factors contributing to the success of...

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE SUCCESS

OF PROFESSIONAL AND BUSINESS WOMEN

IN SOUTH AFRICA

M. DOUBELL

2011

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE SUCCESS OF PROFESSIONAL

AND BUSINESS WOMEN IN SOUTH AFRICA

By

Marianne Doubell

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of

Philosophy in Commerce in Business Management at the Nelson Mandela

Metropolitan University

December 2011

Promoter: Prof F.W. Struwig

i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to the following people and institutions for

their contributions to making this study possible:

My promoter, Prof Miemie Struwig, for her encouragement and support

prior to and during the course of the study. Her expertise and guidance

added value to the learning experience which stretched beyond the scope of

the thesis. Her commitment towards her students, enthusiasm towards the

topic and passion for research made it a privilege to have her as a promoter.

The Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University (NMMU) for the financial

support.

NMMU Research Capacity Development for their capacity development

initiatives and assistance in obtaining research funding.

My colleagues at NMMU and in particular in the School of Business and

Social Sciences for their continued interest and encouragement. Also

professional and support staff at the George campus for their assistance,

with special mention to Mr Garth Smit for ICT support.

Dr Elaine Erasmus for her research assistance in sourcing relevant

literature, her advice and encouragement and for serving as a sounding

board for the bouncing off of ideas.

NMMU Unit for Statistical Calculations, and in particular Mr Danie Venter

for statistical guidance and processing of the empirical data.

Mrs Shann Kieswetter for language editing, her thorough attention to detail

and assistance with editorial aspects.

Participating universities, Business Women Association South Africa

(BWASA), Higher Education Resource Services South Africa (HERS-SA),

South African Institute of Chartered Accountants (SAICA), and the many

individuals for their assistance in dissemination of the survey to the target

population. Also George Business Chamber and Business Professional

Women (BPW) club in George for participation in the pilot study.

All the respondents who participated in this study, for their valuable

contributions and time sacrificed.

ii

Dr Jo Ann Duffy for permission to use relevant sections of the survey

instrument used in their study of successful women in the Americas, for this

study.

Last but not least, my family and friends for their moral support and

sacrifices during the period of my study.

Marianne Doubell

GEORGE

December 2011

iii

DECLARATION

I, Marianne Doubell, 176092180, hereby declare that the thesis for Doctor of

Philosophy in Commerce in Business Management to be awarded is my own work

and that it has not previously been submitted for assessment or completion of any

postgraduate qualification to another university or for another qualification.

Marianne Doubell

iv

15 Caledon Street

George

6529

16 November 2011

To whom it may concern

I hereby confirm that in my private capacity as an editor, I have edited the thesis of Marianne

Doubell. I used track changes and comment boxes to give suggestions for change. I edited all seven

chapters and the reference list.

Yours sincerely

Shann Kieswetter Writing Centre Supplemental Instruction Support Services Education POSD313; POSD312 George Campus Tel: +27 (0)44 801 5105 E-mail: [email protected]

v

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE SUCCESS OF PROFESSIONAL

AND BUSINESS WOMEN IN SOUTH AFRICA

ABSTRACT

Women remain notably underrepresented in management and leadership positions

despite the enactment of Equal Opportunity and Affirmative Action policies. A

critical literature review yielded evidence of a multitude of barriers inhibiting

women’s career advancement beyond an apparent glass ceiling, but not which of

the factors constitute the major barriers. A knowledge gap was further identified in

research pertaining to characteristics of successful professional women and the

environments that enable them to succeed in their professions. The purpose of the

current study is to expand the empirical body of research and knowledge on factors

contributing to the success of professional women, and of factors inhibiting the

career progression of women in business. The study extends that of Punnett, Duffy,

Fox, Gregory, Lituchy, Monserrat, Olivas-Luján and Santos (2006) and of Duffy,

Fox, Punnett, Gregory, Lituchy, Monserrat, Olivas-Luján, Santos and Miller

(2006), conducted in the Americas, to the South African context.

The study suggests a conceptual framework for investigating factors that influence

professional success of women. The developed conceptual framework of factors

perceived to influence professional success was employed to empirically test the

relationships between the variables presented.

The empirical data collected was subjected to a series of statistical tests and the

results considered in testing the hypotheses. Statistica 10 was employed to

analyse the empirical data collected. Univariate and multivariate tests

(MANOVA) were employed to determine whether sufficient evidence existed to

make conclusions about hypotheses one to five of the study, relating to differences

between two success groups of women based on their demographics and the

selected variables. Pearson Product Moment Correlation (Pearson r) was employed

to determine whether sufficient evidence existed to make conclusions about

vi

hypotheses six to ten, relating to significant relationships between the selected

independent variables for the study and the professional success of women.

Professional success was measured as job seniority level. For the pipeline success

group, professional success was measured as seniority in relation to years in the

employment sector and age.

The contribution of the study to management science and possible limitations are

discussed and recommendations made for future research. Recommendations for

the development of women and for the social transformation of organisations are

made. The study identifies a number of internal organisational support factors and

government interventions which are recommended for inclusion in development

initiatives for the achievement of gender equity.

Keywords: Women in management and leadership, professional success, career

barriers, gender mainstreaming, personality traits, cultural values, organisational

culture, career development initiatives

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... i

Declaration ...................................................................................................................... iii

Letter from language editor ............................................................................................ iv

Abstract ............................................................................................................................ v

Table of contents ............................................................................................................ vii

List of figures ............................................................................................................... xvii

List of tables .................................................................................................................. xix

List of annexures .......................................................................................................... xxii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION, PROBLEM STATEMENT AND DEMARCATION OF THE

STUDY

1.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ............................................................................... 2

1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................ 3

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ............................................................................. 4

1.4.1 Primary research objective ............................................................................... 4

1.4.2 Secondary research objectives .......................................................................... 4

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................... 4

1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..................................................................... 5

1.6.1 Secondary study ................................................................................................. 5

1.6.2 Primary study ..................................................................................................... 6

1.6.2.1 Research paradigm .............................................................................................. 6

1.6.2.2 Sample identification ........................................................................................... 6

1.6.2.3 Data collection ..................................................................................................... 6

viii

1.6.2.4 Data analysis ....................................................................................................... 7

1.7 SCOPE AND DEMARCATION OF STUDY ................................................. 8

1.8 PRIOR RESEARCH ON WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT ............................ 8

1.9 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS ...................................................................... 11

1.10 CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY ............................................................. 13

1.11 STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY .................................................................... 14

CHAPTER 2

A LITERATURE OVERVIEW OF WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT

2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 17

2.2 PROFESSIONAL SUCCESS DEFINED ...................................................... 18

2.3 WOMEN’S REPRESENTIVITY IN THE WORKPLACE ........................ 19

2.3.1 Traditional women’s careers .......................................................................... 20

2.3.2 Historically male-dominated careers ............................................................. 22

2.3.3 Entrepreneurship as alternative career ......................................................... 23

2.4 STATISTICS ON WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT ....................................... 25

2.4.1 Women in management in the United States ................................................ 25

2.4.2 Women in management in South Africa ........................................................ 27

2.4.3 Women business leaders in the USA and South Africa: A global

perspective ........................................................................................................ 33

2.4.4 Earnings gap between genders ....................................................................... 36

2.5 BARRIERS TO CAREER SUCCESS ........................................................... 36

2.5.1 Entry barriers................................................................................................... 37

2.5.2 The glass ceiling................................................................................................ 37

2.5.3 Gender and leadership stereotyping .............................................................. 39

2.5.3.1 Gender stereotyping ........................................................................................... 40

ix

2.5.3.2 Leadership stereotyping ..................................................................................... 42

2.5.4 Inhospitable organisational/corporate culture .............................................. 45

2.5.5 The lack of role models .................................................................................... 46

2.5.6 Exclusion from informal networks ................................................................. 46

2.5.7 Family responsibility and role conflict ........................................................... 47

2.6 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF MAINSTREAMING WOMEN ....................... 48

2.6.1 Gender diversity and business performance ................................................. 48

2.6.2 Profitability of businesses with women at the top ......................................... 50

2.7 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 54

CHAPTER 3

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE SUCCESS OF WOMEN AS BUSINESS

LEADERS

3.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................ 56

3.2 BACKGROUND TO THE INCLUSION OF PERSONALITY TRAITS

AND CULTURAL VALUES .......................................................................... 57

3.3 MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP STYLE OF WOMEN................... 58

3.4 PERSONALITY TRAITS OF SUCCESSFUL PROFESSIONAL

WOMEN ........................................................................................................... 59

3.4.1 Self-efficacy ....................................................................................................... 60

3.4.2 Internal locus of control .................................................................................. 62

3.4.3 Need for achievement ...................................................................................... 63

3.5 CULTURAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE SUCCESS OF

PROFESSIONAL WOMEN ........................................................................... 64

3.5.1 National culture defined .................................................................................. 64

3.5.2 Ethnic diversity and national culture in South Africa ................................. 65

3.5.3 Hofstede’s cultural mode ................................................................................. 68

x

3.5.3.1 Power distance ................................................................................................... 70

3.5.3.2 Uncertainty avoidance ....................................................................................... 70

3.5.3.3 Individualism...................................................................................................... 71

3.5.3.4 Masculinity ......................................................................................................... 71

3.5.3.5 Long term orientation (LTO) ............................................................................. 73

3.6 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL

DIMENSIONS AND PERSONALITY TRAITS ........................................... 74

3.6.1 Overview of the proposed relationship .......................................................... 75

3.6.2 The relationship between power distance and personality characteristics 78

3.6.3 The relationship between uncertainty avoidance and personality

characteristics ................................................................................................... 79

3.6.4 The relationship between individualism and personality characteristics ... 79

3.6.5 The relationship between masculinity and personality characteristics ...... 79

3.7 THE ROLE OF EXTERNAL SUPPORT IN THE ACHIEVEMENT OF

PROFESSIONAL SUCCESS ......................................................................... 80

3.7.1 Family support ................................................................................................. 80

3.7.2 Professional associations for networking ....................................................... 81

3.7.3 Awards and the creation of role models ........................................................ 82

3.7.4 Government initiatives and pressure group interventions........................... 84

3.7.4.1 Legislation in United States ............................................................................... 85

3.7.4.2 Legislation in South Africa ................................................................................ 86

3.7.4.3 Quota legislation ................................................................................................ 87

3.7.4.4 Pressure from feminist group ................................................................................... 90

3.8 THE ROLE OF INTERNAL SUPPORT IN THE ACHIEVEMENT OF

PROFESSIONAL SUCCESS ......................................................................... 92

3.8.1 Educational programmes ................................................................................ 92

3.8.2 Transformation of organisational culture ..................................................... 93

xi

3.8.3 Organisational management and leadership style ........................................ 96

3.8.4 Coaching and mentoring ................................................................................. 98

3.8.4.1 Coaching ............................................................................................................ 99

3.8.4.2 Mentoring ......................................................................................................... 100

3.9 SUMMARY .................................................................................................... 104

CHAPTER 4

A CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PROFESSIONAL

SUCCESS

4.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................... 106

4.2 CONCENTRIC INFLUENCES MODEL ................................................... 107

4.3 THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ....................................................... 108

4.4 VARIABLES INCLUDED IN THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ... 110

4.4.1 Dependent variable: Professional success .................................................... 110

4.4.2 Independent variable: Personality ............................................................... 111

4.4.3 Independent variable: Culture ..................................................................... 112

4.4.4 Independent variable: Demographics .......................................................... 114

4.4.5 Independent variable: External support ..................................................... 115

4.4.6 Independent variable: Internal support ...................................................... 116

4.4.7 Independent variable: Career barriers ........................................................ 117

4.5 SUMMARY .................................................................................................... 121

CHAPTER 5

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

5.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................... 122

5.2 RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................................... 122

xii

5.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................. 123

5.3.1 Method of data collection .............................................................................. 123

5.3.1.1 Secondary research .......................................................................................... 123

