113

Shape, silhouette, and stylethese words capturethe essence of apparel design. Decisions about shape,silhouette, and style guide the design developmentprocess. Designers and merchandisers give carefulconsideration to these fundamentals for even themost basic garments.

This chapter explains how flat, two-dimensional(2-D) fabrics are shaped and transformed into gar-ments that fit three-dimensional (3-D) humanbodies. This chapter also presents a menu of silhou-

ettes and style options important for developing aprofessional vocabulary.

GARMENT SHAPE

Shaping a garment enables it to fit the wearer andachieve a desired silhouette and style or look. Theskillful use of fabric grain, thoughtfully chosenshaping methods, and underlying fabrics and

Chapter Objectives

1. Examine the impact of design features on the performance and cost ofthe garment.

2. Understand the various ways of shaping garments to the human body,including the impact of fabric grain and the role of underlying fabricsand supporting devices in garments.

3. Present a vocabulary of style names, including garment silhouettes andvariations in design features such as lengths, waistlines, necklines, col-lars, sleeves, cuffs, pockets, and decorative details.

Shape, Silhouette, Style: Focuson Design Development

5

Ready-To-Wear Apparel Analysis, Third Edition, by Patty Brown and Janett Rice. Copyright 2001 by Prentice Hall, an imprint of Pearson Education, Inc.

supporting devices that help a garment retain itsshape often distinguish a high-quality garment fromone of lesser quality. Attention to shape and supportis important in all garments but especially in tailoredclothing.

Tailored garments are carefully structured and de-tailed, for example, the classic business suit; they areoften closely fitted and made of woven fabrics.Shaping methods, underlying fabrics, and supportingdevices are critical to the aesthetic appearance of thegarment; they affect the garments functional perfor-mance as well, including fit, comfort, appearance re-tention, and durability.

Role of Fabric Grain

A major consideration in garment quality is the ori-entation of the fabrics grain. Just as furniture makersobserve and use the grain of wood to create a desiredeffect, garment manufacturers use the grain in fabricto its best advantage. Grain is the orientation of theyarns that make up the fabric. Two sets of yarns in-terlaced at right angles to one another make up aquality woven fabric. Knit fabric has one continuousyarn instead of two sets of yarns. For this reason, knitfabrics do not technically have a grain, but most ofthe directional rules still apply in their use.

The appropriate handling of fabric grain affects theaesthetic and functional quality of the finished gar-ment. Attention to grain is important throughoutconstruction but is most critical during cutting. If cutincorrectly, trueness of grain cannot be restored tothe garment.

Lengthwise Grain. The lengthwise grain or warpruns parallel to the selvages, the woven edges of thefabric (Figure 51). It consists of yarns that are heldtaut by the loom during weaving. Therefore, thelengthwise yarns are the strongest to withstand thetension of the weaving process. Lengthwise yarnstend to be stable, less apt to stretch or shrink, andmore apt to hang straight than crosswise yarns.Designers plan most major pattern pieces to be cutwith the length of the pattern piece parallel to thelengthwise grain. The lengthwise grain is then per-pendicular to the floor when the garment is beingworn.

In a few cases it is preferable to cut pieces on thelengthwise grain (with the warp), to intentionallyhave this grain run around the body instead of upand down. For example, waistbands require stabilityaround the waist and should be cut so the lengthwisegrain goes around the body. Collars, cuffs, and otherminor pattern pieces may be cut this way for thesame reason.

Crosswise Grain. The crosswise grain, fill, filling,or weft of the fabric consists of the yarns woven overand under the lengthwise yarns. The crosswise grainruns at a 90-degree angle to the lengthwise grain andthe selvages (Figure 51). The crosswise grain is lessstrong and has a slight stretch. Because designersplace most major pattern pieces with their lengthrunning perpendicular to the crosswise grain of thefabric, this creates a softer look and provides comfortto the wearer.

If the producer cuts major pattern pieces on thecrosswise grain, with the length of the pattern piecerunning in the same direction as the crosswise grain,the effect on the hang of the finished garment mightbe imperceptible depending on the fabric. But cross-wise layouts are generally less desirable than length-wise layouts because of the more stable and strongerlengthwise yarns.

Sometimes major pattern pieces are cut on thecrosswise grain (with the fill) to maximize fabricusage or to create special effects. For example, onborder print fabrics (with the design along one sel-vage edge), if a dress design calls for the border printto run around the hem, the skirt is cut on the cross-wise grain. Generally these styles are not close fitting;adding fullness compensates for the otherwise stifflook of the garment when cut in the crosswise direction.

114 CHAPTER 5

Crosswise Grain

Cut End

Lengthwise G

rain

True B

ias

Cut End

Selvage

SelvageBias

Bias

Figure 51 Lengthwise and crosswise grains, bias, andtrue bias.

SHAPE, SILHOUETTE, STYLE: FOCUS ON DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 115

Straight-of-Grain. Straight-of-grain includes boththe lengthwise and crosswise grains because theyfollow the straight yarns of the fabric. Unless thereare design reasons for doing otherwise, markermakers place pattern pieces in the lengthwise direc-tion, or straight-of-grain, of the fabric. Figure 52shows the commonly accepted placement of grain-lines on the human body for a basic garment. Thelengthwise grain runs straight down the body at thecenter front and center back. The crosswise grain isperpendicular to the lengthwise grain at bust/chestand hip levels. For sleeves, the lengthwise grain runsstraight down the center of the arm from shoulder toelbow. The crosswise grain is perpendicular to thelengthwise grain at bust/chest level. Straight-of-grainedges create seams with minimal stretch; for ex-ample, angled pants pockets gape less if the facingedge is cut on the straight-of-grain, to stabilize thebias-grain pocket edge.

To create various effects, a designer alters the posi-tion of the pattern in relation to the grainline to in-tentionally change the way the garment hangs.

Pattern pieces cut on the lengthwise grain, crosswise,bias, or true bias create various results. Figure 53 il-lustrates how a skirt appears with the lengthwisegrain placed at center front, side front, and side seamof the skirt.

In cut panels or finished garments, it may be diffi-cult to distinguish between the lengthwise and cross-wise grains unless you are familiar with the fabric.However, a close examination of the fabric usually re-veals more warp yarns per square inch than fill yarns.(This does not hold true for all types of fabric, but isgenerally true.) Also, remember that if a woven fabricis stretched, the length generally stretches less thanthe width.

Bias and True Bias. The bias and true bias of afabric are considered directions of the fabric ratherthan grain. Technically, any direction of the fabricthat is not the lengthwise grain or crosswise grainmay be referred to as bias. The true bias direction isat a 45-degree angle to the lengthwise and crosswisegrains of woven fabrics. Usually when a garment is

Figure 52 Correct positions of fabricgrain on (a) female and (b) male bodies.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 53 Different drapes of skirtscut on various grains: (a) lengthwise grainat center front, (b) lengthwise grain incenter of each gore, and (c) lengthwisegrain at side seam.

cut on the bias, it refers to the true bias (Figure51). The true bias of a woven fabric has several in-teresting features. (The bias direction on knit fabricsdoes not share these characteristics.) True bias is themost stretchy part of a woven fabric because itsstretch is impeded by few yarn interlacings.Garments or pieces of garments cut on the true biasdrape and roll beautifully and hang close to the body,emphasizing contours.

For these reasons, many high-fashion designersinclude bias cuts in their creations, especially forevening wear. Full skirts cut on the true bias can beflattering to the wearer and elegant. Bows, neckties,cowl necklines, and jacket and coat under-collars uti-lize the graceful drape and roll of the true bias. Thestretch and roll of true bias makes it ideal as bindingfor curved as well as straight edges. Bias cuts are notfrequently used in low-price apparel lines. A biaslayout wastes considerably more fabric than astraight-of-grain layout for the same garment (Figure54), sometimes as much as about 50% more. Also,bias-cut garments are difficult to sew because theytend to stretch out of shape during construction.

A garment cut on the bias is easily identified uponclose examination. The fabrics straight-of-grain lieson the diagonal, oriented at a 45-degree angle to thecenter front of the garment. Do not confuse the biaswith the appearance of a twill weave fabric likedenim. Examine a pair of denim twill jeans that arecut on the straight-of-grain, and notice that the diag-onal ridges of the denim fabric result from its twillweave, not from being cut on the bias.

Garments Cut Off-Grain. Garments with propergrain alignment hang straight and maintain theirshape in use. A close examination of the position ofthe warp and fill yarns of the fabric reveals the accu-racy with which the garment was cut. Garments cut

moderately off-grain do not hang straight and oftenaffect comfort as they tend to pull toward the direc-tion of lengthwise grain position. Garments cut ex-tremely off-grain have a noticeably crooked hang.Evidence of the misuse of fabric grain includestwisted pant legs, twisted torsos, twisted sleeves, un-even hems, undesirable sagging and wrinkling infitted garments, and pleats that fall open.

When making the marker, some manufacturersallow slight tilting of the pattern pieces (usually notmore than 3%) to increase material utilization. Howfar off-grain the pieces may be cut depends on thetype of fabric and the tolerances established for it.For low-price garments, several inches off-grain maybe allowed. Off-grain fabrics also cause finished gar-ments to have off-grain panels (see Chapter 7). Grain

116 CHAPTER 5

Try a Real-Life Scenario 5-1: Planning Grain/Nap

The designer of a jacket is planning to use a rich velvet fabric with a shiny nap (for more information on usingnapped fabrics, see Chapter 4). The jacket has two fitted front panels, one loose back panel, long sleeves, and anotched collar. The designer wishes to have front panels, back panel and sleeves cut with the nap in one direc-tion and the collar cut with the nap in another direction. The costing engineer thinks the jacket will be tooexpensive if the nap has to run in both directions.

