Final Exam ReviewBeginning Writing

SENTENCEHas a subject and a verbExpresses a complete thought (does not need

any help making sense on its own)

Example: The cat ran up a tree to get away from the dog.

CLAUSES: TWO TYPESA Sentence (aka an Independent Clause):

Has a subject and verbCan stand by itself Expresses a complete thought

Example: The cat ran up the tree.

CLAUSES (cont.)Dependent Clause

Has a subject and verbCannot stand by itself (does not make sense on

its own)because it is an incomplete thought

Example: Although the cat climbed the tree

PHRASESA group of words that function as a unit

Does not contain both a subject and verb

There are many types of phrases:Noun phraseVerb phrasePrepositional phrase

Noun PhraseA group of words functioning as one noun

Example 1 : The cat in the treeExample 2: The black catExample 3: The molded loaf of bread

Verb PhraseA group of words functioning as one verb

Example 1: am learningExample 2: has been sittingExample 3: was running

Prepositional PhraseA group of words that links a sentence’s subject(s)

and verb(s) to other parts of the sentence.It contains a preposition and an object and may

contain modifiersIt locates things in time

Example: in the morningIt positions things in space

Example: by the library, next to the couch, over thereIt indicates direction

Example: Around the corner, to the store, away from here

Examples of Prepositional PhrasesAround the cornerAfter dinnerOn the tableTo the mallIn an hourBefore schoolThrough the doorwayUnder the bedAbove the ground

COMMAS: 4 USESUSE 1: To insert extra information into a sentence

Example 1: Mr. Smith will contact you next week. It’s a simple sentence, but who is Mr Smith? Maybe I should add some

extra information to make it clearer. Mr. Smith, our sales manager, will contact you next week.

Example 2: The woman I spoke to, Alice Wright, said I would receive the information by the end of the week. If we take out the words between the pair of commas, we are left with: The woman I spoke to said I would receive the information by the end of

the week.

COMMAS: CONT.Use 2: to separate two or more sentences

that are joined by a conjunction: Use with coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) to

join 2 or more independent clauses Example: I like swimming in the lake, but I

wouldn’t want to swim in a pond.

Use to separate dependent clauses at the beginning of a sentence from the rest of the sentence Example: After we left the party, we went to eat at

Waffle House.

COMMAS: cont.Use 3: To separate 3 or more items in a series

Example 1: I bought apples, oranges, and bananas at the store.

Example 2: When classes end, I need to finish my Christmas shopping, wrap presents, and pack for my trip.

COMMAS: cont.Use 4: After introductory words and phrases

Example 1: Before dinner, we need to wash our hands.

Example 2: Hey, can you pass the butter?

Example 3: One day, you will understand what I mean when I say “comma splice.”

SemicolonsUse a semicolon between two directly related,

independent clauses Example: Bob is good at math; he plans to study

accounting. Spaghetti is cheap; I buy it a lot. Notice how the second sentence depends on the first

to make sense.Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb

Example: I hired a tutor for my English class; thus, I got an A.

Example: Bob usually gets up at 6:00; however, today he is off work and can sleep in.

Avoiding Run-On SentencesA run on happens when you fuse two or more

independent clauses without the necessary punctuation or coordinators.Example: I worked hard in class I earned a good grade.

s v s v This contains TWO independent clauses (two simple sentences)

with no punctuation or no coordinating conjunction.How to fix it?

Step 1: check for 2 independent clauses Step 2: check that the clauses are separated by a coordinating

conjunction and a comma, or by a semicolon.

Comma SplicesThis occurs when you join two independent

clauses with only a comma and no conjunction. Example: The rain came down hard, we were

soaked. How to fix it?

You may use either a semicolon or a period instead of the comma, OR you can add a coordinating conjunction. But you must do ONE of these. The rain came down hard, and we got soaked.

OR The rain came down hard; we got soaked.

SubordinationWhen using a dependent clause to begin a

sentence, use a comma after the dependent clause (the one that depends on the main clause for its meaning)Ex: After the party was over, we went home to

watch a movie.When using a dependent clause at the end of

a sentence, don’t use a comma.Ex: We went home to watch a movie after the

party was over.

FragmentsA sentence fragment is a group of words that

looks like a sentence and is punctuated like one but is not.

It is a run-on because it is either:Missing a subject or a verbDoes not make a complete statement

Example: Because parents with small children want a car with room for a car seat, a stroller, diaper bags, and toys

Example: For example, the controversy over air bags

Correcting Fragments Step 1: Check to make sure each group of words that looks like a sentence contains a

main subject and a verb—i.e. the sentence has a do-er and a do-ing (who is doing what?)

Step 2: If you find a subject and verb, check to make sure the group of words makes a complete statement.

Beware of sentences that do have a subject and verb but where one of them is not acting as the SENTENCE subject or verb, like so: Example: My neighbor who never closes his dog up at night

This is missing a verb and does not express a complete thought. Revised: My neighbor who never closes his dog up at night is annoying us.

Example: The new policy of health care coverage on the basis of hours worked each week. This is missing a verb. What does the new policy DO? Revised: The new policy provides health care coverage on the basis of

hours worked each week. Be careful!

Verbs in the –ing form (running, throwing, etc.) and the infinitive form (to run, to throw, etc.) can never act alone as the verb in a sentence. They require a helping verb to make the verb complete. Without the helping verb, your sentence will be considered a fragment.

Fragment: The car speeding down the road. Revised: The car was speeding down the road.

If your “sentence” fails either of the above steps, you have a fragment; add the missing components.

ModifiersAdjectives

Describe nouns (people, places or things) green tree tall man Short, chubby dog

AdverbsDescribe verbs or adjectives

Ran quickly Drove erratically Extremely terrifying bear

Subject-Verb AgreementSubjects and verbs must agree in number

Use singular verbs with singular subjects Ex: Nicole runs out of the house every morning

because she’s late. Singular verbs usually have an –s on the end

Use plural verbs with plural subjects Ex: They run with their track team. Plural verbs usually do not have an –s on the end.

Problems with S-V AgreementCollective nouns:

In general, use singular verbs when the subject is a collective noun (one that refers to a group of people acting as a whole) The audience laughs at the comedian. The team plays at home this week. Everyone has his own preferences.

Changed word order: sentences beginning with here or thereThere are crumbs on the floor

From ‘Crumbs are on the floor.’Here are your books and pencils.

From ‘Your books and pencils are here.”

Pronouns and AntecedentsChallenge: his/her or their?

In the following sentences, tell whether you’d use his or her, or their as the antecedent.

Everyone in the store was talking on _____ phone. All of the people in the cooking contest prepared

_____ best dishes. Nobody brought____ coat, even though it was cold

outside. Neither of my cousins wanted to share _____ candy.

PossessivesUse an apostrophe to show ownership

Singular possessive = ’sJust add apostrophe s to the singular form

The rabbit’s fur Mike’s car

Plural possessive = s’First make it plural; then make it possessive:

Student studentsstudents’ books Kidkidskids’ bikes

PluralsExcept in special cases, to make a noun

plural, add –s or –esShoe -> shoesBag -> bagsFlash -> flashes

REMEMBER: ’s and s’ shows ownership -s or -es makes things plural