5.3.1.2 Primary research ............................................................................................. 124

a) Qualitative research design ........................................................................ 124

b) Quantitative research design ...................................................................... 124

5.4 QUANTITATIVE TESTING AND ANALYSIS ........................................ 125

5.4.1 Population studied ......................................................................................... 125

5.4.2 Sampling method ........................................................................................... 127

5.4.2.1 Business and professional sector ..................................................................... 127

5.4.2.2 Higher education sector ................................................................................... 128

5.4.3 Instrument development ............................................................................... 129

5.4.3.1 Biographical data ............................................................................................ 131

5.4.3.2 Perceptions of personality traits and culture................................................... 131

5.4.3.3 Barriers, internal organisational support and external support ..................... 134

5.4.4 Administration of questionnaire ................................................................... 135

5.4.4.1 Pilot study ........................................................................................................ 135

5.4.4.2 Main study ........................................................................................................ 136

5.4.5 Response rate and sample size ...................................................................... 138

5.4.6 Method of data analysis ................................................................................. 138

5.4.6.1 Chi-square tests ............................................................................................... 138

5.4.6.2 T-tests ............................................................................................................... 139

5.4.6.3 MANOVA ......................................................................................................... 139

5.4.6.4 Step-wise discriminant analysis using Wilks’ Lambda .................................... 140

5.4.6.5 Pearson product-moment coefficient ............................................................... 140

5.5 SUMMARY .................................................................................................... 140

xiii

CHAPTER 6

EMPIRICAL RESULTS

6.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................... 142

6.2 RELIABILITY OF THE MEASURING INSTRUMENT ......................... 142

6.3 VALIDITY OF THE MEASURING INSTRUMENT ............................... 144

6.4 STATISTICAL OVERVIEW OF RESPONDENTS .................................. 144

6.4.1 Profile of whole sample .................................................................................. 145

6.4.2 Profile for success groups .............................................................................. 154

6.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FACTORS AND PERCEIVED

PROFESSIONAL SUCCESS OF WOMEN ............................................... 171

6.5.1 Relationship between personality factors and success ............................... 172

6.5.2 Relationship between cultural factors and success ..................................... 173

6.5.3 Relationship between external support and success ................................... 174

6.5.4 Relationship between internal support and success ................................... 175

6.5.5 Relationship between barriers and success ................................................. 176

6.6 ADVANCED STATISTICS OF FACTORS INFLUENCING SUCCESS177

6.6.1 Chi-square results to investigate group differences .................................... 177

6.6.2 Results of the t-tests to investigate factors related to success .................... 179

6.7 RESULTS OF TESTING HYPOTHESES ONE TO FIVE OF THE

STUDY ............................................................................................................ 181

6.7.1 Results of testing hypothesis 1 ...................................................................... 189





xiv

6.8 RESULTS OF TESTING HYPOTHESES SIX TO TEN OF THE

STUDY ............................................................................................................ 194





6.8.5 Results of testing hypothesis 10 .................................................................... 201

6.9 SUMMARY .................................................................................................... 203

CHAPTER 7

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................... 205

7.2 SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH ............................................................. 205

7.2.1 Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................ 205

7.2.2 Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................ 206

7.2.3 Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................ 206

7.2.4 Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................ 207

7.2.5 Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................ 207

7.2.6 Chapter 6 ........................................................................................................ 208

7.2.7 Chapter 7 ........................................................................................................ 208

7.3 MAJOR FINDINGS ...................................................................................... 209

7.3.1 Demographic profile of respondents ............................................................ 209

7.3.2 Personality ...................................................................................................... 209

7.3.3 Culture ............................................................................................................ 210

7.3.4 External support ............................................................................................ 210

7.3.5 Internal support ............................................................................................. 210

xv

7.3.6 Barriers ........................................................................................................... 211

7.4 ADDRESSING THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...................................... 211

7.4.1 Research question 1 ....................................................................................... 211


a) External support ........................................................................................... 212

b) Internal support ............................................................................................ 213



7.5 Meeting the objectives ................................................................................... 218

7.5.1 Primary objective ........................................................................................... 218

7.5.2 Secondary objectives ...................................................................................... 218

7.6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF WOMEN

TO LEADERSHIP POSITIONS .................................................................. 220

7.6.1 Gender mainstreaming .................................................................................. 220

7.6.2 Leadership culture and social transformation ............................................ 221

7.6.3 Organisational change approach .................................................................. 221

7.6.4 Gender management system (GMS) ........................................................... 223

7.7 CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY ........................................................... 225

7.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR

FUTURE RESEARCH .................................................................................. 226

7.8.1 Limitations of the study ................................................................................. 226

7.8.2 Recommendations for future research......................................................... 227

7.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS ........................................................................ 229

REFERENCE LIST ......................................................................................................... 230

Annexure A (1): Survey covering letter .................................................................. 261

Annexure A (2): Survey instrument ........................................................................ 263

Annexure B (1): Institutional approval: University of Cape Town......................... 273

xvi

Annexure B (2): Institutional approval: Stellenbosch University ........................... 274

Annexure B (3): Institutional approval: University of KwaZulu Natal .................. 275

Annexure B (4): Institutional approval: Rhodes University ................................... 276

Annexure C: Frequency distribution of results by percentage .......................... 277

Annexure D: Discriminant function analysis: success groups 3 ........................ 291

Annexure E: Relationship between success grouping and demographic

profile ........................................................................................... 292

Annexure F: MANOVA: Univariate results (P-values) ................................... 293

xvii

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 2.1: The census pyramid of women’s representation in leadership .................... 27

Figure 2.2: The 2010 census of male versus female business leaders ............................ 28

Figure 2.3: A comparison of women directors in various countries ............................... 29

Figure 2.4: Companies with at least one women board director .................................... 30

Figure 2.5: Projected years to reach 50 percent female representivity on boards .......... 31

Figure 2.6: Projected years to reach 50 percent representivity at executive level .......... 31

Figure 2.7: Women in leadership positions in 2011 ....................................................... 32

Figure 2.8: Global board chairs held by women ............................................................. 34

Figure 2.9: Global board seats held by women .............................................................. 35

Figure 2.10: Relationships among gender diversity on boards, board performance

and corporate performance ........................................................................... 49

Figure 2.11: ROE by women’s representation on boards ................................................. 51

Figure 2.12: ROS by women’s representation on boards ................................................. 52

Figure 2.13: ROI by women’s representation on boards .................................................. 53

Figure 3.1: Typical characteristics and consequences of low versus high levels of

self-efficacy and potential impact of interventions ...................................... 61

Figure 3.2: Interaction of gendered culture processes .................................................... 95

Figure 3.3: Impact of mentoring relationships for women in business and

management ............................................................................................... 103

Figure 4.1: Concentric influences model ...................................................................... 108

Figure 4.2: Conceptual framework ............................................................................... 119

xviii

Figure 6.1: Respondents’ place of birth ........................................................................ 146

Figure 6.2: Respondents’ age ........................................................................................ 149

Figure 6.3: Respondents’ marital status ........................................................................ 149

Figure 6.4: Respondents’ number of children .............................................................. 150

Figure 6.5: Highest qualification of respondents’ parents ............................................ 151

Figure 6.6: Respondents’ number of siblings ............................................................... 152

Figure 6.7: Respondents’ birth order ............................................................................ 152

Figure 6.8: Respondents’ title per success category ..................................................... 158

Figure 6.9: Respondents’ hierarchical level per success category ................................ 159

Figure 6.10: Degree of aspiration to higher level per respondents’ success category .... 160

Figure 6.11: Salary range per respondents’ success category ........................................ 161

Figure 6.12: Respondents’ years in employment sector per success category ............... 162

Figure 6.13: Respondents’ age per success category ...................................................... 163

Figure 6.14: Respondents’ perception of professional success achieved per

success category ......................................................................................... 163

Figure 6.15: Respondents’ birth order per success category .......................................... 164

Figure 6.16: Number of siblings of respondents per success category ........................... 165

Figure 6.17: Respondents’ marital status per success category ...................................... 165

Figure 6.18: Respondents’ employment sector per success category ............................. 166

Figure 6.19: Respondents’ number of children per success category ............................. 167

Figure 6.20: Highest qualification of respondents’ fathers per success category ........... 168

Figure 6.21: Highest qualification of respondents’ mothers per success category ......... 168

Figure 7.1: The Gender management system (GMS) .................................................. 224

xix

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1.1: Definition of concepts .................................................................................. 12

Table 2.1: Year to year comparison of women in management in South Africa .......... 29

Table 3.1: Sources of influence for altering self-efficacy beliefs .................................. 60

Table 3.2: Index values for Hofstede’s dimensions for the Americas and East,

West and South Africa ................................................................................. 67

Table 3.3: Proposed relationships between cultural values and personality

characteristics ............................................................................................... 76

Table 3.4: Interventions to promote women’s advancement ......................................... 84

Table 3.5: Mentoring/coaching ...................................................................................... 99

Table 3.6: Relation between cultural values and mentoring ....................................... 101

Table 5.1: Research design ......................................................................................... 123

Table 5.2: South African doctorate-granting universities by South African CHE

and the Carnegie Foundation Basic Classification 2005 ........................... 129

Table 5.3: Summary of internal consistency measures for survey constructs in

pilot phase .................................................................................................. 136

Table 6.1: Internal consistency for survey constructs ................................................. 143

Table 6.2: Educational levels of respondents .............................................................. 147

Table 6.3: Respondents’ level of professional success ............................................... 147

Table 6.4: Respondents’ years in employment sector ................................................. 148

Table 6.5: Summary statistics for factors influencing success for whole group ......... 153

xx

Table 6.6: Original and new success categories created from descriptive

statistics ...................................................................................................... 155

Table 6.7: Formula applied to categorise respondents in terms of success ................. 156

Table 6.8: Frequency distribution for success groupings ............................................ 156

Table 6.9: Practical significance interpretation intervals for Cramér’s V ................... 157

Table 6.10: Respondents’ education level per success category ................................... 159

Table 6.11: Summary of respondents’ demographic profile ......................................... 169

Table 6.12 Summary statistics for factors influencing success for success groups ..... 171

Table 6.13: Quartile distribution of success groups for main factors ............................ 178

Table 6.14: T-test results of factors related to success .................................................. 179

Table 6.15: Multivariate tests of significance - profile of all dependent variables ....... 182

Table 6.16: Statistical univariate effects for individual dependent variables ................ 183

Table 6.17: Discriminant analysis – summary results of forward stepping process

(n=301) ...................................................................................................... 185

Table 6.18: Coefficients of functions derived from discriminant analysis ................... 186

Table 6.19: Discriminant analysis classification matrix ................................................ 187

Table 6.20 Levels for determining Cohen’s d statistics for practical significant

mean differences ........................................................................................ 187

Table 6.21: Factor codes used in Pearson Product Moment Correlations table ............ 194

Table 6.22: Significant Pearson Product Moment Correlations for sub-factors and

main factors ................................................................................................ 195

Table 6.23: Summary of hypotheses testing .................................................................. 202

xxi

Table 7.1 Statistical results of personality: Comparison with women in

Americas .................................................................................................... 214

Table 7.2: Statistical results of culture: Comparison with women in Americas ......... 216

Table 7.3: Summary of meeting the secondary objectives .......................................... 219

Table 7.4: Proposed recommendations for organisational change .............................. 222

xxii

LIST OF ANNEXURES

Annexure A (1): Survey covering letter

Annexure A (2): Survey instrument

Annexure B (1): Institutional approval: University of Cape Town

Annexure B (2): Institutional approval: Stellenbosch University

Annexure B (3): Institutional approval: University of KwaZulu Natal

Annexure B (4): Institutional approval: Rhodes University

Annexure C: Frequency distribution of results by percentage

Annexure D: Discriminant function analysis: success groups 3

Annexure E: Relationship between success grouping and demographic

profile

Annexure F: MANOVA: Univariate results (P-values)

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION, PROBLEM STATEMENT AND

DEMARCATION OF THE STUDY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The rise of women to top leadership positions, despite evidence of career barriers,

has opened a new area of study into the characteristics and enabling environments

associated with women who succeed in their professional careers (Duffy, Fox,

Punnett, Gregory, Lituchy, Monserrat, Olivas-Luján, Santos & Miller, 2006:554;

Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:30).

