Ferlllented Beverage Production

Second Edition

FerlDented Beverage Production

Second Edition

Edited by

Andrew G. H. Lea, PhD Reading Scientific Services Ltd,

The University, Whiteknights, Reading

J ohn R. Piggott, PhD Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology

University of Strathclyde Glasgow

SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC

ISBN 978-0-306-47706-5 ISBN 978-1-4615-0187-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-0187-9

©2003 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Kluwer Academic I Plenum Publishers in 2003 Softcover reprint of the hardcover Znd edition 2003 http://www.wkap.nl/

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

A C.LP. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

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Contributors

Chapter 1 Fermentable extracts Dr. A. Paterson University of Strathc1yde Department of Bioscience & Biotechnology 204 George Street Glasgow G 1 lXW UK

Dr. 1. Stuart Swanston Scottish Crop Research Institute Invergowrie Dundee DD25DA UK

Dr. John R. Piggott University of Strathclyde Department of Bioscience & Biotechnology 204 George Street Glasgow G1 lXW UK

Chapter 2 Fermentation Prof. D. R. Berry Albany House New Road Hangerberry Lydbrook Glos. GL17 9PS UK

v

Dr. 1. C. Slaughter ICBD Heriot-Watt University Riccarton Edinburgh EH144AS UK

Chapter 3 Beers Prof. Dr. Dirk Iserentant Guest Professor University Ghent Vlaams Interuniversitair Instituut voor

Biotechnologie -Rijvisschestraat 120 B-9052 Zwijnaarde Belgium

Chapter 4 Cidermaking Dr. Andrew Lea Reading Scientific Services Ltd. Lord Zuckerman Research Centre The University Reading RG66LA UK

M. Jean-Francois Drilleau Station de Recherches Cidricoles Domaine de la Motte BP29 35650 Le Rheu France

VI FERMENTED BEVERAGE PRODUCTION

Chapter 5 White Wines Dr. Andrew Ewart Mountadam Winery High Eden Road Eden Valley SA 5235 Australia

Chapter 6 Red Wines Professor Roger Boulton Department of Viticulture & Enology University of California One Shields Ave. Davis CA 95616-8749 USA

Chapter 7 Sparkling Wines Patricia Howe Department of Viticulture & Enology University of California One Shields Ave. Davis CA 95616-8749 USA

Chapter 8 Fortified Wines Dr. H. P. Reader Cockburn Smithes & Ca SA Rua das Coradas 13 4400-099 Vila Nova de Gaia Portugal

Chapter 9 Cognac M. Roger Cantagrel Station Viticole du Bureau National

Interprofessionnel du Cognac 69 rue de Bellefonds, 16101 Cognac France

Chapter 10 Armagnac and Brandies Professeur Alain Bertrand Universite Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2 Faculte d'Oenologie 351, Cours de la Liberation 33405 - Talence France

Chapter 11 Whiskies Dr. John R. Piggott . University of Strathclyde Department of Bioscience & Biotechnology 204 George Street Glasgow G 1 lXW UK

Dr. John M. Conner Scotch Whisky Research Institute The Robertson Trust Building Research Park North Riccarton Edinburgh EH14 4AP UK

Chapter 12 Rum Mr. Denis Nicol Barcaldine Strathearn Terrace CrieffPH73BZ UK

Chapter 13 Flavoured Spirits Mr. Ross I. Aylott Diageo PLC Brand Technical Centre Menstrie Clackmannanshire FKll 7ES Scotland

Chapter 14 Speciality Products Dr. David Clutton 'Lower Sweetings' Holders Green Lindsell Dunmow Essex CM6 3QG UK

Chapter 15 Tequila Dra. Mercedes G. Lopez Centro de Investigacion y de Estudios

Avanzados dell.P.N. Unidad de Biotecnologia e Ingenieria Genetica

de Plantas Unidad Irapuato Apartado Postal 629 36500 Irapuato G.T.O., Mexico

Jean Pierre Dufour Food Science Department Otago University Dunedin New Zealand

Cacha~a

Dr. J080 Bosco Faria Universidade Estadual Paulista Departamento de Alimentos e NutriC80 Faculdade de Ciencias Farmaceuticas C.P. 502 CEP 14801-902 Araraquara, SP Brazil

