish or brown horizontal bands and

later spread to ears. Causes drying out the ears prematurely and forms cracks on husks

Produces large, gray, tan or brown discolored areas alternating with dark brown bands

and later sclerotia are formed.

Use of tolerant maize varieties to this disease

Seed treatment with peat based formulation @ 16 g/kg of Pseudomonas fluorescence or

as soil application of 7 g/l of water carbendazim, thiophanate-methyl and captan.

Ear rot

Cobs start rotting either from tip or base of the husk and color of husk is changed from

green to red or pink

Use of resistant varieties like Manakamana 1, Ganesh 1, Ganesh 2

Use of healthy seeds treated with Bavistin 2-3 g/kg of seeds



Foliar spray of Hinosan @ 1.5 ml/l of water at interval of 10-15 days during tillering

stage

Pythium stalk rot

Stalk becomes brown, water-soaked, soft and collapsed, usually confined to a single

internode just above the soil line, later plants get twisted due to rotting at infected portion

resulting in lodging

Discoloration of leaf sheath from tan to dark brown, water soaked slimy lesions on the

leaf sheath and stalk generally appear when plant suddenly falls over and are seen

scattered in the field.

A foul odor can be sensed from macerated tissues and the top of such plants can be very

easily removed from the rest of the plant.

Good field drainage, planting on time to escape the disease appearance, plant population

of not more than 50,000/ha reduce the disease incidence.

Application of 75% captan @ 12 g/100 litre of water and bleaching powder (33%

chlorine) @ 10 kg/ha as soil drench help to control rotting of stalks

Gray leaf spot

A new serious foliar disease observed in hill agro-ecosystem

At initial stage of infestation, few small gray spots are seen on leaf blades below the

tassel which grow fast and extend to elongated shapes and start infestation the leaf

sheath, stalk and cob husk and finally dries out the whole plant.

Collect and burn or bury leaves, stalks, and plants with infestation away from the seed

field.

Use of resistant varieties like Manakamana 1. Ganesh 1 and Ganesh 2, foliar spray of

Bavistin 50 % WP or Diathane M-45 @ 1 g/l of water, adoption of timely plantation,

crop rotation practices are the control measures.

Brown stripe downy mildews

Narrow, chlorotic or yellowish stripes with well-defined margins and delimited by the

veins appear on leaves.

Downy or wooly cottony whitish growth visible in early morning hours on lower surfaces

of the lesions.

Most of the infected plants die at about knee-high stage.

Under humid conditions, whitish fluffy growth due to abundant fructification of the

fungus can be observed on the lower and upper leaf surfaces.

Tassels are malformed producing less pollen while ears may abort causing partial or

complete sterility.

Early planting of maize escapes the infection and use resistant varieties like Rampur 2

and Rampur composite.

Seed should be treated with Diathane M-45 3g/kg seed and need based foliar sprays of

systemic fungicide such as Metalaxyl @ 2-2.5g/L is recommended at first appearance of

disease symptoms.



Head smut

Tassels looks unhealthy and turn black and deformed

Cobs are collection of a mass of smut balls (spores) instead the formation of seeds.

Collect bury diseased plants and cobs to prevent spread by air

Use of healthy quality seeds treated with bavistin 50 % WP @ 2-3 g/kg of seeds.

Insect pests and control measures

A good number of insect pest have been found to damage the maize plants and grains. Among

them, some have potential to cause economic loss.

Stem Borer

Major pest also known as stalk borer occurs during monsoon season throughout the

country

Lays eggs 10-25 days after germination on lower side of the leaves and larva enters in the

whorl and cause damage to the leaves.

Foliar spray of spinosad 45% EC at 0.5 ml L-1 of water at 15 days after emergence and at

tasseling stage.

Controlled by release of Trichocards (Trichogramma chilonis) per ha at 10 days after

germination

Intercropping of maize with suitable varieties of cowpea is an eco-friendly option for

reducing the incidence of borers.

Infected stalks should be either burned or ploughed well every year for preventing

buildup in soil.

Apply Carbofuran (Furadan 3 G) 3-4 granules onto auxiliary buds of developing tillers.

Shoot fly

Serious pest of spring and summer maize and infests mainly at seedling stage.

The tiny maggots creep down under the leaf sheaths till they reach the base of the

seedlings and cut the central shoot and forms ‘dead heart’

Controlled by sowing the crop to escape shoot fly infestation.

Seed treatment with Imidaclor @ 6ml/kg seed

Termites

Normally affects during wet season

Application of Fepronil granules @ 20 kg/ha followed by light irrigation

On heavy incidence of termites in patches, spot application of Fepronil @ 2-3

granules/plant should be practiced

Cut worm

Soil borne worms become active during night and cut the seedlings underneath stopping

the plant growth.

Collect and destroy the worms from the plant hills with cut seedlings.

Use of BT associated biological pesticide, laid to feed the worms. Malathion 5% DP

mixed with wheat flour @ 10 kg/ha or treat the soil with Malathion 5 5 DP @ 20 kg/ha.



White grub

These are root eaters and kill the seedlings.

Deep ploughing of the field during land preparation should be done as these pest are

exposed to sunlight and die.

Soil treatment with Dursban 10% @ 20 kg/ha before sowing

biological pesticide of Metarrizium anisopleae @ 20 kg/ha along the seed sowing in line.

Army worm

Soil borne and eat the seedlings.

Active at night

Foliar spray of BT biological pesticide @ 1g/l of water or Deltramethian 2.8 Ec @ 1 ml/l

of water

Harvesting and threshing

Maize is harvested at maturity and stalks are left in the field. On maturity, the plants completely

dry and the tassels/leaves/stalks turn from green to yellow and the seed moisture content ranges

from 15 to 20 %. To know the right time of harvest of maize cob, it is in practice to look for the

black mark on the top of kernels shelled from middle of cobs.

After harvest, cobs are inspected on threshing floor and separate by size and quality.

(appearance).

Large and good cobs are selected and tied in bunches (4-6 cobs) and sun-dried for 4-5 days and

brought to 13-15% SMC. After drying, these bunches are piled in specially prepared open-air

storage structures, called Thankro, Suli or Luta. Special care is taken in preparing these stores to

make them water and rodent proof. The maize is removed from these stores in December or

later depending the type of variety and their growing seasons.

Drying, processing and cleaning

Maize cobs are generally dried in piled bundles in open air storage structures and also dried on a

tarpaulin spreading the cobs.

Cobs are also hung on ropes inside the house or on verandahs by tying the sheaths together in

bunches for drying.

Hanging maize cobs with ropes above the kitchen or keeping them in specially prepared bamboo/

wooden structures is also in practice.

Shelled grains are processed, cleaned and dried further to 12 % moisture before storage.

The chaffs, stalk pieces, broken, shrunken seeds, and damaged/deformed seeds are sorted out.

Healthy, uniform, and bold kernels are then stored in bhakari, metal bin, jute bags, PIC bag,

Super Pro bags or any traditional but safe containers.

Bagging, tagging and storage

Shelled grains are sampled out following the sampling and dividing method and size of the total

harvest. Seeds are stored with ash, Timur seeds, Titepati leaves or millet grains to prevent attack

from storage pests. The choice of storage structure depends upon quantity and duration of

storage. In general seeds are stored in metal bins, seed drums, earthen ghyampo, 250 gauzed poly

coated bags, Grain Pro super bags, PICS bags and treated with 1-2 tablets of Celphos in air-tight



condition to save from storage pests. Based to testing results, these seed containers are tagged

with these quality and production information that will be valid for at least six months in storage

till next planting season.

The bags are stacked on wooden pallets in the storage, allowing good ventilation with free air

movement and no contact to floor and walls. Periodic check of the stored seeds for signs of

spoilage and/or pest infestation is done.

Seed weighing and yield.

Maize productivity at 2.3 tons per hectare in Nepal is still quite low compared to the global

average of 5.5 tons per hectare. There was large variation in maize productivity ranging from a

minimum of 3.6 t/ha to a maximum of 5.13 t/ha in the different agro-ecologies. The average

yield of OPV maize in Terai is around 3.0 t/ha whole that of hybrids is around 7.0 t/ha. The

yields of maize in the mid-hill agro-ecologies was reported to be from 1.35 t/ha to 2.36 t/ha and

that of improved OPV’s to be from 1.35 to 2.95 t/ha.



3.9.3 WHEAT

Wheat is the third most important staple food grain after rice and maize in Nepal. It is the

primary source of calorie and protein. Until 1960 it was limited to traditional farming in few ha

of land in some hilly districts in far- and mid-west of the country. With the introduction of

improved variety from India in early seventies to the date, its cultivation has extended across the

agro-ecosystems and 75 districts of the country.

Floral Biology and Seed Morphology

Wheat is a winter annual grass with flat leaf blades and a terminal floral spike consisting of

perfect flowers. The vegetative state of the plant is characterized by tillers called the culm.

Culms comprise five to seven nodes with three to four foliage leaves. The uppermost often called

flag leaf, subtends the inflorescence. Each culm produces an inflorescence or a composite spike,

basic floral unit of which is termed the spikelet. Spikelet are born on a main axis, called rachis,

and are separated by short internodes called rachila. Each spikelet is a condensed reproductive

shoot consisting of two subtending sterile bracts or glumes (lemma and palea). The glumes

enclose two to five florets which are born on a short axis called rachila. Wheat florets contain

three stamens with large anthers and the pistil which comprises a single ovary, with a single

ovule, two styles, and two branching plumose stigmas at the end of each style. It is self-

pollinating with simultaneous dehiscence of anthers.

Wheat is a monocotyledon species. Caryopses in wheat are the single seeded fruits as units for

propagation. It consists of a developed embryo and triploid endosperm closed by seed coat which

internally fused with the pericarp. The endosperm consists of starchy tissue (dead storage tissue)

and aleurone layer (living cells) while the embryo consists of coleoptiles (shoot sheath),

scutellum, radical and coleorhizea (root sheath).

Wheat Varieties

Table 17: Some improved wheat varieties under effective production and their domains

Varieties Maturity (days) Yield (t/ha) Domain

NL 297 117 5.0 Terai (Late sowing condition)

Bhrikuti 120 5.0 Terai & valleys up to 1000 m

Annapurna 4 161 5.0 Mid & high hills

BL 1135 115 5.0 Terai & valleys up to 1000 m

Pasanglhamu 168 6.5 Mid and high-hills (Kathmandu & Jumla

valleys)

Gautam 119 3.4 Across Terai

WK 1204 179 3.4 Across Hill

NL 971 122 4.5 Across Terai

Aditya 118 4.8 Across Terai

Bijaya 123 4.5 Across Terai

Gaura 160 5.0 Mid & High-Hills



Varieties Maturity (days) Yield (t/ha) Domain

Dhawalagiri 156 4.9 Mid & High-Hills

Danphe 170 4.5 Mid & High-Hills 700 -2400 m

Tilotama 120 3.2 Terai & Inner Terai upto 800 m

Land Requirement

Wheat is successfully grown in across the country and agro-ecosystems. However land selected

for wheat seed production should be:

Free from volunteer plants

Free from contaminants: weeds, noxious weeds and soil borne diseases transmitted

through seeds

All soil types with well drainage and productive with neither too acidic and nor too

alkaline pH

Long interval of crop rotation

It is therefore essential to select the appropriate sites for seed production of wheat. In order to

avoid the contaminants, followings points should be strictly considered:

The area where the variety is adapted;

The soil types where soil conditions are optimal to achieve a high multiplication ratio;

The season and the climate when the conditions are favorable to avoid loss due to natural

hazards (flooding, drought, frost, etc.);

The field where no wheat crop was grown in previous year

A two years crop rotation for loose smut contamination reduction

Crop rotation

It is desirable to follow the crop rotation in wheat for production of pure and quality seeds. It is

often grown in rotation with rice, sugarcane, pigeon pea, bean and ground nut.


Through continuous research in different agro-environments, many varieties have been released

for specific domains and time of planting to achieve the optimal yield. As not all of the varieties

could be grown across the different wheat growing environments, right variety for right field and

time should be chosen, based to the agro-environment of the area and planned time of planting.

Source of seed

One should obtain foundation/certified/improved seed from the source approved by certification

agency with quality information in respective tags. The seed for planting should be pre-managed

about a week ahead and should be tested for quality (germination and physical purity) and

cleaned accordingly.

Seed rate

The recommended seed rate of wheat is 120 kg per ha across the growing environment. Too

dense or too sparse plant population is not desirable for seed production. Seed rate for a seed

crop is determined by the seed size, seed purity and seed germination capability.

Seed treatment



The seed should be treated with systematic fungicide, the Vitavax - 200 for controlling loose

smut and other contamination from soil borne diseases before sowing.

Time of sowing

Cultivation of wheat in general begins from third week of Kartik and it goes till first week of

Paush. However, optimum time of sowing in hills is in the month of Mansir till third week, when

the day temperature is 23o±3o Celsius. October 15 to November 15 is the optimum time of

sowing of wheat in Terai.

Land Preparation

There are many modern technologies for sowing the wheat seed. Based to the physiographic

status of the field, one can adopt any method of seed sowing and accordingly the seed bed should

be prepared. However in traditional method of seed planting, following preparations should be

carried out:

Deep ploughing with soil turning plough

Running harrow or give a light shallow ploughing before pre-sowing irrigation or use

disking after pre- sowing irrigation

Maintain a good leveling which is important in seed bed preparation for any of the

conservation methods to be used.

Broadcast BHC 10 % at the rate of 25 kg per ha in the soil just before last harrowing or

ploughing or it could even be applied along with the fertilizer during basal application.

Method of seed sowing

There are many conservation technologies and cropping pattern developed in wheat. Zero tillage,

surface seeding, wheat-maize crop pattern, intercropping with soybean are some effective

technologies. But for seed production, following operations should be performed

Seed crop should be sown in rows with seed drill or behind the plough in furrows

Depth of seeding should be 5 cm

Seed drill should completely be cleaned and checked for other contaminations before

using the other variety to avoid mixing

Row distance should be 20 to 25 cm to facilitate the roguing the off types and diseased

plants

Fertilizers

A broad recommendation of chemical fertilizer for wheat is 120:60:40 NPK kg/ha. However it

could be managed according to the soil composition, soil moisture, nutrient contents of soil and

agro-eco zones. Besides the essential elements of NPK, there are other elements like zinc,

copper, iron, manganese and boron could be applied based on the soil nutrient analysis for good

seed yield.

Table 18: Recommended dose of fertilization for wheat crop (kg/ha)

Land type Terai Hill

Nitrogen Phosphorus Potash Nitrogen Phosphorus Potash

Irrigated 100 50 50 80 40 40



Upland/Rainfed 60 30 30 60 30 30

Delayed irrigation 80 40 40 - - -

Fertilizers are applied as basal and top-dressing

Whole of phosphorus and potash and half of nitrogen applied as basal dose during

preparation of land before sowing.

Remaining half of nitrogen applied on top dressing during first irrigation at crown root

initiation stage that is about 30-35 days after crop establishment and after thinning the

crop stand

But in rain-fed condition, all fertilization should be applied as basal.

Irrigation

In wheat, four to six irrigations at different growth stages are required for a seed crop. However,

it depends on the soil type. For example, for the light soils, extra irrigation is required. Wheat is

very sensitive to moisture stress at crown root initiation and heading stages.

First irrigation at crown root initiation stage about 30 – 35 days after sowing

Other irrigations at late tillering, late jointing, heading/flowering, milk, and dough stages

Inter-culture for weeding

Timely and periodic weeding is essential to keep the field free from weeds for good seed

production. First weeding after 30-40 days after sowing controls the weeds and helps in

minimizing the yield loss. In general the weed control in wheat is done using the herbicides.

Following herbicidal sprays could be carried to control the broad and narrow-leaved weeds in

wheat:

Pendimethalin 30 EC @ 3.3 litre in 500 litre water per ha, spraying on and after 3 days of

sowing on moist soil, inhibits the germination of weed seeds present in soil.

2-4 D sodium salt (80 WPA) @ 1 kg in 500 litre water per ha spray 30-35 days after

sowing controls the broad-leaved weeds.

Tolkan or Arilan or Isoproturan (75 WPA) @ 1 kg in 500 – 600 water per ha spray

controls the narrow-leaved weeds including the noxious weed (Phalaris minor) of wheat.

A mixture of 2-4 D sodium salt (80 WP) t @ of 1 g and Isoproturan (75 WP) at @ of 2 g

in a litre of water per ha spray to kill both broad- and narrow-leaved weed.

Major weeds including of broad and narrow-leaved plants and the objectionable weeds that grow

along with wheat plants in different agro-systems and affect the seed yield are listed below:

Table 19: List of major weeds and objectionable of wheat crop

S.N. Common name Local name Plant type Means of

transmission

1 Pimpernal Krishna nil Annual Seed

2 Prickly poppy Satyanasi Annual Seed

3 Indian hemp Bhang Annual Seed

4 Goosefoot Bethuwa Annual Seed

5 Field bindwood Hirankhur Perennial Rhizome & seed



6 Water cress Chamsure jhar Annual Seed

7 Fumitory Bangajar Annual Seed

8 Wild vetch Jangali khesari Annual Seed

9 Creeping wood sore Chari amilo Perennial Seed

10 Curly duck Halhale Perennial Rhizome & seed

11 Corn spurry Thagne jhar Annual Seed

12 Common vetch Kutil kosa Annual Seed

13 Bur clover Pyauli Annual Seed

14 Canary grass Ragate jhar Annual Seed

15 Rabitfoot grass Matejhar Annual Seed

16 Wild oat Jangali jai Annual Seed

* = Objectionable weed plants

Rouging

The inspector on inspection, if finds weed plants, diseased plants, off-types not meeting the

standards, suggests the directives to carry roughing and clean the seed crop. In general three to

four rouging are normally practiced in wheat to bring the seed crop to seed certification

standards.

First rouging at heading to flowering stage to rogue out the obvious off-types at this stage

Second rouging after completion of flowering and start of development of the color in

ears

Third rouging on complete mature and complete development of ear color

In rouging, obvious off-types plants like different in color, plants susceptible to diseases, tall

plants, plants with smut galls, early heading plants, and ear-heads with variations in plot should

be removed. In rouging, the smutted ear-heads should be collected in paper bag and buried or

burned far away from the wheat plot.

Wheat Diseases and Control Measures

Followings are some major and economically important wheat diseases which causes economic

loss.

Powdery mildew of wheat

White to pale grey powdery colonies of mycelia and conidia on upper surfaces of leaves

and sheaths and sometimes on ear- heads are the symptoms of the disease.

It grows fast under favorable condition of 15o -22o Celsius and humidity 100 % and a

severe infection cause a heavy yield loss with shrunk kernels.

A spray of Propiconazole (25 EC) @ 0.1 % at ear emergence or whenever disease

appears is recommended to control disease. Besides it can be controlled by

practicing crop rotation, use of balanced nutrition and clean cultivation.

Black Rust or Stem Rust

Dark reddish brown pustules (masses of uredospores) that develop on both the sides of

leaves, culm and ear- heads are the symptoms.



It multiplies fast when day temperature is 25o-30oCelsius and night temperature

is 15o- C destroys the crop in 10-15 days.

Its infections at early growth stage causes low tillering, loss in grain weight and seed

quality and sometime complete crop loss.

It can be controlled by use of resistant varieties: Vijaya, Tilotama, Danphe, plan early

and timely sowing of crop, keep the crop away from the alternate host of Ug99

(Barberis, and other local source as host) and can also use the pesticides: Triazole,

Propiconazole, Tebuconazole, Epoziconazole

Leaf Rust or Brown Rust

It is an air-borne disease of wheat and economically important.

Brown pustules of uredospore on upper surface of leaves and leaf-sheaths and

occasionally on neck and awns are the symptoms of leaf rust.

The disease grow fast when the day temperature is 20o-25o Celsius and night

temperature at 150-20

0 Celsius at 100% RH and impacts greatly on yield and reduce the

number of kernels in spike.

Cultivation of resistant varieties: Aditya, Gautam, Vijay and Bhrikuti and a spray of

pesticides: Propiconazole (25 EC), Tebuconazole (2 DS), Epoziconazole @ 1.5 ml per

litre of water can control the spread of disease.

Yellow Rust

This disease normally occurs in hills and high-hills.

Yellow to orange pustules of urediospores form the stripes on leaves, leaf-sheaths, necks,

and glumes as the symptoms of the disease.

Favorable temperature is 20-250 Celsius for spread and growth of the organism, but

when the temperature increases above 25o Celsius, the growth reduces and controls

itself.

Severe infection and infection at early stage cause yield loss, reduce the number of

kernels per spike and also shrink the grain and affect the seed quality.

Use of resistant varieties: WK 1204 and Dhaulagiri and use of effective pesticides:

Propiconazole and Tebuconazole are the control measures.

Foliar Blight

Normally this disease occurs in Terai with hot climate, however it has also been spread in

hills.

Elongated to oval pustules of urediospores form the stripe on sufaces of leaves as its

symptoms.

It can grow at above 15o Celsius and severe infection kills the plant above the soil.

Cultivation of tolerant varieties: Gautam, Aditya and Vijay, periodic spray of

Propiconazole 25 EC @ 1.5 ml per one litre of water at interval of 10-15 days, use of

balanced N and K can be the control measures.

Loose Smut of wheat



It is a seed borne disease caused by a systematic fungus and can occur in any region on

any susceptible wheat varieties and it is an objectionable disease in seed certification.

Entire inflorescence except the rachis (stalk) turns into the gall of black powdery masses

of spores that travel a long way and spread the disease.

Its infection and loss in yield depends on the number of ear- heads affected and up to 30

% yield loss has been recorded.

The spread of disease can be managed by rouging out the diseased plants and they are

buried far away from the wheat field. Seed treatment with systematic fungicides: Vitavax

200, Bavistin, Derosal @ 2 g per kg of seed controls the development and spread of

disease.

Insect Pest and their Management

Different insect pests attack wheat plant at different growth stages and affect the crop production

with loss in grain yield. Followings are some major insect pests of wheat.

Aphids

Aphids are small, sticky sucking insects that colonize small grains early in the season and

also may build in later growth stages.

They inject saliva to the leaves and suck the sap from leaves and affect the growth of

plant and grain development ultimately causing loss in yield with small grains.

Long white stripes, leaves rolling, prostrate growth habit and sterile ear-heads are the

symptoms of aphid infection.

Clean the surroundings of field to stop colonization of aphid, rearing of useful insects

feeding the aphids, foliar spray of Imidacloprid 200 S @ 0.5 ml per liter or of water

Rogar @ 2 ml per litre of water, and use of yellow sticky trap are few control measures.

Stem Borers

The larvae of these insects infect the tillers, eat the axillary buds and move upwards the

culm and final kill the ear-head with no grain.