Twentieth century research focused mainly on environmental or external factors

which disadvantaged women; including discriminatory legislation, gender role

stereotyping, absence of recognition, violence against women and societal attitudes

in general. The past two decades, however, introduced a shift in research focus to

women in business and management (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:1). Attention to the

topic in management research is likely to be prompted by an indication in

contemporary literature that the development of leadership potential in women

serves as a vehicle for strengthening competitive advantage (Punnett, Duffy, Fox,

Gregory, Lituchy, Monserrat, Olivas-Luján and Santos, 2006 & Duffy et al., 2006).

Studies on women in management point to a need for further research on the topic

which should include the role of external and internal support as key factors

influencing women’s professional success. Research on topics of career

development, power, organisational support and family responsibility may be a

critical step in understanding why women are underrepresented in top management

positions worldwide (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:30). The current study investigates

these topics, extending the research of Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et al., (2006)

into the characteristics and enabling environments associated with women who

succeed in their professional careers in the South African context.

2

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The Business Women’s Association (BWA) of South Africa census statistics

(BWA South African women in leadership 2010 census; BWA South African

women in leadership 2011 census) reveal that South African women remain

notably underrepresented in executive and decision making positions, despite the

enactment of Equal Opportunity and Affirmative Action policies (The South

African Department of Labour, 2004). This appears to be a world-wide propensity

(Catalyst: 2009, 2010a, 2010b, 2010c, 2010d) and has given rise to concerns about

the potential impact on business growth and the economic development of

countries (Hemmati & Gardner, 2002; Kochan, Bezrukova, Ely, Jackson, Joshi,

Jehn, Leonard, Levine & Thomas, 2002; Löfström, 2004; Dickman, 2005; Punnett

et al., 2006; Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007; Finnish Business and Policy Forum EVA,

2007; Monks, 2007). These authors caution against the risk to firms in a globalised

society, if they fail to understand what contributes to the success of women in

various cultures. Knowledge and awareness of the barriers are deemed essential for

the development of future women executives for the achievement of business

success.

Research (Carr-Ruffino, 1993; Simpson & Altman, 2000; Bagues & Esteve-Volart,

2008; Maurtin-Cairncross, 2009; Daft, 2010) within the domain of women in

management, attributes the underrepresentation of women at executive level to a

multitude of barriers inhibiting women’s progress beyond an apparent glass ceiling.

The disproportionate number of males in leadership positions perpetuates

socialised patriarchal norms, thereby maintaining this invisible barrier (Falk &

Grizard, 2003a; 2003b). It is, however, not yet clear which of the factors

culminating in a glass ceiling constitute the major barriers to women’s career

advancement and, equally important, which factors contribute to success. A lack of

understanding of factors contributing to the success of women across cultures,

hampers the advancement of more women in leadership positions, which in turn

may impact the competitive advantage of firms in a globalised society (Punnett et

al., 2006:2).

3

1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

A probable explanation for the underrepresentation of women in management and

leadership positions is a lack of knowledge of the factors that contribute to the

professional success of women. Research into characteristics of successful

professional women and into the kind of internal and external support that enabled

them to achieve success has the potential to provide guidelines for the development

of women as future leaders.

Whilst the literature yields evidence of women’s underrepresentation in

management and of the continued existence of career barriers, many women do

progress to top positions in the business and professional sectors (Dyson, 2000;

Punnett et al., 2006; Duffy et al., 2006). Limited empirical evidence, however,

exists which identifies the characteristics of women who have progressed to

positions where they influence decision making.

Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et al. (2006) conducted research on the

characteristics of successful professional women in the Americas (Argentina,

Brazil, Canada, Chile, Mexico, the United States of America, and the West Indies).

In their study they investigated personality and cultural characteristics that play a

role in women’s success. This study did not include South African women, which

means that no data is available to ascertain whether high achieving South African

women, measured against the same set of personality characteristics, demonstrate

the same or similar characteristics as their counterparts in the Americas. Given the

lack of research on the topic, the purpose of this study is firstly to contribute to the

body of knowledge, by extending the research on the personality and cultural

characteristics of successful professional women to include South Africa; secondly,

to establish the measure to which South African women demonstrating typical high

achievement characteristics face an invisible barrier to mainstream inclusivity;

thirdly, to establish the impact of external and internal support on women’s

achievement of career success; and finally, to guide the development of a model to

equip more women for leadership positions.

4

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The primary and secondary objectives of the study are presented in the sections that

follow.

1.4.1 Primary research objective

The primary objective of this study is to investigate factors contributing to the

success of professional and business women in South Africa.

1.4.2 Secondary research objectives

To ensure the accomplishment of the primary objective of this study, the secondary

objectives include:

To give an overview of the current representivity of women in the

workplace;

To give a statistical overview of women in management;

To give an overview of the economic benefits of mainstreaming women;

To investigate the major barriers women face in achieving career success in

order to determine the extent to which the glass ceiling still exists in South

Africa;

To investigate perceptions of the influence of external support on the

achievement of professional success;

To investigate the extent of internal support successful professional women

received;

To investigate the difference between success groups of women based on

their personality and cultural characteristics; and

To propose recommendations for the advancement of more women to

leadership positions.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Women’s underrepresentation in leadership positions raises the question as to how

the status quo prevails despite equal opportunity legislation and research pointing

5

to the advantages of gender inclusivity. Based on the purpose and primary

objective of this study, the central research question of the current study is: What

are the characteristics of women and their environments that enable some, and not

others, to progress to the top of their business and professional fields? Four sub-

questions were developed from the central research question namely:

What are the personality characteristics that enable some women, and not

others, to conquer barriers and progress to the upper echelons?

What environmental factors (external and internal support) contribute to

women’s ability to achieve professional success?

Do the personality and cultural characteristics of professionally successful

South African women resemble those of professionally successful women

in the comparative study (Punnett et al., 2006 & Duffy et al., 2006)?

To what extent does the glass ceiling still exist in South Africa?

1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

To address the objectives of this study and to test the proposed hypotheses

(presented in chapter 4), both primary and secondary research was undertaken.

1.6.1 Secondary study

A comprehensive literature search was conducted in order to establish women’s

current representivity in the workplace and in management. The search further

identified the most prominent career barriers women appear to experience, and the

internal and external support which has the potential to contribute to the

advancement of women. The proposed economic impact of gender exclusivity was

investigated and personality and cultural characteristics most likely to influence

professional women’s success examined, with particular focus on those

characteristics identified by Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et al. (2006).

International and national data searches were done through the library of the

Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University including SABINET ONLINE:

ArticleFirst, Current and Completed Research, ISAP (Index of South African

Periodicals), Kovsidex, NDLTD (Networked Digital Library of Theses and

6

Dissertations), SAe Publications, SACat, SANB (South African National

Bibliography) and Worldcat; EBSCOHOST: Academic Source premier, Business

Source premier and MasterFile premier; EMERALD INSIGHT: Emerald

Management Reviews; NEXUS: Research Projects; Science Direct and Google

searches. Data from international and national libraries was accessed through the

inter-library loan facility at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University.

1.6.2 Primary study

The primary study entailed selecting an appropriate research paradigm; identifying

the sample; data collection; and analysis of the collected data. A brief outline of

each of the four sub-categories is provided in the paragraphs that follow, with a

detailed discussion presented in chapter 5.

1.6.2.1 Research paradigm

The research paradigm employed for the current study is positivistic and therefore

quantitative. Positivism builds on the belief that social events are governed by

universal laws and that researchers are able to describe, predict, and control social

phenomena by uncovering these laws (Kim, 2003). In order to achieve the research

objectives of the study, the positivistic approach was regarded as suitable for

determining the impact of the selected independent variables on the dependent

variable, professional success.

1.6.2.2 Sample identification

A sample of successful professional women in South Africa was selected from

higher education and the business and professional sectors. Convenience sampling

was employed to obtain a sufficiently large number of respondents to be

representative of the population.

1.6.2.3 Data collection

Data gathering was done through e-mail distribution of a covering letter containing

a link to an online web based questionnaire. In the academic sector ten participating

7

universities assisted in the dissemination of the survey to women in academic and

management positions and Higher Education Resource Services South Africa

(HERS-SA) placed the survey on their website. In the business and professional

sectors, Business Women Association South Africa (BWASA) and South African

Institute of Chartered Accountants (SAICA) assisted by placing the link to the

survey in their monthly electronic newsletters. The survey was also disseminated to

a number of individually identified professional women, including a sample of

NMMU MBA graduates and NMMU alumni.

A South African measuring instrument was developed from the existing validated

questionnaires used by Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et al. (2006) to measure

perceptions of personality and culture. The latter was expanded to include

masculinity which was excluded from the study of Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy

et al. (2006) and comprises measures developed and validated by previous

researchers (Dorfman & Howell, 1988; Wu, 2006; Yoo, Donthu & Lenartowicz,

2011.

The measuring instrument was further expanded to include measures on

perceptions of barriers and internal and external support which has the potential to

create an environment in which barriers may be overcome.

1.6.2.4 Data analysis

The empirical data collected was tested for significant relationships using

Statistica 10. Cronbach’s alpha was calculated to test for internal consistency

reliability in both a pilot study and in the main study. The procedure for

analysing the empirical data involved chi-square tests, t-tests, univariate and

multivariate tests (MANOVA), Step-wise discriminant analysis using Wilks’

Lambda, F-tests, and Pearson product-moment coefficient. These are expounded in

chapter 5.

8

1.7 SCOPE AND DEMARCATION OF STUDY

The empirical component of the research is demarcated to include South African

women in higher education; women professionals; and women in the business

sector. The research was conducted nationally through dissemination of a web-

based measuring instrument to professional women at universities that are research

active and post-graduate degree awarding, and to women in business and the

professions.

1.8 PRIOR RESEARCH ON WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT

The discourse on women’s position in society evolved from the feminist rhetoric

and can be traced back to the nineteenth century. In what can be termed an

intellectual revolution, the feminist movement aimed at overturning socially

constructed ideology, rooted in a patriarchal system which marginalised women

(Murgolo-Poore, 2006). The various women’s movements sparked a debate which

stimulated further research into topic.

Statistics indicate that males continue to comprise the largest percentage of

incumbents at senior executive level (Catalyst 2009, 2010a, 2010b, 2010c, 2010d;

BWA South African women in leadership 2010 census; BWA South African

women in leadership 2011 census) regardless of equal education, experience,

performance and evidence that women’s leadership style make them suitable for

participation in modern-day people-centered management and adds value to the

development of sustainable societies (Mukhopadhay & Sudarshan, 2003:5-7;

Eagly & Carli, 2003; Kumra: 2007; Jáñez & Moreno, 2008:88; Paton, 2008:1).