Considerations: What makes the cost so high when the nap runs in both directions?

Would the design details be lost if the nap direction is all the same?

What other ideas would produce the same design effect at a lower cost?

(a) (b)Figure 54 (a) Bias layout is less fabric-efficient than (b) straight-of-grain layout.

SHAPE, SILHOUETTE, STYLE: FOCUS ON DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 117

distortions and their effect on garment appearanceare relative. Thus garments cut slightly off-grain orfrom slightly off-grain fabrics may be acceptable if theproblem is imperceptible in the final garment.However, manufacturers of quality clothing strive toproduce grain perfect garments.

Shaping Methods

All garments contain shaping methods (darts or dartequivalents) that control the way the garment fits thecontours of the body. The methods used to shape thegarment and the location and amount of addedshaping affect the garments fit and style. Tailored gar-ments and other apparel that fit closely to body con-tours are noted for the shape created by thesemethods, but even shapeless garments have theirshape because of a choice of shaping methods. Inlow-cost garments, pattern engineers may have tochange or eliminate shaping methods to meet pricingrequirements. Pattern pieces might have to be de-signed slightly smaller or with straighter edges thanpattern pieces in more expensive apparel. Thesechanges often result in better material utilization andslightly lower sewing costs. However, the omission ofshaping methods detracts from the design and ulti-mate fit of the garment. Again, balance comes intoplay. What price are the shaping features worth to theconsumer?

A basic fitted garment is derived from a basicblock or sloper pattern. Manufacturers have a basicblock for each classification of apparel that they pro-duce, for example, pants or jackets. Figure 55shows the basic blocks for a womans dress and amans suit. The designer uses shaping methods tomake changes in the basic block to produce stylevariations. Figures 519, 520, 521, 522, 523,and 525 later in this chapter illustrate a number ofstyles, all originating from a basic block, with varyingamounts of fullness added and controlled in differentlocations through various shaping methods. Formore information about how shaping methods areused to create different clothing styles, see thischapters section on styles.

Darts. A dart is a triangular fold stitched to shapethe flat fabric to specific curves of the body. Noticethe triangular darts in the basic blocks in Figure 55.Darts introduce shape into the garment, enabling atwo-dimensional fabric to become a three-dimen-sional garment that fits a three-dimensional body.

Darts serve as a basic shaping method for apparel.They enable the garment to fit the body smoothly.However, a garment with darts does not usually fit aswide a range of sizes as do garments containing other

shaping methods. Darts have relatively high laborcosts but low fabric costs compared to other shapingmethods.

Darts are almost always stitched inside the gar-ment so that the triangular fold of the dart appears in-side the garment. Occasionally, for style reasons, dec-orative darts are stitched so that the folded triangleappears on the outside of the garment.

Single-Pointed Darts. Most darts are single-pointeddarts (Figures 56a and b). Designers use single-pointed darts vertically at the back neck or backshoulders of jackets; at the waistline of bodices,skirts, pants, and dresses; and horizontally at elbowsand at the bustline of womens clothing. However, adart can originate from any seam and occur at anyangle so long as it points toward the fullest part of itsassigned body curve. For example, French darts arediagonal bust darts that originate low in the sideseams directed toward the bust curve (Figure 56c).

Double-Pointed Darts. Double-pointed darts orcontour darts look like two single-pointed dartsjoined at the wide ends to form one continuous dart(Figure 56d). Designers use double-pointed dartsvertically at the waistline of jackets and dresses.Double-pointed darts nip the garment in at the waistwhile releasing fullness above and below it to fit thebust/chest and hip areas.

Size of Darts. Narrow darts fit small body curvesand wide darts fit large body curves. Each dart addsto labor costs, so in low-price garments one dart isoften used per body curve where two or more narrowdarts might yield smoother-fitting results. However, asingle dart has the offsetting advantage of being lessvisually distracting than multiple darts. The widerthe dart angle, the more angular the shape producedat the point. The more tapered the stitching near thepointed end, the more rounded the curve producedin the garment.

Dart Equivalents. Shaping can be accomplished bydarts or by dart equivalents or dart substitutes.Dart equivalents substitute for darts by incorporatingshape into the garment in a variety of ways. Dart sub-stitutes include the following: shaped seams (in-cluding gores and yokes), style fullness (including re-leased darts, added fullness, ease, gathers, shirring,smocking, elastic, and drawstrings), and other dartsubstitutes (including stretch fabrics, bias-cut pieces,pleats, tucks, godets, gussets, full-fashioned knits,and lacing).

All ready-to-wear garments contain shaping meth-odseither darts or dart equivalents. Darts or dartequivalents are required wherever the fabric of thegarment fits a body curve. The bust, abdomen,

buttocks, shoulder blades, and elbows are curves re-quiring shaping methods. For example, for a good fitin tailored jackets, a shoulder dart or dart equivalentis needed in the back shoulder seam of the garmentto smoothly fit the shoulder blade area to the body.The absence of a shoulder dart or dart equivalentcauses wrinkles to emanate from the neckline or arm-hole because fabric is pulled from these areas to ac-commodate the curve of the shoulder blades. In

better jackets, ease may be substituted in theshoulder seam for the shoulder dart, yielding asmooth fit in the shoulder area. (See the section onEase later in this chapter.) In better shirts, a shapedseam joining the yoke to the body of the shirt servesas a shoulder dart substitute. When the shoulderdarts or their substitutes are omitted, the area doesnot fit smoothly. For some garments, darts are com-pletely released to fit body curves, although the fit is

118 CHAPTER 5

Front

Back

Sleeve Sleeve

Bodice Back Jacket Back

Bodice Front Jacket FrontFront

Back

Skirt Back Pants Back

Skirt Front Pants Front

(a)

(b)

Figure 55 Basic blocks for (a) womans dress and (b) mans suit.

SHAPE, SILHOUETTE, STYLE: FOCUS ON DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 119

not smooth. (See the section on Released Darts laterin this chapter.)

The design of the garment helps determine whichshaping methods are used. For example, loose stylesare suited to the use of gathers or added fullness;close-fitting styles often feature darts or stretch fab-rics. The fabric and price line of the garment also in-fluence the choice of shaping methods. Because thefemale figure is naturally more curvy than the malefigure, womens clothing features more shapingmethods than mens clothing. In some cases, de-signers include shaping methods not for fit, but forcomfort or aesthetic reasons.

Shaped Seams. Not all seams are dart substitutes;many join flat fabric panels without imparting any shape. But shaped seams are a common dartequivalent, especially in close-fitting garments. Dart-substitute seams perform the same function as dartsby shaping fabric panels where they are joined to-

gether. Figure 57 illustrates dart shapes incorpo-rated in some shaped seams; fitted side seams,shoulder seams, fitted waistline seams, and set-in-sleeve armhole seams are examples of dart-substituteseams. Princess seams, which incorporate the bustand waist darts in fitted womenswear, are also dart-substitute seams. They add shape to the garment andenhance fit but cost more to cut and sew than othertypes of seams. Another example is better womenspanties, which sometimes feature a center back seamto fit the buttocks better than ordinary panties. Yokeseams and gore seams often serve as dart substitutes.

Yokes. Yokes are horizontal divisions within a gar-ment; they are usually small, flat panels of fabric atthe shoulder, waist, or midriff. When seamed to thegarment, some yokes help the garment fit the bodycurve in the area near the seam (Figure 58). Theyoke seam serves as a dart equivalent by incorpo-rating the dart shape into the seam. Yokes called

(d)

(b)(a)

(c)

Figure 56 Darts: (a) stitched, tapering at the point, inside the garment, (b) single-pointed, (c) French, and (d) double-pointed.

RightSideFrontDress

Center Front

LeftSideFront

(f)(e)

(d)(c)

(b)(a)

Sleeve

BodiceBack

BodiceBack

BodiceBack

BodiceFront

BodiceFront

Bodice Front

SkirtBack

SkirtFront

Figure 57 Shaded areas show dart-substitute effect of seams: (a) skirt side seam, (b) bodice side seam, (c) shoulder seam, (d) armscye (armhole) seam, (e) princessline dress, and (f) princess seams.

risers often substitute for darts at pants and skirtwaistlines. Midriff yokes fit the garment close to thebody below the bust. Yokes are frequently used in thebacks of shirts and blouses to fit the garment throughthe shoulder blade area. They are also used in thefronts of shirts, as in Western-style yokes. Inmenswear these yokes are merely decorative featuresthat provide no shaping, but in womenswear theyoften incorporate pleats or shirring to allow for abetter fit through the bust area.

Split yokes feature a seam at the center back ofthe yoke. Split yokes (risers) in the backs of womensjeans can improve fit considerably. In custom-madeshirts, a split yoke represents better fit because thecenter back seam is shaped to fit the individual. Inready-to-wear shirts, a split yoke serves no practicalpurpose, but manufacturers sometimes use them as atool to create an impression of custom-made qualityor to achieve better fabric utilization when planningthe marker.

Gores. Gores are vertical divisions within a gar-ment, usually tapered panels seamed together to addshape to a garment. They serve as dart equivalents byincorporating the dart shape in the seams. Skirts arefrequently gored (Figure 59). Two-gore skirts con-tain two panels, four-gore skirts contain four panels,and so on. The more gores, the higher the labor costs;however, the use of several small gores often achieveshigher material utilization than a few large gores.

Gores are not always dart substitutes. Sometimesmanufacturers add gores to narrow fabrics in order towiden them for cutting out garments with largepieces, for example, circular skirts.