Pisco Dr. Eduardo Loyola M Universidad de Chile Departamento de Agroindustria y Enologia Casilla 1004 Santiago, Chile

Chapter 16 Filtration Gary Freeman Brewing Research International Lyttel Hall, Nutfield Surrey RHI 4HY UK

Dr. Malcolm McKechnie Reckitt & Colman DansomLane HullHU87DF

Contents vii

Chapter 17 Flavour Chemistry Professor Ann Noble Department of Viticulture & Enology University of California One Shields Ave. Davis, CA 95616-8749 USA

Dr. V.C. Cole Department of Viticulture & Enology University of California One Shields Ave. Davis, CA 95616-8749 USA

Preface

We were encouraged by the reception given to the first edition of this book. We had felt the need for a single volume to cover the topic of fer­mented alcoholic beverages in their present-day diversity, and most of our reviewers seemed to agree with us.

In this second edition the original chapters have been variously updated. We have tried to address some of the shortcomings of the previ­ous book, in particular by including new chap­ters on rum, on sparkling wine production, and on a range of South American beverages. We hope this will to some extent console the reviewer who described us as 'depressingly Eurocentric' !

A single volume like this one can never be all things to all its readers. For lack of space and lack of authors, it does not cover fermented milks, mead, or tropical beverages such as palm and rice wines. Nor can it be a quality control or an analytical laboratory manual for the beverage industry. For those, the reader must look else­where. Our aim has been to provide an authorita­tive technical snapshot of the major alcoholic beverages in the early years of a new millen­nium-if we and our contributors have suc­ceeded for the majority of our readers, then we shall be happy!

As with the first edition, we thank our authors for their hard work, and the publishers for their forbearance and patience! Productions of this sort are a team effort and we are grateful to everyone, whether named or not, who has con­tributed to this volume.

Andrew G.H. Lea John R. Piggott, 2003

IX

From the preface to the first edition

The production of fermented alcoholic bever­ages is nowadays a technically sophisticated business. Many people outside it, however, even if they are familiar with the food industry over­all, fail to appreciate just what advances have been made in the last twenty or thirty years. In part this is due to the blandishments of advertis­ing, which tend to emphasise a traditional image for mass market promotion at the expense of the technological skills, and in part due to a lack of readily available information on the production processes themselves. This book attempts to remedy the balance and to show that, far from being a quaint and rustic activity, the production of fermented beverages is a skilled and sophisti­cated blend of tradition and technology.

We have chosen to organise the book princi­pally by individual beverages or groups of bever­ages, with the addition of a number of general chapters to cover items of common concern such as fermentation biochemistry, filtration and flavour. While we have tried to eliminate exces­sive duplication of information, we make no apologies for the fact that certain important aspects (e.g., the role of sulphur dioxide in wine and cidermaking) are discussed on more than one occasion. This only serves to underline their importance and to ensure that each chapter is moderately self-contained.

We have deliberately chosen an international range of authors and in many cases we specifi­cally went to the New World, to reinforce the message that technology and quality can and do

X FERMENTED BEVERAGE PRODUCTION

go hand in hand. The fermented beverage indus­try worldwide has profited enormously from the interchange of information between 'new' and 'traditional' production areas and product types, to their continuing mutual benefit. We hope that this book will play its part in this interchange and that technical staff already within the indus­try will find it a useful source of information between one set of covers, perhaps providing new ideas from fields which are not directly their own. We hope for a much wider readership, too, in colleges and research institutions, in the tech-

nical departments of the retail trade and indeed from anyone who seeks an overall scientific understanding of the modem production of fer­mented beverages.

Finally we thank the contributors for their work and the publishers for their patient support and encouragement. If we have been successful it is due to their efforts; if we have failed the responsibility is ours alone.

Andrew G.H. Lea John R. Piggott

1995

Contents

1 Production of Fermentable Extracts from Cereals and Fruits ....................... 1 A. Paterson, J. S. Swanston, and J. R. Piggott INTRODUCTION .......................................................... .