On close examination, a small entry hole about the siz of a pinhead was evident usually at

or just below th first node up from the base of the plant.

Dead hearts at early stage, dry tillers with white sterile ear-heads are the symptoms of this

insect infestation.

Rearing of tricogama @ 50,000-100,000 per ha 3-4 weeks after sowing of wheat,

application of balanced fertilizer of NPK and use of zinc @ 25 kg/ha, use of granules of

furadon 3G controls the infestation.


The seed crop is allowed to mature completely and soon after the harvest maturity, it has to be

harvested to avoid the losses due to shattering, sprouting on standing crops due to the rainy and

stormy weather on delay harvest. However following critical factors should be in mind in

harvesting a wheat seed crop:

Complete ripening of the crop and dry weather



Moisture content of the stand. Normally, 20-25 % of seed moisture is suitable for manual

harvest and 16-19 % for combine harvest.

Cleanliness of the harvesting and threshing equipment and floor

Care in handling the seed during harvesting and threshing for mechanical damage.

Right and timely harvesting

Following tips are suggested for right timing of harvest in wheat:

When peduncle of ear-heads turns golden yellow

Grains thresh out easily when rubbed the dried ear-heads

By biting the grain for grain moisture (suitable moisture for harvest 20%)

Clean the threshers and threshing floor before using for a new variety

Drying, Processing, Cleaning

After harvest and threshing, seeds are required to dry two to three times as per dry/hot or humid

climates of growing environment. In humid environment, the modern novel technology of seed

drying using zeolite drying beads could be used for efficient drying and dried seeds should be

stored in sealed pack at 8-9 % SMC. Dry seeds are cleaned or processed based to the quantity of

the seeds using conventional winnowing method in open air or air screen cleaner, length

separator, gravity separator to remove the chaffy materials, dust particles, pieces of

culms/awns, broken seeds, weevil infested seeds, weed seeds and other crop seeds. Seeds are

graded for uniform size and dried once again if necessary. The recommended moisture content

for storage of wheat seed is 12%.

Bagging, Tagging and Storage

After cleaning and drying seeds are bagged in recommended seed containers and size with

proper labeling. The size of bag for wheat is normally 30-35 kg and proper kind of seed

containers recommended by certification for wheat are 200 guaze lined jute bag, Super

GrainPro bags, PICs bags and improved metal bins. Foundation seed is treated with Vitavex

200 to protect the seeds in storage and seedlings after emergence. For certification and tagging,

seeds are required to be tested in seed testing laboratory for minimum standards as follows:

For analytical and physiological testing, a submitted sample of 1 kg representing the seed

lot is sampled following sampling rules and dispatched for testing in STL near to seed

growing area.

These test results will be valid for at least six months in storage till next planting season.

Bagged seeds are stored in clean and well ventilated seed store in heaps on wooden

stacks with a good aeration surrounding the seed heaps.

Seed store could be fumigated and should be free from rats, water proof (not leaking),

cool and dry.

Seed weighing and Yield

Final step is the seed weighing for bagging and finding the total yield. Average seed yield in

Nepal for wheat ranges from 2-2.5 tons per ha. However, it depends on the varietal potential.



3.9.4 BROAD LEAF MUSTARD

Broad leaf mustard commonly known as ‘Rayo’ is a cool-season annual vegetable, usually

grown for its variable, glabrous, rather thin basal leaves. In Nepal broad leaf mustard occupies

first position in term of hectare and production among the leafy vegetables. It is widely adapted

and can be grown from terai to the hills of Nepal. It is rich in Vitamins A, B, C and E and iron,

calcium and protein.

Floral biology

Mustard flowers have four bright yellow petals attached to a central core and thin green stem.

The central core contains one yellow pistil and four to six shorter yellow stamens.

Table 20: Broad leaf mustard Varieties

Varieties Origin

Year of

Release

Maturity

(Days)

F. Yield

(kg/ha) Domain

Khumal Chauda

Paat Nepal 2046 50-60 35

Terai, Hills and High-

Hills

Marpha Chauda

Paat Nepal 2051 55-65 28 Mid- and High-Hills

Khumal Rato

Paat Nepal 2051 60-70 28 Mid- and High-Hills

Tankhuwa Rayo 2051 30-36 31 Mid-Hills from 1100 to

1700 m

Mike Gaint, OP

(Registered) 2066 35-40 - Terai and Hills

Red Gaint, OP

(Registered) 2066 35-40 - Terai and Hills

Gujmuje rayo

(Registered) Nepal 2071 240-270 30 Hills from 1500-1800 m

Dude rayo

(Registered) Nepal 2071 270 35 Hills from 1500-1800 m

Climate and Soil

Leaf mustard is a cool season and winter hardy crop. It is grown as a winter crop in terai and mid

hills where as it is a summer crop for the high hills. It can withstand the frost and snow (the low

temperature up to -4oC). However, under the high temperature above 29oC or so, the plants

quickly start bolting and flowering as the day become warmer. Seed production is often carried

in cool climate in mid hills. Depending upon the usage and type of the varieties, seed can be

produced even in terai. It can be grown in almost all types of soils but loam soil with high

organic matter content and with better water holding capacity and proper drainage is preferred.

The soil pH in between 6-7 is good for its seed production.

Source of seed and Seed Rate



600 g/ha is the seed rate for leaf mustard and the source should be authentic with all quality

information and true to the type. .

Nursery bed preparation

Broad leaf mustard seedling are raised in the nursery bed and transplanted to the main field. The

soil is ploughed 3 – 4 times and the land is made leveled. It is necessary to provide good

drainage system. Organic manure and fertilizers are applied as a basal dose and raised the beds

10-15 cm up the ground carrying single or double rows of length 5-6 m and width 1 m. Well

rotten FYM or OM should be applied that decreases the incidence of insect-pest and diseases and

seeds are sown in lines. Seedlings on 20-25 days after sowing will be ready of the age for

transplantation in main field.

Spacing

Nursery bed at 5-10 cm from row to row

Main field on transplantation at 75 x 45 cm

Sowing Time in nursery beds

High-hills – 2nd week of Ashadh

Mid-hills - 3rd week of Bhadra

Table 21: Crop calendar for broad leaf mustard in different agro-ecosystems of Nepal

Geographical region Sowing time Harvesting time

High hills (5000 – 7000 ft) Falgun to Baisakh (March to

May)

Jestha to Bhadra (May to

August)

Mid hills (3000 – 5000 ft) Bhadra to Mangsir (August to

December)

Karthik to Falgun (October to

February)

Lower hills (1000 – 3000

ft)

Ashoj to Poush (September to

December)

Karthik to Falgun (October to

February)

Terai (below 1000 ft) Ashoj to Poush (September to

December)

Kartik to Falgun (October to

February)

Land preparation and transplantation of seedlings

The land for transplanting seedlings is prepared by ploughing for 2-3 times and leveled. For the

winter crop, a flatbed is prepared whereas for a rainy crop, seedlings are transplanted on ridges.

During land preparation, recommended dose of organic manure, the one fourth of N2 and full

amount of phosphorus and potash should be applied and well leveled the land for transplantation.

20 -25 days old seedlings at 4-5 leaf stage will be checked for true to the type and are

transplanted in main field in rows.

Manures and Fertilizers

The following amount of manure and fertilizers per hectare should be applied at FYM or

compost 20 mt/ha and fertilizers at 120:60:40 kg/ha NPK. Full amount of compost, P, K and one



fourth of N should be well mixed in the soil at the time of field preparation. The remaining

amount of nitrogen should be side dressed in three splits:

1st after 25 – 30 days,

2nd after 45 – 50 days and

the last dose 70 – 80 days at the time of bolting.

Intercultural Operation and Irrigation

Light irrigation should be continued until the seedlings are well established. Irrigation should be

given as and when needed. The critical time for irrigation are at transplanting, during top

dressing, bolting and flowering. Failure in providing irrigation causes shriveling of seeds. Weeds

are a problem in mustard crops. Weeding and hoeing should be practiced regularly.

Rouging

Rouging should be from the early stage of crop growth and development. Rouging is done at

different stages of crop growth. Plants with different growth habit and foliage characters than a

particular variety should be rogue out. Early bolters and late bolters should also be rogue out.

Plants not resembling the varietal characteristics should be removed before flowering. Likewise,

the diseased plants and insect damaged plants in severe cases should also be removed from the

seed plots.

Major diseases and insect/pest and their control

Alternaria leaf spot

The disease is transmitted through seed and soil.

Small spots on the leaves stem and pods are formed as symptoms.

Seed treatment with Bavistin @ 2g/kg of seed

Foliar spray with Diathane M 45 @ 2g/litre of water

Cercospora leaf spot

Numerous tiny spots appear on the leaves.


Seed treatment with Thiram @10 g/kg of seed.

Foliar spray of Bavistin @ 1g/litre of water.

Powdery mildew

Seeds are shrunken and there will be loss in leaf and seed yield.

Foliar spray of Cerothane @ 1ml/litre of water or Sulfex @ 2g/litre of water at interval of

10 days.

Aphids

Insect attacks leaves, flowers, pods and suck the juice.

Spraying of Malathion 50 EC @ 2 ml/litre of water or spray of rogar @ 1.5-2 ml/l of

water on their appearance.

Harvesting and Yield



Seed becomes ready to harvest when pods turn yellowish brown in colour. Pods are harvested

before full drying in the field otherwise shattering occur which cause loss in the seed yield.

Harvested crop is piled up on the threshing floor for 3-4 days and thoroughly dried in the sun.

After 3-4 days it is turned upside down and allowed to cure for another four to five days. It is

then threshed. After thorough drying of seeds in partial sun up to the 7% moisture content, it is

cleaned and stored.

Seed Cleaning and Drying

Cleaning should be done to remove the undesirable materials from the seed lot. For cleaning

Air Screen Cleaner, Spiral Separator and Gravity Separator can be used. Seeds are dried to the

moisture level of 6-8%. Forced dry air is commonly used to dry the seeds. Safe moisture content

for sealed storage is 4-7%.

Seed Testing

After cleaning and drying, seeds from the harvest is sampled out for seed quality testing in the

nearby STL before making the seed lots. The representative sample on testing in lab will be

checked for the prescribed quality standards for its genetic, physical and physiological

attributes.

Seed Treatment

After maintaining the seed moisture to prescribed percent, seed are treated with chemicals to

prevent it from fungal diseases. Generally dry dressing with Thiram 75% dust is used for treating

the seeds. Besides, coating the seeds with seed dressing chemicals like diathane M-45,

formaldehyde as disinfestant, cerasan, bavistin as disinfectant and captan and thiram as

protectants can also be used to protect form decaying agent in the soil and ensuring better

germination.

Seed Packaging

After drying to safe moisture level, seeds should immediately be packed. Tin cans, cloth bags,

plastic bag (over 700 gauge), aluminium foil packet are generally used as a packaging material.

Bags made of jute, cotton, synthetic fibre and paper bags are generally suitable for ordinary

storage in dry and cool condition. However these materials are not suitable for humid condition.

Seed Yield: 500 – 600 kg/ha.



3.9.5 CAULIFLOWER

Cauliflower is one of the most important vegetable of the Cole crops in Nepal. It can be grown

all over the country and across the agro-ecosystem depending on the season of the location and

period. In tarai and mid-hill region, it is cultivated in winter season where as in high-hills it is

grown during summer season. The main edible part of the plant is the head known as curd which

is the modified stem stalk composed of white inflorescence meristems.

Floral Biology and Pollination

The floral parts are formed from the cauliflower curd, the inflorescence is dwarf and more

umbrella- shaped. There is an absence of central main stem above the point where branching

begins. Cauliflower flowers are born on internal racemes which develop on all its branches. The

flowers borne on slender pedicels are perfect, regular, with four sepals, four petals, six stamens,

with a two celled ovary. It is a cross pollinated crop and pollination occurs mainly through bees.

Cauliflower Varieties

Table 22: Cauliflower varieties in the national list

Name of the variety Maturity

(days)

Yield

(mt/ha)

Domain

Kathmandu Local 110-120 25 Terai, Mid Hills & High Hills

Dolpa Snowball 110-120 15 Terai, Mid Hills & High Hills

Sarlahi Deepali 55-60 8 Terai & Mid Hills

Besides, there is a good number of exotic varieties of cauliflower introduced as F1 and OP

varieties and have been registered and approved for commercial production.

Climate and Soil

Cauliflower in general is very sensitive to its climatic requirements; particularly the cool and

humid climate is suitable for seed production. The temperate cauliflower varieties are of long

duration and they need vernalization for flower induction. However, the tropical varieties tolerate

comparatively high temperature but cannot survive at a very high or very low temperature. An

average temperature of 15-20°C is favorable for seed production. The seeds of early types can be

produced in the plains eg. Sarlahi Deepali, whereas the seeds of mid and late varieties can be

produced in the mid-hills and high hills respectively. Early varieties are of annual behavior with

respect to seed production whereas mid and late varieties require vernalization (5-100C for 4

weeks) for bolting and flowering and are of biennial behavior.

Well-drained fertile loamy soil is suitable for cauliflower seed production, though it can be

grown on wide range of soils with a high organic matter content. The soil pH should be in

between 5.5 – 6.0.

Source of seed and seed rate



About 375-400 g of seed is required for one hectare of land and the source of seeds for plantation

should be reliable and authorized and should have the quality information.

Seedling raising

Seedlings are raised on seed beds following double transplanting method. Seeds are sown in

early September in mid-hills where as in high-hills; seeds are sown on nursery beds in late June

to early July. These seedlings in 20-25 days will be ready for transplanting in main seed

production fields.

Land Preparation

The seed plots should be ploughed well for 2-3 times with a good tilth and the unwanted debris

of weedy plants, previous crops are removed from the field and prepared the plot clean. The soil

is well supplied with organic matters and fertilizers as per recommendation and its applications.


The cauliflower seed crop requires heavy manuring as it removes large quantities of major

nutrients from the soil. The recommended dose of fertilizers is 20 mt of compost and 120:80:60

kg/ha of NPK. In addition to this, 20 kg of borax and 1-1.5 sodium molypdate should also be

applied. The entire amount of compost, TSP, Borax, Sodium molybdate and half of the MoP are

applied during final land preparation. The entire urea and rest of the MoP are applied in three

equal installments. It is recommended that one additional dose of urea and MoP is applied during

flowering. Cauliflower crop often shows boron and molybdenum deficiency symptoms. If such

symptoms are observed despite the basic doses being given, foliar spray of 0.2 percent borax and

sodium molybdate could be used to correct the deficiency.

Planting Time

Cauliflower is very sensitive to temperature for flowering. The sowing time for cauliflower

should be so adjusted that the plants have maximum leafy growth by December when the

temperature goes down. Seeds should be sown in early or middle of September and the seedlings

should be transplanted in the middle of October so that the plants attain maximum leafy growth

by late November. Such planting time will enable the plants to flower in December and seed

development up to February.

Spacing

For cauliflower seed crop, seedlings of 20-25 days old are planted on raised beds. Two lines of

seedlings are planted in a 1 m wide ridge bed having 30 cm wide drains in between the beds. A

spacing of 60 x 45 cm is recommended for early varieties and it is 75 x 60 cm for mid and late

varieties.

Irrigation



Irrigation is given according to the soil requirements and climatic conditions. A crop after

transplanting may need irrigation twice a week and later once a week. Adequate moisture supply

during flowering and seed development are necessary to obtain high yield.

Isolation

The cauliflower is cross-pollinated by bees; hence a good and sufficient isolation should be

maintained for pure seed production. It should often take care of being pollinated or

contaminated from other species of Brassica like broccoli, cabbage and other varieties of

cauliflower. For the production of FS and CS, isolation of 1600 m and 1000 m are prescribed in

certification system

Rouging

A careful rouging is very crucial in cauliflower seed production. Cauliflower varieties vary in

their morphological characters, especially at the time of maturity. Therefore, off-type plants

should be rouged out to maintain a uniform crop stand. The characteristic of the curd like size,

colour, compactness and uniformity of the curd are checked during first and second inspections

and they are rouged out. Likewise, diseased and insect infested plants are also removed at any

time of crop growth and development on their appearance.

Curd Scooping

Scooping the central position of curd when it is fully formed helps in the easy emergence of the

flower stalks. Scooping is necessary in very compact varieties for easier bolting and early and

uniform flowering.

Staking

The flower stalks should sometime be supported with stakes of about 1 m height to individual

flowering plants.

Cauliflower Disease and Their Control

Alternaria leaf spot

It forms small spots on leaves, stems and pods.

The disease is transmitted through seed and soil. In cauliflower, at seed production stage,

it has become quite a problem in all areas. Also known as curd and inflorescence blight.

Seed treatment with Thiram 10 g/kg of seed)

Foliar spray with Rubral @ 2ml/litre of water

Club root

Club root is a serious disease that the infection begins when the resting spores germinate

and enter the plants through root hairs or wounds.

The fungus then increases and infects other roots cells, stimulating cell growth and

division and eventually the roots form large club-like masses that crack, dispersing the

spores into the soil.



The development of this disease is favored by warm temperatures, high soil moisture and

an acidic pH.

Application of mercuric chloride @ 0.05 to 0.01%

Root treatment with 4% calomel before transplanting

Application of 250 ml of 0.05% PCNB solution per hole

Cercospora leaf spot

Numerous tiny yellow spots appear on the leaves.


Seed treatment with Thiram @ 10 g/kg of seed

Foliar spray of Bavistin or Knowin @1 g/ litre of water

Black rot

Disease symptoms usually appear first on the edges of the leaves through which bacteria

enter and produce a yellow V shaped patch.

Leaf veins within infected areas eventually turn black, and the leaf tissue becomes dry,

brown and brittle then the bacteria move systemically throughout the plant.

Seed treatment with Thiram at 10 g/kg of seed

Cauliflower insects and their control

Prodenta caterpillar

Feed on leaves, sometimes make hole in stem

Foliar spray of Malathion/Diazinon 50 EC@ 2

ml/litre of water

Diamond back moth

Young larvae feed between upper and lower leaf surface and they may be visible when

they emerge from small holes on the underside of the leaf.

Malathion / Sumithion /Ripcord 50 EC@ 2 ml/litre of water

Physiological disorders

Buttoning: The general basis of buttoning may be explained that any check in the vegetative

growth of the seedling may induce buttoning. The transformation from vegetative to curding in a

cultivar of cauliflower is dependent on temperature. Late planting of tropical early varieties

causes buttoning resulting very poor seed yield.

Riceyness: Premature initiation of floral buds is characterized by riceyness in cauliflower. It has

been found that such disorder may result from any temperature higher or lower than the optimum

required for a particular cultivar.

Nutritional Disorders

Boron deficiency: Boron deficiency has been frequently reported in cauliflower. The symptom

of boron deficiency is not very apparent till the curd development. The first symptom is the



appearance of small water soaked areas in the centre of the curd. In advanced stages, pinkish or

rusty-brown areas develop on the surface of the curd. This may be controlled by applying borax

or sodium borate at the rate of 20 kg/ha. In case of acute deficiency spraying of 0.25 to 0.50

percent solution of borax would give a satisfactory control.

Molybdenum deficiency: Cauliflower responds severely to the deficiency of molybdenum and

the damage may be considerable. Young cauliflower plants become chlorotic, cup-shaped and

finally wither. Application of Mo @ 1-1.5 kg/ha may correct the deficiency.

Indiscriminate use of insecticides against insect pests of cauliflower seed crop during flowering

seriously affects the insect-pollinators resulting in lower seed yield due to decreased population

and activity of these pollinators. It is, therefore, essential to avoid the indiscriminate use of

insecticides.


Harvesting can be done when 60-70% of pods turn brown and rest of pods remain to yellowish

brown. Harvesting should not be delayed in cauliflower as the too ripe pods may dehisce. So

right timing of harvest of seed crop in cauliflower could be checked by crush or splits when

seeds are rubbed between the hands. After harvesting it is piled up for curing. After 4 to 5 days it

is turned upside down and allowed to cure for another four to five days in the same way. It is

then threshed with sticks and sifted with hand sifters. After thorough drying of seed in partial sun

(7 %) it is cleaned and stored.


Seed cleaning is undertaken to eliminate the undesirable materials like inert matter, common

weed seed, noxious weed seed, deteriorated seed, other crop weed, and damaged seed and off

sized seed etc. The cleaned seeds are dried in partial sunlight to bring down the moisture to safe

moisture level (7 %).

Seed Treatment

After maintaining the moisture content of seed according to the storage and packaging material,

the seed are treated with chemicals to prevent it from plant diseases that are caused by fungus,

bacteria or viruses and transmitted by seeds. In cauliflower generally dry dressing with Thiram

75% dust is generally used.

Seed Testing

Before packing, the seeds sample is drawn and sent the seed testing laboratory for quality

checking. After it has maintained the minimum seed standard, they are properly packed and are

sent for marketing.

Seed Packaging

After processing seeds are packed in the right containers of different sizes. It could be of

recommended packaging materials like tin can, polyethylene bags, aluminum foil pouches etc.



Size and weight of seed packets depends on purpose of packaging, store conditions, duration of

storage and easiness in handling.

Seed Yield

Average seed yield of cauliflower is about 250-400 kg/ha depending upon the variety, extent of

pollination and management practices.



3.9.6 RADISH

Radish is a popular root vegetable in both tropical and temperate region and it is grown across

the country. It is grown for its young tender tuberous roots which are eaten raw as salad or

cooked as vegetable. It is relished for its pungent flavor and is considered as an appetizer.

Flowering and Seed Morphology

The inflorescence of radish is a typical terminal raceme of crucifereae. The flowers are small,

white, rose or lilac in colour with purple veins in bractless racemes. Fruits are the indehiscent

pods, 3-7 cm long with a long conical beak and contained of 6-12 seeds. Seeds are globose,

about 3mm in diameter.

Radish varieties

Table 23: Radish varieties in national list

Variety name Maturity

(days)

Production

(mt/ha) Domains

Mino Early 40-45 26 Irrigated land of terai,

mid hills and high hills

White Neck 60-65 35 Mild hills

Pyuthane Red 70-80 43 Mid hills

40days 35-45 28 Terai and mid hills

Tokinasi (Registered) 52-60 31 Mid hills between 1100m-

1700m

Dhankute (Registered) 55-60 342 Mid hills between 1100m-

1700m

All Season White, OP

(Registered) 70 20-30 All areas

Any Season, Op (Registered) 70 40-60 Terai and mid hills

Green Neck, Op (Registered) 40-50 5-7 Terai and mid hills

Soil and climate

Radish can be grown on nearly all types of soils, but the best results are obtained on light, friable

loam soil that contains ample humus. Since it is a short duration crop, it can be grown on any

types of soil that are not considered satisfactory for other root crops. Sandy or sandy loam soils

are preferred for early crop. Heavy soils produce rough, mis-shapen roots with a number of

fibrous laterals, and such soils should be avoided.