In order to address the imbalances, a number of countries, including South Africa,

have adopted affirmative action and equity legislation (The South African

Department of Labour, 2004). This alone has, however, not had a considerable

impact on the percentage of women appointed to leadership positions and little

progress towards equality for women in management and leadership has been made

(Ramsay, 2000:3). In the higher education sector, women in South Africa are still

predominantly employed in lower academic positions and support departments,

9

despite employment equity legislation (HERS-SA, 2011). The increase in research

over the past decade linking business performance to gender diversity (Ramsay,

2000:4; Hemmati & Gardner, 2002:7-8; Kotiranta, Kovalainen & Rouvinen, 2007;

Peltier, 2010:259) may, however, encourage firms to appoint more women to

positions of power.

The underrepresentation of women in executive positions culminated in a ‘glass

ceiling’ debate. The rhetoric reveals a meaningful increase in both employability

and employment of women, but a continued artificial barrier to the development

and advancement of women to executive positions (Carr-Ruffino, 1993:12). The

empirical body of research on barriers to career progression and indications that the

glass ceiling continues to exist, despite the belief in many spheres that it has been

eradicated, is proliferating. The most prominent barriers identified in literature

include gender stereotyping (Fels, 2004; Fox & Lawless, 2004; Bolton & Muzio,

2005; Bickley, Lord & Thomas, 2006; Ryan & Haslam, 2007; Singh, Vinnicombe

& James, 2006; Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007; Sealy & Singh., 2009); leadership

stereotyping (De Vries, 2006:118; Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:137); an inhospitable

organisational culture (O’Connor, 1996; Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:38-39); lack of

female mentors and role models (Singh, Vinnicombe & James, 2006:1; Sealy &

Singh, 2009:2), social exclusion from male networks (Simpson & Altman

2000:196; Ramsay, 2000:6; Kephart & Schumacher, 2005; Bilimoria & Piderit,

2007:305-306 Kumra. 2007; Cross & Armstrong, 2008:602-608; Maurtin-

Cairncross, 2009); and family responsibility (Legault & Chasserio, 2003; Booysen,

2011).

Research on the topic of stereotyped gender roles globally (Fels, 2004; Fox &

Lawless, 2004; Bolton & Muzio, 2005; Bickley, Lord & Thomas, 2006; Ryan &

Haslam, 2007; Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007) illustrates a common belief that women

are inferior to men and that they lack the ability to deal with the challenges of

senior management. Gender stereotypes extend to leadership stereotypes, with a

tendency to associate the profile of a competent manager or leader with typical

male characteristics (De Vries, 2006:118; Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:34 &136).

Ibarra and Obodaru’s (2009) research, drawing on 360-degree evaluations and

including 2,816 executives from 149 countries, however indicates that the

stereotypical perception of women as less competent leaders may be changing,

10

possibly as a result of the performance of the few role models who have made it to

the top and a decline in the type-casting of women into a domestic role. This may

possibly result in an increase in women appointed to senior positions in the near

future.

Personality characteristics identified in previous research as most likely to

influence success are high self-efficacy (individuals’ perceptions of their own

effectiveness), an internal locus of control (individual’s confidence in their ability

to control the outcomes of their actions) and a strong need to achieve (Duffy et al.,

2006:554).

Hofstede’s (1980, 1997) widely researched cross-cultural variables are regarded as

influential in the achievement of professional success. These dimensions are

individualism/collectivism (degree to which a society places value on individual as

opposed to group contributions); power distance (degree to which a society regards

differences in power as right and appropriate as opposed to the belief in equality);

uncertainty avoidance (degree to which a society values certainty to ambiguity);

and masculinity (degree to which gender values are accepted in a society).

External support identified as contributing to women’s career success include

family support (Lockwood, 2009), professional associations (Palermo, 2004;

Vinnicombe, Singh & Kumra, 2004), government initiatives (Lewis & Rake, 2008;

Kilday, Mihailescu, Nolan & Schreve, 2009; Coffman, Gadiesh & Miller, 2010),

pressure from feminist groups (Toussaint, 1993; Sweetman, 2000; Murgolo-Poore,

2006; Kerr & Sweetman, 2003), awards, and the creation of role models (Business

Women’s Association of South Africa, 2010b):

Family support is essential in view of indications that one of the biggest

challenges for career women remains the belief that they are primarily

responsible for households and their families.

Professional associations for networking provide women with an alternative

to internal organisational networks from which they are excluded due their

homogenous nature.

11

Government initiatives include the Employment Equity Act of 1998 and

quota legislation introduced in a number of countries in the past decade in

an effort to increase women’s representation in leadership positions.

Women’s groups and organisations continue to challenge exclusionary

practices and are instrumental in the development of support initiatives to

advance women.

Awards for successful women serve as motivation for other women.

Role models serve as indicators that professional success is achievable.

Internal support also has an effect on career barriers and is consequently

instrumental in women’s ability to transcend barriers to professional success. The

development of competencies through training initiatives impacts on employability

and professional success (De Vos & Hauw, 2010). There is also strong evidence of

a relationship between mentoring and coaching and professional success in existing

literature, with both contributing substantially to equipping women with skills and

competencies required to succeed (Dreher & Ash, 1990; Bilimoria & Piderit,

2007:154-177; Peltier 2010:259-260; Ibarra, Carter & Silva 2010). The

management and leadership style within an organisation can further either hamper

or impact positively on professional success. A more transformational or

participative style is more likely to provide an inclusive environment supportive of

diversity and the advancement of women than for example an autocratic or

transactional style. Other internal support initiatives include access to networks, the

provision of psychosocial support and access to role models.

1.9 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS

The focus of this study is on personality and cultural characteristics of women who

succeed despite existing barriers to career progression and includes the business

advantage of gender inclusivity. Terminology relating to these concepts and gender

in general is defined in Table 1.1.

12

Table 1.1: Definition of concepts

Concept Definition Source

Gender The socially constructed relationships between men and

women. A system of roles and relationships between

women and men that are determined by the political,

economic, social and cultural context. It is socially

constructed. It is this learned behaviour that makes up

women and men’s gender identity and determines their

gender roles

Association of African

Universities (2006:2)

Frankson (2000:6)

Gender roles Clusters of socially or culturally defined and learned

expectations about how people behave in specific

situations.



Gender sensitivity The translation of awareness into practices, which result in

changes in the perceptions, plans and activities of

institutions and organisations.



Gender equality The allocation of resources, opportunities, support and

encouragement without any discrimination on the basis of

biology, between men and women.



Mukhopadhyay &

Sudarshan (2003:29)

Gender stereotypes A rigid and over-simplified definition of a group of people

in which all members of that group are labeled with similar

characteristics.

Stereotypes are cognitive representations or impressions

that social groups of people form by associating particular

characteristics with the group.



Hemmati & Gardiner

(2002:40)

Gender

mainstreaming

The process whereby gender concerns are raised routinely

within the everyday operations of an institution or

organisation. It refers to the systematic application of a

gender-aware vision to corporate activities, government

and agency policies, and to the introduction of routine

management procedures to ensure implementation.



Rowan-Campbell

(1999:21)

Glass ceiling The possibilities of women to move up in an organisation

above a certain hierarchical level are hindered by gender

discrimination. ‘Glass’ refers to the notion that this is an

unofficial and difficult-to-observe phenomenon. ‘Ceiling’

refers to the idea that climbing up the corporate ladder is

prevented.

Kotorinta, Kovalainen

& Rouvinen (2007:7)

Glass wall Their gender might limit women’s possibilities to move

within the organisation from one job or business division

to another.

Kotiranta, Kovalainen

& Rouvinen (2007:7)

Mentor The word mentor comes from Greek mythology and

describes the principle of offering wisdom and support to

someone with less experience.

In the 1960s and 1970s the word was used both in the

corporate and collegiate arenas to mean a wise veteran

counselor to potential leaders.

Recently the word has gained wider usage because of the

success of this strategy in developing leaders.

Kosoko-Lasaki &

Voytko (2006:1449)

Franklin (2005:28)

13

Concept Definition Source

Self-efficacy People’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce

designated levels of performance that exercise influence

over events that affect their lives.

Bandura, (1994:1)

Locus of control

A personal belief system about the extent to which success

and failure, rewards and punishments are contingent upon

one’s own actions or external factors.

Punnett et al. (2006:10)

Need for

achievement

A preference for challenging but achievable tasks and a

willingness to work harder than is required.


Individualism/

collectivism

Individualism is the tendency for a person to be motivated

by his/her own preference and goals, while collectivism is

the tendency for a person to view him/herself as part of a

network of social groups.


Power distance Cultures with high power distance exhibit a greater

acceptance of inequality, special privileges for those of

higher status and an organisational hierarchy.


Uncertainty

avoidance

Avoidance of risk. Belief that dissidence is dangerous,

written rules and regulations are needed and experts are to

be followed.


Economic growth The increase in production of goods and services over

time. This is expressed as a change in the Gross Domestic

Product (GDP).

Löfström (2004)

Return on

investment (ROI) /

Return on assets

(ROA)

Return on assets measures the overall effectiveness of

management to generate profits with its available assets

(excluding intangible assets such as goodwill). The higher

the ROA/ROI, the more profitable the enterprise. It is

expressed as a percentage.


& Rouvinen, (2007)

Bilimoria & Piderit

(2007:327)

Return on equity

(ROE)

Remuneration due to ordinary shareholders for their

investment in the company after all the expenses, interest

and dividends due to outsiders has been taken into account.

Like ROI, it is also calculated on a before tax figure and is

expressed as a percentage of total equity, namely, the total

contribution of ordinary shareholders.


& Rouvinen, (2007)

Bilimoria & Piderit

(2007:327)

Earnings per share

(EPS)

Normally calculated by dividing after tax income available

for ordinary shareholders by the number of shares issued.

In South Africa, analysts prefer to look at head line

earnings calculated on before tax income to eliminate the

effect of tax on EPS.


& Rouvinen, (2007)

1.10 CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY

It can be argued that future research on the topic of women in business and

management would have a greater impact on effecting change if appropriately

acknowledged as a scholarly field of study. Increased and ongoing research into

persisting barriers to entry into male-dominated careers, promotion to executive

14

positions and the benefits of gender inclusivity is therefore essential. Inquiry by

Bilimoria and Piderit (2007:2) into six leading business and management journals

over the period of January 1996 to January 2006, indicate that only 2,76 percent of

published articles addressed gender specific business and management issues.

Duffy et al. (2006:554) argue that the development of leadership potential in

women is a vehicle to strengthen competitive advantage. Organisations, including

the higher education sector, can gain valuable insights into methods of achieving

gender inclusivity. This study will expand the empirical body of research and

knowledge on barriers to progression and indications that the glass ceiling

continues to exists, despite the belief in many spheres that it has been eradicated. It

will further identify the particular personal characteristics of South African women

who do succeed, as an extended study of existing research which was undertaken

by Punnett et al. and Duffy et al. (2006) in the Americas. This will serve as

indicators of characteristics which should be developed through coaching and

mentoring.

A further contribution is the recommendations (see paragraph 7.6) for the

development of women and for the social transformation of organisations. The

benefit for women is that the data could stimulate the advancement of gender

inclusivity and the empowerment of women. Businesses could benefit through the

opportunity to expand the pool of leaders, also in terms of diversifying, as women

can, as change agents, play a major role in transformation. It could raise awareness

of the advantages of promoting individuals with alternative experiences and

perspectives which could diversify customary and often archaic thought patterns. A

final contribution of the study is the conceptual framework (see figure 4.2) which

was developed for testing factors contributing to the success of professional women

and which could be employed for further enquiry.