Structure of Cereals ........................................................ 2 Grain Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 The Cereal Endosperm .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3

Cereal Storage Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 Starch ................................................................. 3 Amylose ................................................................ 4 Amylopectins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 Starch Granules ......................................................... 4 Starch Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 Storage Proteins ......................................................... 6 Cereal Lipids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7

Cereal Cell Walls .......................................................... 8 Basic Structure .......................................................... 8 Glucans and Celluloses ................................................... 9 Hemicelluloses .......................................................... 9

MALTING ..................... · ............................................ 11 Outline of Barley Malting .................................................... 11

Changes in Barley Cell-Wall Components During Malting . ....................... 12 Changes in Endosperm Proteins ............................................. 13 Changes in Starch . ....................................................... 13

Depolymerization Activities During Mashing .................................... 14 The Biochemistry of Mashing ............................................... 14 Depolymerization of Starch Polymers . ........................................ 14 Cell-Wall Degradation .................................................... 16 Protein and Nucleic Acid Solubilization and Breakdown .......................... 16 Lipid Extraction During Mashing . ........................................... 16

Continued Activities During Distillery Fermentation ............................... 17 Degradation of Branched Dextrins ........................................... 17 Formation of Ethyl Carbamate .............................................. 17

Multiple Parallel Fermentation ................................................ 17

xi

xii FERMENTED BEVERAGE PRODUCTION

Fruits as Raw Materials ..................................................... 18 Fruit Juices and Their Composition .......................................... 18 Fruit Pulping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Implications of Processing Certain Fruits ..................................... 21

REFERENCES .............................................................. 23

2 Alcoholic Beverage Fermentations ............................................. 25 D.R. Berry and J. C Slaughter yEAST .................................................................... 25 PHYSIOLOGY OF YEAST GROWTH ........................................... 26

Nutritional Requirements .................................................... 26 Carbohydrate Utilization ..................................................... 27

Uptake of Glucose . ....................................................... 27 Glucose and the Uptake of Maltose .......................................... 28 Glucose and the Uptake of Sucrose .......................................... 29

Utilization of Nitrogen Sources ............................................... 29 Ethanol Fermentation ....................................................... 30

PRODUCTION OF FLAVOR COMPOUNDS ..................................... 33 Higher Alcohols ........................................................... 34 Organic Acids ............................................................. 34 Esters .................................................................... 35 Carbonyl Compounds ....................................................... 36 Malo-lactic Fermentation .................................................... 37 Sulphur Compounds ........................................................ 37

REFERENCES .............................................................. 38

3 Beers: Recent Technological Innovations in Brewing .............................. 41 D. Iserentant INTRODUCTION ........................................................... 41 THE TRADITIONAL BREWING PROCESS ...................................... 41

Raw Materials ............................................................. 41 Wort Production ........................................................... 43 Wort Fermentation and Maturation ............................................. 44

NEW TECHNOLOGICAL EVOLUTIONS ........................................ 45 Raw Materials ............................................................. 45 Wort Production ........................................................... 48 Fermentation and Maturation ................................................. 49

NEW PRODUCTS: LOW ALCOHOL BEER, ALCOHOL-FREE BEER, AND ICE BEER .. 51 Low-Alcohol Beer and Alcohol-Free Beer ....................................... 51

Physical Removal of Ethanol ............................................... 52 Adaptation of the Traditional Process . ........................................ 52

Ice Beer .................................................................. 53 CONCLUSION .............................................................. 54 REFERENCES .............................................................. 54

4 Cidermaking . .............................................................. 59 Andrew G.H. Lea and Jean-Franf0is Drilleu HISTORY AND DEFINITION .................................................. 59

Contents Xlll

Ri\W MATERIALS .......................................................... 62 Cider Apples .............................................................. 62 Milling and Pressing ........................................................ 65 Juice Additions ............................................................ 68

FERMENTATION .... ~ ...................................................... 69 Yeast Selection ............................................................ 69 Malo-lactic Fermentation .................................................... 72 Sulfite Binding ............................................................ 73 Cider Color ............................................................... 75 Cider Flavor .............................................................. 76