Fullness. Garments may fit the body simply by al-lowing enough fullness in the fabric. Fullness may bethe result of releasing darts or of adding extra full-ness. This added style fullness may be controlled by ease, gathers, shirring, smocking, elastic, or drawstrings.

Released Darts. Sometimes fullness is achieved by re-leasing (not stitching) darts; released darts result ina straight silhouette rather than a fitted garment. Areleased dart allows the fabric to cover the intendedbody curve without fitting the fabric closely to thecurve.

It is a common practice to release darts in todaysready-to-wear because of the popularity of loose-fitting clothing; darts are usually released in combi-nation with the addition of extra style fullness to thearea. Releasing darts reduces cost. However, it lowersquality to release the darts in close-fitting, tailoredclothing unless the dart is substituted for by anothershaping method

Style Fullness. Extra fullness, or style fullness, can beadded to a garment, so that the additional fabriccovers the body curves (Figure 510). When looseclothing styles are popular, extra style fullness is themost common dart substitute. Extra style fullness al-lows the garment to fit a wider range of sizes thanmany other shaping methods. Fabric panels are cutlarger to introduce additional style fullness to the gar-

120 CHAPTER 5

(a) (b) (c)Figure 58 (a) Split yoke/riser in pants, (b) midriff yoke,and (c) back shoulder yoke in shirt (dotted line indicatesseam placement for split yoke).

Figure 59 (a) Four-gore skirt, (b) six-gore skirt, (c) eight-gore skirt, and (d) skirt with godets.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

SHAPE, SILHOUETTE, STYLE: FOCUS ON DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 121

ment, adding significantly to the fabric costs of thegarment. The extra fabric is eased, gathered, elasti-cized, pulled up with a drawstring, pleated, tucked,shirred, smocked, or left uncontrolled. Although itaffects fit, extra style fullness usually is added forstyle reasons. (See section on Silhouette and Stylelater in this chapter.)

Ease. Ease is imperceptible fullness that is incorpo-rated on one side of a seam and stitched in place(Figure 511). Designers use easing to join two fabricedges of slightly different lengths, easing the longeredge to fit the shorter edge. Easing aids the setting offitted sleeves, sewing garments to waistbands, andsewing seams such as princess seams together, wherethe edges to be joined are not identical in length.Easing releases about the same amount of fullness asa dart for an area where the body curve is slight. Forexample, easing is used as a dart substitute at theelbow of fitted sleeves. Ease often substitutes for theback shoulder dart in tailored jackets. In low-qualitygarments, neither a dart nor ease is used at theshoulder, causing poor fit in the shoulder blade area.Easing requires the same amount of fabric and lesslabor than sewing a dart but is seldom used in mass-produced garments.

Gathers. Gathering is the drawing together of a seriesof small folds of fabric called gathers. The gathers arecontrolled and stitched in place. Gathers provide vis-ible fullness. Operators join two fabric edges of dif-ferent lengths by gathering the longer edge to fit theshorter edge. Gathers serve as a dart substitute or tocontrol added style fullness. The more style fullnessadded, the fuller the gathers (Figure 511). If verylittle style fullness is added, the gathers may lookskimpy. Full gathers require two-and-one-half to

three times as much fabric as a flat, ungathered panel.Full gathers are usually confined to high-price linesbecause of the added fabric costs. Less full gathers re-quire only one-and-one-half to two times as muchfabric as a flat panel. They may result in strained-looking gathers where the fabric releases minimalfullness over a large body curve. Lightweight fabricsmust be much more fully gathered than heavier fab-rics for a generous appearance, requiring more fabric.Gathers in bloused areas, such as puffed sleeves, re-quire additional fabric length as well as width toavoid a pulled and taut lengthwise appearance.

Gathers can take the place of darts in fitting thegarment to the body. For example, gathers at the frontneckline of womens dresses provide fullness over thebust. Gathers in womens swimsuits at the side seamsnear the hips and/or along the leg openings providefit and coverage for the buttocks.

Gathers provide a soft, feminine look. They aremore attractive in lightweight fabrics than in heavyfabrics. Gathers do not distort geometrically pat-terned fabrics, such as plaids, the way darts do.

Smocking. Smocking uses decorative stitches to holdthe fabric in even, accordion-like pleats (Figure512a). While mainly decorative, smocking may

(a) (b)Figure 510 Gathers: (a) as dart equivalent, and (b) withextra style fullness.

a

b

c

Figure 511 Set-in sleeves: (a) eased into armscye, (b) slightly gathered, and (c) fully gathered.

serve as a dart substitute. Smocking is popular in thechest area of infants and girls clothing; it givesslightly and enables the garment to grow with thechild. Smocking is used occasionally in womenswear.Most smocking is done by machine. Smocking doneby hand, found in high-price imported infantwearand childrenswear, is time-consuming and costly.

Shirring. Shirring incorporates parallel rows ofgathers made in the body of the garment. Somepeople in the industry use the term shirring as a syn-onym for gathering. Shirring made with elastic threadstretches and helps shape the garment to the body(Figure 512b). Shirring may be done throughoutthe garment, as in a womans tube top, or in a limitedarea, as at the bustline of a womans swimsuit. Someshirring is strictly decorative and provides noshaping.

Elastic. Elastic serves as a dart substitute by drawingup the longer fabric of the garment to the shorterlength of the elastic. Thus elastic applications oftenresemble gathering. The biggest advantage of elasticin ready-to-wear is its stretch. However, even thoughelastic stretches to fit a wider range of sizes than othershaping methods, that range has a limit; too-looseelastic does not hold the garment in place properlyand too-tight elastic is uncomfortable for the wearer.Elastic serves as a closure because it allows the gar-ment to stretch for dressing and undressing butdraws up to fit closely when the garment is worn. Adisadvantage of elastic is that it may lose its ability torecover from stretch over time and need replacing forthe garment to remain wearable.

Applied elastic is stitched directly onto the gar-ment to add shape where desired. (Examples areshown in Chapter 11, Figures 1124 and 1125.)Elastic is often used at the waistline of garments, at

necklines, at the lower edges of sleeves and pant legs,and anywhere a gathered look and close fit are de-sired. It is especially suited for casual garments andchildrenswear, and less suited to tailored garments.Applied elastic is usually found inside the garment.However, elastic is sometimes applied on the outsideof the garment, mainly in sportswear or underwear.When elastic is applied on the outside of the gar-ment, it is usually colorful or otherwise decorative,such as stretch lace in lingerie.

Casings are tunnels of fabric through whichelastic or a drawstring is threaded to provide shape tothe garment. (Examples appear in Chapter 11,Figures 1125 and 1126.) Although bulkier, casingsare generally more comfortable to wear than appliedelastic because fabric rather than elastic contacts theskin. Care must be taken to prevent the elastic fromtwisting inside the casing. Casings generally addmore cost to the garment than applied elastic be-cause of the additional fabric and construction stepsrequired.

When elastic is attached at a specific distance froma garment edge, the fabric that extends beyond theelastic forms a ruffle when the elastic relaxes. Thisruffle is called a header. (See Chapter 11, Figure1126.)

Drawstrings. Drawstrings are narrow tubes, cords,or strips of fabric inserted into casings in place of orin addition to elastic (see Chapter 11, Figure 1126.)They are pulled up and tied to shape the garment tothe body. The drawstring controls garment fullness,pulling it up to fit or letting it out for dressing andundressing. Drawstrings are commonly used at thewaist of sweatpants, windbreaker jackets, and mensswim trunks; they are also used to fit hood openingsaround the face. Remember that drawstrings are notappropriate for use on the hoods of infants and chil-drens garments, where they pose a potential stran-gling and choking hazard.

Miscellaneous Dart Substitutes. Besides darts,seams, and fullness, garments may get their shapefrom stretch fabrics, bias-cut pieces, pleats, tucks,gussets, godets, full-fashioned knits, or lacing.

Stretch Fabrics. Stretch fabrics stretch over bodycurves to help the garment fit. Fabrics that stretchonly slightly may require the use of additionalshaping methods; high-stretch fabrics need no addi-tional shaping methods beyond the ability to stretchto the shape of the body. Therefore, no extra fabric orlabor costs are required. Stretch fabrics allow the gar-ment to fit a wider range of people than most othershaping methods. For example, most swimwear anddancewear fits closely through its ability to stretch to

122 CHAPTER 5

Figure 512 (a) Smocking and (b) shirring.

(a) (b)

SHAPE, SILHOUETTE, STYLE: FOCUS ON DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 123

the size and shape of the wearer and to accommodatemovement by stretching. Bias-cut pieces function likestretch fabrics by providing close fit but stretchingover body curves and giving when the wearermoves.

Pleats and Tucks. Pleats are decorative, unstitchedfolds of fabric that often serve as dart substitutes, cre-ating shape and releasing fullness. Trouser pleats area good example of pleats that are dart substitutes. Notall pleats incorporate shape into a garment; many aremerely decorative. Tucks are stitched folds of fabricthat are usually ornamental. They occasionally serveas dart substitutes, as when used to shape the gar-ment at the waist. For more information about tucksand pleats, see the sections on Tucks and Pleats laterin this chapter.

Gussets. Gussets are pieces of fabric set into a seamor seam intersection to provide body-conformingshape and fullness in a garment (Figure 513). Mostgussets are triangular or diamond-shaped, althoughsome dancers costumes feature circular gussets toprovide mobility. Gussets are used in the underarmseams of garments with kimono sleeves and in thecrotch seams of sweatpants and in infants and tod-dlers clothes to make room for diapers. Karate pantsand shirts feature huge gussets that provide freedomof movement for kicking and punching. High-qualitygloves have gussets between the fingers for improvedfinger mobility. Gussets reduce strain and wrinkling,making the garment comfortable to wear and pro-longing its life.