Commonly radish is a cool season crop but the Asian varieties can tolerate high temperature than

European types. The roots can develop well under an average temperature of 18-240 C with



adequate light intensity. A long day along with high temperature results in bolting without

adequate root formation. During hot weather, the roots become hard and pungent before reaching

the proper size and therefore should be harvested while young and small in size. Asiatic type

does not require chilling temperature (low temperature treatment) whereas European type

requires chilling temperature treatment for bolting. Bolting and flowering of oriental radishes are

more sensitive to temperature (low temperature treatment) whereas European type requires

chilling temperature for bolting.

Sowing time

Radish crop can be classified into the three groups so far as seed production is concerned.

Winter radish or Japanese radish- These are biennial which produce seeds only in the

temperate hills. These cultivars require low temperature for flowering and are generally

sown in September.

Summer radish - These cultivars though very quick in root development behave just like

winter radishes for seed production. In the hills, the seeds of these cultivars can be

produced both from autumn and spring sown crops.

The third group includes cultivars which produces seeds freely in the plains and can

produce good seeds also in the hills.

Generally seeds of cultivars belonging to first two groups are produced in the hills.

Seed Rate: 10 – 12 kg/ha

Seed treatment

Seed is treated with Bavistin @ 2g/kg of seed or Vitavax 200 to protect from the diseases.

Method of seed production

Seed to seed and root to seed methods are employed for seed production in radish. Root to seed

method also known as steckling method is preferred for raising nucleus seed. However, the

certified and TL seeds can be produced by seed to seed or in-situ method but the source of seed

should be of high quality. In steckling method, seed produced is of better quality

In root to seed method

The crop is harvested when the roots are fully mature.

True to the type roots are selected and

Proper size of root and shoot are cut and are transplanted in well prepared field.

Cut roots treated with Bavistin @ 2g/l of water for 10-15 minutes before transplanting.

However, for the temperate types which are biennial in behavior, quality roots having true

varietal characteristics are selected and stored in a well prepared trench covered with wooden

planks keeping one hole at each corner for proper ventilation. A thick layer of soil is put on the

planks and plastered with soil to protect from snowfall during winter and wait to overcome the

winter and transplanted when weather gets warm.

Soil at replanting time should be moist and in respect to new vegetative growth and stalk

emergence, plants with one-third top cut and one half root cut or one fourth root cut are proved

to be superior.

Spacing



Seed to seed 60 x 30 cm

Root to seed 90 x 20 cm

Rouging

Off type plants are rouged out on the basis of foliage characters, root characters (colour, shape,

size, flesh colour, pungency, core size etc) and bolting time. Small mis-shapen, diseased or any

other undesirable roots are discarded. Early or late bolters hairy and forked roots are also

removed. As radish is a highly cross pollinated crop, the off types should be removed before

flowering to get true to the type seeds. Likewise, the diseased plants should also up rotted and

kept the seed field clean.

Supplementary pollination for flowering and fruit setting.

Honey bees are reared as chief pollinating agents. Seed yield in radish is greatly influenced by

number of honey bees visiting the flowers.

Manures and fertilizers

Amount of manures and fertilizers to be applied depends on the fertility status of the soil.

However, a well rotten FYM or compost at the rate of 20 tons/ha should be applied during field

preparation. Inorganic fertilizer @ 100:80:40 kg/ha NPK is recommended for fresh production.

For seed production additional amount of NPK should be applied. Complete dose of P and K and

half of Nitrogen should be applied to the soil before sowing. Remaining half of N is top dressed

in three split doses i.e. during early plant growth, during root development stage and at the time

of flowering and fruiting. Additionally, Borax @ 20 kg/ha should also be applied for quality root

growth.

Irrigation

Irrigation of the radish seed crop depends on season and type of soil. For rapid germination of

seeds, the soil should contain plenty of moisture. So if the soil is not moist enough at the time of

sowing, the first irrigation is given immediately after sowing. There after irrigation at 8-10 days

interval is found to be beneficial for quality seed production.

Intercultural weeding

Regular weeding and hoeing help in controlling weeds and provide aeration in the soil helping in

nitrification. Regular hoeing also keeps soil loose and friable for easy development and

penetration of roots in the soil. The usual practice is cultivation, scrapping and mulching. Radish

has a tendency to bulge out of the soil as it grows in size, therefore thorough covering by means

of earthing up is recommended two times during growth and development of the plant.

First, earthing up during the root development stage and

Second, earthing up during flowering and fruiting to prevent the plant from lodging.

Radish Diseases and Control Measures

Alternaria leaf blight

Small, yellowish, slightly raised lesions on leaves, stem and pods

Infection spreads rapidly during rainy weather and the entire pod is so infected that the

styler end becomes black and shriveled.



Ultimately infect the seeds

Seed treatment with bavistin @ 2g/kg of seed before sowing, and foliar spray of Blitox

50 (50% Cu-oxychloride) or Diathane M – 45 @ 2g/l of water controls the disease.

White rust

Deformed flowering shoots and leaves with malformed flowers

A white powdery substance in patches on the under surface of the leaves produced

Regular spraying of Dithane Z-78 at a concentration of 0.2-0.3% controls the spread of

disease.

Radish Mosaic Virus

Small, circular to irregular, chlorotic lesions in between and adjacent veins of leaves

appear

Little or no leaf distortion noticed and stunting or abnormal formation rarely occurs

It is transmitted through aphids and the disease can effectively be controlled by

controlling aphids with insecticide and eliminating weed host.

Radish Phyllody

It is another disease of seed crop which appears at flowering.

The sepals, petals and carpels of affected flower show phyllody.

Insect pest and control measures

Aphids

Most serious pests of radish, attacks both seedlings and mature crops on cloudy and

humid conditions.

On heavy infestation the plants are completely devitalized, curl up leaves and shoots,

become yellowish and finally die.

Malathion @ 1 ml/l of water showed excellent control of aphid.

Mustard sawfly

Attacks the crop both in vegetative and flowering stage and feeds on the leaves and fruits.

Hand picking of larvae when the area involved is small or spraying/dusting insecticide

controls the infection.


In radish pods do not shatter, so the pods are allowed to mature and ripe fully on standing crop if

the weather at harvest permits. On complete browning of pods the seed stalks are cut and kept on

small piles to dry. Threshing is difficult in radish. However a thorough drying of seed pods

facilitates easy threshing.

Seed drying

After threshing, seeds are properly dried, cleaned and processed to make them free from small

immature seeds, other crop or weed seed or any other material. Mainly three methods of seed

drying used in radish



Natural drying - helps the seeds loose water naturally in standing seed crop at and after

maturity

Sun drying - the seeds are dried by spreading the seed materials on floor under diffused

sun high or under shade, stirred frequently for rapid drying,

Artificial drying for large seed lots, not in use in Nepal

Seed Processing:

The seeds after harvesting, drying, are subject to processing. Seed processing is the important

component of quality seed production on which the unwanted matters like stem pieces, stone and

sand particles, weed seeds and other crop seeds as contaminants are removed and tried to

maintain the prescribed minimum seed standards. Hence following steps are involved during

radish seed processing:

Winnowing: The dried seed material is separated from less dense debris by winnowing. It

is performed manually by hand or machine or in seed grader cum cleaning machines.

Cleaning and size grading: Cleaning and size grading separates all inert matter including

immature, shriveled, broken and undersized and immature seeds, weed seeds, other crop

seeds and graded to the specific grader for maintaining uniformity of lots.

Seed packaging and tagging

In general radish seeds are packed in small sizes as other vegetable seeds. Hence choice of

packaging materials depend on the amount of seeds to be packed, duration of storage, storage

environment, seed moisture content, cost of packaging materials itself and the geographical area.

The seed containers used for radish seeds in general are tin cans, polythene bags of 700 guage or

more, aluminum foil pouches etc.

Yield: 600-800 kg/ha.



3.9.7 CARROT

Carrot is a cool season root crop. It is grown during winter in tropical and subtropical climate

and in temperate climate it is grown during spring and autumn season. It contains the carotene

for which it is liked as a crop with medicinal value and it is used in fresh as salad.

Floral Biology and Pollination Behavior

Carrot is a highly cross pollinated crop. Carrot plants bear compound umbels. It is the king

umbel or umbel of the first order (primary umbel) that flower first. Similarly the second, third

and fourth order umbels may develop in the same fashion. The first, second and other umbels

usually flower at an interval of 8-12 days from each other. The flowers are perfect with small

petals, usually white or yellowish. Carrot seed is actually a single seed. In fact two fruit, an

indehiscent mericarp, containing mericarps pair to form a schizocarp, the true carrot fruit, which

develops and froms a two celled ovary.

Carrot Varieties

The followings are the only variety released by National Seed Board (NSB). However there are

the exotic varieties of OP and hybrids registered with NSB and are in cultivation in Nepal.

Table 24: Carrot varieties in national list

Varieties Maturity

(days) Yield (kg/ha) Domain

Nantes Forte 90-100 12 Terai, Hills and high-hills

New coroda 100 50-60 Terai, Hills and high-hills

Moskade 55-60 70-100 Terai and Mid-hills

Climate and Soil

Carrot is widely adapted to cool climates and is generally cultivated in the regions with low

rainfall during summer and early autumn. Therefore a dry warm atmosphere is desirable for

carrot at maturing stage. It is a root crop hence the temperature of 18o-20oC is very desirable for

the growth of roots in carrot and the varieties relatively tolerate the frost damage. The varieties

grown in Nepal are of temperate type, an European type which requires two year to complete a

growth cycle. These carrots are grown in high-hills at 2200-2800 masl. Mustang, Dolpa and

Jumla are the major areas for seed production of carrot. However, the tropical types also called

Asian type is grown in Terai. Temperate types undergo dormancy or rest period which is broken

by subjecting toots to a low temperature treatment i.e. less than 100C for a period of 4-6 weeks at

any time either in storage or under field condition. The soils for root cultivation of carrot should



be deep, well drained and of a good fertility. Sandy loam or slightly, acidic loam soil (pH 5-6.3)

are good for carrot cultivation


For seed production obtain breeders/foundation seed from source approved by the seed

certification agency. Seed rate of carrot varies from 2.5-3.5 kg/ha for temperature types and 4-5

kg seeds of oriental types are sufficient. The roots produced on one hectare are sufficient for

transplanting 3-4 hectares under seed production.

Seed sowing time

Seeds are sown from August to December in the plains and in the hills it is sown during March –

July.

Land Preparation

For cultivation of carrot seeds, the filed should be worked deep to a good tilth and properly

manured as per recommendation for a good quality and well shaped roots harvest. Land should

be free from volunteer plants and should be prepared to a fine tilth by repeated ploughing,

harrowing, and followed to leveling for carrot seed production.

Seed Sowing and Spacing

For root production, sowing seeds on ridges is preferred rather than to flat sowing. Seeds are

sown in double row ridges at 45 cm apart. Seeds are mixed with fine sand before sowing to

facilitate even distribution. For uniform germination, the ridges should remain moist till

germination takes place. Hence the field should be irrigated just after sowing. Afterwards, when

the plants are 5-6 cm high, thin out plants to a distance 5-7 cm.

Method of Seed Production

Both seed to seed and root to seed methods are followed for carrot seed production. Generally,

the root to seed methods is followed because in the seed to seed methods root rot is usually very

high, as compared to the transplanted roots. After the roots are well matured, they are uprooted,

stored properly and are planted at wider distance with the rows at 20-75 cm apart. Only the roots

of good size, shape and the colour of flesh and outer skin are selected and transplanted in new

field with cold and bavistin treatments. Earthing up after transplantation is carried and irrigated

for roots to establish.


20 mt of compost manure for organic matter and chemical fertilizers at 100:80:40 kg/ha of NPK

for seed production is recommended. Besides the soil should be treated with borax at 20 kg/ha

for seed production for boron supplement.



Intercultural practices and Irrigation

The carrot has a fairly extensive and widely branched root system which may reach deeper in the

soil, thus it require a regular supply of irrigation for its proper growth and development.

Generally it is irrigated at 8-10 days interval as required. Carrot is a slow growing crop.

Therefore, weeding and hoeing should be frequently done, particularly in the early stages.

Earthing up by end of September, or early October, will keep the crop clean till the close of

autumn, when it is up rooted for planting.

Rouging

Any off type plant which is not true to the type should be rouged out immediately to maintain

uniformity in the variety. Rouging should be done at bloom stage on the basis of flower

characteristics and plant structure and early bolters in the plots should be removed

Major diseases and their control

Black rot

The disease can be both seed and soil borne

Shiny black decay at the crown area and a greenish mold on the tap root

Disease affects foliage as well as fleshy roots

Sanitation and rotation may keep the disease under control

Storage at 0-20C keeps storage decay to a minimum.

Bacterial soft rot

Bacterial soft rots occurs when soil condition are wet or storage conditions are

poor.

Soft and watery rot with smelly decay

Careful handling of root controls the rot

Root surface should be kept dry and stores at00C and at 90% RH.

Insect pests and their control

Carrot rust fly

The plants may show symptoms of stunted growth and on severe attack, young plants

wilt and may die.

If the roots are injured severely, the leaves become rusty or even dried.

Spraying of 0.1% Dimethoate 2-3 times @ 2 l/sq. m.

Rotate crops and do not plant root vegetables in are affected by carrot rust fly the year

previously.

Lygus bug

The pest damage the embryo of the seed, sometimes the seeds may be without any

embryo.

Seed treatment with hot water at 500C for 30 minutes

Seed treatment with Thiram 75% dust.



Harvesting, Curing and Threshing

The best time for harvesting is when the secondary umbels (heads) are fully ripe and tertiary

heads are beginning to turn brown. A crop ripens unevenly. Seed is commonly harvested by hand

picking. Two or three picking may often be necessary. The harvested plants are kept in wide

rows in small piles of 3-4 plants for curing. Curing may continue from 5-14 days or even

more depending on weather condition. After proper drying, the seed is then threshed and

cleaned. After cleaning, the seed is rubbed by hand to remove the spines on the seeds and grades

by means of sitters and sieves.


After threshing, seeds are cleaned for any undesirable materials present on the seed lot and dried

to maintain the prescribed seed standards as follows.

Seed Treatment

Seed treatment with chemicals is done to the seed for the prevention of plant diseases that are

caused by fungus, bacteria or viruses. Carrot seed are treated with Thiram 75% dust before

packing.

Seed Packaging

Cloth bag, Jute bag, Plastic bags, Tin cans, Aluminum foil are used as a packing materials

according to the storage condition. For long term storage is a sealed containers under controlled

condition the moisture level of the seed should brought up to 7%.

Seed Yield

The average seed yield is about 300-500 kg/ha.



3.9.8 ASPARAGUS BEAN

Asparagus bean is an important legume vegetable commonly known as yard long bean or

asparagus bean. It is an annual legume, an oldest source of human food and nutritious most with

a good source of protein, carbohydrate, minerals and vitamin A. It is grown primarily for its

strikingly long (35- to 75-cm) immature pods and yard long beans are usually distinguished by

the different colors of their mature seeds. Green pods are used as the vegetable and dry seeds

used as pulses in the form of soup.

Floral biology and pollination

Flowers are arranged in racemose or intermediate inflorescences at the distal ends of 5 to 60 cm

long peduncles. Flowers are borne in alternate pairs, with usually only two to a few flowers per

inflorescence. Flowers are conspicuous, self- pollinating and white/purple or pale violet in colour

and are borne on short pedicels.

Seeds vary considerably in size, shape and colour. Usually the number of seeds per pod may vary

from 8 to 20. The seeds are relatively large (2 to 12 mm long) and weight 5 to 30 g/100 seeds.

Fruit pods vary in size, shape, colour and texture. They may be erect, crescent-shaped or coiled.

Usually yellow when ripe, but may also be brown or purple in colour.

Asparagus bean varieties in national list

The following varieties are popularly grown in Nepal for vegetables.

Table 25: Asparagus bean varieties in national list

Varieties Origin Year of

Release

Maturity

(days)

Yield

(kg/ha)

Domain

Khumal

Tane

Nepal 2051 60-70 4.5 Terai and Mid-hills

Sarlahi Tane Nepal 2051 50-60 7.0 Terai and Mid-hills

Climate and Soil

Asparagus bean grows best during summer and thrives best between 21-300C. It can be

grown successfully both in spring-summer and rainy season in the plains. It cannot with stand

heavy rainfall and water logging. The flowering period can be extended by warm and moist

conditions, leading to a synchronous maturity. Different cultivars responds differently to

temperature and day length and thus there are distinct cultivars for spring-summer and rainy

season. It can be grown on wide range of soil but the crop shows a preference for sandy soils

which tend to be less restrictive on growth. The soil pH should be in between 5.5 to 6.5.

Land preparation

The land must not be water logged but well drained. The land should be thoroughly ploughed

and made a fine tilth and leveled. It would be better plough 2-3 times. The land may be raised or

left as flat seed beds for sowing.




20 kg/ha seed is required and it depends on the cultivars and season. Seeds for planting should be

bought from authentic source with quality information.

Seed sowing and spacing

Seed sowing is done in a well prepared field by broadcasting or line sowing. Line sowing

facilitates better intercultural operations and aftercare.

Line sowing can be done with a seed drill operated by tractor, bullock or manual labour. In

Nepal seeds are sown manually. Spacing between rows should be 45-60 cm and between plants

in a row should be 10-15. The seeds should be planted at 3-4 cm deep.

Manure and fertilizers

Being a leguminous crop it does not require heavy fertilization. Seeds are sown with inoculation

with Rhizobium culture in the field if it is being sown for the first time. This helps in quick

nodulation of the root for symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Application of phosphatic fertilizer is

beneficial for quality seed production. 20 tons FYM, NPK at 50:60:60 kg/ha is recommended

dose of fertilization.

Interculture operation and weeding

One hoeing should be done about four to five weeks after sowing for controlling weeds and

helping in root aeration. Staking should be provided for indeterminate type of plant.

Irrigation

Asparagus bean is a shallow rooted crop and requires less moisture for its growth. It is sensitive

to water logging. Therefore light irrigation should be given. Irrigation prior to flowering helps in

pod setting and another irrigation should be given after the pods have set.

Rouging

Any off type plant which is not true to the type should be rogue out immediately to maintain

uniformity in the seed plots for varietal purity. Rouging on the basis of flower colour, pod shape,

size and growth habit of the plant should be undertaken. Diseased and insect infested plants

should also be removed at any time of crop growth and development.

Diseases and Their Control

Anthracnose

Infected parts with dark brown, sunken spots with raised reddish or yellowish margins.

Infected stem crack and rots

Seed treatment with 0.125% solution of Cerasan for ½ hr.

Dry dressing of seed with Captan one teaspoonful per kg of seed.

Die-Back

Twig and branches dry up from tip downwards.

Small, black, dot like structures appear on dried up portions.

Infected pods shrivel

Spraying copper fungicide or Thiram at 15 days interval.

Ashy Stem Blight

Brown lesions appear at the collar portion.

Lesions spread rapidly covering the entire stem portion killing the growing point.



Seed treatment with Cerasan, Captan or Thiram @ 2-3g/kg of seed.

Powdery Mildew

White powdery patches appear on leaves and then spread to stems and green pods.

Spraying Bavistin @ 0.15%.

Spraying 0.5% wet table sulphur

Bacterial Blight

Infected leaves show light yellow, irregular to circular spots with necrotic brown centre,

later changing to straw colour.

Spots appear on pods also

Use disease free seeds.

Use resistant varieties.

Mosaic

Affected leaves develop mosaic of broad and raised dark green patches along with

chlorotic streaks or spots.

Plants remain stunted with reduced and malformed leaves.

Disease is seed-borne and transmitted through aphids.

Use of disease free seeds.

Spraying systemic insecticide eg. Rogor or Metasystox @ 1-2 ml/litre of water.

Insect pest and Their Control

Aphid

Insect suck the cell sap of the tender parts of the plant, mostly the leaves and in

abundance, they attack the developing pods.

Spray Malathion 50 EC @ 2ml/litre of water

Soil application with phorate or Aldicarb 10 G @ 10-15 kg/ha

Jassid

Nymphs and adults pierce the plant tissues and suck the cell sap

Spray Malathion 50 EC @ 2ml/litre of water

Soil application with phorate or Aldicarb 10 G @ 10-15 kg/ha

Pod borer

Insect feed on the surface of the pods, bore into them and feed on the seeds.

Spray spinosad 45% EC at 0.5 ml/ litre of water


Ripe and dry pods are harvested by hand picking or by cutting the plants in case of last flush.

Harvesting of cowpea in most cases should coincide with the onset of dry season when the dry

pods can remain about a week awaiting harvesting without spoilage. However, to avoid

shattering, dry pods should not be left in the field longer than two weeks after full pod maturity.

To avoid shattering of seeds, harvesting should be done when half to two thirds of pods have



matured. Threshing is done by beating with a stick or by a thresher. Extreme care should be

taken during threshing to prevent injury to the seed.


After threshing, seed needs careful cleaning for safe storage and marketing. Undesirable

materials like inert mater, common weed seed, noxious weed seed, deteriorated seed, broken

seed, other crop seed and those not resembling to the variety should be removed. Cleaning

machines like Air Screen Separator, Spiral Separator, Gravity Separator and Colour Sorter can

be used to clean the seeds. The seeds are dried to the moisture level of 10% for storing in an

ordinary room condition, Where the climate is not very hot and humid. For long term storage

under controlled relative humidity and temperature or in sealed container the seed should be

dried to the 4-8% moisture.

Seed testing

A representative sample is drawn and sent to nearby STL for seed testing to check for prescribed

seed quality standards as follows:

Seed Treatment

Before packaging, the seeds are treated with chemicals to prevent it from diseases that are caused

by fungus, bacteria or viruses and also insects. Seed disinfectants, disinfectants and protectants

are used as a seed treatment. Cowpea seeds are subjected to slurry chemical treatment with

Captan 75% WP.

Seed Packaging

Different types packaging materials are used for seed packaging. Cloth bag, Jute bag, Plastic bag,

Tin cans and aluminum foil are used according to the storage condition. For long term storage in

a sealed container, tin cans and aluminum foil which are moisture proof containers are generally

used as a packaging material.

Seed Yield: 400 to 600 kg/ha depending upon the cultivars.



3.9.9 FRENCH BEAN

Pole bean or French bean is an important leguminous vegetable species. The green pods and the

seeds are eaten as vegetables or soup in our cuisine. It is the source of vitamin A, B and C and

also rich in minerals like iron, sodium, potassium, phosphorus and calcium.