1.11 STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY

The study is structured as follows:

Chapter 1 serves to introduce the research. It provides the background to the study,

leading to the problem statement, the purpose of the study and the research

15

objectives. This chapter further introduces the secondary and primary studies

conducted and describes the scope and demarcation of the study. A literature

review of prior research on women in management is given and the contribution of

the study indicated. Definitions are provided of core concepts used and finally an

overview of the structure of the study is given.

Chapter 2 is a literature overview of women in management. This chapter defines

professional success; gives an overview of the current representivity of women in

the workplace; thereafter a statistical overview of women in management is

presented; and the major barriers to professional success are discussed. The chapter

concludes with an illustration of the economic impact of mainstreaming women.

Chapter 3 focuses on personality and cultural characteristics of women who have

achieved professional success. The chapter addresses the question of how some

women manage to overcome barriers and achieve success by reviewing the factors

identified in literature as instrumental to the achievements of successful

professional women. These factors include women’s leadership and management

styles; typical personality traits of successful women; cultural values; and external

and internal support that contribute to a favourable environment for achieving

professional success. A background to South African national culture is given to

contextualise the study.

Chapter 4 presents the proposed conceptual framework of selected variables

hypothesised to determine career success. The latter includes as independent

variables personality, culture, demographics, and internal and external support

impacting on career barriers. The dependent variable, professional success, as well

as the independent variables which constitute the basic building blocks of the

framework is discussed in conjunction with the hypothesised relationships. To

demonstrate the steps followed in the design of the conceptual framework, a

general concentric influences model is first presented.

Chapter 5 explains and motivates the research design and methodology employed

to address the primary objective of this study. Attention is given to the design;

population selected for inclusion; the sampling technique employed; the data

collection method; reliability and validity of the measuring instrument; and

techniques drawn on to analyse the data.

16

Chapter 6 reports on the empirical results obtained from the analysis of the data

collected from the survey. The reliability and validity of the measuring instrument

is presented; a statistical overview of the demographic profile of respondents are

provided; the relationship between the selected factors and perceived professional

success of women are deliberated; advanced statistics employed to analyse factors

influencing the success of women are described; and conclusions are made about

the hypotheses.

Chapter 7 concludes the study with the summary, conclusions and

recommendations derived from the research. The contributions as well as

limitations of the study are given. The chapter concludes with recommendations for

future research. This chapter also compares the findings on personality and cultural

characteristics with the findings in the study of Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et

al. (2006), which are extended in the current study.

17

CHAPTER 2

A LITERATURE OVERVIEW OF WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The primary objective of this study is to investigate factors contributing to the

success of professional and business women in South Africa. To ensure the

accomplishment of the primary objective, a number of secondary objectives were

identified. This chapter aims to qualitatively investigate several of these secondary

objectives.

Research into the representivity of women in management is prompted by concern

that the world-wide underrepresentation of women in executive and decision

making positions appear to impact on business growth and the economic

development of countries (Kochan et al., 2002; Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007; Monks,

2007).

The challenge for women to progress beyond an apparent glass ceiling has led to an

escalation in research into the nature of artificial barriers to professional success. It

is, however, not yet clear whether the thickening of the glass ceiling higher up the

hierarchy can be inferred from the underrepresentation of women in the upper

ranks. The ratio of probability for women to progress to the top compared to their

male counterparts may be attributed to other factors such as women‟s self-selection

into careers with limited vertical promotional possibilities. Barriers at the lower

level may also impact on the available pool of women at middle management who

can be considered for executive positions. The level at which women are

barricaded has implications for the nature of political and organisational

interventions required for their advancement (Baxter & Wright, 2000).

In order to attain an understanding of factors influencing the representivity of

women in management on the one hand, and the potential economic impact of

18

increasing their representivity on the other hand, this chapter defines professional

success; gives an overview of the current representivity of women in the workplace

globally; thereafter, a statistical overview of women in management is presented;

and the major barriers to professional success are discussed. The chapter concludes

with an illustration of the economic impact of mainstreaming women.

2.2 PROFESSIONAL SUCCESS DEFINED

Salary and hierarchical progression appear to be the most general indicators of

success. Defining professional success is, however, complicated by personal

perceptions and the shifting of goal posts for career success. One of the definitions

of success is that it entails being an expert in your job, achieving work-related

outcomes and receiving recognition for your accomplishments (Arthur, Khapova &

Wilderom, 2005). Wolff and Moser (2008) distinguish between objective and

subjective measures of success, namely salary or other observable career

accomplishments on the one hand and the individual‟s subjective self-evaluation of

career success, related to career satisfaction on the other hand. Subjective appraisal

is influenced by objective measures, as well as the individual‟s aspirations and

barriers to professional advancement. Wolff and Moser (2008:5) continue by

defining career success as the “positive psychological or work-related outcomes or

achievements one has accumulated as a result of one‟s work experiences”. Lyons,

Schweitzer and Ng (2009:7) as well as Hopkins and O‟Neil (in Bilimoria & Piderit,

2007:134-146) argue from a gender perspective that women view career success

differently to men in that they attach more value to personal fulfilment, balance and

relationships, whereas men are more concerned about material gains. It is,

however, more likely that work-life balance for women is not defined as success,

but that they view this as an additional requirement for the achievement of success

in patriarchal societies where care-giving roles are imposed on them.

A supporting argument for the above is that many women who aspire to achieve

professional success opt to not start families or alternatively have support systems

in place to deal with domestic and family responsibilities. Analogous to Hofstede‟s

(1997:85) argument suggesting that women can adopt a masculine culture and vice

19

versa, modern-day women have become increasingly ambitious and it could be

argued that women with high achieving aspirations to progress to the top of the

hierarchy may in fact not perceive success differently to men.

The definition of success, as indicated above, is influenced by the constant shifting

of the goal post for career success (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:132; De Vos & De

Hauw, 2010:8). Hierarchical progression and salary level may no longer be the

only valid tools for measuring career success in a new career era where

employability, and not only an individual‟s current position, determines career

success. Competition in a global economy has led to borderless societies and what

have been termed „boundaryless careers‟ effecting job security (De Vos & De

Hauw, 2010:8). The implication of this for individuals is that they have to maintain

a competitive advantage by constantly developing their competencies to keep

abreast of rapidly changing technologies.

Based on the literature reviewed, it appears that both individual perceptions and

changing career environments impact on the definition of success. The definition of

success for the purpose of the current study however eliminates these complicating

factors as it does not aim at evaluating definitions of success, but rather studies

factors contributing to professional success. The study investigates differences

between success groups of women and the relationship between selected variables

and the achievement of professional success. A differentiation is made between

women who are potentially in the pipeline to success and those who have already

achieved professional success by having progressed to an executive management or

leadership position. This is considered to be an objectively determinable indicator

of success for the purposes of this study.

2.3 WOMEN’S REPRESENTIVITY IN THE WORKPLACE

An unequal representation of women in a number of employment sectors is evident

from research on the topic. This section explores the status quo and notes the effect

exclusionary practices have on women‟s career choices and advancement

opportunities.

20

A report on women‟s work and employment in South Africa, compiled by the

Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Labour Studies (AIAS) (Van Klaveren, Tijdens,

Hughie-Williams & Martin, 2009) provides supporting evidence for the argument

that women‟s careers remain barricaded. The report indicates a rapid growth from

1970 in the number of women employed in the formal sector, which by 2007 grew

to a 40 percent share. Women‟s representivity, however, remained largely limited

to commerce, finance and community related services and at the lower end of the

hierarchy. This can be partly attributed to the career choices the majority of female

students execute, most likely as a consequence of socially constructed gender roles.

Van Klaveren et al. (2009) point out that although female students have

outnumbered male students at universities since 2005, they remain

underrepresented in areas such as science and technology and also at post-graduate

level. The AIAS report (Van Klaveren et al., 2009) indicates a rapid growth of

women entering the informal sector between 1995 and 2003. By 2007 the figure

had escalated to 55 percent. The increasing number of women entering the informal

market, discussed in paragraph 2.3.3, may be an indicator of women‟s discontent

with persisting barriers to career progression in the formal sector and the lack of

organisational support available to help them transcend these barriers.

Women‟s inequitable share in the formal labour market is notably evident in

historically male dominated employment sectors and higher up the hierarchy. The

following paragraphs explore a selected number of traditional women‟s careers and

historically male dominated careers. An overview is, in addition, given of

entrepreneurship as an alternative to formal employment for women.

2.3.1 Traditional women’s careers

There are several explanations for why certain careers have historically become

associated with women and others with men. One explanation for career

segregation is cultural programming and consequently stereotyping which

originates in the family environment and is perpetuated in society. Another

explanation, linked to stereotyping, is structural barriers which historically

prevented women from entering traditional male professions. These entry barriers

21

have been removed, but women remain underrepresented in specialisation areas

requiring technical expertise, and in the United Kingdom (UK) include production

(5 percent), research (8 percent), distribution (8 percent), general management (11

percent) and information technology (12 percent) (Bolton & Muzio, 2005:10). This

could be as a result of other persisting barriers deterring women from entering

these careers.

Yet another explanation for career categorisation can be traced to Hofstede‟s

(1997:86) distinction between feminine and masculine occupations. Hofstede

(1997:86) argues that a dimension of masculinity versus femininity emerges in the

comparison of occupations. Furthermore, categorising occupations is linked to the

values of individuals employed in them. The values are, however, not grounded in

the gender of the occupants, and men in feminine occupations are likely to

demonstrate more feminine values than women in masculine occupations.

Whether as a consequence of stereotyping, other barriers or self-selection based on

individual values, women‟s career choices globally were, as recently as the 1960‟s

and 1970‟s, generally limited to teaching, nursing, and related health services.

Nursing, in particular, became a profession dominated by women. These

professions were followed by human resources, where the focus is largely on soft

skills, especially at the lower levels. Career segregation, however, varies between

countries where in India, for example, women are well represented in the medical

profession whereas in most other countries it is predominantly a male profession.

Women‟s representation in the education sector is eminent mainly in segmentation.

This is revealed by statistics reflecting an 85 percent employment of women in

primary schools, 55 percent in secondary and 47 percent in further education. In

higher education, where more advanced levels of specialisation and academic

substance are required, the percentage of full-time academic female representivity

drops to 35 percent as illustrated in the UK Higher Education Statistics Agency

(HESA) 2004 report.

Higher education statistics for South Africa (MacGregor, 2008) reveal that close to

half of the lecturers at South African universities are women, but that the

22

representation drops substantially higher up the ladder with only 28 percent being

deans, 21 percent being deputy vice-chancellors and only three of 23 vice-

chancellors being women. A mere 23 percent of all leadership positions were

occupied by women at the time, although figures are constantly changing.

Commerce and finance, representing the wholesale and retail trade, was the largest

growth sector in South Africa between 1970 and 2007. A considerable number of

women have gained entry into this sector. The largest concentration of women is,

however, still found in so-called „feminised‟ professions or in „dead-end‟ careers at

lower levels in the hierarchy, which is evident in horizontal gender segregation

patterns (Wirth, 2002; Bolton & Muzio, 2005).

2.3.2 Historically male-dominated careers

The removal of some career entry barriers over decades positively impacted on the

presence of women in professions from which they were historically excluded.

Women‟s representation in previously male dominated careers is, however, as

indicated in the previous section, concentrated at the lower end of the hierarchy.