POST-FERMENTATION OPERATIONS ......................................... 79 Racking and Storage ........................................................ 79 Storage Disorders .......................................................... 80 Flavor Disorders ........................................................... 82

CONCLUSION .............................................................. 84 REFERENCES .............................................................. 84

5 White Wines ................................................................ 89 Andrew Ewart WINE STYLES AND GRAPE VARIETIES ....................................... 89

Dry, White, Floral and Fruity Wines ............................................ 89 Medium-Dry, White, Floral and Fruity Wines .................................... 89 Dry, White, Full-Bodied Wines ................................................ 90 Sweet, White Table Wines .................................................... 90

IMPROVED PLANTING MATERIAL ........................................... 91 THE VINEYARD AND HARVEST .............................................. 91

The Vineyard .............................................................. 91 Harvest .................................................................. 92

PREFERMENTATION TREATMENTS .......................................... 96 YEAST AND FERMENTATION CONTROL ...................................... 98 POSTFERMENTATION OPERATIONS ......................................... 101 REFERENCES ............................................................. 105

6 Red Wines ................................................................ 107 Roger Boulton STYLES OF RED TABLE WINES ............................................. 107 GRAPE MATURITY AND HARVESTING ...................................... 108 PREFERMENTATION OPTIONS .............................................. 109 JUICE, SKIN AND SEED CONTACTING ....................................... 110

Maceration Prior to Fermentation ............................................. 111 Conventional Maceration ................................................... 111 Maceration After the Fermentation ............................................ 112 Carbonic Maceration ....................................................... 112 Color and Component Extraction During Conventional Maceration .................. 113 The Role of Copigmentation ................................................. 114 The Rates of Component Extraction ........................................... 116 Extraction From Seeds ..................................................... 120

xiv FERMENTED BEVERAGE PRODUCTION

The Use of Temperature and Contacting Time To Enhance Extraction ................ 122 The Choice of Time to Press ................................................. 122

THE ETHANOL FERMENTATION ............................................ 123 Must Preparation .......................................................... 123 Yeast Inoculation .......................................................... 125 Fermentation Temperature .................................................. 125 Concurrent Malo-Lactic Fermentation ......................................... 126 Prediction of Fermentation Behavior .......................................... 126 Fermentation Problems ..................................................... 127 Heat Evolution ........................................................... 128 Gas Evolution ............................................................ 128

MALO-LACTIC FERMENTATION ............................................ 129 Malo-Lactic Bacteria ...................................................... 129 Bacterial Nutrition ........................................................ 130 Immobilized Bacteria ...................................................... 130

POST-FERMENTATION HANDLING OF WINES ................................ 130 AGING ............ , ................. " ................................... 131

Aging Reactions .......................................................... 131 Cooperage Considerations .................................................. 132 Microbial Control During Aging ............................................. 132 Evaporative Losses ........................................................ 132

PREPARATION FOR BOTTLING ............................................. 133 REFERENCES ............................................................. 134

7 Sparkling Wines ........................................................... 139 Patricia Howe INTRODUCTION .......................................................... 139 BASE WINES .............................................................. 140 CARBONATION ........................................................... 140

Levels and Terms ......................................................... 140 Quantification of Carbonation ............................................... 142 Methods of Carbonation .................................................... 142

SECONDARY FERMENTATION BY YEAST .................................... 143 Selection of Yeast and Conditioning ........................................... 143 Fermentation Temperature .................................................. 143 Culturing Techniques ...................................................... 144 Inoculum Size ............................................................ 144 Agglomerating Ability ..................................................... 144 Enclosed or Encapsulated Yeast .............................................. 144 The Sugar Source for the Carbonating Fermentation .............................. 144 The Vessel Used for the Carbonating Fermentation ............................... 145

YEAST LEES AGING ....................................................... 145 Overview of Lees Aging Reactions ........................................... 145 Non-Enzymic Effects on Composition of the Wine with Lees Contact ................ 147 Excretion of Amino Acids ................................................... 147 Autolysis and Enzymatic Activity ............................................. 147