Varieties of Beans

Table 26: Bean varieties in national list

Name of variety Origin Year of

release

Maturity

(days)

Yield (

t/ha)

Domains

Trishuli Simi Nepal 2051 70-75 14 Mid Hills & High Hills

Jhange Simi Nepal 2051 50-55 9 Terai & Mid Hills

Mandir, (Regd. Only),

OP

2066 46 12 Terai & Mid Hills

Climate and Soil

French bean cultivation is possible across the country from terai to high-hill conditions provided

the maximum day temperature does not exceed 30°C at the time of flowering and the

temperature is not lower than 10°C at the time of seedling emergence. Flowers drop down at

extreme hot and cold temperatures 30°C. The optimum condition for its cultivation is 15o-30

o C.

It cannot tolerate frosts and dislikes wet, cold, overcast conditions. Excessive rain causes flowers

to drop and increases the incidence of diseases. Dry weather is required for harvesting the mature

pods. However, relative humidity above 50% is necessary to obtain a good seed set. Beans are

grown as a winter crop in plains while it can be grown round the year except winter in hills.

French bean is to be sown during October-November when the monsoon stops and the

temperature starts decreasing and ultimately harvesting can be done during drier period.

Fertile and heavier loam soil is best suited. But can be grown in most soil types with adequate

drainage facility and good tilth. It prefers slightly acid to almost neutral soils (pH 6.0-7.5). Seed

crop should be grown only every 3-4 years on the same land to control most soil borne disease. It

can be rotated with cereals and root crops.

Land Preparation

Land should have a good tilth and be free from clods and lumps of soil. The land should also be

well leveled and well drained so that water does not stand. Standing water causes damage to root

system and plants die.

Planting time

French beans are sown during February-March in the plains as a spring season crop while it is

grown from April to October in the hills.

Source of seed



Seeds for plantation should be procured from reliable authentic source. Certified seed should be

the source seed for TL seed production and the seed packet should be of good quality with all

quality information in the tag or label.

Seed Treatment

Seeds of beans are treated with slurry of captan 75% WP or dry dressing with thiram 75% dust to

protect it from pathogens.

Sowing and spacing and seed rate

Seeds are sown by hand in uniformly light soil and moistened properly. For bush type lines are

drawn at 45-60 cm apart and for pole type 90-120 m apart. Seeds are sown 2-3 cm deep and

about 15-20 cm apart. The seed rate varies considerably depending on variety, growth soil and

climatic condition. About 50-75 kg seeds (bush type) are required for one hectare of land where

as for pole types 25-30 kg/ha is enough.

Manure and Fertilizer

Nutrition requirement for seed production is more than the fresh pod production. The fertilization

recommended for bean seed production is 20 mt of compost for organic matters and NPK at

40:40:60 kg/ha. Half of nitrogen and full dose of P and K should be applied at the time of

sowing. Remaining half of nitrogen should be applied at the time of earthing up. Phosphorous

application enhances nodulation which increases the atmospheric nitrogen fixing capacity.

Application of micronutrient like zinc and magnesium produce higher quality and increased seed

yield.

Intercultural practices

Crop should be kept clean through weeding and hoeing between lines. Earthing up of the lines

should be done simultaneously with weeding. The intercultural operations should be avoided

when the plants are wet with dew or after rains. Staking is provided for pole types. After and on

emergence of seedlings, light irrigation should be given till flowering stage. Flowering stage and

seed development stage are the most critical period from the point of view of seed production.

Early moisture stress at the two trifoliate leaf stage can have a detrimental effect on growth

affecting flower initiation resulting in uneven crop maturity. Irrigation should be applied at the

time of split nitrogen application. Heavier irrigations should be given once flowering starts, till

pods are fully developed to avoid any stress condition. Gross mulching is useful to prevent soil

moisture loss and increase the root growth, nodulation, shoot and plant growth and increase

water use efficiency in legumes.

Rouging



Periodic rouging for off type plants and plants affected by diseases like anthracnose, bacterial

blights and mosaic must be done right from the beginning. Affected plants should be removed as

a whole immediately on sight.


Powdery mildew

Initial symptoms appear as small and white talcum- like spots, which most commonly are

seen on the upper surface of leaves.

These spots increase in size and run together to form a whitish, powdery growth,

gradually spread over a large area of the leaves and spread even to the stems.

Infected leaves gradually curl downward, pale yellow or brown, die, and fall off.

Under severe conditions, the entire leaves and plants will be covered by white cottony

mycelial growth of the fungus.

Foliar spray of Bavistin @ 2 g/litre of water

Fusariums wilt

Symptoms as wilting, chlorosis, necrosis, and premature leaf drop, browning of the

vascular system, stunting, and damping-off.

Drooping of the older lower leaves, followed by stunting of the plant, yellowing of the

lower leaves, defoliation, marginal necrosis and death of the plant.

Use of resistant varieties

Liming the soil to change soil pH to 6-7

Reducing soil nitrogen levels

The fungus Trichoderma viride is a proven biocontrol agent to control this disease in an

environment friendly way.

Root rots

Decay of root tissue, the oospores from root decay released to soil which serve as

inoculum in years to come.

Symptoms include water-soaking, softening, and slight discoloration of the taproot and

lower stems of the infected plants.

Seed treatment with fungicides like Ceresan, Arasan and soil drenching with Captan.

Insect pests and their control

Aphid

Aphids feed on sap of the terminal leaves and stem that result in deformation, wilting, or

death of the plant depending upon the infestation level.

Plants that survive heavy infestations are short and bunchy with more lightly colored tops

than those of healthy plants.

Wilted plants appear as brownish spots in the field, often coated with shiny honeydew

secreted by the aphids,



These aphids also transmit the yellow bean mosaic viruses.

Malathion/Sumithion 50 EC @ 2ml/litre water is to be sprayed

Bean pod borer

Insects lay eggs singly on the stems, young leaves, flowers and pods.

They hatch and the caterpillars feed inside the flowers and then move to the pods.

Ripcord/Sumithion 50 EC @ 2 ml/litre of water is sprayed.

Leaf miner

Thin, white, winding trails on leaves while heavy mining can result in white blotches on

leaves

Leaves dropping from the plant prematurely;

Early infestation can cause fruit yield to be reduced

Dusting of Chlordane 5% is effective in controlling the pest infestation.


Pods are harvested when they have turned yellow but have not been completely dry and seeds in

the pods are firm, well developed and have just began to break free from the inside of the pod.

Harvesting should be done as soon as the pods are ready to avoid any damage due to

sudden/early rain. Harvesting is best done in the morning to avoid shattering loss. Harvested

pods should be dried in the sun and kept stacked under cover for 2 weeks for curing. Pods are

then threshed by hand or beat with stick with gentle pressure.

Seed Cleaning

Inert matter, other variety seed, damaged seed, off size seed, broken seed, disease affected seeds,

other crop seeds, weed seeds and only other undesirable materials should be removed. Cleaning

machines like Air Screen Cleaner, Spiral Separator, Gravity Separator and Colour Sorter are

used to make the seed lot homogenous and true to the type.

Seed drying

Seeds with low moisture content are extremely liable to injuries during threshing. Soon after

threshing seed should be cleaned and dried. Drying to seed moisture content below 11% will be

necessary for temporary storage in ventilated sheds within the RH of 75%. For storing in

moisture proof containers seed moisture content should be reduced to 9%.

Seed packaging and tagging

After processing seeds are packed in the bags of uniform size for supplying to the farmersor seed

dealers. It should be packed in proper packaging materials for easy handling and better

storability. Cloth bags for more than 5 kg, plastic bags/tin cans for >100 gm to <500gm and

aluminum foil pouches for <100 g are the packaging materials used as seed containers for beans.

Seed Yield

600 -800 kg/ha under appropriate management



3.9.10 PEA

Pea is an important leguminous vegetable crop commonly called as garden pea and field peas. It

is cultivated across the agro-ecosystems of the country for the fresh green seeds, tender green

pods, and dried seeds. In tarai and mid-hills, it is grown as winter crop but in high-hills, grown as

summer crop. It is the one of the important source of protein in vegetables and also rich in

vitamin A, Phosphorus and carbohydrate.


It is a self-pollinated annual herb bushy or climbing usually glaucous with stems weak and

pinnatified leaflets the inflorescence of pea is a raceme arising from the axils of leaf and the

flowers are either solitary or occur in cluster up to 3 flowers per raceme. On a whole plant basis

flowering is sequential and upwards from node to node. Flowers born on the same peduncle

produce pods that matures at different times the youngest being at the tip. Pods are swollen or

compressed, straight or curved on short stalk. Seeds are angular or globose, smooth or wrinkled

smooth or wrinkled, and they are diverse in colour ranging whitish, gray, green, or brownish

Pea Varieties in National List

In Nepal only three varieties have been recommended for commercial cultivation.

Table 27: Pea varieties in national list

Varieties Origin Year of

Release

Maturity

(days)

Yield

(kg/ha)

Domain

Sarlahi Arkel Nepal 2051 60-65 5-7 Terai, Mid- and

High-Hills

New line 2051 85-90 6-8 Terai and Mid-Hills

Sikkime local 2051 85-90 25-30 Terai, Mid- and

High-Hills

Climate and Soil

Peas grow well in a cool and relatively moist climate and therefore they can be even grown in

higher altitudes. The optimum temperature ranges 10-18°C for the vegetative and reproductive

growth of peas as day and night temperatures. Pea varieties can tolerate frost in the seedling

stage and some varieties with winter hardiness even can withstand -10°C. However, temperatures

above 27°C and the frost shorten the growing period and adversely affect the pollination during

flowering stages.

The crop is best adapted to well a drained clay loam or silt loam soils with a well supply of

calcium. Soil pH should be in the range of 6.0-7.7.

Crop Rotation

Peas should not be grown consecutively even for two years in the same land as it will favour

seedling diseases, blight and also pea nematodes. It is best rotated with cereals as it breaks the



disease cycles in winter wheat and also improves the soil fertility with the ability to fix the

atmospheric nitrogen.

Land Preparation

A thorough preparation of soil is essential for pea because it is an exhaustive and short duration

crop. It helps the rapid and free spread of roots. It is generally planted in rows in plain land. The

land is ploughed out 2-3 times and the weedy plants are burned and mixed with soil. The

compost manure and the chemical fertilizers are well mixed with soil during land preparation.

Manures & Fertilizer

10 mt of compost manure and chemical fertilizers at 40:60:40 kg/ha NPK is recommended for

pea cultivation.

Source of seed

Source of the seed should be reliable and authentic. Seeds for TL seed production should be

either certified or the source seed based to kind of seed system.

Seed Rate

It depends on the type of variety and plant types. It is therefore recommended 120-140 kg/ha for

Sarlahi Arkel and 60-80 kg/ha for Sikkime local and new line.

Spacing

Sarlahi Arkel : 50-60 cm x10-15 cm

Sikkime local and New line : 75 cm x 15-20 cm

Seed Sowing

The sowing of pea starts from first fortnight of October and continues up to the end of November

and it depends on agro-ecosystems.

October to November in Terai

October to November in Mid-hills

February in High-hills

Intercultural practices and weeding

Seed field should be kept clean by weeding and mulching. Fields should be top-dressed for

nitrogen, the half part of urea after two weeks of plantation of seeds. Irrigation should be

provided as and when needed. Abundant water supply during flowering should be ensured. Late

irrigation during warm weather should be avoided which may cause sun-scalding of plants as

also plants may tend to lodge and some rotting of vines may occur if the soil is kept too wet.

Staking should be managed for tall and climbing varieties on 25-30 days of sowing.

Rouging



The off-type and diseased plants affected by pea mosaic, foot-rot and blight should be rouged out

from the seed field. The off-type plants are always identified on the basis of flower and leaf

colour and the pod shape and sizes.

Diseases and their control

Powdery mildew

Powdery white mycelium and spores on leaf and stem surfaces and affected areas

may die and plants are dwarfed if infested early.

Affected pods develop small brown to black necrotic spots.

Bavistin @ 2 g/litre of water to be sprayed

Fusarium wilt

Yellowing of the lower leaves and a stunting or dwarfing of plant growth.

The stipules and margins of the leaflets curl downward and inward.

Affected plants die more rapidly in very dry than in moist soils.

Use of resistant varieties and adapt the crop rotation.

Root rots

Decay of root tissue, the oospores from root decay released to soil which serve as

inoculum in years to come.

Symptoms include water-soaking, softening, and slight discoloration of the taproot and

lower stems of the infected plants.

Seed treatment with fungicides like Ceresan, Arasan and soil drenching with Captan.


Aphids

Aphids feed on sap of the terminal leaves and stem that result in deformation, wilting, or

death of the plant depending upon the infestation level.

Plants that survive heavy infestations are short and bunchy with more lightly colored tops

than those of healthy plants.

Wilted plants appear as brownish spots in the field, often coated with shiny honeydew

secreted by the aphids,

These aphids also transmit the yellow bean mosaic viruses.

Malathion/Sumithion 50 EC @ 2ml/litre water is to be sprayed

Pea pod borer

Larva develops within the pod and accumulates causing soft, rotten patches on the pod.

Seeds are either partially or entirely eaten.

Ripcord/Sumithion 50 EC @ 2ml/litre water is to be sprayed

Leaf miner

Extremely large populations of leaf miners slow down the plant growth and cause

infested leaves to drop before the fall season.



Chlordane 5% dust is effective against the pest

Harvesting, Threshing, and Drying

The crop matures in 4-5 months after sowing. Common practice of testing the maturity of pea

seeds is to squeeze the seed between fingers. If the cotyledons break away from each other and

free moisture is not visible, the crop is considered mature enough for harvest.

Vines along with the pods are harvested from the field and dried in the threshing floor under

sunshine. Threshing is done by beating with stick when sufficiently dry. Care should be taken

during threshing so that the seed coats are not injured. Threshed seeds are cleaned by

winnowing, dried to reduce seed moisture content to 12% for temporary storage. For longer

storage pea seed should be stored in sealed containers at 9% moisture content and in air cooled

rooms.

Packaging and labeling

The seed from the harvest is sampled for seed testing to check the seed quality standards before

packing. After processing the seeds are packed in cloth bag, plastic bag, tin cans aluminum foil

packet and labeled the quality information as per TL seed system.

Seed Yield

Seed yield is about 1000-1200 kg/ha.



3.9.10 TOMATO

Tomato is one of the popular and widely grown nutritious fruit vegetable in Nepal. It is an annual

crop cultivated in winter but these days it is been possible to grown all the year round as seasonal

and off-season crop across 75 districts. It is under mass cultivation in 32 districts in Central

and Western Development Regions of the country. It is an important vegetable in Nepalese

cuisine used as spices, ketchup, pickle and other preparations. It contains a useful medicinal

value and also possesses a good content of different of vitamin C.


Inflorescence of tomato is a raceme cyme, which consists of 4 to 5 flowers in cluster and 2 to 4

flowers set the fruits within each cluster. It is self-pollinated crop with about 5 % cross-

pollination by insects. Self-fertilization is being favoured by the position of the receptive stigma

within the cone of long anthers and the normal pendant of the flower.

Tomato varieties

Table 28: Tomato varieties in national list

Name of the variety Maturity (days) Yield

(mt/ha) Domain

Pusa Ruby 60 15 Terai & Hills

Roma 65-70 12-15 Terai & Mid Hills

Monprecos 80-90 20-40 Mid hill and high hill

NCL-1 65-70 20-30 Terai & Mid Hills

Zina

(Regd. only), OP 50-55 38 Terai, Inner Terai & Hills

Soil and Climate: Land Requirement

Tomato is a warm season crop and requires relatively a long season to produce a profitable crop

and seed. Seed production is highly influenced by environmental factor, particularly temperature

which has significant effect on all stages of plant growth and development. The temperature in

between 20o-24

oC has been found the optimum condition for tomato cultivation. Day and night

temperature and the variation between the two have a pronounced effect on growth, flowering,

fruiting and yield of fruits and seeds. Night temperature is critical for fruit set in tomato. Fruits

set abundantly when night temperature is between 15°C to 20°C and the day temperature is about

25°C. However, fruit set is reduced at a temperature below 15°C in night and above 30oC on day



time with poor pollen dehiscence. Hence, the planting should be adjusted in such a way that

flowering and fruiting time does not coincide with these situations.

A well-drained fairly light fertile loam with a fair moisture holding capacity is ideal for growing

a good crop of tomato. The optimum soil pH is 6.5 to 7.0. The soil should contain a good amount

of organic matter.

Preparation of seed beds and seedling raising

Tomato seedlings are raised in the nursery beds. These beds are raised to about 15 cm and they

could be of 2-2.5 m in length and 1.25 m width. September-October is the optimum time for

sowing seeds in the nursery in tarai while in mid-hill agro-ecosystems, seedlings are raised

during March-April. Seeds are sown in line on a well-prepared seedbed and lightly covered with

soil. After7-10 days of sowing young seedlings are transplanted on the second bed at a distance

of 2-3 cm in both ways. The seed beds should be irrigated immediately after transplanting. The

seedlings should be protected from direct sunlight and heavy rains. For this the seed beds could

be temporarily roofed with plastic sheets. There are different traditional methods in practice for

raising the healthy seedlings. These are as follows:

Sprinkle 0.5 to 1 % solution of urea on nursery beds after about a week of transplanting

the young seedlings in the second bed

Apply the urine of cattle mixed with water in 1:5 ratio on the nursery beds of seedlings

Sprinkle the solution of urine of cattle and water in a ratio of 1:10 over the seedlings on

nursery bed.

Seed Source

Seeds for plantation should be procured from reliable and authentic source with all quality

information on the tag affixed. The source seed for TL seeds should be certified or the S1 seed in

certification or truthful label systems respectively.

Seed Rate: 400-500g of seed for a hectare plantation.

Land Preparation

Land for plantation should be well pulverized by ploughing first with soil turning plough and

afterward with 4-5 ploughings. Ploughing should be followed by laddering. Farmyard

manures/compost and basic dozes of chemical fertilizers are incorporated into the soil during

ploughing as per recommendation.

Crop Rotation

Tomatoes like brinjal crop are susceptible to many of the soil borne diseases and therefore

rotation must be taken into consideration to prevent pest and disease build-up. Generally a period

3-4 years should be maintained between successive tomato crops.

Planting



Tomato seedlings are ready for planting when they are at 4-5 leaf stage in 4-5 weeks. For seed

crop tomato is planted in raised beds at a spacing of 60 x 60 cm. Planting should be done in the

late afternoon and followed a light irrigation after transplantation.


It is recommended to apply 25 mt of organic manure in the form of compost and inorganic

nutrients at 100:50:50 NPK kg/ha for tomato seed crop production. The entire amount of organic

manure, DAP (phosphorus and nitrogen), and MoP (potash) and half of urea (nitrogen) are

applied during land preparation. The remaining half of urea is applied in two installments:

One half after transplanting the seedlings and

Other half at flowering stage of the plant.

Depending upon the site location of seed production, there may require other micro-

nutrients like boron, zinc and manganese for a good fruit set.

Irrigation

Tomato needs very careful irrigation which should be sufficient at right time but water logging

should be avoided at all times during the crop growth. Quality of fruits improves by optimum

moisture supply during flowering and fruit setting. Heavy irrigation after a long dry spell may

result in fruit cracking. Similarly providing irrigation late in the season may result in watery

fruits of poor quality. However, irrigation should be given according to the local need.

Training, Pruning and Staking

Training of tomato plants with the help of wires or ropes is claimed to result in early ripening,

higher yield of better quality fruits and seeds, lesser disease incidence, easier intercultural

operation and harvesting. Pruning side shoots and staking have claimed to have higher yield,

uniform and larger fruits.

Rouging off-types, diseased and insect damaged plants

Plants showing different characters to the type must be removed. Rouging is done at different

stages of crop growth.

Before flowering-Plants showing different growth habit and foliage characteristics than

the particular variety rouged out.

Early flowering and fruit setting stage-Off-types rouged out judging the size and shape of

immature fruits.

Fruiting stage-The off-types are identified examining the fruit characteristics like shape,

size, colour etc.

Likewise, the diseased and insect pest damaged plants on appearance during rouging

should be removed far away from the seed field.

Diseases and Their Control in Tomato



Damping off

Damping-off disease cut off at the base of the stem.

Infected plants wilt, droop over, wither away, and die.

A white mold-like growth may appear on the soil surface and on the dead plants.

Soil sterilization by Formaldehyde with 50 times of water up to 4 inch of soil depth.

Seed beds should be kept clean and well drained.

Seeds should be treated with captan @ 1 g per kg of seeds.

Spraying of 1% Bordeaux mixture at an interval of 8-10 days of sowing.

Late blight of tomato

Irregularly shaped water soaked lesions observed on young leaves at the top

Under humid conditions, lesions become brown and pathogen sporulation can be seen.

Eventually the leaves shrivel and become necrotic and die.

The pathogen can also infect tomato fruit and causes circular greasy lesion


Spraying of fungicides, Dithane, 2-78 @ 2 g/litre of water

Bacterial Wilt

Wilting of young leaves during the hottest part of the day (> 85o F) and the humidity

high

It’s also more common in soil with a high pH.


The land should be kept clean and well drained.

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)

Tobaco mosaic virus (TMV) cause yellowing and stunting of tomato plants, resulting in

loss of stand and reduced yield.

Uneven ripening of fruit, mottled light and dark green on leaves, leaves curled,

malformed, or reduced in size.

Fruits may show internal browning just under the skin.

Roguing out of mosaic affected plants as soon as observed.

Control of the vector (white fly) by spraying Demicron @ 1 ml/litre of water.

Early blight

First appears on the lower, older leaves as small brown spots with concentric rings that

form a “bull’s eye” pattern.

As the disease matures, it spreads outward on the leaf surface causing it to turn yellow,

wither and die.

Use of resistant varieties.

Spraying of Dithane 2-78 @ 2 g/litre of water is effective to control.

Prune or stake plants to improve air circulation.


Tomato fruit worms



The fruit worm (in its larva form) attacks a tomato by tunneling.

It consumes the tomato’s interior and leaves a cavity filled with fluid and droppings and

fruits quickly decays and rots.

Malathion 50 EC or Thiodan 35 EC @ 2 ml/litre of water should be applied as foliar

spray.

Epilachna beetle

Adult and larvae feed on the surface of leaves by scraping away the surface cells between

the main veins and leave irregular-shaped holes or strips.

Heavy feeding damages the leaves, giving them a skeletonized or lace-like appearance

and leaves turn brown and curl and dry before falling off

Malathion/Fyfanon/Zithiol 50 EC @ 2 ml/litre of water can be sprayed.

Jassids

Jassid suck the sap from the leaves causing curling of the leaves.

Nuvacron 50 EC @ 2 ml/litre or Ripcord 10 EC @ 1 ml/litre of water to be sprayed and

repeated at fortnight interval.