In the information technology (IT) sector women are well represented only up to

project leader stage (Madhavi, 2006:179). Research on women‟s career

advancement in the IT sector conducted by Bagchi-Sen, Rao, Upadhyaya and

Sangmi (2009) indicate that only 13 percent of cybersecurity professionals in the

United States are women. In Europe and Asia, the statistics are even lower. The

underrepresentation of women in the higher ranks of the IT profession negatively

impact on women‟s representivity on related boards (Singh, 2008).

The coal mining industry, a core sector of the South African economy and a key

employment provider, is considerably underrepresented by women. The

promulgation of the Mine Health and Safety Act in 1996 permitted women

underground, but a limited number of women have progressed to management

positions in a prevailing male corporate culture (Mphokane, 2008). Women are

also underrepresented in other mining and in manufacturing sectors. It could,

however, be argued that the mining industry is risky and not a natural choice for

23

women. Managers in the mining industry also seldom begin as underground

workers, but are mostly employed as, for example, mine engineers or accountants.

In the legal profession substantial progress in the previously marginal

representivity of women has been made. After the removal of entry barriers in the

1920s, women in England and Wales constituted five percent of practicing

solicitors, a figure which has grown to over forty percent in the last three decades

(Bolton & Muzio, 2005:3). Similar trends are noticeable in other previously male

dominated professions such as medicine, accountancy and management. In the

latter women, however, remain predominantly clustered in segments lacking status.

2.3.3 Entrepreneurship as an alternative career

Research on women entrepreneurs is a fairly new field of study, but has

proliferated over the past three decades, enthused by the growth in women-owned

businesses. Many of these women had taken an „off-ramp‟ or „opted out‟ of the

formal employment sector, often from leadership positions. Belkin (2003) of the

New York Times sparked a media debate when referring to this occurrence as the

„opt-out revolution‟ (Hewlett & Luce, 2005:1). She argued that women opt-out of

leadership positions through choice, leaving the workplace to devote time to

motherhood. Belkin‟s argument also prompted research on the topic, ranging from

the circumstances motivating women to opt out of the formal employment sector to

start their own business, to the barriers women face when doing so (Mainiero &

Sullivan, 2005; Botha, 2006; Walker, Geddes & Webster, 2006; Walker, Wang &

Redmond, 2006; Kuperberg & Stone, 2008).

There is general consensus amongst researchers that motivation for starting an own

business can be attributed to both pull factors (opportunity, for example greater

flexibility, independence and financial reward) and push factors (necessity, for

example career limitations, an inhospitable organisational culture and family

responsibility) (Botha, 2006:121). However, despite greater flexibility, an own

business does not relieve women from family and domestic responsibilities and

new barriers may include limited access to training, support and funding

mechanisms available to the informal business sector.

24

Women appear to generally be very successful at entrepreneurial endeavours, in

particular educated women who have access to the necessary support mechanisms.

South African women renowned for their entrepreneurial flair include, amongst

many others, Gloria Serobe, Louisa Mojela, Jenna Clifford, Carrol Boyes and Ina

Paarman.

Gloria Serobe is renowned for her role in the empowerment of black women in

South Africa. She is best known for her co-founding role of Women Investment

Portfolio Holdings (Wiphold) and for her role as CEO of its subsidiary, Wipcapital,

which focuses on operational financial services. She is widely regarded as an

entrepreneur and has received a number of awards and accolades for her

outstanding achievements (Sharon Davis, 2012).

Equally renowned for her achievements and entrepreneurial flair is Louisa Mojela,

another co-founder and CEO of Wiphold. Mojela was one of forty women who

won The Leading Women Entrepreneur of the World award in 2000 (Bloomberg

Businessweek, 2012).

Clifford, an artist-jeweller, established Jenna Clifford Designs in 1992. Her original

focus on jewellery design has expanded since to include four innovative brands.

Clifford enjoys the benefit of a knowledgeable businessman for a life partner, but

her success can mainly be attributed to personal touch, passion, energy, and

pursuing success (Jenna Clifford, 2011).

Boyes, fast becoming one of South Africa‟s most prominent designers and

manufacturers, has a sculpture and art background and started what has grown to

an empire in her basement in 1989. Her success can be partly attributed to her

creative side and constant adaptation to the market demand. She designs close to a

hundred new products every year (Business Excellence, 2009).

Ina Paarman is internationally renowned for her food products, available in fifteen

countries. Her grandmother was the one who ignited a passion in Paarman for food

and influenced her decision to expand her boundaries beyond that of Home

Economics teacher. Paarman benefits from the advantage of a son who manages

25

the financial side of the business, but her success can to a great extent be attributed

to her vision and passion (Ina Paarman, 2010).

The success of these women can be attributed to factors such as an ability to

identify a market gap; hard work; delivering quality products and services;

expanding their boundaries through creative thinking; and the means to buy in

business knowledge. This topic, however, falls outside the scope of the current

study and is therefore not discussed in further detail.

2.4 STATISTICS ON WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT

The persistent underrepresentation of women in management has given rise to an

escalation of research on the topic over the past three decades. This section

examines the current state of affairs from a statistical point of view.

2.4.1 Women in management in the United States

In a comparative study of women executives in the United States and Japan, Bando

(2007:8) notes that women in the United States make up nearly 46,5 percent of the

workforce, but less than 8 percent are in executive positions. The so-called M-

shaped curve, the tendency where women peak in the labour market in the period

prior to raising a family, resign and then return after their children are in school, is

changing. Furthermore, he notes that women‟s progress into higher-paying

occupations also changed as a result. By 2005, 34 percent of women were

employed in managerial or professional careers, including physicians (32,3

percent), lawyers (30,2 percent), and scientists (42,5 percent). The general health

sector (71,2 percent), human resources (72,7 percent), teaching (82,2 percent) and

nursing (92,3 percent) professions are dominated by women. The greater

representivity, however, does not eradicate concerns about the glass ceiling. The

Glass Ceiling Commission of the United States (U.S.) Department of Labour (U.S.

Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995) reported the following statistics in 2002:

Women hold 11,1 percent of board seats in the Fortune 500 companies;

26

Eighty-six percent of the Fortune 500 companies (429) have one or more

women directors; 14 percent (71 companies) have no women on their

boards;

One hundred and eighty-eight companies in the Fortune 500 have two or

more women directors and 34 have three or more;

Of the Fortune 100 companies, 97 percent have at least one woman on their

boards; and

Women represent 1,1 percent of inside directors (those drawn from top

management of the company) on the boards of the Fortune 500 companies.

Out of 1,173 inside directors, 13 are women.

Furthermore, the commission reports as follows on women executives:

Women account for 11,2 percent of corporate officers;

Seventy-five percent of the Fortune 500 companies (376) have at least one

women officer;

Over half (258) of the Fortune 500 companies have more than one female

corporate officer;

Six percent of corporate officers holding line jobs (as opposed to staff jobs)

are women, while 94 percent are men;

The industry with the most women at the top is the savings institutions.

Other top industries include: diversified financials (30 percent),

publishing/printing (26 percent), and transportation equipment (24 percent);

Two industry groups have no women corporate officers – trucking and

textiles; others with low representivity include electronics and

semiconductors (2 percent), and waste management (3 percent); and

Women make up 2.7 percent of the top earners.

In November 2002, women accounted for 15,7 percent of the corporate officers in

America‟s 500 largest companies. These percentages are up from 12,5 percent in

2000 and 8,7 percent in 1995. Compared to a country like Japan, women‟s

advancement is notable, but there is still a gap, with the average salary of women

plotted at 81 percent of men‟s salaries. Large corporations remain dominated by

men. Of concern is the minor decline of the female managers and executives in

recent statistics.

27

2.4.2 Women in management in South Africa

In South Africa, substantial progress in women‟s advancement became visible over

the past decade. The Grant Thornton International Business Owners Survey of

2004 (Grant Thornton, 2005) ranks South Africa third on the list of countries with

the highest representation of women in senior positions and eighth globally of

women in senior management positions.

Since 2004 the Business Women‟s Association of South Africa (BWASA) has

been conducting an annual census in order to analyse on an ongoing basis women

on boards and in executive management of public companies. The census provides

companies with the information to measure their performance towards gender

equality in the corporate workplace (BWA South African women in leadership

2010 census, BWA South African women in leadership 2011 census).

This section gives a statistical overview of women in leadership in South African

companies, based on the 2010 and 2011 BWA census findings. Figure 2.1

illustrates the underperformance of companies with regard women in leadership

positions.

Figure 2.1: The census pyramid of women’s representation in leadership

Source: BWA South African Women in Leadership Census (2010:21)

Women CEOs and Board

Chairs: 10.5%

Women Directorships: 16.6%

Women Executive Managers: 19.3%

Women as % of Employed Population (Source: National Labour Force Survey

StatsSA): 44.6%

Women as % of Total South African Population: 51.6%

28

As illustrated in Figure 2.1, women account for only 10,5 percent of chief

executive officers or board chairs, 16,6 percent of directors and 19,3 percent of

executive managers, notwithstanding the fact that they constitute 51,6 percent of

the adult population and 44,6 percent of the employed population.

The underrepresentation of women in the upper echelons of listed companies is

illustrated in Figure 2.2 by comparing male and female representation at leadership

level in companies.

Figure 2.2: The 2010 census of male versus female business leaders


Figure 2.2 shows that the underrepresentation of women in senior positions

compared to men increasing substantially higher up the hierarchy. Table 2.1

outlines a year to year comparison of women in management in South Africa.

0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0%120.0%

CEOs/MDs

Chairpersons

Directorships

Executive Managers

95.5%

94.0%

83.4%

80.7%

4.5%

6.0%

16.6%

19.3%

Male

Female

29

Table 2.1: Year to year comparison of women in management in South Africa

Management position 2011 2010 2009 2008

CEOs/MDs 4,4% 4,5% 3,6% 3,9%

Chairpersons 5,3% 6,0% 5,8% 3,9%

Directors 15,8% 16,6% 14,6% 14,3%

Executive Managers 21,6% 19,3% 18,6% 25,3%

Source: Adapted from BWA South African Women in Leadership Census (2010:22 and 2011:14)

The year to year comparison of percentages in Table 2.1 shows a positive trend, up

to 2010, followed by a downward swing in 2011 in the representivity of women at

the level of chief executive officer (CEO)/Managing director (MD), chairperson

and director. The reason for the decrease in the number of executive managers after

2008 is due to the inclusion of subsidiary figures in the 2009 census. The

information for chief executive officers and chairpersons pertains to listed

companies only. Figure 2.3 indicates how South Africa compares to other

countries a propos the number of women directors.

Figure 2.3: A comparison of women directors in various countries

PERCENTAGE COMPARISON OF RSA WITH

INTERNATIONAL COUNTERPARTS

15.2%

16.6%

13.0%

8.3%

0.0% 5.0% 10.0% 15.0% 20.0%

US Fortune 500

South Africa JSE

Canada FP500

Australia ASX200

BWA South African Women in Leadership Census 2010: 28


As can be seen from Figure 2.3, South Africa compares very favourably with

developed countries with regard to the number of women directors, having the

30

highest percentage of 16,6 percent women directors. However, unlike the other

three countries, South Africa has adopted a policy of affirmative action which may

have given rise to politically motivated appointments. Figure 2.4 illustrates how

South Africa compares to other countries with regard the percentage of companies

with at least one woman in the position of board director.

Figure 2.4: Companies with at least one women board director

PERCENTAGE COMPARISON OF RSA WITH

INTERNATIONAL COUNTERPARTS

86.8%

78.5%

56.8%

49.0%

0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0%

US Fortune 500

South Africa JSE

Canada FP500

Australia ASX200

Companies With At Least One Woman Board Director

BWA South African Women in Leadership Census 2010: 29


Figure 2.4 indicates that South Africa again compares favourably with developed

countries with the second highest percentage (78,5 percent) companies with at least

one woman appointed to the position of board director.

