final exam april 21 and 22 not cumulative 45 percent same format as midterms
TRANSCRIPT
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Final Exam
• April 21 and 22• Not cumulative• 45 percent• Same format as midterms
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Got technical skills?
• Auditory perception lab is looking for computer science or equivalent student with good technical skills
• See me after class
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Next week:
• Read Vokey et al.
• Turn in idea journal Thursday
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Model of Memory
Turning now to Long-Term Memory
Sensory Signals
Sensory Memory
Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory
ATTENTION
REHEARSAL
RETRIEVAL
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Long-Term Memory
• Characteristics (intuitive with some introspection):
– Persists indefinitely (up to decades!)
– Requires no active process of rehearsal (at least that we are conscious of)
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Some Distinctions in LTM
• Endel Tulving: There are two broad categories of information that are represented in LTM -
• Episodic Memory: memory of an event in your life
• autobiographical• has a temporal context - something about time
is encoded along with the memory
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Some Distinctions in LTM
• Endel Tulving: There are two broad categories of information that are represented in LTM -
• Semantic Memory: memory of facts, knowledge of the world
• unconnected to an autobiographical event• no temporal context
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Some Distinctions in LTM
• There is a third category:
• Procedural Memory: memory for actions
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Semantic Memory
• Capacity is huge (unlimited?)
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Semantic Memory
• Structure of encoding is associative
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Semantic Memory
• Structure of encoding is associative– Evidence: Semantic Priming in a Lexical-
Decision Task
• Priming: prior exposure to some stimulus modifies subsequent processing of a target
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Semantic Memory
• Structure of encoding is associative– Evidence: Semantic Priming in a Lexical-
Decision Task
• Lexical Decision Task: Subject is shown a target word or pronounceable non-word (eg. gap or fap) and must respond “word” or “non-word”
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Semantic Memory
• Structure of encoding is associative– Evidence: Semantic Priming in a Lexical-
Decision Task
• manipulation: prime can be either related or unrelated to the target word
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Semantic Memory
• Structure of encoding is associative– Evidence: Semantic Priming in a Lexical-
Decision Task
• result: words are identified faster when preceded by a semantically related prime
Prime + Target= Response
“space” “gap” fast
“truck” “gap” slow
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Semantic Memory
• Structure of encoding is associative– Evidence: Semantic Priming in a Lexical-
Decision Task– Interpretation:
• the representation of information in semantic memory is associative:
• each fact or piece of knowledge is stored along with its relationship to other stored information
• related items can activate each other which facilitates recall
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Episodic Memory
• Memory for an episode or event in your own life
• Has temporal context (entails a sense of duration and date)
• examples:– recall breakfast– what happened this weekend
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Recall is highly sensitive to context - Similarities in context (especially smell) can trigger vivid recollections
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Memory is affected by the nature of your engagement with the information
• Levels-of-Processing Theory
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Memory is affected by the nature of your engagement with the information
• Levels-of-Processing Theory– Consider this experiment:
ListCATpiePILLOWTREE
Method of Learning• stating capitals or lower-case•repeating words• putting words into a sentence
Recall is tested some time later.
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Memory is affected by the nature of your engagement with the information
• Levels-of-Processing Theory– Consider this experiment:
Result:•Best recall with “deep” processing•Worst recall with “surface” processing
ListCATpiePILLOWTREE
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Memory is affected by the nature of your engagement with the information• Interpretation:
– the successful use of memory depends on the number of connections that are made between related items and the degree to which these are initially activated
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• context is critical!– location, physiological state, etc. affect ability to recall and your confidence
that you recalled correctly– e.g. lists of words are recalled better when recalled where they were first
learned
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When You Don’t Remember
• Two reasons why you don’t remember:
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When You Don’t Remember
• Two reasons why you don’t remember:
• Unavailable– It wasn’t successfully encoded - something
went wrong while you were studying
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When You Don’t Remember
• Two reasons why you don’t remember:
• Unavailable– It wasn’t successfully encoded - something
went wrong while you were studying
• Inaccessible– memory is stored but cannot be retrieved,
perhaps because appropriate connections aren’t being made
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Recall is a generative processes rather than simply calling up stored data
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Recall is a generative processes rather than simply calling up stored data
• Evidenced by the fact that episodic memories can be distorted or completely false under certain circumstances
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Misinformation Effect - exposure to information subsequent to storage of memory can alter the contents of the memory
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Misinformation Effect
• Consider the following example: – Subjects were shown a video depicting a
car accident
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Misinformation Effect • Consider the following example:
– Subjects were shown a video depicting a car accident
– Then given the following question: “How fast were the vehicles going when they ______”
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Misinformation Effect • Consider the following example:
– Subjects were shown a video depicting a car accident
– Then given the following question: “How fast were the vehicles going when they ______”
– Different subjects were asked questions that differed in the “magnitude” of the final word
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Misinformation Effect • Consider the following example:
– Subjects were shown a video depicting a car accident
– Then given the following question: “How fast were the vehicles going when they ______”
– Different subjects were asked questions that differed in the “magnitude” of the final word
– The possible words were: Contacted, Hit, Bumped, Collided, and Smashed
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Misinformation Effect
• Consider the following example: – Average estimated velocity depended on
the nature of the question
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Misinformation Effect
• Interpretation:– Episodic memory can be distorted by
subsequent information
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Memory for episodes in life can be illusory
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Memory for episodes in life can be illusory
• Consider the example in Loftus’ article:– participant was induced to have an episodic
memory of being lost in a mall
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• Memory for episodes in life can be illusory
• Consider the example in Loftus’ article:– participant was induced to have an episodic
memory of being lost in a mall– Even when told the memory is a false one, the
participant had difficulty recognizing it as an invalid memory
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Recalling Episodic Memory
• False Memories may arise when details of a crime are in question as in eye-witness testimony or repressed memories of abuse during childhood
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Implicit and Explicit Memory: yet another distinction
• Are all memories explicit? Is all information stored in the brain subject to conscious scrutiny?