Aphids

These tiny insects pierce the stems of plants, preferring tender new growth to established

greenery

Suck out the nutrient-rich sap, thus depriving the plant of the fuel that it needs to thrive.

Aphids also frequently carry viruses which infect a host plant as the insect feeds.

Malathion 50 EC or Dimacron 50 EC 2 ml/litre of water as foliar spray.

Mealy bug

Mealybugs damage tomato plants by sucking the sap from the leaves and stems, then

giving off honeydew, which attracts even more damaging pests.

Diazinon or Libacid 50 EC @ 2 ml/litre or Malathion/Dimacron 100 EC @ 1 ml/litre of

water to be sprayed.

Harvesting

Seed fruits are allowed to ripen to maturity on the plant. Only completely colored and matured

seed fruits are harvested. The mark of the two sepals (calyx) cut off should be checked carefully

to ensure that only pollinated fruits are harvested.

Seed Extraction

The following methods are used for tomato seed extraction.

Fermentation Method

In this method the selected ripe fruits are harvested and kept in wooden or plastic containers for

two to three days until the fruits become soft. They are crushed by hand and no fruit juice is

allowed to drain out. Entire mass is kept for 24 to 72 hours depending upon temperature. Flesh

will float at the top and seed will settle down at the bottom. The fermented mass is removed and



the seeds are sieved and cleaned with fresh clean water and dried. Longer fermentation may

damage the seed.

Separation with Sodium Carbonate

This method is relatively safe and can be used for small quantities of seed in cool temperate

areas where the fermentation method is not used. The pulp containing the extracted seeds is

mixed with equal volume of a 10 percent solution of sodium carbonate (washing soda).

The mixture is left up to two days at room temperature and then the seed is washed out in a sieve

and subsequently dried. The sodium carbonate method of extraction tends to darken the testa of

seed and is therefore not normally used for commercial seed.

Separation with Hydrochloric Acid

This method is often favored by large producers as it produces a very bright clean seed sample.

The hydrochloric acid treatment is often combined with later stages of fermentation. 567 ml of

concentrated hydrochloric acid stirred into 10 litres of seed and pulp mixture and left for an hour

for separation of seeds from pulp. After the extraction seeds are dried over the sheet in a light

layer with a flow of warm air.

Seed drying

A common method as described by Webster (1944) is to spread the seed in screen-bottom trays

which are placed on racks out of doors so that the air passes both above and below the screens.

The trays are often stirred to get the full effect of the solar energy. Occasional stirring of the seed

speeds the drying process. Drying of tomato seed is done up to the moisture content of 8%

(Agrawal, 1980).

Seed Treatment

After proper drying the seeds are cleaned and maintained the minimum seed standards as

prescribed below for inert matter and other unnecessary materials and seed moisture content and

treated with thiram 75% dust to ensure safe storage and better crop in following season.

Seed testing:

After harvest and proper cleaning and drying, a representative sample of the harvest is sent to the

seed testing laboratory for seed quality testing for checking the prescribed minimum seed

standard, and they are properly packed in marketable sizes and sent for marketing.

Seed packaging and storage

The tomato seeds can be stored in a glass jar, and also use other packaging materials like

polythene boxes and plastic bags. Tomato seeds can be stored safely at 6% moisture for up to 3-4

years at 320C in a sealed container; however, the seed moisture content is 9 in an ambient

condition of seed storage.



Seed Yield

Tomato seed yields depend upon several factors like the cultivar, season and management

practices. However, in commercial field production of tomato, the rule is that seed weight should

be 1% of the fresh fruit weight; i. e. one ton fruit yield should produce 10 kg of seeds. Thus seed

yield will depend on yield of fresh fruits.



3.9.11 ONION

Onion is an economically important spicy vegetable crop grown across the country from terai to

high-hill agro-ecosystems. The bunch of hollow, bluish-green leaves and the bulb at the base of

the plant are the edible food parts and they can used as cooked or raw in pickles or chutneys. It is

rich in minerals and vitamins. It is contained with Allile propyle disulphide, because of which on

cutting, it becomes pungent.

Floral Biology and Nature of Pollination

Flowers are borne in simple umbels at the apex of a floral stem which is hollow and round cross

section and somewhat swollen at the middle or near the base. Most onion varieties produce seed

stalks over one meter height. The number of seed stalks per plant may vary from 1 to 20 or more

depending on the variety, size of mother bulb and time of plating. It is pollinated chiefly by

honey bees. The fruit is a three-lobed, three-celled capsule, each seeds at maturity.

Table 29: Onion varieties in national list

Variety Origin Year of

release

Maturity

(days)

Production

(mt/ha)

Domain

Red Creole 2046 60 15 Terai, Mid hills & High hills

Nasik 53

(regd. Only)

2068 130-135 16.6-20.0 Terai and Mid-hills

Climatic Requirements

Onion is a biennial crop and takes two seasons to produce seeds. In the first year bulbs are

formed while in second year stalks develop and produce the seeds. Onion bulb production could

be carried in tropical, semi-tropical and temperate conditions; however, it is the major factor in

seed production that higher temperature affects the flowering. It requires therefore cool weather

during its early vegetative growth and also during the early growth of the seed stalk. A

moderately high temperature and a dry atmosphere favor the bulb maturity as well as seed

production. It is a long day plant that the bulb formation is promoted by long day condition.

Temperatures around 20-22°C favour the vegetative growth while temperatures around 12-13°C

is conducive to seed stalk formation.

Onion can be grown in all types of soils. However, sandy loam, silty loam and deep friable soils

retaining adequate amount of moisture are most suitable for onion cultivation. Low lying,

marshy and heavy clay soil is not desirable. Light soil with good fertility and drainage and pH

6.0-7.0 is preferred.

Method of Seed Production

There are two methods of seed production. Bulb to seed and seed to seed method, most

commonly used method of seed production is the bulb-to-seed method. .



Bulb-to-Seed Method

Production and Storage of Mother Bulbs Seedling Raising:

For raising a crop for bulb production onion seeds are sown in nursery beds to raise seedlings for

transplanting in the field. Seeds are sown on well prepared beds in lines at a spacing of 5-7 cm

and are covered with soil. Before sowing seeds are treated with Thiram or Bavistin @ 2-3 g/kg

of seeds. Thiram is also applied in seed bed soil for drenching to protect the seedlings against

damping off.

Nursery bed preparation

The site for nursery bed should be near water and with good soil condition and not planted with

crops like onion, garlic in the previous two seasons. Soil should be well prepared and be leveled

properly. Beds should be raised to avoid the risk of over moistening.

Seed sowing in nursery beds

Seed sowing is done in October-November in mid-hills at about 8-10 kg/ha for medium sized

bulb production satisfactory for seed production in next season. Seeds are sown in rows with

spacing of 10 cm between the rows and in a depth of about 1 cm.

Mulching and Nutrition of Nursery beds

After sowing, the beds are mulched with grass from top in a 3-5 cm thickness and watered the

beds as requirement. Likewise during the bed preparation slight application of nitrogen is applied

during sowing.

Land preparation for transplanting seedlings

The field for transplanting should be well ploughed to a good tilth and prepared the ridges and

furrows and also managed the irrigation channels and the weed plant debris.

Transplanting and Spacing

Eight to ten weeks old seedlings are planted in small beds in well-prepared fields. December-

January is the best period for transplanting in mid-hills. Onion seedlings are transplanted at a

distance of 15 x 10cm.

Manure and Fertilizer

Following amount of manure and fertilizers are applied for mother bulb production as per

recommendation and also applied zinc and boron as required in the soil for bulb production.

20 mt/ha of FYM

NPK at 50:80:60 kg/ha

100kg/ha of Gypsum for Zn

5kg/ha of Boric acid for boron



The whole amount of manure, TSP and half of MOP is applied during final land preparation. The

urea and rest of the MOP is applied at two splits during growing season.

Irrigation:

The field is irrigated immediately after transplanting. Fortnightly irrigation during winter and

weekly irrigation during hot dry weather is recommended. At bulb maturity irrigation should not

be given as it would cause delay in harvest.

Intercultural operations and weeding

Frequent weeding and mulching is essential for good bulb. At 25 days of transplantation, first

top dressing is carried out and weeding and top-dressing should be done. Besides, it gves quality

and higher bulb yields. Hence protective measures should be carried as and when needed by the

plants.

Rouging

In order to detect and eliminate different plant types, rouging is done. It is easier to remove late

maturing bulbs harvested they may carefully be rouged on the basis of colour.

Harvesting and Curing of Bulbs:

Well-matured bulbs should be harvested. Maturity is indicated by the tops dropping just above

the bulb, while the leaves are still green. After harvesting, the bulbs should be trampled leaving a

half inch neck. Before storage a thorough selection and curing of bulbs should be done. The time

required for curing depends largely on weather conditions and may take three to four weeks. In

mid-hills, the bulbs get ready for harvest during May-June (Jestha) while in high-hills; it gets

ready to dig out in July-August (Shrawan).

Storage of Bulbs:

The bulbs should be well matured, dried and cured before storage. The roots of the bulb should

be left intact after harvest and they are carried in wooden boxes with well ventilation .

Temperature ranging from 4.50 to 140 C with a optimum of about 120 C is the best for storage of

mother bulbs.

Bulb yield: 20-25 mt

Planting of Mother Bulbs

Time of Planting of mother bulbs

Planting of bulbs for seed production is done in October-November. Higher seed yield is

obtained from planting in the first fortnight of October.

Preparation of Land



The land should be prepared to good tilth. One deep ploughing followed by three to four

harrowing and land leveling is desirable and applied the recommended amount of fertilizers and

organic manures.

Seed bulb selection and seed bulb rate

Bulbs selected for planting should be free from disease infection. Doubles and long thick-

necked bulbs are discarded and only true-to-type bulbs are selected. The seed yield is affected

by the size of the bulb, the bigger is the bulb size, the higher is the seed yield. A bulb size of 2.5-

3 cm diameter selected and bulb as seed rate is about 1500 kg to plant one hectare of land.

Therefore, for commercial seed production medium sized bulbs (2.5-3 cm dia.) may be used

economically.

Mother bulb planting time

In mid-hills, the mother bulbs are generally transplanted in September to October (Asoj first

week to second week of Kartik) while in high hill it is done during September.

Method of planting of mother bulb

The selected bulbs are planted in well prepared field. The growing portion of the bulb is cut to

the extent of 1/4 to 1/3 for easy and quick sprouting of more growing buds. The lower portion of

disc-like stem and roots is used for planting. To avoid rotting due to fungi infection of bulbs in

the field, bulbs are treated by soaking cut ends in Bavistin @20 g in 10 liters of water before

planting.

Seeding depth and spacing

Bulbs are planted 2 to 3 cm deep in the soil at a distance of 45 x 30 cm.

Manure and Fertilizers

Following dose of fertilizers and manures are applied in recommended methods.

20-25 kg/ha FYM

50:80:60 kg/ha of NPK

Whole amount of OM and P2O5 and K2O and half of N2 are applied as basal dose during land

preparation and remaining amount of N2 is applied in two splits:

One half during growing of the plants

Other half during initiation of seed stalk

Pollination

Onion is pollinated by honeybees. Use of insecticides should be avoided during the noon time

when the beneficial insect activity is high; so it should be applied during the time when there are

no movements of insects.



Intercultural operation and weeding

A light irrigation is applied immediately after planting. The subsequent irrigation may be given

at 7-10 days interval. Weeding and mulching should be done frequently to have a good crop. On

initiation of the seed stalk, the plants should be earthen up to keep the stalk upright.

Rouging

Based on the varietal characteristics of the onion like leaf colour, flower colour and flowering

behavior as early and late bolting, the off-types should be rouged out from seed field. Likewise

the diseased and insect damaged plants should also be removed. It should frequently be carried

until the harvest of seed plants.


Purple Blotch

Small, sunken, white necks with purple coloured centres are common symptoms

occuring on leaves and flower stalks

Large purple area develops into dead patches.

Diathane M-45 2g in 1 litre of water should be sprayed at an interval of 7-10 days.

Adopt the crop rotation approach

Treat seed with Bavistin @ 2g/kg of seeds

Basal rot

Yellowing of leaves and stunted growth are its first symptoms.

Later leaves start drying from tip to downwards.

In early stage of infection, roots of plants become pink in colour and rotting takes place

later.

In advanced stage, bulbs starts decaying from lower ends and ultimately whole plants die.

Drenching with carbendazim @ 0.1% is good for checking the growth of fungus.

Adopt crop with other crop to clean the soil with these pathogens

Dipping of seedling in 0.1% carbendazim also reduces the basal r

Downy mildew

On the surface of leaves or flower stalks violet growth of fungus is noticed which later

becomes pale-green yellow and finally leaves or seed stalks collapse

Onion bulbs for planting should be exposed to sun for 12 days or heated for one hour at

41ºC to destroy the fungus.

Spraying of 0.2% Zineb or Metalaxyl 0.2 % gives good control.


Onion thrips

Thrips feed on escaping juices of the tender leaves and develop silvery blotches or

scratch-like markings on leaves.

Some leaves become distorted and curl upward.



Delay the plant growth and retard maturity.

Malathion/Sumithion/Nogos @ 1 ml/litre of water should be sprayed

Onion Maggot

Onion maggot larvae feed on hypocotyls tissue of seedlings and may kill seedlings.

In larger plants, larvae may tunnel into the bulb leading to flaccid and yellow plants.

Onion maggot feeding can introduce the soft rot bacterium (Erwinia carotovora) into the

plant.

Application of Thimet is beneficial and crop rotation could be followed.

Head borer

Larvae feed inside the stem and move upwards to reach the base of the umbel at early

stages of flowering.

It invades the umbel and feeds on seeds.

Complete drying of flowers and complete loss of seed occurs.

Zolon @ 2ml/litre of water should be sprayed


The seed crop is harvested when the fruit opens and exposes the black seeds. A field is

considered ready to harvest when about 50 % umbel heads have black seeds exposed. Two to

three pickings may be necessary to harvest the heads. The seed heads with a small portion of the

stalk attached are cut with sharp knife. Umbels are cut safely not to shatter and avoid seed loss.

Seed heads after harvest are thoroughly dried on canvas. Heads are threshed when seeds

separate easily from them. Much of seeds fall from caps during drying. The remaining seed is

removed by hand.

Seed drying

Under humid condition seeds may be dried in sheds with air circulation. Frequent stirring may

be needed when seed is dried in shed. Since natural seed drying often requires 3-4 weeks, some

growers prefer to dry seeds quickly using artificial dryers or dehydrators.

Seed cleaning

This is the practice used for a thorough seed separation from umbels. Seeds are threshed by

mowing or rubbing of dried umbels and then cleaning the seeds by winnowing followed by pure

seed separation by floatation. The dried umbels are gently mowed and winnowed to separate the

seeds from chafe. The winnowed and unclean seeds be put in a bucket and soaked with clean

water and left for 3-5 minutes in the water. In seed cleaning, the undesirable materials like inert

matter, and other crop seeds, deteriorated and damaged seed are eliminated out. Machines are

available to clean seed on above basis either in combination or singly. Most basic and effective

machine like Air screen machine and perforated screens with different type and sizes of holes

can be used to remove off size seeds that could not be separated by air.



Seed treatment

Seeds should be treated with thiram 75% dust against fungal diseases.

Seed testing

A representative sample of seed is sampled for seed testing to check for the prescribed minimum

seed standards.

Seed Yield: Average seed yield 850 to 1000 kg/ha



3.10. CRITICAL STAGES OF CROPS

There are certain critical stages of crops at which we must have attention on. Such stages may be

for the purpose of irrigation, fertilizer application, weed control, pesticide application and

harvesting.

Activities Critical stages

Rice

Transplanting Fourth leaf stage (21 days)

Irrigation Continuous flooding with water level 2.5-5 cm till milking stage

Fertilization Basal prior to transplanting Active tillering and

panicle initiation

Panicle emergence

and dough

Weeding 2 weeks after transplanting 4-5 weeks 7-8 weeks

Rouging Heading but before flowering Completion of

flowering

Maturity before

harvesting

Harvesting 85 % of panicles and grains have changed color from green to straw

Maize

Irrigation Knee high Tassel formation Grain formation Grain maturity

Fertilization Basal prior to

sowing Four leaf

First weeding at

knee high Tasseling

Grain

filling

Weeding 20-25 DAS 50-60

Rouging 15-20 DAS Tasseling Cob formation

Harvesting Plants are complete dry (Black mark on top of kernels)

Wheat

Irrigation 30-35 DAS Late tillering Late jointing Heading Dough

Fertilization Basal before

sowing 30-35 DAS

Weeding 30-40 DAS

Rouging Heading to flowering After completion of

flowering

Complete

development of ear

colour

Harvesting When peduncle of ear-heads turns golden yellow

Broad Leaf Mustard

Transplanting 20-25 DAS (4-5 leaf stage)

Irrigation Transplanting Top dressing Bolting Flowering

Urea top

dressing 25-30 DAS 45-50 DAS 70-80 DAS

Weeding 30-40 DAS




Rouging Different stages of crop

vegetative growth Early bolting Late bolting

Harvesting When pods turn yellowish brown in colour

Cauliflower

Transplanting 20-25 Days

Irrigation Twice a week Once a week

Top dressing 20 DAT 40 DAT Flowering

Weeding 40 DAT 60 DAT

Rouging Vegetative growth Curd formation Flowering

Harvesting 60-70% of pods turn brown

Radish

Irrigation Immediately after sowing Then after 8-10 days interval

Earthing up During the root development stage During flowering and fruiting

Top dressing During early

plant growth During root development Flowering and fruiting

Weeding During the root development

stage During flowering and fruiting

Rouging Vegetative growth Before flowering Seed setting

Harvesting Complete browning of pods

Carrot

Irrigation 8-10 days interval

Earthing up End of September

Top dressing

Weeding Early stages of growth (frequently)

Rouging Bloom stage Ealy bolting stage Late bolting

Harvesting Secondary umbels (heads) are fully ripe and tertiary heads are beginning to turn

brown

Cowpea

Irrigation Two trifoliate leaf Flower initiation Seed development

Weeding 4-5 weeks after sowing

Rouging Vegetative growth Flowering Pod formation

Harvesting Half to two thirds of pods have matured

French bean


Weeding Two trifoliate leaf Flower initiation

Top dressing Two trifoliate leaf Flower initiation

Rouging Vegetative growth Flowering Pod formation




Harvesting Pods turned yellow but not completely dry and seeds in the pods are firm, well

developed and have just began to break free from the inside of the pod

Pea


Top dressing After 2 weeks of sowing

Weeding Two trifoliate leaf Flower initiation

Harvesting As soon as the seed is hard, while there are green leaves and pods remaining

Tomato

Transplanting 4-5 weeks (4-5 leaf stage)

Irrigation Twice a week Once a week

Top dressing 30 DAT 60 DAT

Training, pruning,

staking When start branching

Weeding 30 DAT 60 DAT

Rouging before flowering Early flowering and

fruit setting Fruiting

Harvesting Completely colored and matured seed fruits

Onion

Transplanting 8-10 weeks

Irrigation 15 days interval during

winter 7-10 days interval during summer

Top dressing During plant growth Initiation of seed stalk

Weeding, Earthing up 25 DAT (weeding only) Initiation of seed stalk

Rouging Vegetative growth Bulb

formation

flowering and seed

formation

Harvesting - Bulbs Tops dropping just above the bulb, while the leaves are still green

Seeds When the fruit opens and exposes the black seeds

3.11 MANAGEMENT OF PESTS AND DISEASES

Organic standards prohibit the use of synthetic pesticides and discourage a pest and disease

management strategy that substitutes reliance on synthetic pesticides with allowable organic

insecticides. Under the standards a more holistic approach needs to be adopted, which essentially

comes down to an ‘integrated’ pest and disease management strategy – without the chemicals.

Planning an organic pest management program

Instead of using synthetic pesticides, organic farmers adopt cultural practices that encourage

healthy plant growth and other practices that encourage the presence of pest predators.

Three conditions must pertain if a pest problem is to develop.

The pest (or disease) must be present.



The crop must be a suitable and susceptible host.

The environmental conditions must be favorable.

These conditions are known as the ‘pest triangle’.

The first step in an integrated pest management system lies in knowing what pests are likely to

attack the crop or might do so, the pests’ life cycles, what conditions favor their survival, and

what conditions or natural enemies might control the populations. The second step is to pre-plan

the cropping system to minimize the potential for pests to become a problem. The third step is to

monitor the conditions that might favor a pest outbreak. If all the conditions of the pest triangle

are favourable to a pest outbreak, the fourth step is to intervene, to modify those conditions in

order to reduce the risk or severity of damage.

Step1. Knowledge

Key pests

Less than 1 per cent of all insects are ‘pests’. But agricultural production creates conditions that

favour the build-up of a small number of insects to pest levels. ‘Key’ pests tend to be insects that

are likely to cause serious damage if left unmanaged. They can be regular pests, such as

Heliothis (Helicoverpa armigera) on tomatoes and many agricultural crops, or they can be

irregular but potentially devastating, such as russet mite on tomatoes or pumpkin beetle on

cucurbits.

Pest biology and life cycles

Knowledge of a pest’s biology and life cycle is essential for finding out where it is most

vulnerable and how it is most likely to be managed. The more we know about them the more

likely we will find ways to thwart their successful development.

Natural enemies

In natural environments most organisms’ populations are kept in check by a range of ‘natural

enemies’, among them bacterial, viral and microsporidium diseases, nematode infections,

parasites or parasitoids, and predators (for example, bats and birds). These natural enemies are

called ‘beneficials’. Most insect pests have a range of specific and generalist natural enemies that

either kill them or limit their ability to cause damage or reproduce. In most agricultural systems –

and particularly those that use few, if any, insecticides – there are a range of generalist predators.

Populations of specific natural enemies can build up in the presence of the pest. If natural

enemies are to thrive they need the ‘beneficial’ equivalent of the ‘pest triangle’:

The beneficial must be present.

There must be suitable hosts and, in some cases, a nectar or pollen source.

The environmental conditions must be favourable.

Shelter, breeding grounds and year-round food sources encourage predators. Ideally, there are

also suitable non-pest hosts for the beneficial populations to increase, so that if a pest arrives it

finds itself in a hostile environment.

Step 2. Prevention



Within a pest management system, it is wise to prevent or limit the likelihood of pest populations

causing serious damage. A variety of cultural control methods can be used to reduce the

likelihood of pest outbreaks.

Site selection

Some sites will be more prone to pests than others. Choose sites that are isolated from sources of

pests.

Choice of crop

Choose a crop that is optimal for the location: a strong, vigorous plant is less susceptible to

attack. When growing organically, it is often better not to grow crops that are already grown

extensively in the area, unless there are natural barriers that reduce the flow of pests onto the

organic land.