A good-quality gusset has sharp, even points; apoorly set gusset puckers or develops holes at thepoints. Gussets add to cost because of the extra fabricand skilled labor required.

Godets. Godets are triangular fabric pieces set into aseam or slash, usually at the hem of the garment(Figure 59d). Godets produce decorative fullness;they are mainly used in skirts but sometimes are usedto cause pant or jacket hems to flare. A well-madegodet has a sharp point and does not develop holes atthe point.

Full-Fashioned Knits. Full-fashioned knits are a sign ofquality shaping. Full-fashioned marks represent in-creases or decreases in the number of stitches in aknitted garment section, a result of shaping thepiece. Each part of a full-fashioned knit garment isknitted to the desired size and shape, not cut from alarge piece of fabric. The shaped pieces are sewn to-gether for an accurately sized and shaped garmentthat maintains its shape and does not twist. But full-fashioned knitwear is slower and more costly to pro-duce than are garments cut from knit fabrics. And itrequires a longer lead time because the style of thegarment must be determined before the knittingprocess begins. Sometimes manufacturers of gar-ments cut from knit fabrics use stitches or fusing tocreate mock full-fashioned marks, which look sim-ilar but contain none of the real advantages of gen-uine full-fashioned marks. To identify full-fashionedgarments, notice the increase or decrease in thenumber of stitches in genuine full-fashioned marksat shaped seams, for example, at the armscye seam ofsweaters (Figure 514).

Lacing. Lacing operates on a principle similar todrawstrings. Cords or ties are threaded through eye-lets, grommets, or buttonholes in the garment as inthe lacing of a shoe. The lacing is pulled to shape andfit the garment and tied to fasten the opening.

Figure 513 Gusset in underarm area. Figure 514 Full-fashioned marks at sweater armscye.

Supporting the Shape

The shape of a garment is enhanced and preserved byunderlying fabrics including interfacing, lining, un-derlining, and interlining. Other supporting methodsmay also be used to achieve or maintain the desiredshape.

Underlying Fabrics. Most garments made fromwoven fabrics contain one or more underlying fab-rics. (For more information on underlying fabrics,see Chapter 8.) Although not visible from the outsideof the garment, these materials help maintain the gar-ments shape and/or lend it other qualities such asdurability and warmth. Eliminating underlying fab-rics to reduce costs results in limp garments that donot maintain their original shape; the garments tendto wrinkle and stretch out of shape.

The main, outer fabric from which a garment ismade is called the body, fashion, or shell fabric.Underlying fabrics or supporting fabrics are insidethe garment; they lend support to the garment andhelp maintain its shape. The four types of underlyingfabrics include (1) interfacing, (2) lining, (3) inter-lining, and (4) underlining. These terms are usedconsistently throughout this text and are defined inthis chapter. However, they are used loosely, some-times interchangeably, in the apparel industry. Forexample, the terms interlining and lining are com-monly used to refer to what is (technically) inter-facing. And underlining (technically) is commonlycalled lining.

The presence of supporting fabrics in a garment isusually a sign of quality. Few consumers make a pur-chase decision based on the underlying fabrics of agarment, but ultimate satisfaction with the aestheticand functional performance of any garment is af-fected by its supporting fabrics. The choice of under-lying fabrics depends on the design, fabric, and end

use of the garment. Waistbands that roll, collars andlapels that bubble, and knees, elbows, seats, andpockets that bag can be avoided if the manufacturercarefully selects and correctly applies supporting fab-rics. However, the addition of underlying fabrics to agarment increases production costs in terms of bothmaterials and labor.

Interfacing. Interfacing is a supporting fabric usedin almost all garments. Interfacing lends body, shape,and reinforcement to limited areas. Collars, collarbands, cuffs, buttons and buttonholes, pockets,waistbands, and other small design details are usuallyinterfaced. In tailored coats and jackets, the shoul-ders and lapels are interfaced; in better coats andjackets, the designer or patternmaker also interfacesthe armholes, patch pockets, sleeve hems, garmenthem, and sometimes the entire garment front (Figure515).

Interfacing is usually hidden between the garmentand its facing, which explains the name interfacing(Figure 516). Rub the garment between thumb andfingers or separate the fabric plies to determine ifthere is interfacing enclosed between two plies; iffusible interfacing is used, one fabric ply will feel sig-nificantly stiffer than the other.

Lining. Lining is nearly a replica of the garment,constructed of lightweight fabric and sewn inside thegarment with seam allowances reversed to provide afinished inside appearance. A lining

1. covers the garments seam allowances, making theinside attractive when the garment is taken off

2. makes seam finishes minimal or unnecessary, be-cause seam allowances are not exposed

3. makes the garment more comfortable to wear. Thelining fabric acts as a buffer between the wearersskin and the garment body fabric, seam al-lowances, and other inner construction details of

124 CHAPTER 5

(a) (b)Figure 515 Shaded areas should beinterfaced in (a) shirt and (b) jacket.

SHAPE, SILHOUETTE, STYLE: FOCUS ON DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 125

the garment, especially important when the gar-ment is made of a rough or scratchy fabric.

4. aids the wearer in slipping the garment on and off5. extends the life of the garment by absorbing some

of the stress, strain, and abrasion of wear6. provides extra body, shape, and support, making

the garment look smoother and less apt towrinkle. The lining helps to prevent the garmentfrom stretching out of shape, especially in stressareas such as elbows or knees.

7. provides opacity, an advantage for garments withsheer body fabrics

8. can provide extra warmth, which may or may notbe an advantage, depending on the weather

In general, garments with full linings are consid-ered higher quality than those without. A fully linedgarment requires nearly twice as much fabric andlabor as an unlined garment, which increases manu-facturing costs significantly. Manufacturers use par-tial linings in some garments; a partial lining extendsonly through the areas that require shaping and rein-forcement rather than throughout the entire garment.Partial linings are common from the shoulder to thechest (called a 3/8 lining) in the back of tailoredjackets and from the waist to below the knees inslacks (Figure 517). Although partial linings costless than full linings, they do not lower quality if theyextend through the necessary areas. In fact, a partiallining may be more desirable than a full lining inclothing such as summer suits and sports jackets, be-cause partial linings are cooler to wear and lighter in

weight than full ones. High-quality mens jacketswith a 3/8 lining usually have booked seams (seeChapter 10) and otherwise impeccable inner con-struction. Occasionally, partially lined garments areof higher quality than similar, fully lined garments, ifthe patternmaker used the lining in the fully linedgarment to compensate for a low-quality fashionfabric and poor inner construction.

ba

Figure 516 Blouses (a) with and (b) without interfacingat center front to support buttons and buttonholes.

Figure 517 Partial lining in summer weight jacket. Noteease pleat at center back of lining and booked seams.

Figure 518 Inside of an underlined dress.

Detachable linings are installed so they can bezipped or buttoned in and out of garments, for ex-ample, all-weather coats and jackets. They make gar-ments versatile for wearing in different kinds ofweather but add significantly to cost because themain garment inner construction must be finished towithstand being worn without the lining and amethod for attachment must be included.

Single garment pieces such as pockets, yokes, orbibs may be lined for added strength or support. Ora small piece of lining may be used in areas subject to

abrasion, such as the inner thigh area of pants. Thisnot only protects the fashion fabric from abrasion butimproves the wearers comfort, especially if the gar-ment is made of a scratchy fabric.

Underlining. Underlining involves lining eachmajor piece of the garment individually. Underlininga garment is less costly than lining it because under-lining requires extra fabric but little additional labor(except in cutting). Underlining performs many, butnot all, of the functions of lining. Like lining, an

126 CHAPTER 5

PalazzoBaggiesBell BottomsStraight Leg

Knickers Gauchos

Straight A-line Flared Gathered/Dirndl

Trumpet Peg Top Circular

Blouson Camisole Tank/MuscleCropped/

Bare Midriff

SmockVestShell Peasant

TOPS

SKIRTS

PANTS

Figure 519 Examples of garment styles: pants, skirts, tops, jackets, and dresses.

SHAPE, SILHOUETTE, STYLE: FOCUS ON DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 127

underlining provides body, strength, and support tothe garment, making it look smooth and preventing itfrom sagging or stretching. In fact, underlining pro-vides even greater support and body than lining sinceeach piece of the garment is individually supported.Underlining provides opacity, preventing sheer ortranslucent fabrics from being seen through. Limp,unstable fabrics often require underlining, especiallyin stress areas or for construction details that demandextra body.

In some instances, underlining is preferable tolining. Underlining, unlike lining, prevents the seamallowances and other construction details fromshowing through to the outside of garments made ofsheer or translucent fabrics such as lace. Therefore,underlinings, rather than linings, are often used inwedding and other formal gowns made of these fab-rics. Underlinings are also used in areas prone tostretching, such as seats, knees, and elbows, wherethey are superior to linings in preventing stretch.Remember, an underlined garment has all seam al-lowances and other construction details exposed on

the inside, whereas in a lined garment, inside detailsare covered by the lining (Figure 518).

Compared to lining, some disadvantages of under-lining are that it

1. does not protect the skin from irritation by seamallowances of the garment body fabric

2. does not make the garment more attractive on theinside

3. does not make the garment easy to slip on and off4. does not prevent seam allowances from raveling

Interlining. An insulative interlining is appliedstrictly for additional warmth; these interlinings mayincidentally add support and shape by their pres-ence. Designers include interlinings in cold-weatherclothing such as coats and jackets. Any material in-serted for warmth between the garment body fabricand the lining constitutes an interlining. Interliningmaterials trap air, providing insulation from the cold.A garments interlining cannot be seen unless thelining is lifted. Interlinings increase both material andlabor costs.