The objective is to reach 50 percent representivity of women on boards and at

executive level. The number of years necessary to attain this objective is depicted

in Figures 2.5 and 2.6. Figure 2.5 indicates that at the current rate, an approximate

50 percent representation of women on boards will only be achieved by 2031.

31

Figure 2.5: Projected years to reach 50 percent representivity of

women on boards

PROJECTION: YEARS TO REACH 50%

FEMALE REPRESENTIVITY ON BOARDS

7.110.7 11.5

13.1 14.3 14.616.6

24.5

32.4

40.3

48.249.8

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2031

BWA South African Women in Leadership Census 2010

Source: BWA South African Women in Leadership Census 2010

Figure 2.6 indicates that at the current rate, an approximate 50 percent

representation of women at executive level will only be achieved by 2050.

Figure 2.6: Projected years to reach 50 percent representivity at executive

level

14.7

19.816.8

19.2

25.3

18.6 19.323.2

27.030.9

34.738.6

42.446.3

50.1

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050

Source: BWA South African Women in Leadership Census (2010)

32

The protracted growth depicted in Figures 2.5 and 2.6 may necessitate a quota

system advocated by many researchers in this field. Quota legislation is discussed

in paragraph 3.7.2.3 as an external support initiative which has the potential to

advance women‟s representation at executive level.

Although the data for 2011 do not differ substantially from those of 2010, it is clear

that the number of women directors, chairpersons and CEOs has slightly decreased,

whilst the number of executive managers has increased by 2,3 percent. This

signifies that an increasing number of women are coming through the ranks to

reach top positions in their organisations and this in turn should have a positive

effect on the number of women directors, chairpersons and CEOs in the near

future.

Figure 2.7 was extracted from the BWA South African Women in Leadership

Census, (2011). It is presented to illustrate percentage decreases and increases in

women‟s representation at the respective leadership levels.

Figure 2.7: Women in leadership positions in 2011

Source: BWA South African Women in Leadership Census 2011

2009 2010 2011

18.6% 19.3% 21.6%

14.6% 16.6% 15.8%

5.8%

6.0% 5.3% 3.6%

4.5% 4.4%

CEOs/MDs

Chairpersons

Directorships

Exec Managers

33

The statistics (BWA South African women in leadership 2011 census) and as

illustrated in the figures above reflect a large underrepresentation of women in

positions of management and leadership despite the increase in women‟s education

levels and representivity in the employment sector. It can, therefore, be concluded

that the range of interventions over the past decades to attain an equitable

dispensation for women is not sufficient in addressing women‟s

underrepresentation. The pipeline theory which presumed that increased

qualification levels and work experience would position women for progression to

higher-level positions appears to not have achieved the expected outcome (Van

Klaveren et al., 2009). Interventions which may potentially accelerate women‟s

advancement, further to what is already in place, are discussed in chapter 3.

2.4.3 Women business leaders in the USA and South Africa: A global

perspective

The statistics discussed in paragraphs 2.4.1 and 2.4.2 cover different periods and

are, therefore, not directly comparable. The most recent statistics available for the

USA refer to 2009. Figures 2.8 and 2.9, however, indicate how the USA and South

Africa compared with one another and with the rest of the world in 2009 with

regard to board representation (Catalyst, 2011).

Figure 2.8 illustrates how the USA and South Africa compared with one another

and with the rest of the world in 2009 with regard to board chairs held by women.

As can be seen from Figure 2.8, South Africa compares well globally with regard

board chairs held by women and are in the top five internationally. Turkey stands

out as the country with the highets representation. Not depicted in the figure but

interesting to note is that Denmark, Finland and the Netherlands have no women in

the position of board chair.

34

Figure 2.8: Global board chairs held by women

Source: Adapted from Catalyst (2011)

Figure 2.9 illustrates how the countries compared in 2009 with regard to board

seats held by women. As can be seen from Figure 2.9, South Africa again compares

well globally and are in the top four. With a 15,8 percent representivity it is

however still far from the 50 percent target. The percentage participation in South

Africa may in addition be misleading when one considers the low headcount.

Turkey loses its position as the country with the highets representation depicted in

Figure 2.8 for board chairs and where Denmark, Finland and the Netherlands had

no women in the position of board chair, they are in the top eight in terms of board

seats. Norway, with a 39,5 percent representivity of women on boards is the closest

to achieving the 50 percent equity mark.

0.0% 2.0% 4.0% 6.0% 8.0% 10.0% 12.0%

Turkey

Poland

Brazil

Ireland

South Africa

Israel

Indonesia

Mexico

Belgium

Italy

Russia

South Korea

Canada

China

USA

Australia

Sweden

Hong Kong

France

Singapore

UK

Switzerland

Germany

Taiwan

35

Figure 2.9: Global board seats held by women

Source: Adapted from Catalyst 2011

0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% 60.0%

Equity Mark

Norway

Sweden

Finland

South Africa

USA

Israel

Netherlands

Denmark

France

UK

Germany

Poland

Turkey

Canada

Turkey

New Zealand

Spain

Hong Kong

Greece

Switzerland

Thailand

China

Australia

Belgium

Austria

Singapore

Mexico

Malaysia

Taiwan

Russia

India

Brazil

Indonesia

Italy

Kuwait

Oman

Portugal

Chile

South Korea

Bahrain

Japan

United Arab Emirates

Qatar

Saudi Arabia

36

2.4.4 Earnings gap between genders

Both vertical stratification and horizontal segregation in career sectors, discussed in

paragraph 2.3, contribute to women becoming trapped in positions associated with

lower status and salaries where they are unable to progress beyond an apparent

glass ceiling (Bolton & Muzio, 2005:10). In a survey comprising a nationally

representative group of women (Hewlett & Luce, 2005:2), other factors indicated

as impacting on the earnings gap include the salary penalty women face when re-

entering the market after a career interruption due to family responsibility. On re-

entry to the labour market, they lose on average 18 percent of their earning power,

despite short periods of interruption. In business sectors the average period of

interruption is as low as 1.2 years, but earning power penalties stagger as the time-

out period increases, with women losing as much as 37 percent for a break of three

or more years (Hewlett & Luce, 2005:4). Another factor is the tendency for women

to opt for more flexible work opportunities to balance work and family

responsibility.

Despite the adoption of International Labour Office (ILO) Equal Remuneration

Convention in 1951, earning gaps of between 10 and 30 percent continue in all

countries. Inequalities relate not only to actual earnings, but also to fringe benefits

linked to more senior positions (Wirth, 2002:3).

Women have historically received lower salaries than men for performing identical

jobs, for example, in the teaching profession. Following a series of legal action

against employers in the United Sates, the U.S. Court of Appeals ruled in 1970 that

the Equal Pay Act applies to jobs that are „substantially equal‟ and not necessarily

„identical‟. The US Supreme Court also ruled in 1974 that traditional practices

where women were paid lower wages does not justify maintaining the practice.

2.5 BARRIERS TO CAREER SUCCESS

It is argued in this section that although some of the barriers to women‟s

advancement have been eradicated, a vast number of barriers remain intact. The

37

most prominent inhibiting barriers identified include gender stereotyping; the

absence of organisational and societal support; lack of female mentors with whom

women can socially identify; and social exclusion from gendered networks

(Bilimoria & Piderit (2007:305-306). Knowledge and awareness of the barriers are

deemed essential for the development of future women executives for the

achievement of business success.

2.5.1 Entry barriers

Access to education was historically viewed as a male privilege, with women cast

in the role of home-maker and care-giver. Lack of education hampered women‟s

entry into the labour force to secure an income and resulted in poverty and

insufficient health care. Their financial dependency on male partners fostered

violence and abuse, and access to legal representation to combat the situation was

out of reach (World Bank 2001; World Bank 2002; Mukhopadhyay & Sudarshan.

2003). These barriers are to a lesser degree still visible, mostly in rural areas where

women remain dependent on the wages of partners, spouses or male relatives.

Equal access to education increased the education level of women and

consequently their entry into the labour force. However, progress of women to the

top in business and the professions remains obstructed. One can argue that a new

entry barrier has replaced the earlier one, namely the barrier hampering entry to the

executive suite (Simpson & Atman, 2000:195). This barrier, coined the glass

ceiling, is thicker and poses a greater challenge in that it is less overt and therefore

more difficult to address. It is often only identifiable in statistics confirming the

underrepresentation of women in executive positions.

2.5.2 The glass ceiling

Researchers (Thomas & Nowak, 2006; Morisson, White & Van Velsor, 1987; Bell,

McLaughlin & Sequeira, 2002; Eagly & Carli, 2007; Bagilhole & White, 2006;

Ryan & Haslam, 2007; Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007) have created a number of

metaphors over the last three to four decades in an attempt to describe the

38

multifaceted barricade to women‟s career progression. The first reference in the

written media was in 1978 in a report in Business Week (Thomas & Nowak,

2006:329) where the term „velvet ghetto‟ was used to denote the token appointment

of women to lower end jobs with no or little career advancement opportunities.

Affirmative action legislation at the time compelled firms to appoint women, but

many had no real commitment to women‟s career development and women were

appointed to positions in domains which did not lead to line or senior management

positions. The most generally used metaphor to describe women‟s hampered

progress is glass ceiling (Morisson et al., 1987; Bell et al., 2002; Eagly & Carli,

2007), with related variables including glass wall and sticky floor. Other metaphors

include glass cliff (Bagilhole & White, 2006; Ryan & Haslam, 2007), glass border

(Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007) and „labyrinth‟ (Eagly & Carli, 2007).

The phrase glass ceiling to describe women‟s hampered progression was coined in

1986 by Carol Hymowitz and Timothy Schellhardt of the Wall Street Journal who

wrote: “Even those few women who rose steadily through the ranks eventually

crashed into an invisible barrier. The executive suite seemed within grasp, but they

just couldn‟t break through the glass ceiling” (Eagly & Carli, 2007). The phrase

was brought into the glossary with the first publication of Morisson et al.‟s book on

the glass ceiling in 1987, and updated in 1992 and 1994.

In 1989, US Department of Labour investigated women‟s inability to progress in

their careers beyond middle management. They established the Glass Ceiling

Commission in 1995 to identify barriers to women‟s inclusion in top positions and

to advice on strategies towards potential solutions. The Commission found that

women were not only underrepresented, but often underutilised (The Economist,

2005:67-68).

The literature (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007) also alludes to the existence of a glass

border, where women compared to men are afforded limited opportunities to be

involved in international assignments. Transition to a global economy has made

international business experience a requirement for not only business success, but

also for the career development of the individual. Prejudice views that women are

not willing to travel abroad or that family responsibility hampers them from doing

39

so, has resulted in multinational and global companies not affording women

opportunities for international assignments. Contrary to this view, research

suggests that women do in fact have an interest in international careers (Bilimoria

& Piderit, 2007:340).

Where women are appointed to leadership positions, it is often under unfavourable

conditions. Bagihole and White (2006:41) established that women were more likely

to be appointed to leadership positions under risky organisational conditions,

referring to this phenomenon as the glass cliff. The glass cliff is an extension of the

glass ceiling and glass elevator metaphors, the latter used to describe the

acceleration of men to top positions. Women interviewed in Bagihole and White‟s

research (Bagihole & White, 2006) confirmed that they have often been appointed

to senior positions which men did not want due to the risk or prior experience of

project failure. This phenomenon also transpired in the research conducted by Ryan

and Haslam (2007: 272 – 285) who describe the occurrence as a „second-wave‟ of

discrimination in the workplace. Ryan and Haslam (2007:278) attribute women‟s

appointment to glass cliff positions to both that of deliberate and malign processes,

and to inadvertent and benign processes. They add that both processes, however,

whether deliberately discriminatory or based on real beliefs about women‟s ability,

negatively impact on women‟s career advancement.