METHOD OF CLARIFICATION .............................................. 148 No Clarification ........................................................... 148 Riddling and Disgorging .................................................... 148 Filtration ................................................................ 149

Contents xv

THE FINAL PACKAGE ...................................................... 149 SWEETENING ............................................................. 149 AGING OF SPARKLING WINES IN THE ABSENCE OF YEAST-

EFFECT OF HEAT AND LIGHT .......................................... 150 General Sensory Effects of Heat .............................................. 150 Heat and the Formation of Ethyl Carbamate .................................... 150 Heat and Maillard Reaction Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Heat and Changes in Ester Composition ....................................... 151 Heat and Oxidation ........................................................ 151 Heat, Internal Pressure, and Bottle Seal ........................................ 151 Heat and Protein Instabilities ................................................ 151 Light ................................................................... 151

FOAM AND BUBBLES ...................................................... 152 Bubbles ................................................................. 152 Foam ................................................................... 152

CONCLUSION ............................................................. 153 REFERENCES ............................................................. 153

8 Fortified Wines: Sherry, Port and Madeira ..................................... 157 H. P. Reader and M. Dominguez INTRODUCTION .......................................................... 157

Definition and Scope ....................................................... 157 Origins and Current Status of Fortified Wines ................................... 158 Outline of the Basic Processes ............................................... 158

ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION .............................................. 159 FORTIFICATION SPIRIT .................................................... 166 SHERRy .................................................................. 166

Definition ............................................................... 166 Viticulture ............................................................... 167

Climate and Soil ........................................................ 167 Vineyards and Grape Varieties ............................................. 167 Vintage ............................................................... 168

Vinification .............................................................. 169 Pressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Fermentation and Fortification ............................................. 169

Styles of Wine ............................................................ 170 Aging and Maturation ...................................................... 170

Cellars . ............................................................... 171 The Solera System ....................................................... 171 Aging Under Flor ....................................................... 171 Maturation without Flor .................................................. 173

Sweetening and Color Wines ................................................ 174 Commercial Styles of Sherry ................................................ 176 Final Processing .......................................................... 176

PORT .................................................................... 177 Regulation ............................................................... 177 Geographical Origin ....................................................... 177 Viticulture ............................................................... 178 Vintage ................................................................. 179 Vinification .............................................................. 179

XVI FERMENTED BEVERAGE PRODUCTION

Basic Styles of Wine ....................................................... 182 Aging and Maturation ...................................................... 182 Blending ................................................................ 184 Commercial Styles of Port .................................................. 185

Wood Aged Styles ....................................................... 185 Bottle Aged Styles ....................................................... 185

Processing ............................................................... 185 MADEIRA ................................................................ 186

Regulation and Geographical Origin .......................................... 186 Viticulture ............................................................... 186 Vintage ................................................................. 187 Vinification .............................................................. 187 Aging and Maturation ...................................................... 188 Blending ................................................................ 188 Commercial Styles of Madeira ............................................... 188 Processing ............................................................... 189

QUALITY ASPECTS ........................................................ 189 Ethyl Carbamate .......................................................... 189 Microbial Spoilage ........................................................ 189

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................... 190 REFERENCES ............................................................. 190

9 From Vine to Cognac ............................•....•..................... 195 R. Cantagrel and B. Galy INTRODUCTION .......................................................... 195 THE GEOLOGY AND THE 'CRU'(GROWTHAREA) ............................ 195 THE VINE VARIETIES ...................................................... 196 THE WINEMAKING ........................................................ 197

Treatment of the Grapes in the First 5 Minutes .................................. 198 From the Harvest to the Fermentation Vat ...................................... 198 The Fermentation ......................................................... 199

THE CHARENTE DISTILLATION ............................................ 202 THE AGING OF COGNAC ................................................... 202 BLENDING: AN IMPORTANT STEP IN THE PROCESS OF COGNAC PRODUCTION .. 209

The Development of the Chemical Equilibrium During Blending and Reduction ........ 209 Production of the Blend .................................................... 210 Notions of Age ........................................................... 210 Commercial Denominations ................................................. 210

CONCLUSION ............................................................. 211 REFERENCES ............................................................. 211