Bolero Chanel Cardigan Blazer/Single Breasted

DoubleBreasted Safari

Spencer Battle

Shift/Chemise/

Sack

Sheath Trent/Trapeze

Shirtwaist

JACKETS

DRESSES

Figure 519 Continued

128 CHAPTER 5

Supporting Devices. Supporting devices are incor-porated into garments to achieve or maintain the de-sired shape. Examples of devices that may supportthe shape of the garment and provide the fashion-correct silhouette include belts (although these maybe strictly decorative), shoulder pads, chest pieces,sleeve heads, bridles and other seam stays, collarstays, bra cups, boning, hoops, bustles, horsehairbraid, and weights. All add to material and laborcosts. See Chapter 8 for definitions and more infor-mation about choosing these supporting devices.

SILHOUETTE AND STYLE

The silhouette and style of a garment are importantaspects of quality because of their strong relationshipto aesthetic performance. Whether or not a style ex-hibits the design principles of balance, proportion,rhythm, emphasis, and unity affects its acceptance.Balance refers to the distribution of visual weight,both horizontally and vertically, within the garment.Proportion refers to how well individual garmentparts relate to the whole garment. Rhythm occurswhen the garment possesses a feeling of directionalmovement, often achieved through repetition ofsome design element. Emphasis requires the gar-ment to have a clear focal point. And unity defineshow well all parts of the design work together the-matically. Current fashion trends, personal prefer-ences, and end use also affect the evaluation of aes-thetics. Though the aesthetic evaluation of garmentstyle is beyond the scope of this text, an introductionto the design features that are used to create styles ispresented. (For more information, see Related Re-sources: Design and Style at the end of the text.) Agood vocabulary of style terms is necessary in allphases of apparel analysis because it enables accu-rate communication. The ability to use correct ter-minology is also important in designing, writingspecifications and promotions, and selling apparelproducts.

The silhouette of a garment is its outline or shape.The style of a garment or garment part results fromits silhouette and other identifying characteristics. Aparticular style of garment usually refers to the cut ofits structural lines in a manner that has become rec-ognized, accepted and named (Davis, 1996). Detailsadded to the garment also help differentiate styles. Ingeneral, however, the color, fabric, and other detailsmay change, but the style remains the same as long asits identifying style elements do not change. The keyto identifying a style is knowing what characteristicsmake it unique. A style is different from in style,which suggests currently fashionable.

Along with changes in fashions, style names tendto evolve over time; as a style loses favor, its name isdropped from common usage. When the style returnsto popularity, whether it happens years, decades, oreven centuries later, it often receives a new name. Thepopularity of various names for the same stylechanges as fashions change, with newer terms takingpreference over more standard terms. Therefore, al-ways be alert to multiple names for the same style and tochanges in and additions to your style vocabulary. A fewstyles are illustrated in this chapter to provide an in-troduction to style names. However, to develop acomprehensive style vocabulary, refer to RelatedResources: Design and Style at the end of the text.

Garment Silhouettes

Basic, fitted garments are illustrated in Figure 55.Varying the silhouette of a garment yields differentstyles. Silhouette is determined by the amount andlocation of fullness in the garment and the methodsfor controlling the fullness. (See sections on ShapingMethods earlier in this chapter.) The silhouette of agarment can take many forms. Figure 519 illustratesa few silhouettes for pants, skirts, tops, jackets, anddresses, and the associated style names.

Garment Lengths

Historically, garment lengths have been a vital indi-cator of the current fashion and the popular silhou-ette. The terms for garments of various lengths are il-lustrated in Figure 520. Beyond the longest length,skirts extend into trains that drag on the floor whenthe wearer walks. Wedding dresses may featurechapel length or the longer cathedral length trains.

Edge Treatment Styles

For information on hem styles as well as other gar-ment edge treatments such as facings, bindings, andbands, see Chapter 10. Plackets to finish openings onwaistlines, sleeves, necklines, and pant legs are alsodiscussed in Chapter 10.

Waistlines

Where the waistline of a garment is located in rela-tion to the wearers waist has a significant effect onthe silhouette and style of the garment. Most waist-lines fall at or near the wearers natural waistline(Figure 521). Menswear waistlines typically fall at ornear the natural waistline. Womenswear waistlinesare much more variable and tend to rise and fall withfashion changes. Dropped waistlines fall between the

SHAPE, SILHOUETTE, STYLE: FOCUS ON DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 129

waist and hips. In hip huggers, the waistline falls athip level. (The term hip huggers applies to bottomsonly.) High-rise waistlines occur slightly above thenatural waistline. Empire waistlines occur underthe bustline. (The term empire applies to femaleclothing only.) Current fashions help determine thelevel of the waistline.

Figure 521 illustrates a few common waistlinestyles. Waistlines within the body of the garment, asin a dress, can be fitted to the body by darts or dartsubstitutes such as pleats, seams, or elastic.Waistlines at garment edges may also be banded,faced, or finished by other edge treatment methods.(For more information, see Chapters 11 and 12.)

Necklines

Ready-to-wear apparel features a variety of necklineshapes and finishes. The neckline edge is cut into thedesired shape, and the raw edge of the neckline is fin-ished by any edge treatment such as facing, binding,or banding. Figure 522 illustrates a few commonneckline styles.

Collars

A collar, or any band applied to the garment neck-line, is mainly decorative, although it is sometimesfunctional in keeping the neck warm or dry or pro-tecting it from the sun. A collar increases the cost of a

SHORTS

SKIRTS

Micro MiniBikini

Mini

Above KneeKneeBelow KneeMidcalf

MidiMaxiAnkleFloor

ShortRehearsalJamaica/JamsBermuda

Deck

Pedal Pushers/Clam DiggersToreador

Capri

Classic

(Above Knee)

SLACKS(Below Knee)

Figure 520 Skirt andpant lengths.

(h)(g)(f)(e)

(d)(c)(b)(a)

EmpireHighNaturalDroppedHip Hugger

Figure 521 (a) Waistline levels, (b)straight waistband, (c) contour waistband,(d) waistline seam, (e) faced waistline(dotted line represents facing inside thegarment), (f) and (g) elasticized casings atgarment edges, and (h) elasticized casingwithin body of garment.

garment because it requires additional fabric andlabor. (For more information, see Chapter 12.)

There are three basic collar types: (1) flat, (2)standing, and (3) rolled (either full-roll or partial-roll). The shape of the collars inner edge or necklineedge determines the collar type. The shape of acollars outer edge determines its style. Figure 523illustrates a few common collar styles.

A flat collar lies flat or nearly flat against the gar-ment all around the wearers neck. If the inner edge ofthe collar is shaped in a concave curve, matching theneckline edge, the result is a flat collar, for example, asailor collar. Flat collars are used mainly on wom-enswear and childrenswear, rarely on menswear.

A standing collar is a band extending straight upfrom the neckline edge and standing up around theneck. If the inner edge of the collar is fairly straight,the result is a standing collar, for instance, a man-darin collar. A cowl is actually a standing collar cuthigh above the neckline so that it falls into folds.

A rolled collar is a band of fabric that rolls fully orpartially around the neck. A full-roll collar rolls allthe way around the neck; a partial-roll collar rolls atthe back of the neck and lies flat or nearly flat at thefront of the neck. Full-roll collars, such as turtle-necks, have a fairly straight inner edge. They are likea standing collar, except that a full-roll collar is cutwider and folded down. The part of the collar that

stands up next to the neck forms the collar stand, andthe portion that is folded over forms the collar fall(Figure 524). If the inner edge of the collar is a con-cave curve somewhere between a straight line and theshape of the neckline, the result is a partial-roll collar,for instance, a convertible collar. The more concavethe inner curve, the less the collar rolls. In a partial-roll collar, the fold at the back of the collar graduallytapers toward center front, where the collar lies flat ornearly flat.

The standard collar on a mans dress shirt is a mix-ture of two types; it consists of a standing collar witha full-roll collar inserted and sewn into the upperedge of the neckband to create the collar fall. Shirtcollars are costly because of the extra labor and mate-rials required; they are essentially the construction oftwo collars in one. However, the production of shirtcollars is completely or partially automated so theycan be accurately produced at a moderate cost.

Sleeves

A sleeve is a covering for the arm that is attached ator near the armhole, or armscye, area of the garment.Sleeves are functional in providing modesty, warmth,or protection but are equally important for their con-tribution to the style of the garment; they are an im-portant feature of the garment silhouette. They

130 CHAPTER 5

Plain/Jewel Keyhole

V Scoop

SweetheartBateau/

BoatCrew

Halter

DcolletageGathered

CowlBib

Bow Henley Tab

Queen AnneFigure 522 Examples of necklinestyles.

SHAPE, SILHOUETTE, STYLE: FOCUS ON DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 131

should be designed and constructed to flatter the gar-ment and the wearer. (For more information, seeChapter 12.)

A sleeveless garment has no sleeves to finish itsarmhole edges. Consequently, the armholes of a

sleeveless garment must be treated to finish the rawedges, usually by facing or binding.