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Implicit and Explicit Memory: yet another distinction
• Are all memories explicit? Is all information stored in the brain subject to conscious scrutiny?
• Implicit Memory refers to encoded memories that are not part of the “contents” of awareness
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Implicit and Explicit Memory: yet another distinction
• How can we know whether memory is stored/recalled implicitly or explicitly?
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Implicit Memory
• Consider the following distinction in recalling items from a list of words:
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Implicit Memory
• Consider the following distinction in recalling items from a list of words:
• Free Recall - subjects can be asked to simply recall and report as many items as possible - these items are accessible as explicit memory
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Implicit Memory
• Consider the following distinction in recalling items from a list of words:
• Implicit Recall - subjects can be asked to complete a word stem with any word that comes to mind after reading a list of words (no mention of testing memory!)
__ack
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Implicit Memory
• Consider the following distinction in recalling items from a list of words:
• Implicit Recall - subjects can be asked to complete a word stem with any word that comes to mind after reading a list of words (no mention of testing memory!)
But how do you know that information is stored/recalled implicitly? Couldn’t it be explicit?
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Implicit Memory
• Consider the following distinction in recalling items from a list of words:
• Twist - require subject to complete stem with a word that wasn’t on the list - if a word from the list is used preferentially, it was remembered implicitly
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Implicit Memory
Consider the implications regarding the nature of consciousness and the connection between neural activity and awareness
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Implicit Memory
Consider the implications regarding the nature of consciousness and the connection between neural activity and awareness
Not all of the activity in your brain generates experience - some is “sub”conscious or non-conscious
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Repressed Memories
Elizabeth Loftus
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“Derepressed memories”
• Loftus opens with several examples of court cases that involve “derepressed memories”
• What is a repressed memory?
• What is a derepressed memory?
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Loftus’ position in this article
• Loftus does not reject the notion of repressed memories– 18% - 59% of abuse survivors report
having regained access to previously repressed memories
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Loftus’ position in this article
• Loftus does not reject the notion of repressed memories– 18% - 59% of abuse survivors report
having regained access to previously repressed memories
• What does Loftus challenge?
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Loftus’ position in this article
• Loftus does not reject the notion of repressed memories– 18% - 59% of abuse survivors report
having regained access to previously repressed memories
• What does Loftus challenge?
…That all “de-repressed” memories are accurate memories.
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High Stakes
• Survivor of real abuse might struggle for years or decades with consequences and need to confront the repressed memory in order to recover emotionally
• False accusation could tear family apart and send an innocent person to jail
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What’s the issue?
• What does Loftus express concern about regarding the derepression of memories?
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What’s the issue?
• What does Loftus express concern about regarding the derepression of memories?– reality of the memory is in question if it is recalled under
certain circumstances
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What’s the issue?
• What does Loftus express concern about regarding the derepression of memories?– reality of the memory is in question if it is recalled under
certain circumstances
• What is the course of events that Loftus finds worrisome?
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What’s the issue?
• What does Loftus express concern about regarding the derepression of memories?– reality of the memory is in question if it is recalled under
certain circumstances
• What is the course of events that Loftus finds worrisome?
Therapist or Popular Book suggests that patient consider possibility of abuse
Patient engages in intense effort to recall
An explicit episodic memory is achieved
This memory might be false!
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What’s the issue?
• So we potentially have a situation in which someone who is having troubles in life and is seeking answers is told to determine whether or not memories for abuse exist
• What are some techniques that are used to “assist” recollection?
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What’s the issue?
• So we potentially have a situation in which someone who is having troubles in life and is seeking answers is told to determine whether or not memories for abuse exist
• What are some techniques that are used to “assist” recollection?– hypnosis, imagery, dream analysis, story telling– Loftus presents evidence that such processes may lead to
invalid memories or overconfidence in the validity of memories
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Conclusion:
• We cannot know with certainty (without corroborating evidence) whether a derepressed memory is true
• Therapists should engage in probing this possibility very carefully– avoiding suggestive questions– remaining unconvinced without corroborating
evidence– being “gently confrontational” to encourage patient
to consider the possibility that the events didn’t happen