10 Armagnac and Wine-Spirits ...•...........•.................................. 213 A. Bertrand ARMAGNAC .............................................................. 213

Historical Background ..................................................... 213 Appellation Areas, Soils, Climate, Vine Stocks .................................. 214 Vinification .............................................................. 215

Contents XVll

Distillation and Regulations ................................................. 215 The Continuous Armagnac Still (Figure 10-2) ................................. 216 Two-Stage Pot Stills ...................................................... 218

Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................... 218 Traditional Analyses ..................................................... 219 Gas Chromatography .................................................... 219 High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) ............................... 219 Sensory Analyses ........................................................ 219 Analysis of Principal Ions in Armagnac Spirits ................................ 222 Carbonyl Compounds in Wine Spirits ........................................ 223

Aging and Merchandizing Preparation ......................................... 226 WINE-SPIRITS ............................................................ 229

Regulations .............................................................. 229 Wine-spirits ............................................................ 229 Brandy ................................................................ 230 Distillation ............................................................ 230 Wine Rectifiers (Mariller, 1925) ............................................ 230 Indirect Rectifiers ....................................................... 230 Batch Rectificationfor the Production of Wine-Spirits or Distillates (Figure 10-16) ... 230

Composition of Brandies ................................................... 231 Aging and Merchandising Preparation ......................................... 231

ETHYL CARBAMATE IN WINE SPIRITS ...................................... 231 Role of the Distillation Process .............................................. 232 Role of the Vine Cultivar ................................................... 233 Search for a Precursor in the Case of 22 A Baco Wine ............................ 234

Catalytic Role of Copper ................................................. 234 Role of Light ........................................................... 234 Hydrocyanic Acid ....................................................... 234

Use of Ion Exchange Resins to Reduce EC Content .............................. 235 CONCLUSION ............................................................. 236 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................... 236 REFERENCES .................................................... ' ......... 237

11 Whiskies ......................•....................... ' .................... 239 J.R. Piggott and J.M. Conner INTRODUCTION .......................................................... 239 MATERIALS .............................................................. 240 MILLING, COOKING, AND MASHING ........................................ 241

Malt Whisky ............................................................. 241 Grain Whisky ............................................................ 242

FERMENTATION .......................................................... 242 DISTILLATION ............................................................ 244

Batch Distillation ......................................................... 244 Continuous Distillation ..................................................... 246 By-Products ............................................................. 248

MATURATION ............................................................ 248 Current Practice .......................................................... 249

xviii FERMENTED BEVERAGE PRODUCTION

Cask Type ............................................................. 250 Warehousing ........................................................... 251

Sensory Changes During Maturation .......................................... 252 Chemical Changes During Maturation ......................................... 252

Extraction of Wood Components ............................................ 253 Reactions Involving Distillate Components ................................... 253 Solution Changes That Affect the Release of Aroma-Compounds ................... 254

BLENDING ............................................................... 255 FILTRATION .............................................................. 255 RAW MATERIAL AND PRODUCT ANALYSES ................................. 256

Sensory Assessment ....................................................... 256 Raw Materials ............................................................ 256

Cereals ............................................................... 256 Yeast . ................................................................ 257 Water ................................................................. 257

Mashing and Fermentation .................................................. 257 Distillation .............................................................. 257 Maturation ............................................................... 258

REFERENCES ............................................................. 259

12 Rum ... .................................................................. 263 Denis A. Nicol INTRODUCTION .......................................................... 263 THE HISTORY OF RUM ..................................................... 263 THE ORIGIN OF THE WORD 'RUM' .......................................... 265 CANE JUICE PRODUCTION ................................................. 265 MOLASSES ............................................................... 266 MOLASSES HANDLING .................................................... 267 CANE JUICE .............................................................. 269 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MOLASSES .......................................... 269 yEASTS .................................................................. 269 YEAST PROPAGATION ..................................................... 269 FERMENTATION .......................................................... 270 FERMENTATION EFFICIENCIES ............................................. 271 DISTILLATION ............................................................ 272 POT DISTILLED RUM ...................................................... 273 HIGH ESTER RUMS ........................................................ 275 COLUMN DISTILLATION ................................................... 276 INVENTORY CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT ................................. 277 THE AGING OF RUM-MATURATION ........................................ 278 THE AROMA AND FLAVOR OF RUM ......................................... 278 EFFLUENT DISPOSAL ..................................................... 279 QUALITY ................................................................. 279