All sleeve styles fall into one of three main types:(1) set-in sleeves, (2) raglan sleeves, and (3) kimonosleeves. Figure 525 illustrates some sleeve styles;variations in sleeve length are also illustrated. Set-insleeves are the most common type. A set-in sleeve re-sembles a tube hanging from the armhole. Kimonosleeves are cut as one with the body of the garment.A raglan sleeve is recognizable by its characteristicdiagonal seam, which runs from the underarm to theneckline of the garment. The diagonal seam attachesthe tapered sleeve panel to the body of the garment(see Figure 710 in Chapter 7). Raglan sleeves pro-vide greater comfort and more reaching room thanother sleeve types. They are a good choice for activesportswear and in clothing for people in wheelchairsor on crutches, who require great range and freedomof arm movement. Because they do not restrainmovement, raglan sleeves are also suitable in clothingfor elderly people or others with limited mobility.Gussets in the underarm area of kimono sleeves canalso add freedom of arm movement. Dolman sleevesare non-set-in sleeves cut deep under the arm, cre-ating fullness under the arm and through the bust-

Convertible(Unbuttoned)

Pointed Shirt(unbuttoned)

Polo/TabShawl

has seam atcenter back

Stand Up Edwardian

Ascot Jabot

Mandarin Turtleneck

Peter Pan Portrait PuritanChelsea

Sailor

Back View

Cowl Wing

Peaked LapelsFigure 523 Examples of collar styles.

StandRollLine

GorgeLine

Lapel

Fall

Figure 524 Parts of a classic, notched collar and lapels.

line. They may be cut without an armscye seam, likekimono sleeves, or with a square-cut vertical seam tothe shoulders, more closely resembling a raglan.

Cuffs

Cuffs are the banded or turned-back finishes at thelower edges of sleeve and pant legs. Crisp, well-madecuffs contribute to the overall appearance of a gar-ments quality.

Most cuffs are a band of fabric applied to the loweredge of a sleeve that extends or lengthens the sleeveas it finishes the lower edge. They control the fullnessof the sleeve to fit the wrist, or the arm in the case ofshort sleeves. Cuffs may be decorative and of variouswidths and shapes. Wide cuffs and complex cuffshapes add to costs. On basic garments, the repetitivecuffing operation may be automated. This enables themanufacturer to achieve uniform results at a mod-erate cost. (For more information, see Chapter 12.)

Open-band cuffs have an opening so the wearercan fit the cuff band over the hand and then fasten itto fit snugly. Open-band cuffs include the followingtypes:

1. Barrel cuff or shirt cuff, the most common type;it is a straight, open-band cuff style. Long-sleeved

shirts and blouses usually feature barrel cuffs. Thebarrel cuff laps and buttons at the wrist. (Exam-ples are shown in Chapter 10, Figures 1034,1035, 1036, and 1037.)

2. Convertible cuff, an open band that fastens withlayers superimposed to resemble a French cuff.

3. French cuff or double-cuff, the most formal styleof open-band cuff (Figure 526). The French cuffis constructed like the barrel cuff but twice as

132 CHAPTER 5

Kimono Raglan

Set-In

Cutaway

SleevelessBasic Armscye

Dropped ShoulderCap

Short

Above Elbow

ElbowBracelet or 3/4

7/8Wrist

Long

Sleeve Lengths(fitted sleeve illustrated)

Puffed Melon/Balloon

Bell Petal Draped

Two-Piece/Tailored(Back View)

Bishop Leg oMutton

Angel Shirt

Figure 525 Sleeve lengths and styles.

Figure 526 Monogrammed French cuff.

SHAPE, SILHOUETTE, STYLE: FOCUS ON DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 133wide. Then the cuff is folded back on itself so thecuff is doubled. The opening edges are superim-posed rather than lapped and fastened with cufflinks or studs through the buttonhole in eachlayer. French cuffs require considerably morefabric and more labor than barrel cuffs. Because oftheir high production costs, French cuffs aremainly found in high-priced apparel and are mostsuitable to somewhat formal styles. For example,they are not used on button-down, oxford clothshirts but on dressier shirts of fine broadcloth andon womens dresses.

A closed-band cuff is an unbroken ring of fabriclarge enough to fit over the arm. Closed-band cuffsare inexpensive. Turned-back cuffs on sleeves andcuffed pants are formed by turning back or rolling upthe lower portion of the sleeve or pant leg.

Pockets

A pocket is a small pouch or bag sewn onto or into agarment and used to carry small items. Concealedpockets are strictly functional. Nonfunctional, fakepockets used to complement a garments design arestrictly decorative. However, most pockets are bothfunctional and decorative. Functional pockets in-clude special-purpose pockets, such as watchpockets in jeans, ruler pockets in carpenters pants,game pockets in hunting clothes, ticket pockets inmens suit jackets, key pockets in jogging shorts, andhidden money pockets in travel clothing. Thesepockets are shaped, sized, and reinforced accordingto their special purposes.

For a pocket to be functional, it must be posi-tioned at a convenient level and angle (for example,pockets in work uniforms). Pockets should be wideand deep enough to accommodate hands and/oritems they are intended to hold. Pockets designedand placed to complement the garment design and toflatter the wearer contribute to aesthetics. If a gar-ment features pockets on each side, pockets shouldbe identical and level with one another. If the gar-ment is made of a fabric with a pattern (e.g., plaid orstripe), a matched pocket reflects attention to qualitybut adds cost (see Chapter 4).

Pockets usually contribute to consumer satisfac-tion. Pockets are very important in work clothing andactive sportswear, and children are especially fond ofpockets in their clothing. Pockets may not seem vitalat the time of purchase, but later the wearer may wishfor a pocket when he or she needs a place to puthands, glasses, wallet, or keys. Pockets are sometimesleft out of garments if they show through the garment

or cause a ridge on the outside of it. However, themain reason for leaving pockets out of a garment is toreduce its price.

The cost of a pocket depends on its complexity,size, and the fabric used. Pockets often feature deco-rative trims, stitchings, or other details. These deco-rative touches add to the cost of the pocket. The ad-dition of pockets must be balanced with cost.Because they require additional materials and labor,pockets add to the overall cost of a garment.Manufacturers can justify the cost of pockets if they are important to consumer satisfaction. Thereare three main types of pockets: (1) patch, (2) in-seam, and (3) slashed. (For more information, seeChapter 11.)

Patch pockets or applied pockets are pieces offabric attached, like a patch, to the outside of the gar-ment. (An example is shown in Chapter 9, Figure917.) Patch pockets tend to look more casual thanother pocket types. Manufacturers routinely usethem on the backs of jeans and the fronts of shirtsand jackets, but patch pockets can be placed onsleeves, pant legs, or anywhere else. Patch pocketscome in many shapes and sizes. Choosing and posi-tioning them is very important because they have agreat effect on the visual impression of the garmenton the wearer. For example, large patch pockets athip level draw attention to the wearers hip size.

In-seam pockets are set into a seam of the gar-ment, usually the side seams of skirts, pants, coats,and dresses. The pocket may be concealed or ex-posed. Concealed in-seam pockets are hidden in theseam of the garment. Exposed in-seam pockets are usu-ally set into the side seam and waistline seam of thegarment; they have a diagonal or curved openingedge offset from the side seam. Manufacturers use ex-posed in-seam pockets on the front hip of jeans (seeFigure 531 later in this chapter) and mens pants(see Chapter 12, Figure 128), where they are oftenreferred to as quarter pockets. Some womens skirtsand pants also feature exposed front-hip pockets.Some jeans contain a watch pocket, a little patchpocket on the facing of an exposed in-seam pocket.

Slashed pockets are finished slits within the bodyof the garment, for example, on tailored jackets andon the back of mens dress pants. Slashed pockets arethe most difficult pockets to construct. If made man-ually, precision is often low. In most cases today,slashed pockets are produced entirely by automation.Since automation became widespread, the overallconsistency and quality of slashed pockets has vastlyimproved and the cost has become lower. But be-cause of the complexity, slashed pockets remain morecostly than other pocket types. The more pieces usedto construct the pocket, the higher the fabric and

134 CHAPTER 5

labor costs. Nonfunctional, fake slashed pockets,with no opening, are found in low-price garments.Most slashed pockets are welt pockets (Figures 527and 528). A single-welt pocket has a single lip usu-ally no more than about 12 inch wide. A double-weltor double-besom pocket has two lips usually nomore than about 14 inch wide each.

Flap pockets have a flap of fabric above thepocket. The flap extends down over the pocketopening. For patch pockets, the flap is sewn on abovethe pocket. (Examples are shown in Chapter 4,Figure 412 and Chapter 10, Figure 1028.) For in-seam pockets, the flap is sewn at the opening edge.For welt pockets, the pocket flap is placed above thesingle lips or between the double lips of the pocket.The breast pocket of many tailored jackets provide anexample of an upturned-flap pocket, a flap that ex-tends up (not down like a regular flap).

Decorative Details Integral to the Garment

Some decorative details are constructed as part of thegarment. For example, fabric may be raveled out atthe edge to form a fringe called self-fringe. In high-quality garments, a row of stitches just above thefringe prevents further raveling. Leather or vinyl maybe slashed at frequent intervals to form self-fringe.Decorative details that are integral to the garment in-

Figure 527 Pockets: (a) flap with no pocket, (b) flap onsingle welt, and (c) double welt.

a

b

c

a

b

c

Figure 528 Pockets: (a) upturned flap with piping, (b) upturned flap, and (c) single welt.

clude tucks, pleats, creases, ruffles, bows, and tabs.Many details constructed as part of the garment arefunctional as well as decorative. For example, tucks,pleats, gathers, style fullness, shirring, smocking,seams such as gores and yokes, and darts decoratethe garment as they help shape it.

Most decorative details integral to the garment aremade with specialized sewing machine attachments.Thus many operations that once required extensiveskilled labor are now automated. (For more informa-tion, see Chapters 11 and 12.)

Tucks. A tuck is a stitched fold of fabric (Figure529). The fold lies flat against the garment, but itcan be lifted. Tucks can be made vertically, horizon-tally, and diagonally on a garment. Most tucks arestitched on the outside of the garment so the folds offabric show on the outside.