Cultivar selection

Some cultivars are resistant to, repel, or are less palatable to pests than other cultivars.

Crop rotations

To reduce soil-borne pests and diseases, rotate host with non-host crops. Rotations can also break

insect pests’ life cycles and help control weeds.

Material from off-site

If using transplants or bringing any materials to the site, assess the risk of bringing pests with

them. Insects, and particularly diseases, can easily come from off-site contamination.

Timing of planting

If possible, choose planting times when pest pressure is likely to be lowest. Early planted crops

of tomatoes experience less Heliothis pressure than later planted crops.

Crop health

Plants growing with optimum water and nutrition tend to be less susceptible to pest attack and

might better compensate for damage. Over- or under-provision of water or nutrients will stress

the plant and increase its vulnerability.

Sanitation

Many key pests have many host plants. If those host plants are weeds or old harvested but

uncultivated crops, they can contribute to supporting the pest population on the property. Mites

are often spread through properties or from crop to crop by machinery or on the clothes of

people.

Natural habitats

Natural habitats provide a source of beneficials to colonise the farming system.

Trap crops

In some instances other crops might be the preferred habitat for a particular pest, and if some of

the preferred crop is grown it might draw the pest away from the main crop. So a small

sacrificial planting can be used as a trap crop.

Insectary crops



Many beneficial insects require nectar or pollen as food sources, and a nearby flowering crop can

act as an insectary crop and help increase the number of beneficials working the main crop.

Other insectary crops can be crops that host a related non-pest species – for example, a species of

aphid that can then support the establishment of aphid parasitoids and predators that might move

into the main crop if aphids become established there.

Inter-cropping

Alternating rows of different crops has been used as a means of reducing pest pressure. Of itself,

intercropping does not reduce pest pressure, but some combinations of crops work well together

and result in less pest pressure. Inter-cropping is not widely used in highly mechanised or

extensive agricultural systems; it is most typically used in labour intensive systems.

Step 3: Observation

Once the basic system for reducing pest incursions and build-ups and maximizing the effects of

beneficials is in effect, the next step is monitoring. Agricultural environments are complex

systems, and changes in weather or the arrival of a key pest can rapidly change a pest situation.

Regular observation of the factors in the pest and beneficial triangles can warn of a potential

problem while there is still time to respond.

Crop monitoring

Systematically checking crops for the key pest stages (for example, eggs for Heliothis) and using

available traps (for example, pheromone traps or sticky traps) to help monitoring are

fundamental to developing an ability to respond to an emerging problem. Weekly checks are

recommended for most crops, with more frequent checking during periods of high vulnerability

or high pressure.

Pest identification

In the process of learning about the pests and beneficials that visit crops, it is important to have

insects or diseased plants identified by an expert.

Pest prediction models

Insects and diseases tend to respond predictably to temperature and/or moisture levels, so models

can be developed.

Step 4: Intervention

If observations of the crop or cropping situation suggest a need for action to reduce a likely or

current pest build-up, the available tools fall into three categories – mechanical, biological and

chemical controls.

Mechanical control

Mechanical controls are methods that can physically remove pests or physically prevent them

moving into the crop.

Light or bait traps.

Moths and some beetles are attracted to black light and so can be caught in a ‘light trap’. These

traps are not very selective, which means that a large number of non-pest, and possibly

beneficial, insects might also be trapped. In Western Australia some lettuce growers use large

light traps to help manage Heliothis. Some insects such as fruit fly are attracted to fermenting



yeast or other ‘baits’ and can be trapped this way. Pest-specific pheromones can greatly increase

a trap’s attractiveness to the target pest.

Covers and barriers.

For high-value crops, row covers or fully enclosed net houses can prevent pests reaching the

crop. The size of the holes in the covers or net determines which insects can be excluded.

Smaller holes usually mean less water penetration. The disadvantage is that once a pest has

found a way into the plants, its numbers might increase more rapidly in the absence of predators

or it might be more difficult to physically control. Row covers and net houses do, however, offer

other potential benefits such as providing a warmer environment and increasing the rate of plant

growth; on the other hand, they can also increase humidity and the likelihood of fungal diseases

developing.

Soil solarization.

Soil pests and some soil-borne diseases can be controlled by soil solarisation, which involves

using sealed or overlapping clear plastic to heat the soil beneath to high temperatures, thus

sterilizing the top few centimetres of soil. Proper laying of the plastic and enough sun exposure

to raise the soil temperature to a lethal level to the required depth is crucial. This technique has

the disadvantage of sterilising the soil (also killing beneficial micro-organisms) and leaves the

soil open to colonisation by pests.

Removal of pests.

Sometimes only a small number of pests are in the crop and the crop area is relatively small. In

this situation hand removal of pests is an option.

Biological control

Biological control uses beneficials, habitat manipulation and/or products derived from natural

organisms to control pests. Natural enemies (beneficials) are organisms that feed on or otherwise

kill the target pest. They can be predatory insects (including spiders and mites), parasitoids,

fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes or animals (for example, insect-feeding birds). Biological

control is often best used as a preventive method, but some components of biological control are

useful as direct intervention.

Introduced beneficials.

Predators or parasitoids of a specific pest can be released into the problem area. Perhaps they are

absent because they do not naturally occur in the area, for some reason they have been killed, or

their populations are not sufficiently high to adequately control the pest. Some predator and

parasitoid species are available from commercial insectaries to release into a crop to control a

specific pest outbreak.

Habitat manipulation.

Although this is normally a preventive method, slashing neighbouring insectary crops can

encourage beneficials to move across into the target crop and perhaps control the pest.

Autocidal control.

Autocidal control involves using mass reared pest insects that are released after having been

sterilised by radiation or chemo-sterilants. When the sterilised males mate with ‘wild’ females,



no progeny is produced. The success of this strategy is dependent on releasing enough sterile

males into the natural population to out-compete or outnumber the natural or wild males and

prevent the females reproducing. This is a tool being used in fruit fly control.

Biocidal control.

Biocidal control uses natural products or organisms that have a toxic or lethal effect on the target

pest. Among such agents are products derived from plants (such as neem and natural pyrethrum),

pathogens, bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi, nematodes and animals. In general, biocidal control

can be used only as a direct control method once pest numbers have reached damaging levels

since the kill rate is usually high but the carryover effect is low.

Chemical control

Chemical control is usually associated with synthetically derived poisons, which are not allowed

under organic standards. Some chemicals are, however, permitted under organic standards, and

these tend to be biologically derived or inorganic products or minerals.

Disease management

Causes of plant disease

Various members of the four major biological groups – fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes –

cause plant diseases.

Viruses

Viruses are micro-organisms that can infect plants and animals. Many viruses affect plants, and

all of them need external agents, or vectors, for their transmission. Examples of vectors are

insects, mites, nematodes and fungi; examples of insect vectors are thrips, aphids and

leafhoppers. Some viruses have specific vectors – perhaps a certain type of aphid or fungus.

There are no chemical treatments for viruses, which mean the vector must be controlled if

possible.

Fungi

Fungi are microscopic organisms but have structures that can be seen with the naked eye. They

produce hyphae, or strands, that can be seen on plant material. Their fruiting structures are

visible with a hand lens or microscope, and their spores can be carried by wind or spread through

water. These spores usually require moisture – rain, dew or high humidity – to germinate and

infect plants. Some fungi have a narrow host range; others have a wide host range. Many soil

borne fungi are important in breaking down plant material and are an important part of soil

biology.

Bacteria

The bacteria that cause diseases in lettuce are single celled organisms and do not form more

complex structures such as those developed by fungi. Bacteria can be secondary invaders of

plant tissue when they invade damaged tissue. The initial damage can be caused by insects, other

pathogens, frost, herbicide or hail. Other entry points for bacteria are natural openings found on

the leaf surface. Bacteria are transported by rain, insects, pruning and cutting implements,

machinery, moving soil and water.

Nematodes



Nematodes are very small worm-like animals, too small to be seen with the naked eye. Some

types are pathogenic; others are beneficial and consume pathogenic fungi; yet others contribute

to soil biological activity. Pathogenic-type nematodes have a mouthpart that pierces plant cells

for feeding. As a consequence of this feeding, the plants can become stunted and die. Nematodes

are usually associated with plant roots, but some species affect other plant parts. Nematodes tend

to be more of a problem in light-textured soils such as sand.

Diagnosis

Control recommendations cannot be made unless the problem has been accurately diagnosed.

Publications on plant diseases might help with diagnosis. Disease control will not be successful

if the disease has not been correctly identified.

Variety selection

When choosing the correct variety for the area, account should be taken not only of optimising

yield but also of maximising disease control. Appropriate variety selection can help disease

management:

• Varietal resistance and tolerance

• The physical shape or habit of the plant.

A variety can have genetic resistance to a disease; that is, it has been bred to be resistant to the

disease. Varieties can also show reduced or increased disease levels as a result of their physical

characteristics. Plants might not be completely resistant to a disease but can be tolerant.

Pathogen-free seed or vegetative propagation material

Many viruses are seed-borne. Potatoes are a good example of vegetative material capable of

carrying pathogens. Make sure any planting material is free of diseases. Always keep a small

amount of the material for reference in case problems are found after planting.

Climate

Many plant diseases are affected by environmental conditions. High rainfall – or, more exactly,

high leaf wetness – can promote infection with many of the fungal diseases, such as downy

mildews and rusts. Reducing the plant density can increase the air flow in the crop, but may

compromise weed management.

Weed control

Weed control is important for many plant diseases because often the weeds are also the hosts of

the diseases. Many weeds and ornamental plants are hosts of tomato spotted wilt, which is a

virus affecting tomatoes. The virus is transmitted by thrips.

Crop rotation

Changing the crops grown has long been a way of reducing diseases. It can be important in

controlling many soil-borne diseases, but it will not have an effect on soil-borne diseases that

produce inoculum that can survive in the soil for many years. Fungi that produce sclerotia (hard-

bodied survival structures of some soil borne fungi) are an example of this. Rotation will be

successful if the disease in question survives only on host material and does not survive when all

residue of that host is absent.

Rouging



‘Rouging’ means physical removal of any diseased plants. The practice can reduce both the

spread of the disease and the carryover of the disease. It can be labour intensive, though, so

might be of benefit only in high-value crops.

Removal of crop residue

Removal of crop residue is very important if overlapping of plantings occurs. As a last resort,

burning the plant material – something not favoured in organic standards – can help reduce the

carryover of disease. Grazing livestock such as poultry can help to remove crop residue.

Irrigation management

Over-irrigation can cause serious problems by favouring soil-borne diseases.

Overhead irrigation can contribute to plant foliar diseases. If it is used, make sure that plants dry

out as quickly as possible – for example, by avoiding watering in the evening, so that foliage

does not remain wet overnight.

Trickle irrigation is the best option for reducing plant disease. Flooding can, however, be used to

limit some diseases (such as sclerotia) before planting a susceptible crop.

Soil management

Improving soil health through increasing biological activity can reduce the chance of soil-borne

pathogens being a problem. Addition of compost and incorporation of green manure crops can

help reduce soil-borne diseases by increasing the biological activity of beneficial species in the

soil. Careful selection of the green manure is important, to ensure that it, too, is not a host to the

pathogen.

Ploughing

Ploughing of crop residues can be useful for burying sclerotia and subsequently increasing the

biological breakdown of the survival structures.

Biological control

Research into biological control is expanding rapidly, and growing numbers of micro-organisms

for biological control of soil-borne diseases are being developed. Trichoderma (a common soil-

borne genus of fungi) species have been developed to control soil borne plant diseases.

Fungicides

A number of organically acceptable chemicals are available if disease control is necessary.

Among them are copper, lime sulphur, sodium bicarbonate, sulphur and vegetable oils. These

products are effective only against foliar plant pathogens. Copper is useful against downy

mildews and bacterial diseases; sulphur is effective against powdery mildews.

Other organic sprays

Among other possibilities for disease control are products still under evaluation, such as compost

teas and milk. Evidence suggests that both these products are efficacious for certain diseases.

Milk has shown some effectiveness against powdery mildew.



CHAPTER IV: STUDIES AND TRIALS FOR FFS

4.1. SELECTION OF STUDY TRIALS

Objective:

The main objective of the trials in the FFS on quality seed production is to make the

decision making skill of farmers and to empower them and develop more

confidence in the process of improving their crop production practices.

The other objective is to provide the farmers crucial skills gathered through the

field observation, exchange of knowledge from the experiments, studies and

discussion.

Area required and layout

The area should be sufficient for learning by doing to establish problem based trials, study

plots, comparative trials and other supportive trials in the FFS on quality seed production. The

standards area for the FFS is 1000 meter square and the area should be proper utilized by

separating in small plots. The plot should be separated unbiased according to the topography,

fertility, slope, and sun exposure and soil moisture.

Study plots:

The treatments should be decided on the basis of farmers’ problems discussed in

the preparatory meetings as well as decision of facilitator to introduce new

technology and modification in the local adopted technology.

Too many treatments should be discouraged to make it more effective for the

participants.

Likewise, too less treatments when established, they learn about a limited area

during the crop period. So, treatments should be optimum in numbers to learn

effectively. Two types of studies will be set in the FFS as below:

a. Comparative studies

The studies which are compared between two or more and takes long time for

getting their result and put in comparative studies. In this trial, certain parameters

are compared and others things remaining constant in between two studies.

For example: farmers practice (FP) and FFS on quality seed production, varietal

trial, leaf or tiller cutting, depth of planting, number of seedlings, age of seedlings,

standard quality seed and low quality of seed and conventional method of

rice/wheat planting, trial on chemical fertilizers, effect of pesticides on beneficial

harmful insects etc.

Such studies done in the field or earthen pot and required more space as compared

to supportive studies. The best result among the trial, participants internalized and

applied in the next season in their own field.

b. Supportive studies



Those studies take short time for result, easy to understand and developed

confidence for decision then applied in their own field immediately or in the next

season.

Like Participatory varietal selection (PVS) allows farmers to observe and

evaluate the varieties for further seed production program.

Participants can assigned to study in different topics from where results can

found within a short period of time from the participatory discussion in the

group to share their results.

In addition, problem based trials and good technologies demonstrations will also

be conducted.

Sample size:

Generally the sample size should be taken 10% of the total population.

More sample if chosen takes more time and less number of sample may not

represent the whole population.

So, according to the area of trial, time require for data collection, processing

and analysis, the sample should fixed.

Sampling time:

In the morning, the presence of insects, pathogens, frogs, microbes and other

living animals in the water bodies as well as field environment can see easily

but insects can move other suitable places and progress of disease symptoms

cannot be observed easily in day time.

So, to know the presence and interaction between living and nonliving things

in the field, observation should be completed in the morning before 9:00 AM.

Observation p a r a m e t e r s :

The observation parameter should be easy to compare healthy and unhealthy plants during

their growth stages in the field. There may be certain criteria to fulfill for healthy crop.

Observation parameters should be science based and easily understand by the participants.

Major observation parameters are mentioned below but the listed parameter varies with

the crop type:

Days to heading and days to maturity Weed

Plant height Insect (harmful/beneficial)

Planting distance Disease (Fungi, Bacteria, nematode,

virus) Age of Plant Compost, fertilizer

Weather (Cloudy, sunny, rainy,

western hot winds, hailstorms)

Number of flowers and fruits

Field moisture (Logged, high, medium, low,

dry)

Irrigation

Number of seedlings Stacking etc…



Number of tillers

These parameters are followed during weekly observation of study field for agro–ecosystem

analysis (AESA).

4.2 DEMONSTRATION:

Extension methods like demonstration plots, seed multiplication programme and field days

etc., are some of the major weapons for introducing the findings of modern research in

agricultural practices to increase agricultural production in particular and uplift of the rural

masses in general. Extension methods are effective means of communication to transmit

knowledge and skills, and the interested may easily see, hear, and learn the things conveyed

by extension worker. Moreover, extension methods stimulate adult youth, both male and

female, for action.

Demonstration plots and seed multiplication are one of the best methods to improve yield.

These methods are used as tools by the extension worker to effect desirable changes in the

behavior of rural masses, arrange the best learning situations, and provide opportunities in

which useful communication and interaction take place between extension workers and

farmers.

Taking into this consideration: comparative demonstration of seed production plots will be

managed each in 333.33 square meters with the same variety.

Improved Practice Farmers Practice

Selection of treatments:

Two types of studies will be set in the FFS as below:

a) Comparative studies

In this study two treatments will be set, namely:

farmers practice (FP) and Improved practice (IP) on quality seed production

The plot size for each treatment will be 333.33 square meter.

The variety under both the treatments will be same.

But the operational activities will be different.

In farmers practice all the agricultural practices will be managed by farmers



themselves.

On the other hand, the improved practice will be facilitated by the facilitator.

The agricultural practices in improved practice will be as per the recommendation.

b) Supportive studies

Studies which are based on short term observation, simple to understand,

quick result findings and develops confidence of the participants are

used in those studies. With the findings, the participants can apply the result

in coming season immediately.

4-5 sub-groups will be given the task in this study. Each sub-group can be

assigned with different treatments.

Like, Use of different categories (Red, Green labeled) of pesticides to see the

efficacy on insect pests and natural enemies.

Like, Participatory varietal selection (PVS) allows farmers to observe and

evaluate the varieties for further seed production program.

Layout of Experimental Plot

Improved Practice Farmers Practice

a) Each sub-group will be assigned the particular plot on improved practice and

farmers practice for AESA.

b) Then, on each week, all the sub-groups need to go to the field for field

observation and data recording for the particular school day.

c) On approaching towards the plot, firstly record the moving insects both

beneficial and harmful insects. Need to take care of not disturbing the soil

surface and water bodies' insects.

d) Then, the record of insects on soil surface/water bodies is recorded.

e) After this, note down the insect pest on plant canopy and then on leaf sheath

and tiller/cobs/curds/inflorescence.

f) Lastly, observation on plant height, days to heading, maturity, tiller count,

Plot 1

Plot 2

Plot 3

Plot 4

Plot 5

Plot 1

Plot 2

Plot 3

Plot 4

Plot 5



Layout: Draw baseline of 4 meter

(AB) and place the pegs tied with

ropes, and then extend as shown in

above figure with 3 meter

(Perpendicular=BC) and 5 meter

(Hypotenuse=AC). Similarly, from

the base again draw the 3 and 5 meter

on other side as shown below

Farmers Practice Quality Seed Production

Area=333.33 square

meter

FFS on quality seed production Area=333.33 square meter

Participatory varietal selection

Number of variety 6-7 in 30 m2

Total 200 m2

Problem based trials and demonstration of good

practices

weed occurrence/m2

is to be recorded.

Layout and treatments:

Figure: Field lay out of Farmers Field School on Quality Seed



CHAPTER V: FORMATS AND GUIDELINES

5.1 FFS SESSION PLAN

In a seed production FFS a typical weekly session will take about 3 to 4 hours and will

generally have the following schedule:

Time Activities to be undertaken Meth

odolo

gy

Materials

required

Respons

ible

facilitat

or

9-9.15 Introduction

Recap

Present today’s program

9.15-

11.15

Field visit / Field observations

Seed production plot Farmers practice

plot

Field experiments

Collect data

Collect samples

Start analyzing the field situation

The facilitators observe the field

together with the farmers and ask

questions to start discussions.

11.15-

12.15

AESA drawing / discussions within

small group

Detailed analysis of the field situation.

The facilitator asks questions to

stimulate critical thinking.



Decision making for the management

of the seed production plot

12.15-

13.15

AESA presentation

Agree on work to be done

Who is

responsible?

When will it be

done?

13.15-

14.00

Insect zoos

Set up insect zoos

Observe and record insect zoo

activities

2.00-

2.30

Short break- Snacks

2.30-

2.15

Group dynamics exercise

If possible as an introduction to a

special topic

2.15-

3.15

Special topic(s)

3.15-

3.30

Summarize and plan for next week

Discuss special topic requests for next

week

5.2 MODULE: RICE SEED PRODUCTION (ILLUSTRATIVE) The curriculum of the “module” on rice seed production is very comprehensive. It has been



developed over the years from experiences with Integrated Pest Management and Integrated

Plant Nutrient System. A range of technical topics dealing with seed health, pest management,

soils and fertilizer management, post- harvest are included. Several field experiments are

conducted by farmers during the FFS to form the basis of the Experiential Learning Cycle.

The following is a list of “topics” that are included in the rice seed production. FFSs in other

crops (e.g. maize, wheat, BLM, beans, cauliflower, radish, carrot, cowpea, French bean, pea,

tomato and onion) will have a similar content, but may differ in the way field experiments are

designed. Note that many of these topics are spread out over a number of sessions throughout

the cropping season.

Table 30: Model FFS session plan

Topic or Activity Comment

1. Introduction to field experiments in

FFS At the beginning of the FFS

2. Variety selection for FFS

A variety is selected for the main

experiment where seed production plot is

compared with a Farmer Practice (FP)

plot.

Some potential varieties, relevant for the

location of the FFS, are selected for a

variety experiment.

3. Seedbed preparation and management

4. Seedbed observations

5. Pests and defenders in seedbed

6. Uprooting and transplanting

7. Growth stages of rice Throughout the season

8. Activities related to growth stages

9. Fertilizer management

10. Pest management

i. Insects

ii. Diseases

iii. Weeds

iv. Rats

11. Water management

Deals with the actual condition of the soil

and with pest problems that occur during

the FFS season

12. FFS versus FP

The main field experiment in the FFS,

conducted by the FFS participants.

Management decisions for the seed

production plot are based on the Agro-



Ecosystem Analysis (AESA)

13. Techniques of field sampling insects

and diseases Skills needed to conduct an AESA

14. Pests and defenders

15. Collecting, sorting, identifying

Regular (weekly) observations

throughout the season

16. Agro-Ecosystem Analysis

17. Introduction AESA 18. Weekly AESA for decisions in seed

production plot

Learn to make informed crop management

decisions. AESA decisions are applied and

tested in the seed production plot

19. Conservation and augmentation of natural

enemies

20. Plant compensation studies

Detillering

Defoliation

A field experiment by farmers to

understand how plants compensate for

damage to leave and tillers.

21. Insect zoo

22. Study food habits of crop defenders

23. Life cycles of insects

Contributes to understanding natural

control

24. Variety experiment

Farmers conduct this experiment to

compare relevant varieties. At the same

time they acquire the skills to compare

other varieties in different seasons or crops.