Quality-Molasses ........................................................ 280 Water, Yeast and Fermentation (lOB, Methods of Analysis, 1997) .................... 280 Quality-Water (lOB, Methods of Analyses, 1997) ............................... 280 Quality-Yeast ........................................................... 280 Quality-Yeast ........................................................... 281

Contents xix

Quality-Plant Hygiene .................................................... 281 Quality-Distillation ...................................................... 281 Quality--Casks ........................................................... 281 Quality-Effluent ......................................................... 282 Quality-Bottled Rums .................................................... 283

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ............................................. 286 REFERENCES ............................................................. 287

13 Vodka, Gin and Other Flavored Spirits ......................••....•.....•..•.. 289 R.LAylott INTRODUCTION .......................................................... 289

Vodka .................................................................. 289 Gin .................................................................... 290 Other Flavored Spirits ...................................................... 290

DEFINITIONS AND REGULATIONS .......................................... 290 Neutral Alcohol ........................................................... 291 Vodka .................................................................. 291 Gin .................................................................... 291 Other Flavored Spirits ...................................................... 292

BRANDS, MARKETS AND VOLUMES ........................................ 293 Vodka .................................................................. 293 Gin .................................................................... 294 Other Flavored Spirits ...................................................... 294

VODKA, GIN AND FLAVORED SPIRIT PRODUCTION .......................... 295 Neutral Alcohol ........................................................... 295 Vodka .................................................................. 296 Gin .................................................................... 297

Materials for Gin Production .............................................. 297 Gin Distillation ......................................................... 298 Compounded Gin Production .............................................. 299 Flavored Gins .......................................................... 299 Other Juniper-Based Drinks ............................................... 299

Other Flavored Spirits ...................................................... 301 Packaging and Distribution .................................................. 301

ANALYSIS ................................................................ 302 Alcohol ................................................................. 302 Water ................................................................... 304 Flavor .................................................................. 304 Brand Authenticity Analysis ................................................. 306

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................... 307 REFERENCES ............................................................. 307

14 Liqueurs & Speciality Products .•....•..•••...............•................... 309 David W. Clutton INTRODUCTION .......................................................... 309 STATISTICS ........................................................ " ..... 310

Pre-mixed drinks .......................................................... 312 LEGAL DEFINITIONS ...................................................... 313

XX FERMENTED BEVERAGE PRODUCTION

COMPOSITION ............................................................ 314 CREAM LIQUEURS ........................................................ 315 COCKTAILS .............................................................. 316 SUMMARY ............................................................... 317 APPENDIX ................................................................ 318 REFERENCES ............................................................. 334

15 Cacha~a, Pisco and Tequila .................................................. 335 J.B. Faria, Eduardo Loyola, Mercedes G. Lopez, and Jean Pierre Dufour CACHA<;A: THE BRAZILIAN SUGAR CANE SPIRIT ............................ 335

Historical Background ..................................................... 335 Cachar;a Regulations ....................................................... 336 Raw Material ............................................................. 336

Sugar Cane Juice Extraction .............................................. 336 Must Preparation ....................................................... 336

Fermentation ............................................................. 337 The Yeast .............................................................. 337 The Fermentation Process ................................................ 337 Sugar Cane Wine Composition . ............................................ 338

Distillation .............................................................. 338 Discontinuous and Semi-Continuous Systems ................................. 338 Continuous Distillation . .................................................. 339 Distillate Composition ................................................... 341

Aging .................................................................. 341 Some Aspects Related to Quality of Cachar;a .................................... 342

Sulphur Compounds and the Sensorial Quality of Cacha fa ...................... 342 Inappropriate Handling and Industrial Practices .............................. 344 Sugar Addition and Legal Regulations ....................................... 346 New Detected Contamination .............................................. 346 Cachafa Production and Market ........................................... 346