Tucks require extra fabric and labor. If a designeruses numerous tucks in a garment, considerablefabric and labor are required. For example, a garmentwith tucks all the way across the front may require

SHAPE, SILHOUETTE, STYLE: FOCUS ON DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 135

three times as much fabric as a garment with a plainfront. Tucks also require skilled labor to carefullyspace and stitch unless tucking folders or pretuckedfabrics are used.

Besides the plain tuck, there are a number of vari-ations, including these:

1. inverted tucks, stitched on the inside of the garmentso the folds of fabric are not visible on the outsideof the garment

2. released tucks, which are partially stitched, re-leasing fullness and introducing ease into the gar-ment (see Chapter 6)

3. dart-tucks or open-ended darts, similar to releasedtucks. They are tapered like darts and the tips areleft unstitched. Dart-tucks shape the garment,serving as a dart substitute.

4. pin tucks, narrow and closely spaced tucks, such asthose in tuxedo shirts

5. spaced tucks, a series of tucks that occur at regularintervals

6. blind tucks, a series of tucks that meet, each onecovering the stitches of the one preceding it

7. scalloped tucks or shell tucks, which feature decora-tive stitching at the edges that draw the tuck into ashell shape (similar to the shell hem in Chapter10, Figure 1026)

8. crossed tucks, two sets of tucks made perpendicularto one another

9. corded tucks, which have a cord inserted in the foldof the tuck to give a three-dimensional effect

Pleats. A pleat is a fold of fabric folded back uponitself so the pleat is comprised of three layers (Figure530). The top fold of the pleat hides the back fold;the pleat can be spread open to see the back fold.Pleats are not stitched to the garment throughouttheir length as are tucks, although occasionally pleatsare partially stitched down at the upper edge toflatten them and hold them in place. Pleats can bepressed or unpressed throughout their length for dif-ferent effects. Soft, rolled pleats are appropriate insoft fabrics. Sharp, pressed pleats must be made in acrisp fabric for the proper effect. Fabrics that can beheat set have the ability to maintain the creases ofpleats. Pleats in other fabrics may be edgestitchedalong the folds for a crisp, well-defined look. Pleatshang vertically on the garment, secured at an upperedge; they cannot be made horizontally or diagonally.Pleat types include these:

1. knife pleat, the basic folded pleat; all pleats arevariations of this pleat. (See Figure 531 later inthis chapter.)

2. box pleats, two knife pleats folded away from oneanother. (See Chapter 12, Figure 122.)

3. inverted pleats, two knife pleats folded toward oneanother. Note the relationship between box andinverted pleats; when either occurs in a series, be-tween every two box pleats an inverted pleat iscreated and vice versa.

Knife pleats, box pleats, and inverted pleats maybe used singly, in small groups (cluster pleats), or allthe way around a garment. They are also used as abasis for the following:

1. kick pleat, a pleat at the hem of a skirt to give roomto walk and sit; it may be a decorative feature aswell

2. vent, an opening at the back hem of jackets, whichallows the garment to expand for walking and sit-ting comfort

3. gibson pleat or flange, a pleat at the intersection ofthe shoulder and the armhole that releases fullnessin the front and/or back of the garment

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (g)(f)

Figure 529 Tucks: (a) spaced, (b) blind, (c) pin, (d) shell,(e) crossed, (f) released, and (g) inverted.

4. accordion pleats, repeated, evenly spaced, openknife pleats

5. sunburst pleats, smaller at the waist and larger asthey near the hem. Accordion and sunburst pleatsare used in skirts.

6. crystal pleats, extremely narrow accordion pleatsused in formal gowns and some ruffle trims

7. cartridge pleats, also called gauging, accordionpleats drawn closed with rows of running stitchesso that they resemble bold, even gathers. They areused in choir, academic, and clerical robes and inhigh-price garments.

Considerable labor is required to accurately spaceand press some pleat styles. Others, when madeusing specially designed work aids, require very littlelabor. When an entire fabric or garment requirespleating, the job is usually sent to a contractor thatspecializes in pleating. The cost difference betweenpleated styles depends upon the depth of the pleats.Shallow pleats require little fabric and are used inlow-cost garments (Figure 531). Deep pleats requireas much as three times the fabric needed for an un-pleated garment. Full-depth pleats, with the backfold as wide as the front fold, look the same asshallow pleats when the wearer stands still but pro-vide more attractive fullness when the wearer moves.They also provide plenty of sitting and moving ease.However, deep pleats are confined to high-price gar-ments because of the cost.

Creases. Creases pressed in pant legs are a decora-tive feature that adds a crisp look to the garment andslims the appearance of the wearer. Front creases startat the hem and end somewhere between the crotchlevel and the waist. Back creases extend from the hemto the crotch level. Fabrics that can be heat set main-tain a sharp crease. In fabrics that cannot be heat set,stitching along the crease helps maintain a sharpcrease line; this is done mainly in childrens garments.

Ruffles. Ruffles or flounces are decorative gath-ered, or pleated strips of fabric. Full ruffles are usu-ally two-and-one-half times or more the length of thearea to which they are gathered. They require morefabric than skimpy ruffles, which may be as little asone-and-one-half times the length of the area towhich they are gathered. Full ruffles are found in

136 CHAPTER 5

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 530 Pleats: (a) knife, (b) edgestitched knife, (c) partially stitched knife, (d) box, (e) inverted, (f) accordion, (g) edgestitched box, and (h) partially stitched box.

Figure 531 Pleats: (a) deep, and (b) shallow.

a

b

SHAPE, SILHOUETTE, STYLE: FOCUS ON DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 137

high-quality garments. Soft, sheer, and lightweightfabrics need to be fuller than other fabrics to avoid askimpy appearance. Ruffles should be even in width.

Bias-cut ruffles drape more gracefully than rufflescut on the straight-of-grain. However, bias-cut rufflesare costly because of the amount of fabric requiredand because seaming the bias pieces together is time-consuming.

Ruffles are made by hemming the long edge of asingle ply of fabric to make a single-layer ruffle, or byfolding a piece of fabric in half lengthwise to make adouble-layer ruffle (Figure 532). Double-layer ruf-fles require twice as much fabric as single-layer ruf-fles; however, double-layer ruffles require less laborbecause they do not require hemming. Most ruffles inlow- and moderate-price lines are single-layer ruffles.Single-layer ruffles have less body than double-layerruffles and are less attractive if the fabric has a rightand wrong side and if the hem shows. However, although double layers are considered a mark ofquality in many cases, they cause more bulk thansingle-layer ruffles and are not suitable for all applications.

Shaped ruffles are cut in a circle and straightenedfor sewing to the garment. This causes an attractiveripple at the outer, unsewn edge but they remainsmooth where they are seamed to the garment(Figure 533). A shaped or gathered ruffle at thewaistline is a peplum; peplums are a decorative stylefeature used in womenswear. Wide, successive rowsof ruffles are called tiers.

Bows. A bow is a ribbon or fabric strip tied into adecorative knot with loops and streamers. Long, fullbows require extra material, making them costly.Fabric bows cut on the bias tie and drape gracefully,but bias-cut bows are costly because they requireextra material. Bows are either (1) an extension of thegarment structure or (2) constructed separately and

then tacked, glued, or pinned in place. Ribbon bowstend to ravel and become bedraggled when laun-dered; in such cases, the bows should be removablefor laundering.

Tabs. A tab is a fabric strip that, when combinedwith a button, buckle, or d-rings serves as a func-tional closure as well as a decorative detail. (For ex-amples, see Chapter 8, Figure 89.) Tabs are fre-quently seen at the wrist of the sleeves of all-weathercoats. They are also used on pockets, necklines, backvents, and elsewhere as the design demands.Epaulets are tabs at the shoulders, often used on mil-itary uniforms, safari outfits, and trench coats.Although epaulets usually serve no function innormal consumer use, they may serve to keepshoulder bag or camera straps from slipping off theshoulder (e.g., safari shirts). Some tabs help shapethe garment to the wearer, for example, buckled tabson the back of vests.

a b

Figure 532 (a) Double-layer ruffle, and (b) single-layer, hemmed ruffle.

(a) (b)Figure 533 (a) Shaped shoulder ruffles and shapedruffle peplum at waist, and (b) gathered shoulder rufflesand gathered ruffle peplum at waist.

Functional Design Considerations

Garments must be planned for more than merely apleasing aesthetic appearance. Not only must a gar-ment possess an attractive style, but it must also func-tion according to its intended use. For example, cer-tain types of clothing, such as lingerie, activesportswear, and occupational clothing, lend them-selves to functional details that help fulfill their spe-cial purpose.

Some groups of consumers require special detailsin the clothing they wear. Special markets includechildrenswear, maternity wear, clothing for maturefigures, and clothing for the physically challenged(for more information on sizing and fit for these mar-kets, see Chapter 6). The people that make up thesespecial markets require clothing with details thatmake garments more functional and well-suited totheir purpose.

Attention to the technical aspects of garment de-sign are as critical to a garments success as the gar-ments aesthetic appearance. A great design is wastedif the wearer cannot put it on or move comfortably init. Every design must be given a reality check. If it isa special-purpose design such as a horseback ridingoutfit or a ballerinas costume, it must be worn duringthat activity. The same principle applies to apparelworn by people in everyday life. It must be tried onand worn by a human being.

Of course, all apparel designs must be planned toaccommodate the wearers usual movements. Can aperson walk, bend, reach, and/or sit in it? Can aperson sleep comfortably in sleepwear? Swim inswimwear? Run in athletic wear?

Equally important is to plan for how the wearerwill put on and take off the garment. Does it go over

the head? The hips? Are garment openings largeenough to accommodate these processes?

The apparel must also be refurbished easily. Can itbe washed? Must it be dry-cleaned? Is the refur-bishing appropriate for the use of the item? All ofthese considerations complement and make possiblea fine design.