25. Soil characteristics

Soil texture

Soil composition

Water holding capacity

26. Soil fertility grade mapping Farmers make a soil fertility map of

village

27. Nutrient mining exercise (nutrient flow)

28. Plant Nutrition System (N, P, K, S, Zn)

29. Fertilizer application methods Field experiment by farmers comparing for

example urea spray versus broadcasting

30. Organic sources of plant nutrients

Green manure

Vermi-compost

Farmyard manure



31. Nutrient deficiencies in pots

32. Recognize deficiency symptoms

Experiment set up by farmers using

plants in pots where certain nutrients are

missing. The results of this experiment

are not always clear, so it is being

considered to drop this topic from the

FFS or modify it.

33. Seed production techniques

34. Roughing 35. Seed collection (processing and

storage)

36. Seed health and quality

37. Seed selection and cleaning

38. Germination test

39. Adverse effects of pesticides To understand the dangers of

pesticides

40. Risk reduction To learn skills that help reduce the risks

involved in using pesticides

41. Granular pesticides

42. Effects on natural enemies

43. Rice pest management

44. Summary of management practices for most

common insects and diseases in rice, related

to growth stages

45. Harvesting, recording yields,

economic calculations

46. Benefit calculation for improved practices comparing the FFS with FP

47. Wrapping up

48. Making conclusions on all studies At the end of the FFS



5.3 GUIDELINE AND FORMAT FOR TECHNICAL REPORT

The template for daily report

FFS Daily Report on quality seed production

1. Name of facilitator(s):

2. Attendance: Male- Female- Total:

3. Starting time:

Conducted activities of the day

1. Climate setting (What activity):

2. AESA process and result

3. Special topics covered (methodology used):

4. Zoo and cup study (setting / result):

5. Other short-term studies conducted if any?

6. Group dynamics (Name) and lesson learnt:

7. Problem faced:

8. Measures taken to solve the problems:

9. Realized need and unique experiences:

10. Expenses of the day -

11. Planning for the Next FFS session:

12. Strong and weak points of the day:

13. Result of mood meter/evaluation wheel.

FFS name and address:

Date:

Day (1st, 2nd….):

Crop and Variety :



5.4 PERFORMANCE REPORT SUBMISSION

District: Location:

Name of Farmer's Field School: Name of Lead Farmer

Facilitator: Weekly attendance of the Participants

Week Date Attendance Attendance Remarks

Male Female Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Information of Farmers who leave FFS

Sr# Name of Participants Reason for leave

1 2 3 4 5



Special topic in different dates of Agro-ecosystem Analysis

School

day

AESA No.

Special topic

Crop status

Crop growth

stage

Methodology

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Description of study plots in the FFS

a) FFS on quality seed production

Area: Crop: Variety:

Planting distance: Compost /Fertilizer

(Kg/katha):

Fertilizer per ropani

During

sowing/Transplanting Top dressing (I) Top dressing (II)

DAP

Urea

Potash



Intercultural operations:

Irrigation: When.......... How much........... Times.................

Weeding: When.......... How much........... Times.................

Diseases & Insects Mangement

Name of disease 1:

Control measures:

Name of disease 2:

Control measures:

Result of treatment

Name of insect1:

Control measures

Name of insect 2

Control measures

Result of treatment

Farmers’ method

Area: 1 katha Compost:

Fertilizers per ropani

Fertilizer per katha

During

sowing/Transplanting Top dressing (I) Top dressing (II)

DAP

Urea

Potash

Intercultural operations:

Irrigation: When.......... How much........... Times.................

Weeding: When.......... How much........... Times.................



Diseases & Insects Management

Name of disease 1:

Control measures:

Name of disease 2:

Control measures:

Result of treatment

Name of insect1:

Control measures

Name of insect 2

Control measures

Result of treatment

Any other test

a. Cut worm

Control measures Experienced matters Production per ropani

b. Other tests

Control measures Experienced matters Production per ropani



Economic Analysis (Per ropani)

SN Particulars Unit Rate

per

unit

FFS methods Farmers’ method Remark

Quantity Amount,

NRs

Quantity Amount,

NRs

1 Seed

2 Compost

3 Fertilizers

Urea

DAP

Potash

4 Pesticides

A

B

5 Labors

6 Others

Total

Expenses

Production

a. Main

production

b. Other

production

Total

income

Net

income

Description of study plots in the FFS

a. Results of comparative studies (improved vs farmers' practice)

b. Supportive studies (cup, zoo etc)

c. Other trials conducted on FFS



5.5 PERFORMANCE REPORT ORGANIZATION AND CONTENT

Indicators

Performance

Satisfactory Unsatisfactory

Absentees >80% <80%

Trial establishment As per guidelines

Gender & social inclusion Remarkable participation

Studies on cup and zoo Yes No

Conduction of special topics class Yes No

Follow of seed production

guidelines

Perfectly

Regular supervision of field Yes No

Rouging Yes No

Overall facilitation quality

(efficiency, effectiveness,

punctuality, timely reporting etc)

Yes No



5.6 GUIDELINE AND FORMAT FOR FUND REQUEST

After the contract is made between the FFS facilitator and the organizer (as DADO),

the FFS facilitator should request for the fund as per the contract.

In this case, the fund request can be as advance (40%) of the total fund. Rest fund

(60%) will be released after the final technical report submission.

Format for fund request

(Fund request for initial

installment)

Date:

To

Senior Agriculture Development Officer District

Agriculture Development Office

……………………

Subject: Request for fund release

Dear Sir,

As per the contract agreement dated on day/month/year between District Agriculture

Development Office,…………..and myself (Facilitator). I would like to request to release

first installment (40%) according to contract document. It will be supportive for conducting

FFS on quality seed production on cereals/vegetables and to conduct proposed activities in

stipulated time. I hereby submitted supportive documents (FFS facilitator certificate,

citizenship & contract documents) for your kind reference.

Hope to have your kind cooperation. Sincerely,

………………………………. Name:

Address

Contact no.



(Fund request for final installment)

Date:

To

Senior Agriculture Development Officer District

Agriculture Development Office

……………………

Subject: Request for fund release

Dear Sir,

As per the contract agreement dated on day/month/year between District Agriculture

Development Office,…………..and myself (Facilitator). I would like to request to release

final installment (60%) according to contract document. I have completed all the activities

regarding FFS on quality seed production. In addition, I have attached technical as well as

financial report in given format along with this application.

Hope to have your kind cooperation. Sincerely,

………………………………. Name:

Address Contact no.



5.7 TEMPLATE OF CONTRACT AGREEMENT

Contract between

District Agriculture Development Office, .....................

and

Mr........................................................., FFS Facilitator

For Conducting of Farmers’ Field School (FFS) on Quality Seed

Production (Crop:...........)

……………………………..

Day/Month/Year



AGREEMENT FORM

THIS AGREEMENT made on the day of day/month/year, between District Agriculture

Development Office (DADO), (hereinafter ―the first party‖), of the one part, and The

Mr………………………………….FFS facilitator (hereinafter ―the second party‖), of

the other part. The agreement will be eligible for following terms and conditions.

Terms and Conditions

The first party will provide monetary resources as per this agreement.

The crop, and location of Farmers' Field School on Quality Seed Production will be

assigned by first party.

The foundation seed, improved seed and other agricultural inputs will be provided by

first party but second party shall be responsible for payment.

The second party will get 40% fund in advance and rest amount will be released after

the completion of all the activities of FFS and final submission of technical and

financial report.

The second party shall be responsible to conduct the FFS as per guidelines of the

quality seed production.

The selection of participants shall be done with close consultation of DADO and

farming communities by considering the gender and social inclusion.

The second party shall be responsible for full participation of farmers that is not to be

more than 10 % as dropout/absentee.

The special topic in FFS should be conducted more than ten according to problem on

crop growth stages either by facilitator or resource person. This task is the part of

second party.

The second party shall be responsible to set required trials, cup and zoo studies.

The first party shall have authority to manage any disputes, problems and issues in

consultation of Facilitators.

The first party shall have authority to break contract if facilitators violates prevailing

rules, regulation and the standard norms of FFS on quality seed production.

Mr……………………………..

Senior Agriculture Development Officer,

District Agriculture Development Office,

……. Date:

Mr……………………………..

Farmers’ Facilitators,

Address:

Signature

Witness (on behalf of DADO)

Signed by

Mr.

Witness (on behalf of farmer)

Signed by



CHAPTER VI: SPECIAL TOPICS AND EXERCISES

6.1. GROUP GOVERNANCE

What is governance?

“Governance” means the process of decision making and the process by which decisions are

implemented (or not implemented). In terms of the farmers group governance is a process

through which executive body, guides the group in fulfilling its mission and protects the

group's assets over time.

There are two aspects of governance. A technical aspect consisting of what and how to do

something (or not to do), and a representational aspect that is how decisions are taken and

who takes them.

Effective governance occurs when the executive body provides proper policies and guidance

to the group regarding the strategic direction for the organization, and oversees groups efforts

to move in this direction.

Governance is “good” when it ensures that decisions and organizational priorities are based

on a broader consensus in the executive body, and that the voices of all are heard in decision

making over allocation of resources.

What is good governance?

Good governance is about making good policy choices and good execution of these policies

for the benefit of the smallholder farmers in each respective country. Good governance is not

about making correct decisions, but about the best possible process for making those

decisions. Good governance entails full respect of human rights, the rule of law, effective

participation, multi-actor partnerships, transparent and accountable processes and institutions,

legitimacy, access to knowledge, information and education, empowerment of people, equity,

sustainability, and attitudes and values that foster responsibility, solidarity and tolerance

among smallholder farmers.

The executive body should always adhere to good governance principles when making

various decisions. The reason for this is because it assures:

the views of smallholder farmers are taken into account and corruption is minimized

that the voices of smallholder farmers are taken into consideration in all decision

making processes

Principles of Good Governance

The facilitator should explain basic principles of good governance and let participants suggest

practical ways of incorporating good governance principles in the work of the respective

farmers groups.

Good governance is concerned with the establishment of an appropriate legal, economic and

institutional environment that would facilitate and allow farmers group to grow, thrive and

survive as institutions for empowering smallholder farmers

According to UNDP, good governance has 8 major characteristics:

Participation

Rule of law



Transparency

Responsiveness

Consensus oriented

Equity and inclusiveness

Effectiveness and efficiency

Accountability

6.2 MOIST CHAMBERS

Direct isolation of fungi is often more effective if the natural substrate has been kept moist for

one to several weeks to allow moulds to grow and speculate. The easiest method involves a

container called a moist chamber. Moist chambers can take any number of forms, but are

basically containers holding a material such as cotton, paper, cloth, sterile sand or soil, or peat

moss that can be kept moist for several weeks. The specimen is placed on top of the moist

material and left until moulds begin to grow on it. We can use glass containers resembling

very deep Petri dishes, and like Petri dishes they have loosely fitting lids or, to save washing,

clear plastic food grade containers with snap lids. For the packing material we nearly always

use peat moss, collected in the field and dried for later use. The moist chamber container is

part filled with moistened peat moss. Peat moss is like a sponge in that it can absorb and hold

a tremendous amount of water. When water is added to the moist chamber it soaks up into the

moss. The excess can be poured off and the moss squashed down until it forms a moist layer

no deeper than about one-quarter of the height of the container. We then place a single or

double layer of filter paper or paper towel over the moss layer so that the specimen does not

come in contact with it. Thus prepared, the moist chamber is ready for the specimen.

When we are ready to add the specimen, moisten it slightly (unless it is already damp) and

place it on top of the filter paper. Cover the dish and leave it in a place where the temperature

is reasonably constant.

Within a few days moulds will begin to appear on the specimen.

Moist chambers can be used for all kinds of materials. We have used them to compare the

growth of fungi in the certified seeds and farmer stored seed. Moist chambers are also useful

in mycological "detective work", to discover the cause of a particular decay. Placing the

decayed material in a moist chamber often will result in abundant sporulation of the guilty

organism in the area affected. This technique works well with diseased plant material as well

as manufactured products.

With very small specimens, such as insect parts or seeds, it may be easier to use a Petri dish

as a moist chamber. We sometimes simply put a few layers of filter-paper in a Petri dish,

moisten them, and put the specimen on top. Such moist chambers may dry out very easily,

however, and have to be tended closely.

Exercise

Each small group shall prepare one moisture chamber each

Collect natural substrate for each chamber (each group may select different substrate

Put the specimen inside the chamber

Water them



Keep in a safe place.

Observe each say

Present the findings in FFS group

6.3 SUSTAINABLE LAND MANAGEMENT AND CLIMATE SMART

AGRICULTURE

Most people depend on rain-fed agriculture. However seasons are changing because of

climate change. Current and past trends indicate that the ti mi ng of rainfall now varies

considerably. The effect is declining yields, increase in disease and pest incidences, new

disease transmissions and changes in the crop calendars, high and inacceptable levels of

pesticides in food products, landslides, storms, changes in insect life cycle phenology

increased generations of virus infection periods.

Priority of sustainable land management

Terraces, soils and water conservation, contour and grass bands, conservation agriculture,

agroforestry, rain water harvesting at household and farm level and rehabilitation of

degraded water sheds.

Contour

bands. It is a traditional and low cost methods of soil conservation, most suitable for sloping land. It

promotes water retentions and helps prevent erosion. The benefits of contour bands are,

Control soil erosion,

Promotes water retention,

Increase crop production,

Less damage to land and down slope.

Conservation

agriculture Primary principles of conservation tillage are;

Minimize tillage or soils disturbance,

Maximize soil cover,

Rotate cereals with legumes.

Secondary principles include

Farmers to establish permanent planting zones/ basins,

Control weeds with minimum use of the hoe and herbicide use.



Challenges of confronting agriculture in Nepal Heavy storms and land slides

Flood

Drought

Changes in life cycles, flight periods, phenology

Increased generations & virus infection periods

Options for minimizing impacts of

climate change

1. Sustainable Land Management (SLM)

This is the use of land resources for production of goods to meet human needs while

ensuring maintenance or improvement of the productive potential of the resources &

environmental functionality.

2. Climate Smart Agriculture Climate smart agriculture is one of the sustainable land management approaches through

which farmers can adapt to climate change in order to be able to continue producing

sustainably.

What should be done to minimize impact of climate change/variability? • Prevent, mitigate and rehabilitate land degradation

• Conserve & improve biodiversity

• Increase resilience to climate variation & change

• Improve plant management;

• Improve soil and nutrient management;

• Improve rainwater management;

• Reduced GHG emissions; and

• Reduced vulnerability to storms, floods and drought Ways in which farmers can sustainably manage their land include; a. Soil & water conservation • Contour bunds • Grass bunds b. Conservation agriculture c. Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) d. Agroforestry

e. Agronomic/ vegetative practices (Mulching, cover crops, etc) f) Rain water harvesting Soil and water conservation Technical solutions

Using Permanent Planting Basins

Minimizing unnecessary soil disturbance – turning and churning.

Dry season land preparation enables early planting

Minimum -Tillage options harvest early rainfall on fields and within Planting Basins.



Enables precise measurement and targeting of organic and inorganic nutrients.

Reduces top soil and nutrient loss from storm flow.

Breaks compact layers allowing infiltration of rain.

Gradually improves physical and chemical properties of soil in planting zones

Reduces overall labor inputs and peak labor requirements

Increases returns to on-farm and purchase inputs and profits

Enhances resilience of crops to dry spells and temporary droughts

Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM):

It aims at managing soil by combining different methods of soil fertility amendment with

soil and water conservation. ISFM is an ideal approach for regions with low and rapidly

declining soil fertility. It is based on 3 principles:

(1) Maximizing the use of organic sources of fertilizer;

(2) Minimizing the loss of nutrients;

(3) Judiciously using inorganic fertilizer according to needs and economic availability.

Agro-forestry

It is an activity that combines production of crops (or pastures) and trees on the same plot

of land, giving short term benefits from crop yields and long-ter m production by trees

(for example timber and services).

Benefits of agro-forestry

Control runoff and soil erosion, thereby reducing losses of water, soil, and nutrients.

Maintain soil organic matter and biological activity at levels satisfactory for soil

fertility.

Maintain more favourable soil physical properties

Lead to more closed nutrient cycling than agriculture and hence to more efficient

use of nutrients.

Utilize solar energy more efficiently than monocultural systems.

Lead to reduced insect pests and associated diseases.

Agronomic/ vegetative practices Agronomic practices are steps farmers incorporate into their farm management

systems to improve soil quality, enhance water use, manage crop residue and

i m prove the environment through better fertilizer management. Include timely

planting, proper spacing, weed control, fertiliser application, soil and water conservation,

proper plant populations

Rain water harvesting for domestic and farm use



Roof top water harvesting

Road runoff water harvesting using diversion channels

Small scale irrigation

6.4 PRA TOOL: PAIR WISE RANKING

A pair-wise ranking is a PRA tool that helps your group compare many things against one

another. The pair-wise ranking is most often used to determine priorities when you have

many to choose from. Here’s how to do it: Step 1: Ask the FFS group to list the five to ten most important problems they face in

creating a livelihood from their farms. Step 2: Make a table like the one shown below. Create a row for each problem. (You

probably should have no more than 10 rows!) Remember to leave the top row blank at first

because you will use it in the next step.

problem

1 Markets

2 Capital

3 Fertility

4 Disease

5 Pests

Step 3: In the same order, list the problems in each column at the top of the table. (The

problem may be “decreasing soil fertility” but you can write just “soil” or “fertility.”)

Problem Markets Capital Fertility Disease Pests

1 Markets

2 Capital

3 Fertility

4 Disease

5 Pests

Step 4: Now find where the name of the same problems intersect on the chart.

Make a big cross or X through these boxes in your table. (In the sample below these are

indicated with black boxes.) Also make Xs in all the boxes that are below these intersecting

boxes.



Problem Markets Capital Fertility Disease Pests

1 Markets X

2 Capital X X

3 Fertility X X XX

4 Disease X X X XX

5 Pests X X X X X



Step 5: Now you can begin the pair-wise ranking with your group. Start by looking at the

problem in the first row. In the example below it is “markets”. Move your finger to

where “markets” falls under a column with a different problem. In the example below

it is “capital”. Step 6: Now have the group discuss which is a more difficult or pressing problem for them:

access to markets or access to capital. The group may quickly reach consensus. If

not, after an appropriate amount of time, ask the group to vote. Step 7: Write the name of the problem selected as the most important in the box where they

intersect. Step 8: Continue in this way until you have filled in all the available boxes.

Step 9: Count up the number of times each problem is written in a box. The problem with

the biggest number is the group’s highest priority problem. Step 10: If any two problems have the same number of votes, refer back to the decision made

when the two were discussed together. The one chosen in that instance should be

considered the highest priority. However, it may be a good idea for the group to

discuss the two problems again and confirm or change its decision.

Sample output of a pair-wise ranking process

problem

Market

Capital

Fertility

Disease

Pests

Score Rank

1

Markets

X

market

market

disease

pests

2

3rd

2

Capital

X

X

capital

disease

pests

1

4th

3

Fertility

X

X

X

disease

pests

0

5th

4

Disease

X

X

X

X

pests

3

2nd

5

Pests

X

X

X

4 1st

What the sample pair-wise ranking chart tells us:

• In the example above a group of farmers identified the following problems:

access to markets

access to capital

loss of soil fertility

plant diseases insect pests

• This FFS feels that insect pests are the most important challenge it wants to deal with.

• Soil fertility is not such a big problem for these farmers, at least compared to other issues.



6.5 CONTROL OF PLANT DISEASE AND INSECTS THROUGH LOCAL HERBS

Collect local herbs and materials from among the lists provided hereunder and ask the

participants to prepare the insecticides as indicated in the following table. Discuss what other

actions such herbs have and their abundance in the community. What are other uses of such

plants?

Local materials for plant protection (Option for chemical pesticides)

S.N. Materials Used portion and

method For what?

1 Castor Oilseed cake Termites and other insects

2 Asuro Mulching with leaf

and twigs

White grub, root and stem

base cutters etc

3 Yellow karbir Root, stem leaves,

flowers Rodent control

4 Camphor Camphor Insect repellant

5 Red chilli Powder Controls aphids

6 Chrysanthemum Fruit extract Controls various insects

7 Chiuri Oilseed cake Termite, Red ant, White

grub

8 Timmur Flower Insect Repellant

9 Titepati Flower powder or

juice Insect repellant

10 Sesame Seed Ingredient for insecticide

11 Holy balsam

(Tulsi) Leaf extract

Leaf cutting insects of

citrus

12 Tobacco Leaf Effective against Aphids

and other insects

13 Bojo Corm and root

powder

Insect repallant and used as

contact poison

14 Eucalyptus Leaf Insect repellant

15 Black pepper Seed oil Can be used for red worm

16 Fenugreek Seed Insect repellant and also

used as insecticide

17 Papaya Leaf Insect repellant

18 Garlic globe Insect repellant

19 Crysenthum Leaves and stem Insect repellant

20 Crab apple Leaves and flower

and seeds Can be used as insecticide

21 Nettle (sisnu) Leaf and stem Controls many harmful

insects

22 Neem Flowrer, seed cake

and leaf extract Controls stored grain pests

23 Bethe Whole plant Insect repellant

24 Bakaino Brance, fruits and oil Insect repellant and also

used as insecticide

25 Cow/buffalo urine Hang on jute bag Attracts rice plant hopper

Collect local materials available in the community and identify their plant parts

Select parts used for preparing insecticides/repellants



Use these insecticides/repellants in demonstration plots

Observe their effects and compare with the plots that are not used

6.6 GENDER MATRIX ANALYSIS

During the conduction of FFS on quality seed production, gender participation

will be focused. Analysis of gender participation in whole seed value chain will

be done as mentioned below during the preparatory meeting for farmers'

selection.

Gender matrix analysis sheet.

S.N.

Activities

Gender Participation (%)

Male Female

A Pre-Sowing

1 Plot selection, area

2 Crop and Variety selection

3 When to sow

4 Composting/Fertilization

6 Seed bed preparation

B Sowing/Transplanting to Harvesting

1 Main field preparation

2 Crop planting

3 Weeding

4 Irrigation

5 Fertilization

6 Plant protection measures

7 Rouging

8 Field inspection

9 Harvesting

C Post harvesting

1 Threshing

2 Processing

3 Storage

4 Marketing

5 Cash handling

6 Decision for cash expenses

Discuss in the group various role of men and women in seed production, processing, storage

and marketing.

6.7 SEED MARKETING APPROACHES FOR THE SUSTAINABLE SEED SUPPLY

SYSTEM:

Focus Approach



Assure seed producers and buyers for

sustainable seed marketing

Pre-sowing/harvest seed contract-- assures

both the seed sellers and buyers in seed

marketing (supply, demand, price etc.).

Encourage farmers to sell maximum

possible quantity of seed

Establishment of seed revolving fund at

Group/Cooperative-- increase seed holding

capacity of farmer- i.e. not to dispose seed

immediately after the harvest when the prices

are very low.