Conclusions .............................................................. 346 PISCO .................................................................... 346

Introduction .............................................................. 346 Production Zone .......................................................... 347 Vinification in the Pisco Industry ............................................. 348 Distillation .............................................................. 349

Distillation Method . ..................................................... 350 Chemical Composition of Pisco .............................................. 351 Production and Consumption ................................................ 353

TEQUILA ................................................................. 353 Introduction .............................................................. 353 Materials ................................................................ 355 Tequila Elaboration ........................................................ 355 Harvesting, Cooking and Mashing ............................................ 355 Fermentation ............................................................. 357 Distillation .............................................................. 357 Maturation ............................................................... 357 Flavor Chemistry ......................................................... 358

Contents xxi

REFERENCES ............................................................. 360

16 Filtration and Stabilization of Beers ..............................•.......••... 365 G.J. Freeman and M. T. McKechnie BACKGROUND TO BEER STABILITY ........................................ 365 THE IMPORTANCE OF OXYGEN ............................................ 366 COLD CONDITIONING ..................................................... 367 CONVENTIONAL POWDER FILTRATION ..................................... 368 STABILIZATION WITH PROCESSING AIDS ................................... 373

Tannic Acid .............................................................. 374 Silicas .................................................................. 375 Polyvinylpolypyrrolidinone (PVPP) ........................................... 376 Nylon .................................................................. 377 Bentonite ................................................................ 378 Activated Carbon ......................................................... 378 Enzymes ................................................................ 378

DILUTION OF HIGH-GRAVITY BEERS ....................................... 378 PASTEURIZATION ......................................................... 379

Introduction .............................................................. 379 Theory .................................................................. 379 Equipment and Process Conditions ........................................... 379

Effect Upon Beer Quality ................................................. 381 COLD STERILIZATION OF BEER ............................................ 381

Sheet Filters ............................................................. 382 Enzinger Pulp Filters ....................................................... 382 Cartridge (Membrane) Filters ................................................ 383 Ceramic Candles .......................................................... 384

GAS ADmSTMENT ........................................................ 384 CASK ALES ............................................................... 385 BEER RECOVERY ............................ ' ............................. 385

Centrifuges .............................................................. 386 Vacuum Filters ........................................................... 386 Filter Presses ............................................................. 387 Alcohol Evaporation Systems ................................................ 387 Crossflow Membrane Filtration .............................................. 388

THE FUTURE ............................................................. 389 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................... 389 REFERENCES ............................................................. 390

17 Flavor Chemistry .......................................................... 393 v.c. Cole andA.C. Noble INTRODUCTION .......................................................... 393 RAW MATERIALS ......................................................... 393

Wine Derives Flavor from Grapes ............................................ 393 Beer, Whisky, and Gin Derive Flavor from Grain ................................. 396 Flavor Additives: Hops in Beer ............................................... 397 Raw Materials in the Flavor of Gin, Vodka, and Whisky ........................... 397 Other Raw Materials: Fruits in Wine and Brandies ............................... 398

xxii FERMENTED BEVERAGE PRODUCTION

FERMENTATION .......................................................... 399 Yeast Strain .............................................................. 399 Temperature ............................................................. 400 Oxygen Effect ............................................................ 400 Barrel Fermentation ....................................................... 400 Malo-lactic Fermentation ................................................... 400 Lees Contact (sur lies) ..................................................... 401 Sulfur Compounds ........................................................ 401

DISTILLATION ............................................................ 401 Thermally Induced Chemical Reactions ........................................ 402 Still Type ... " ............................................................. 403

CONTRIBUTION OF AGING TO FLAVOR ..................................... 403 Reactions During Aging .................................................... 403

Oxidation ............................................................. 403 Esterification and Hydrolysis .............................................. 404

Evaporation .............................................................. 405 Effects of Oak Aging ...................................................... 405

Compounds Extracted from Oak ............................................ 405 French versus American Oak .............................................. 406 New versus Used Barrels ................................................. 407 Cooperage Techniques ................................................... 407

CONCLUSION ............................................................. 407 REFERENCES ............................................................. 408

Index .. ....................................................................... 413