Lingerie. Panties made of synthetic fibers usuallyfeature a cotton crotch. This is a quality feature be-cause of the absorbency of cotton, making the gar-ment comfortable to wear.

Some bra and slip straps are made from elas-tomeric materials, which stretch with the wearersmovements for comfort. However, stretch straps maylose their elasticity over time, making the garmentunwearable. A stretch strap that is also adjustablemay be tightened if it loses its elasticity. Adjustablestraps contain a mechanism for loosening and tight-ening, enabling them to fit a variety of figures.

High-quality slips are sometimes constructed withshadow panels. A shadow panel is an extra layer offabric at the center of the slip for modesty; it preventsthe silhouette of the legs from showing throughtranslucent fabrics. Shadow panels increase produc-tion costs.

Active Sportswear. Active sportswear often fea-tures functional details. The following are just a fewof the many functional details that increase the use-fulness of active sportswear.

1. Reflective tape or designs on jogging or bikingclothing worn at night make the wearer visible tovehicles.

2. Slits or laps at the side seams of jogging shortsallow freedom of movement for running.

138 CHAPTER 5

Try a Real-Life Scenario 5-2: Functional Design

A prominent retailer of large womens clothing has repeatedly experienced high customer returns on a particu-larly attractive style of slacks. The slacks sell well and appear to fit well when tried on in the dressing room butare frequently returned to the store after the customer wears them once. The customers report that the slacksare uncomfortable when they are in a sitting position. The slacks pull down excessively in the back and aretight through the front crotch.

Considerations: Should the retailer discontinue carrying the slacks?

Should the retailer pass the cost of the returns on to the manufacturer?

Should the retailer help the manufacturer redesign the slacks?

Should the slacks be sold at a discounted price?

Should the retailer refuse to buy from the vendor in the future?

SHAPE, SILHOUETTE, STYLE: FOCUS ON DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 139

3. Mesh-fabric vents in the underarm area of footballjerseys allow perspiration to evaporate.

4. Grommets (reinforced holes) in the pockets ofswim trunks help water drain away and preventpockets from ballooning out.

5. Rubber buttons on rugby shirts prevent contactbruises that result from hard plastic buttons.

6. Pads in biking shorts cushion the buttocks fromthe bicycle seat.

7. Pads in the chest area of hunting vests help absorbthe impact from the kickback of the gun beingshot.

8. Zippers at the hems of ski pants and warm-up suitshelp the wearer put them on and take them offover ski boots and bulky athletic shoes.

9. Trigger fingers on mittens provide greater graspingdexterity.

Occupational Clothing. Occupational clothing forworkers doing a particular job contains many prac-tical features that protect the wearer, provide conve-nience and comfort, or improve the ease of care orserviceability of the garment. For example, hammerloops on carpenters pants provide a place for hangingtools. Employees in a fabric store may wear apronswith reinforced pockets for scissors. Industrial workersrequire protective clothing. Police require bulletproofvests. Many companies embroider workers names ontheir uniforms to help customers identify them.Other functional details of occupational clothing re-late to fabric characteristics. For example, soldiers re-quire camouflage prints; firefighters need fireproofclothing; surgeons wear gowns that have antibacte-rial, static-free, and low-linting characteristics. An in-depth coverage of occupational clothing is outsidethe realm of our discussion of ready-to-wear; to learnmore, refer to Watkins (1984).

Childrenswear. Infants clothing must help babiesmaintain constant body temperature because theirnatural body thermostat is not yet fully developed.Functional details in infants and toddlers clothingare the snap crotches and inseams; the snaps make dia-pering more convenient. The safety of details onclothing for these age groups is another major con-sideration. Buttons and snaps on infant and toddlerclothing should be securely attached; if closurescome off, the baby may swallow them. On in-fantswear, do not use drawstrings and avoid elasticaround the neck or anywhere that a danger of stran-gulation exists. Also, materials used to make clothingfor children size 2 and under must be nontoxic.Sleepwear should be tight-fitting to avoid catchingfire; loose-fitting sleepwear in sizes larger than 9 months must meet federal flammability standards.For comfort, fabric for young childrens clothing

should be soft, lightweight, absorbent, flexible, ex-tensible, and easy to launder.

Parents appreciate design features that accommo-date a childs growth. Examples include deep hems,raglan or kimono sleeves, generous armholes for set-in sleeves, dresses with undefined waistlines, sepa-rates rather than one-piece outfits, long tails on shirtsand blouses, stretch fabrics, sleeve cuffs that rolldown (pant leg cuffs that roll down can trip thechild), elasticized waistlines or waistlines with ad-justable closures, and adjustable shoulder straps/suspenders. Horizontal growth tucks at the hem orwaist of childrens garments can be let out when thechild grows. The main cost of growth tucks is theextra fabric required. Growth tucks are used to a lim-ited extent in high-price line childrenswear. Becausethe garment has often faded more than the tuckedarea by the time the growth tucks are released, theirvalue is questionable.

Self-help features that assist the child in dressingindependently include conveniently placed, easy-to-manipulate closures and large, stretch, pull-onopenings for neck, arms, and legs. The front of thegarment should be easy to distinguish from the back;for example, marked with an appliqu. Extras such asbelts, sashes, and bows should be pre-tied and at-tached to the garment. Buttons should be flat,smooth, and not excessively large or small but aboutone-half inch in diameter. Buttonholes should belarge enough to accommodate the buttons easily.Large zipper pulls make it easy for a child to operatezippers. Openings should be down the front of thegarment. Hook-and-loop tape rather than traditionalfasteners should be considered.

Childrens coats and snowsuits sometimes featuremitten ties that attach the mittens to the garment witha cord; they prevent the loss of the mittens. Knee andelbow patches add durability to play clothing that re-ceives hard wear. Straps should be secured with loopsat the shoulders so they do not fall off the shoulders.Children like pockets. Pockets, cuffs, trims, andother details should be sewn on flat, not left danglingto catch on things or trip the child. Colors that standout make children easier to see when they areplaying, increasing safety. Nonslip (but breathable forcomfort) soles on footed pajamas are another safetyfeature.

Maternity Wear. Maternity clothing features detailsthat make garments expandable for the expectantmother. Excess fabric is the most common approach.Adjustable openings at the waistline accommodatethe enlarging abdomen. Stretch panels may be in-serted in the abdominal area of maternity-wear bot-toms; stretch panels expand as the abdomen en-larges. They should be long enough and wide enough

to avoid uncomfortable binding. They are usuallyconcealed by long maternity tops.

Nursing garments have openings over the breastsfor convenient breast-feeding. The openings are con-cealed by fabric overlays when not in use.

Clothing for Older Adults. Clothing for olderadults, male and female, needs to be designed pri-marily for comfort. While people over 50 are stillfashion conscious, they put increasing value on beingcomfortable in their clothing. Dissatisfaction with fitis more common among mature women than anyother group. Safety features are very important formature individuals who are not 100% mobile, as arefeatures contributing to freedom of movement andease and independence of dressing. Features meetingthese needs include:

1. fabrics that stretch and give2. roomy armholes3. kimono and raglan sleeves4. short or elbow-length sleeves5. back fullness6. unfitted or elasticized waistlines7. large neck openings8. V-necklines9. long, front openings

10. closures that are easy to grasp, or elasticizedopenings that eliminate the need for hard-to-manipulate closures, especially for those withlimited mobility brought on by strokes orarthritis

Avoid long, loose sleeves that can catch fire onburners or heaters, short openings, back openings,small armholes, and very close-fitting garments.

Clothing for People with Physical Disabilities. Forthe most part, individuals with physical disabilitiesare just as fashion conscious as individuals withoutspecial needs. Their physical disability usually is notas significant or noticeable to them as it is to others.They have either been born with their special needsor have adapted to them. Therefore, people with dis-abilities do not choose clothing any differently thanother people. We all want fashion, fit, and comfort.

Unfortunately, due to the uniqueness of each spe-cial need situation, it is not possible to mass produceappropriate apparel cost-effectively. Therefore, the se-lection of ready-to-wear special clothing is limited.For this reason, individuals with special needs whocan afford to do so may have clothing custom-made.Others may customize ready-to-wear on their own,learning techniques to adapt mass-produced apparelto their needs.

Clothing for people with special needs, whethermass produced or custom adapted, is characterizedby functional details that vary according to the indi-vidual and the circumstances. Most details are kept asinconspicuous as possible, while some become afocal point of the item of apparel. (Clothing adaptedfor wheelchair users is illustrated in Chapter 6,Figure 613.) The following are just a few examplesof functional details for consideration in special needapparel.

1. Mastectomy bras contain special pockets to holdthe prostheses or breast replacements in positionfor women who have had breast-removal surgery.

2. Action-back pleats are pleats in the back shoulderarea of garments, for example, shirts, blouses, orjackets. They provide reaching room in otherwisefitted garments. Most action-back pleats are fairlyinconspicuous. They are comfortable for crutchusers and people in wheelchairs and for anyoneinvolved in active sports, because they increasefreedom of movement and reaching in theshoulder area.

3. Underarm padding and reinforcement in clothing forcrutch users provide comfort for the wearer andextend the life of the garment.

4. For wheelchair users, low pockets (on lower pantlegs, for instance) provide better access than tradi-tional pocket locations.

5. For those with limited finger mobility, hook-and-loop tape sewn on behind buttons makes closureseasier to manipulate.

6. Loops inside garments help with pulling them on.7. Openings that stretch (for example, cuff buttons

sewn on with elastic) simplify dressing and un-dressing.

8. Zippered pant inseams and/or outseams allow easyaccess to catheters.

9. For people wi