Enable seed producers to get

sustainable best possible returns

Supply of reliable market information on time

to DADOs, Private sectors, VDC and media.

Reduce price difference between seed

producer and buyer

Increase market efficiency (short market chain

…)

Seed quality assurance Truthful labeling (Breeder- Source- Label-

Improved Seed) and ensured seed tracking system

Make seed business a sustainable

enterprise

Support for market infrastructures, and enabling

environment (seed policies …)

6.8 SOIL TEXTURE DETERMINATION

The texture of a soil is directly related to many important aspects of fertility: e.g., the

ability of a soil to absorb and retain water, to hold plant nutrients, and directly affects the

ability of roots to develop and move through the soil.

Soils with a lot of clay are said to be ―heavy soils and tend to hold a lot of water, which tends to move slowly.

Soils with a lot of sand are considered ―light soils, and tend to hold very little water, unless they also contain a lot of organic matter.

Water infiltration (movement) in sandy soils tends to be very

rapid.

Objective: To let know the farmer about the soil type, thereby, water holding capacity of soil.

Procedure: 1. Hold approximately 25g (about half a fistful) of dry soil in your palm. Look at it

carefully to see if it is very loose and single-grained (probably sandy), or if it has numerous hard lumps or clods that are difficult to break when dry (probably clay), or something in-between.

2. Add water drop-by-drop and knead the soil in your hand, breaking down any lumps,

until the soil is plastic and moldable. Next, squeeze the soil tightly in your hand, then

open your hand. If the soil fails to form a ball when you do this, but instead falls apart

when released, then it is a sandy soil. (If you think you may have added too much

water, add a little dry soil and try again).



3. Rub some of the soil around with the forefinger of your other hand and determine

whether the feeling is one mostly of grittiness, or mostly of smoothness. There will

almost always be some grittiness to the soil, but try to identify the predominate

feeling.

4. If the soil forms a ball, roll the ball between your hands or on a clean flat surface to

form a cylinder, and then try to bend the cylinder in a circle to form a ring. Note the

following characteristics:

a) if the soil is SANDY (more than 70% sand) you will not be able to form a cylinder

more than 5 cm long and 1.5 cm in diameter, it will not form a ring, and it will have many

cracks in it and fall apart.

b) if the soil is HEAVY CLAY (more than 40% clay), your sample will form easily into a

smooth cylinder around 10 - 15 cm long and about 0.5 cm in diameter, with no cracks or

fissures in the side. c) If the soil is a type of LOAM, you will be able to form a cylinder 10-15 cm in diameter and to form a ring, but the ring will have many cracks in the outer edge.



Schematic diagram to know the soil type:



6.9 SOIL WATER-HOLDING CAPACITY DETERMINATION

Introduction A clearly important characteristic of a soil is its ability to hold water. One problem with a coarse sandy soil is that water (and nutrients) are rapidly lost from the soil. One of the important qualities of Soil Organic Matter is that it helps to retain water. To demonstrate this to farmers is a simple exercise that should help promote the use of compost and mulch for farmers. Soil pores play a major role in water and air movement. Also, soil microorganisms reside in

pores. Coarse-textured (sandy) soils have less total pore space (higher ―bulk density‖) than do

fine-textured (clay) soils (35% to 50% for sandy versus 40% to 60% for clay). The size of the

pores, however, is just as important as the total quantity of pore space. Two classes of pre

sizes are recognized: macropores and micropores. The minimum diameter of a macropore is

considered to be between 30 and 100 microns (recall 1 micron is 10-6 mm or the size of a

bacteria). Pores smaller than this are considered micropores. Macropores characteristically

allow the rapid movement of soil gases and soil water. Sandy soils have less total pore space,

but those spaces are mostly macropores; thus, sandy soils usually drain rapidly. In contrast,

clayey soils have more total pore space, but these spaces are mostly micropores and drain

more slowly. Thus, sandy soils have a relatively low water-holding capacity and clayey soils

relatively high water-holding capacity.

When a soil is saturated with water and the water is allowed to drain freely, the water drains

only from the soil macropores. This is ―gravitational water‖ and is of little use to plants

because it reduces soil aeration. When the macropores have drained, now the soil is at ―field

capacity‖. Most soil micropores are still full of water, which is available for plant growth.

When a plant uses all of this water and the micropores are empty, almost all water remaining

in the soil is hygroscopic water, that is, water that is bound too tightly to the soil solids for

plants to use. At this point, plants permanently wilt and do not recover, even when water is

added. This is the permanent wilting point.

Objective: To learn how to measure the differences in the capacity of different soils to retain moisture.

Time required

60 minutes Materials:

For each small group: plastic 1 Liter water bottles (mineral water bottle) pieces of cotton cloth rubber bands a strong thread (twine) sharp knife permanent marker clear plastic cups or glasses balance scale

Procedure:



a) Initially, take a quantity of soil and spread it out on a plastic sheet in the sun to let it air

dry for a day or two or under a fan for several hours. Collect soils from three locations: a)

poor and sandy soil, b) local farm soil c) compost or soil rich in organic matter.

b) Cut the bottom of each of the plastic water bottles. Turn bottles upside-down and put the

loose-weave square of cloth into the neck area of the bottle from the inside, or tie the cloth

over the top of the bottle with a rubber band or twine.

c) Weigh out a fixed amount of soil for each bottle (somewhere between 300 to 600 gm) of

each type of soil and place it in the inverted bottles

d) Suspend inverted bottle above plastic cups (hanging by twine from pole).

e) Take a plastic cup and fill it full of water; then add it to the soil in each bottle.

f) Do some other activity and return when water has passed completely through all samples.

If one of the bottles has absorbed all the water, but none has passed through into the cup,

you will need to add water, the same to each of all three samples (in order to be able to

compare the results at the end).

g) After all samples have drained completely, line up the cups side-by-side and compare the

results.

Diagrammatic sketch of the procedure:

Sample A

A B C

Samples with different levels of water



Questions for discussion: 1. Which of the soils holds the most water? 2. Are there any differences in the color of the water? What does this indicate? 3. What factors do you think are responsible for holding more or less water?

4. Why is water-holding capacity important? 5. Is there a relationship between water-holding capacity and structure? 6. How can you best improve the water-holding capacity of your soil?



6.10. PLANT NUTRITION MANAGEMENT AND EXERCISE

Soil nutrient content

Generally, plants acquire the nutrients from

atmosphere and soil. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen is

provided from atmosphere and the nutrients received

from the soil are mentioned below:

Macro and

micronutrients Macronutrients are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)

and potassium (K). These are nutrients that all plants need in relatively large amounts.

Micronutrients are just as essential for plant

growth, but required in smaller quantities than N,

P, and K. Micronutrients include calcium,

sulfur,

magnesium, boron, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, zinc, and chlorine.

Organic material usually contains both the macronutrients N, P and K and

micronutrients. Because they are needed only in small quantities,

micronutrients should be applied only when a clear deficiency is indicated.

Objective: To know the capillary movement of plant nutrients from soil to plant parts.

Materials: Weeds, crop plants, color dye, sharp blade, water glass of equal size, water

Time required : 1 hour

Procedure: Collect weeds, crop plant representing broad/narrow leaf/succulent types, from the

nearby field along with roots. Care should be taken that the plants are not physically damaged. All the sub groups (N=5) will collect different types of plant (broad leaved, narrow leaf, succulent etc). Pour equal amount of red dye colored water in five glasses. Now, ask the group members to put the plants dipped with root in the glass. Let the plants part i.e. root in the water and remaining plant parts above the water. Leave the experiments for about half an hour.

In this period discuss with the participants on types of weed and their effect on crop

production? Translocation of nutrients by weeds in the crop field?

After half an hour: you can see the red dyed water translocation certain level of plant

parts. Measure the height of the movement made by red dyed water.



Similarly, if the movement mark is not observed. Cut the plant stem/parts for observing the red dyed water translocation.

Question and discussion:

Comparison of translocation of red dyed water (height) in succulent and hard stem types of plant?

How the systemic pesticides translocate in the plant system?

6.11 PESTS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT PRACTICES WITH EXERCISE Pests: Any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or

plant products is called pests. An animal can also be a pest when it causes damage to a

wild ecosystem or carries germs. It includes insects, animals (rats, rabbits, monkey),

diseases (fungi, bacteria, nematode, virus), and weeds. Conducting small experiments in the FFS

When conducting the experiments in the FFS, participants can involve from the beginning,

known the objectives, procedures, their activities according to crop growth stage and

environment, then analysis between the objects and get the result. Such studies will help

to learn about the biology of animals or insects. Life cycles, egg laying, feeding nature,

choice of food, damage symptom and behavior can learned directly through the process of

rearing insects and natural enemies which found in the agro-ecosystem. types of

experiments can conduct in the FFS and namely cup and zoo.

Insect and natural enemies can rear in many ways. Parasitoids can collect from the

host by collecting eggs, mature larva, and pupae from field and placing in the container

same to field. Put the collected specimen in transparent plastic pot covering by the net and

bind by rubber band. If the specimen is parasitized a small wasp may emerge.

Food for thought: I hear I forgot

I see and I can remember, I do and I

understand

I discover and I won



Another experiment can set putting some hoppers and spider in the plastic pot but setting as

same like field .Then analyzed how many hoppers can eat per day and helps to reduce their

population in the field. We can compare the feeding ratio of jumping spider and the netting spider to hoppers. Such

type of small experiment is assigned individually in different nature of insects then

sharing the result in the group from where a lot of results of exper iment can get within a

short period. Learning

objectives

1. Observe predation habits of natural enemies and parasitation

2. Observe life cycle of herbivores, natural enemies and neutral

3. Observe infection rate of pathogens on hervivores and plants

4. Observe the feeding rate of natural enemies per day and insect type

When this exercise is appropriate?

When the participants found such insects during the field observation can put in

the cup for studies.

During field observation, or presentation of AESA How long will the exercise take time: 1 hour

Requires 30 minutes to set up the experiment

Observe and take care off

Materials Wheat/Rice /Vegetable crops, plastic bags, rubber band, mesh clothes, cotton wool,

and scotch, scissor, aspirator, bamboo stick and aspirator

Procedures 1. Introduce the idea of doing small in the field site.

2. Ask to the small group, what to study decide it with discussion

3. Each group should follow the rearing procedures, observation recording of events.

4. Take time to discuss the result in the big group

Rearing methods a. Bottle and plastic bags: useful rearing tool for eggs, larvae and nymphs, a piece of netting

should in the mouth of the bottle and plastic bags. b. Simple cages: Can make by using waste transparent plastic or glass bottle where put the

leaves, stems, insects and cover with netting. c. Field cages: Such type of cage can made using large plastic bags or net by using bamboo

sticks. It can use for the study of hoppers, insects and damage of large larvae in rice. d. Potted plant and cages: It is useful especially for demonstration, exhibition

and damage symptoms of insects, life cycle or disease progress. The plant is either grows or transplanted.



Leading questions for discussion 1. What are the objectives of your study?

2. How did you set your study?

3. What do you observed in your cage?

4. What conclusion can you draw from the observation?

5. How you can apply this conclusion to the main field?

6. When you do set such learning studies in the FFS?

Exercise on Rat population growth

Introduction

Rats are an important pest of standing crops and storage (Wheat, Rice, Maize, etc.).

They decrease the quality of the seed due to urine and excreta. Disturbance of habitat, optimum temperature, waste land and food availabity favors to

increase in population. Any pest in small numbers does not hamper but its large

population ultimately hampers (cross economic threshold level). So, we should know the population dynamics of rat. Its population very increases

rapidly. They can live one year or longer. Generally female produces four times a year and six off springs in a litter and the sex ratio is equal in number.

Calculate how many number of rats in a

year? Objectives

To show the population growth of rat in several months using maize seeds

To know how many rats are in the field and how we can manage them?

When? Milking to dough stage

Materials 2050 Maize seeds, brown paper, scissor, marker, glue stick

Time 30- 45 minutes

Procedures:

1. Firstly, put 2 seeds in a paper. One seed represents male and the other represents female.

2. In the first month, they produce 6 off-springs and equal number of sex. Put the

seed accordingly.

3. In fourth months, parents and offspring give birth. Put 6 seeds for 6 off-springs

from the original parents and add 18 seeds for 3 females in the first month (3

females times 6 off-springs).

4. In seventh month, 6 seeds for 6 offsprings from the original parents and add 18

seeds for 3 females in the first month. Add 72(12 females with 6 offsprings each)

for offspring for female in the fourth month.

5. Similarly, put the seeds after tenth and thirteenth months also.

6. Then calculate how many number of rats in total in thirteenth month?



Total rats by month: 1

st month=6

4th

month=24 7th

month=96 10

th month=382

13th

month=1536 Total=2046

Result

1. How many rats population in a year from one pair? 2. If half of the population dies in the seventh month then how many rats will be in the

tenth and thirteenth month?

3. If there is 10 female in the first month, then how many rat were in the 13th

month?

4. How many rats are left to produce in the field? Factors affecting the rat population:

Flood, drought, temperature, cultivation practices, field sanitation, natural enemies, food and disturbance decrease the rat population.

Questions for discussion:

1. Why it is necessary to understand the factors affecting the rat population?

2. Where do rats live after the harvest of the crops ? 3. Which animals eat the rat? 4. How sanitation, flood, drought affects the rat population? 5. Does early or late planting affects the rat population?

6.12. EXERCISE ON SEED GERMINATION TEST ON HUMIDITY BOXES.

Seed is the foundation of any crop. It must be grown, harvested, and processed correctly for best yield and quality results. Sowing good quality seeds leads to lower seed rate, better emergence (>70%), more uniformity, less replanting, and vigorous early growth which helps to increase resistance to insects and diseases, and decrease weeds. As a result, yield can increase by 5−20%. A simple and versatile germinator consists of a number of transparent plastic boxes with lids,

which can be stacked one upon another. Robbins (1984) describes the ideal container as being

(1) rectangular and stackable, for economony of space; (2) large enough for adequate spacing

of at least one replicate of seeds (100, 50 or 25 seeds, depending on seed size); (3)

sufficiently deep to allow for the required substrate depth and to permit development of the

seedling for proper assessment; (4) provided with a well-fitting lid, to maintain a high

moisture content of the substrate and surrounding air; (5) easy to sterilize by heat or chemical

treatment; (6) transparent (at least the lid), to allow light if required for germination and

subsequent development of the seedlings.

Any of the common substrates e.g. filter paper, sand, may be used. By adding a suitable

quantity of water to the substrate at the beginning of the test and then keeping the boxes

covered with their lids at all times except during assessment and removal of seedlings, it is

possible to maintain a high and constant moisture content in the substrate and the air inside

the boxes, without the need for further additions of water or for control of humidity in the

atmosphere outside the boxes. They can be stored in ambient room conditions of temperature



and light. The closed boxes should provide optimum humidity conditions for the germinating

seeds.

A germination test determines the percentage of seeds that are

alive in any seed lot. The level of germination in association with

seed vigor provides a very good estimate of the potential

field performance.

Factors affecting the seed

germination:

Immature seeds No good storage High moisture content in the seed Damaged by insects/pathogens. Poor moisture during germination

Why is measuring germination important?

A germination test is often the only test a farmer can conduct on the seed to determine if it

is suitable for planting. When seed is stored in traditional open systems, the germination

rate of most seed begins to deteriorate rapidly after six months. Also, many varieties

have a dormancy period immediately after harvest that can last for 1-2 months. By

knowing the germination rate, farmers can adjust their planting rates to attain the desired

plant population in the field. How to measure germination?

Sampli

ng To obtain a random sample for testing, it is always best to take samples from different parts of the bag or container. If the seed to be tested is contained in more than one bag, a sample must be taken from several bags. A good rule of thumb for determining how many bags to sample is to take samples from a number of bags that represents the square root of the lot size. For example, if the lot contains nine bags, then sample at least three bags. If the lot contains 100 bags, then get sample from at least 10 bags.

Objective

s: To know the germination percentage of seeds To examine the germination percentage of seed using different sub-strata.

When? Before nursery establishment for nursery crop and before sowing for direct sowing crops

Time 45 minutes -1 hour

Materials: Waterproof tray. A flat-sided water bottle cut in half lengthwise makes a good

tray or a Plastic tray, jute bags. Water-absorbent material. Tissues or cotton wool are ideal.

Seeds

Water supply

Procedure



Place the water-absorbent material inside the waterproof tray. Take random samples from each seed lot and mix those in a container Take at least three seed samples from the mixed grain. Count out 100 seeds from each sample and place on absorbent material inside the

tray. Carefully saturate the absorbent material For each of 10 days, check to see that the absorbent material remains moist and

record the number of germinated seeds. Compute germination test after five days, and another after ten days. The rate of germination is an indicator of vigor. Rapid seed germination increases the

chance of the seed establishing in the field.

Calculating the germination rate

Germination rate is the average number of seeds that germinate over the 5- and 10-

day periods.

For example, If 86 seeds germinated in a tray of 100 seeds after 10 days, then

Result

1. How many seeds were germinated?

2. Is germination percentage more than 80%? 3. What may be the causes for less germination and how we improve it? 4. Is it necessary to practice in our crop also? 5. Which medium is appropriate to test our crop for germination and why?

Questions for discussion:

1. Why it is necessary to understand ?

2. When germination test done better, after harvest the crop or before sowing ? 3. Which media can use to test for germination? 4. How many seeds to put for test? 5. Can we identify the disease during the germination?



6.13. IMPROVED COMPOST PREPARATION

Compost can be prepared from a wide range of organic materials including dead plant

material such as crop residues, weeds, forest litter, and kitchen waste. Compost making is an

efficient way of converting all kinds of biomass into high value fertiliser that serves as a good

alternative to farmyard manure, especially for crop-growing households without livestock.

The compost is often mixed with forest soil, ripe compost from the previous batch, or even a

small amount of animal dung as a starter for the decomposition process. The mix of

materials determines the quality of the final compost as much as the management of the

composting process. Nitrogen-rich fresh materials such as legume residues and many types

of weeds and shrubs are mixed with carbon-rich forest litter and cereal residues. Small

amounts of wood ash, lime, or mineral fertiliser can help increase or balance the overall

nutrient content of the compost.

The compost needs to be turned every 30-50 days depending on the mix and the outside

temperature. It should be protected from direct sunlight, rainfall and runoff so as to reduce

volatilisation and leaching of nutrients. The material must remain moist at all times to

avoid slowing down decomposition and hindering the efficiency of the micro and macro-

organisms involved in decomposition. Heaping the compost or collecting the material in a

pit helps the compost to reach the temperatures needed (700C) to destroy pests and weeds.

Once the compost is well decomposed and has an earthy smell, it can be applied directly or

stored for later application. It can be applied as a crop fertiliser in rows or to individual plants

for improving general soil fertility and organic matter content, thus improving the soil

structure and its water holding capacity.

Technical drawing

Layering of the different materials in a compost pit

Note: This is just an example and need not be followed exactly. The important aspects

are:

the need for a starter such as forest soil or manure

place weeds in the centre of the pit so that they are fully decomposed

cover dry materials with moist material and material that only decays

slowly with easily decaying material.

The pit can be 1 to 2m in diameter and about 1m deep.

The size depends on the available biomass for composting and the amount of

compost required.



CHAPTER VII: ICE BREAK AND ENERGIZERS

1. The Little Known Fact: ask participants to share their name, department or role in the

organization, length of service, and one little known fact about themselves.

This "little known fact" becomes a humanizing element that can help break down differences

such as grade/status in future interaction.

2. True or False: ask your participants to introduce themselves and make three or four

statements about themselves, one of which is false. Now get the rest of the group to vote

on which fact is false.

As well as getting to know each other as individuals, this exercise helps to start interaction

within the group.

3. Interviews: ask participants to get into twos. Each person then interviews his or her

partner for a set time while paired up. When the group reconvenes, each person introduces

their interviewee to the rest of the group.

4. Problem Solvers: ask participants to work in small groups. Create a simple problem

scenario for them to work on in a short time. Once the group have analyzed the problem

and prepared their feedback, ask each group in turn to present their analysis and solutions

to the wider group.

Tip:

Choose a fairly simple scenario that everyone can contribute to. The idea is not to solve a real

problem but to "warm up" the group for further interaction or problem solving later in the

event. The group will also learn each other's styles of problem-solving and interaction.

5. The Human Web: this focuses on how people in the group inter-relate and depend on

each other.

The facilitator begins with a ball of yarn. Keeping one end, pass the ball to one of the

participants, and the person to introduce him- or her-self and their role in the organization.

Once this person has made their introduction, ask him or her to pass the ball of yarn on to

another person in the group. The person handing over the ball must describe how he/she

relates (or expects to relate) to the other person. The process continues until everyone is

introduced.

To emphasis the interdependencies amongst the team, the facilitator then pulls on the starting

thread and everyone's hand should move.

6. Ball Challenge: this exercise creates a simple, timed challenge for the team to help focus

on shared goals, and also encourages people to include other people.

The facilitator arranges the group in a circle and asks each person to throw the ball across the

circle, first announcing his or her own name, and then announcing the name of the person to

whom they are throwing the ball. (The first few times, each person throws the ball to



someone whose name they already know.) When every person in the group has thrown the

ball at least once, it's time to set the challenge – to pass the ball around all group members as

quickly as possible. Time the process, then ask the group to beat that timing. As the challenge

progresses, the team will improve their process, for example by standing closer together. And

so the group will learn to work as a team.

7. Hope, Fears and Expectations: best done when participants already have a good

understanding of their challenge as a team. Group people into twos or threes, and ask

people to discuss their expectations for the event or work ahead, including their fears and

their hopes. Gather the group's response by collating three to four hopes, fears and

expectations from each pairing or threesome.

8. Word association: this helps people explore the breadth of the area under discussion.

Generate a list of words related to the topic of your event or training. For example, insect

pests control session, ask participants what words or phrases come to mind relating to

"hazardous pesticides." They might then suggest: "Highly dangerous," "medium

dangerous," "relatively safe," "safe" or with red, yellow and blue colour . Write all

suggestions on the board, perhaps clustering by theme. You can use this opportunity to

introduce essential terms and discuss the scope (what's in and what's out) of your training

or event.

9. Burning questions: this gives each person the opportunity to ask key questions they hope

to cover in the event or training. Again you can use this opportunity to discuss key

terminology and scope. Be sure to keep the questions and refer back to them as the event

progresses and concludes.

10. Brainstorm: Brainstorming can be used to break the ice or as a re-energizer during an

event. If people are getting bogged down in the detail during problem solving, for

example, you can change pace easily by running a quick-fire brainstorming session. If

you are looking for answers to customer service problems, try brainstorming how to

create problems rather than solve them. This can help people think creatively again and

gives the group a boost when energy levels are flagging.

https://www.mindtools.com/brainstm.html

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