Equal Rights laws passed in the mid seventies making unequal workplace treatment

illegal has not had the required effect in the USA. It is evident from the literature

that the same applies to equal opportunity legislation in other countries. The

identified barriers culminating in a glass ceiling are discussed below.

2.5.3 Gender and leadership stereotyping

Stereotyping has been identified in existing literature as a fundamental barrier

to career success, with gender stereotyping extending to leadership stereotyping.

40

2.5.3.1 Gender stereotyping

Research on the topic of stereotyped gender roles globally (Fels, 2004; Fox &

Lawless, 2004; Bolton & Muzio, 2005; Bickley, Lord & Thomas, 2006; Ryan &

Haslam, 2007; Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007) illustrates a common belief that women

are inferior to men. This tendency is very visible in teamwork where team

dominance and leadership is influenced by enculturated role expectations. Male

contributions are likely to be valued higher, as men act with greater confidence and

assertiveness, whereas women have been socialised to perform a more subordinate

role.

Although the belief in women‟s inferiority is particularly visible in traditional

African societies, it is commonly supported by many white South Africans who

believe that males are superior to women. This perception is not unique to South

Africa. A similar bias surfaced in a United States survey on the suitability of

women to run for office, where 15 percent of respondents felt that women should

run their homes and men the country and over 20 percent that men are emotionally

better equipped for politics (Fox & Lawless, 2004:270).

Social constructionism (Bandura, 1986) suggests that stereotyping is a cognitive

process which generalises and subsequently categorises people according to

socialised beliefs about personal characteristics and behaviours. The process

involves attaching mediators (emotional, yielding, reliant, and weak) to categories

(women) in the construction of identity. Although this is a natural process and not

negative in itself, the consequential gender stereotyping becomes a barrier to

women when used as a basis for assessing their competency in the workplace.

Women are typically stereotyped as lacking in ability to deal with the challenges of

senior management. It results in gendered role segregation and poses a barrier to

equal representation in the upper echelons (Bolton & Muzio, 2005:2).

As a result of stereotypical assumptions about women‟s ability, managers often

assign less developmental functions to them. Their employment tends to have a

greater focus on less influential staff functions than on line position where they can

exert power. Women are often assigned to relational tasks which are less visible,

41

not institutionally rewarded and not taken into account when considered for

promotional purposes. A negative ripple effect of this is that involvement in

relational tasks could be perceived as a weakness and could result in further

stereotyping (Bickley et al., 2006:65 – 85). Research (Ryan & Haslam, 2007:276)

suggests that non-influential positions with limited scope is a major career limiting

factor which, due to its covert nature, often goes unnoticed.

The token appointment of women to top positions where they are in the minority

aggravates their risk of being stereotyped (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007: 234).

Stereotyping is minimised when the group is equally represented by both sexes.

Equal representation reduces the perception that female team members are inferior

and creates an environment where women are viewed as individuals, rather than

token representatives.

Women often modify their behaviour to societal expectations in fear of being

stereotyped and socially rejected (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:23). In what she terms

a hidden barrier, Fels (2004:5) indicates how societal expectations of female

behaviour obstruct women‟s career progress. Where men are expected to

demonstrate ambition, women are expected to first satisfy family needs before

pursuing their individual goals. The psychological measures applied in studying

gender illustrate the unconscious societal gender ideals of femininity and

masculinity. The most widely used measure is the revised Bem Sex Role Inventory

(BSRI) (Bem 1974, 1981), developed by Bem in 1971 to measure the degree to

which individuals fit into traditional gender roles.

The ideology behind the traits defining femininity is that it is dependent on

relationships and that woman must perform the role of provider. This ideology

relates to criticism by French feminists that women are portrayed as the „Other‟

who only acquires identity in relation to man. French feminists like Hélenè Cixous,

Luce Irigary and Juliet Kristeva, criticised Western culture as being fundamentally

oppressive and phallocentric as a result of its male matrix built on patriarchal

values (Showalter, 1985). Women‟s oppression arises from the view that they must

subscribe to the roles laid out by the value system of a patriarchal society.

42

2.5.3.2 Leadership stereotyping

The tendency to associate the profile of a competent manager or leader with typical

male characteristics (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007: 137), and consequently ranking the

leadership attributes of women lower in importance to leadership effectiveness, is a

contributing factor to women‟s underrepresentation in leadership positions. De

Vries (2006:118) argues that leadership is a gendered construct, valuing masculine

traits above those of women. Research (De Vries, 2006:118; Bilimoria & Piderit,

2007:136) points to a perception both men and women hold that men are, by virtue

of their gender, more successful as managers, even when women outperform men.

This view is supported by Beatty (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:34) who argues that

the original gender differences established by Broverman, Vogel, Broverman,

Clarkson, and Rosenkrantz (1972) have remained consistent across cultures. Men

are perceived as better decision makers and women as less effective in leadership

roles. Women‟s career advancement is influenced by the fact that competitive,

analytical, problem-solving and assertive characteristics ascribed to men,

perpetuate the belief that they are better suited for leadership positions (Bilimoria

& Piderit, 2007:314).

Fear of being negatively stereotyped may result in women demonstrating

masculine characteristics in their leadership style. Eagly and Johannesen-Schmidt

(2001:785-786) refer to this as role incongruity, where both conformation and non-

conformation to gender-role expectations poses a threat of failing in their leader

role or in their gender role, respectively. Harris (2010) in this regard cautions

against two extremes in leadership and management style, namely the „Ice Queen‟

and the „Good Mother‟. Assuming masculine characteristics (over-authoritative and

impersonal disposition) in an effort to demonstrate leadership competency creates a

distance between the manager and employee. On the extreme side of the continuum

an over-nurturing and empathetic approach (feminine) can blur lines and be

problematic when engaging in performance management. Conformation to gender

role expectation by assuming a nurturing role often leads to women overextending

themselves. This ultimately impacts on their performance and perpetuates negative

perceptions of women‟s leadership characteristics.

43

The perception that women are less competent as leaders than men has been

challenged in a number of studies. An example is the five year 360-degree study

conducted by Ibarra and Obodaru (2009) using the Global Executive Leadership

Inventory (GELI) in which it indicates that women scored higher than men in the

leadership dimensions measured. The findings in Ibarra and Obodaru‟s (2009)

research may be evidence that perceptions are changing, possibly as a result of the

performance of the few role models who have made it to the top. Evolving social

and cultural values may also be leading to a decline in the type-casting of women

into a domestic role. Peters and Kabacoff‟s (2010b) 360-degree study, using the

Management Research Group®‟s (MRG®) Leadership Effectiveness Analysis™

also found that there are fewer leadership style differences at the top compared to

lower and middle management, with women in executive positions measured

equally competent in strategic thinking and prepared to take risks.

Appointment committees appear to play a prominent role in the perceived

suitability of candidates for leadership positions. Researchers (Bagihole & White,

2006; Gorman, 2006; Cabrera, 2010) have established that in hegemonic masculine

cultures the appraisal of candidates by appointment committees is influenced by

leadership stereotyping in that perceived skill requirements for effective leadership

are gendered (Bagihole & White, 2006:32-48). Consequently, the compilation of

appointment committees could pose a barrier to the promotion of women to

executive positions.

Cabrera‟s (2010) research suggests that committees not only appraise the

competencies of candidates, but also consider the risk associated with an

appointment within the broader organisational context. Prejudice increases relative

to the seniority of the position, possibly as a consequence of the fact that higher

end positions are not as well defined as those at the lower end, leaving more room

for subjectivity in appraisal. As a result of the perception that women are lower in

status and less competent, the appointment and promotion of female candidates are

considered a greater risk.

The subjective appraisal of women increases when appointments are made to

positions requiring judgement. Gorman (2006), in a study on promotion to partners

44

at law firms, found that women are disadvantaged when heightened performance

standards are applied. The law profession is associated with problem variability

and strategic indeterminacy, therefore the ability to execute judgement is the core

criteria for promotion. Men are by default presumed to be more capable of

reasoning by inference and of making judgements as to the most appropriate

strategy in a particular case. Gorman (2006:880-881) concludes that one can

theoretically generalise that such stereotypical reasoning may function in several

professions. She argues further that the findings may in future expand to a broader

context, as computer-based technology requiring increased reasoning skills

replaces routine tasks and jobs.

Stereotypical views on the leadership attributes of men and women are transferred

and perpetuated through the media and the advertising world by impressing

enculturated gender roles and may impact women‟s appointment to leadership

positions. Sheridan and O‟Sullivan (2006:286-296) analysed AFR BOSS magazine

to indicate how the portrayal of leadership is associated with men and note that the

media not only plays a role in reflecting the prevailing male heroic image of

leadership, but also in reinforcing it. This phenomenon can be explained through

the terminology denoted-connoted whereby interpretation is filtered through a

cultural lens (Sheridan & O‟Sullivan, 2006:291). The concept Chief Executive

Officer (CEO) is a denotation which conveys connoted cultural meanings. The

depiction of social roles is a system of signs, a social construction. As a major

socialising agent the media can, however, perform an equally strong role in gender

re-socialising to change existing stereotypes and views through the diversified

portrayal of gender roles, in particular, the portrayal of women in traditionally

male-dominated positions or roles, and vice versa.

It appears from the literature review that the concept of leadership is socially

constructed and for perceptions to change it needs to be deconstructed and

reconstructed to demystify archaic perceptions that men are better suited for

leadership.

45

2.5.4 Inhospitable organisational/corporate culture

The term „organisational culture‟, earlier referred to as „organisational climate‟,

first appeared in the literature in the 1960s. An equivalent term, „corporate culture‟,

was coined in the 1970s (Hofstede, 1997:179). The study of corporate culture

gained impetus from the early 1980s and has proliferated since. The increased

diversification of workforces has prompted researchers to explore the impact of

exclusionary white male-dominated cultures on minority groups, including women.

The devaluation of difference as a fundamental weakness in organisational culture

was however already identified by Kanter (1977) as early as the 1970s.

Women experience masculine organisational culture as inhospitable and a barrier

to career success. Power in such organisations is asserted within the context of

„hegemonic masculinity‟ (O‟Connor, 1996) resulting in androcentric values and

practices being viewed as the norm and female values and practices devalued as a

deviation (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:38-39). Kerr & Sweetman (2003:142-143)

identify the role of institutions (values that have become institutionalised) as a root

cause of gender inequalities and instrumental to a masculine organisational culture

if organisations fail to challenge existing gender-biased norms and values. The

authors (2003:143) refer to the „deep structure‟ of organisations, namely “the

collection of values, history, culture and practices that form the unquestioned

„reasonable‟ way of work in organisations”.

Numerical representation of women in lower end positions is not sufficient to

influence a dominant masculine culture. It can be argued that the equitable

representation of women at senior level alone will also not address the problem.

What is required is a change of cultural norms where gender differences are valued

and women accepted as competent and equal participants in the organisation.

In an attempt to succeed in an inhospitable corporate culture, some women adapt to

the masculine culture. This, however, does not address the need for transformation.

O‟Connor (1996:2) argues that women opting for status as „honorary males‟ by

assuming typical male characteristics may benefit on an individual level, but this

does not impact on the hegemonic patriarchal culture of the organisation.

46

2.5.5 The lack of role models

The presence of suitable role models in the gender demographics of organisations

is essential to the career advancement of women. As role-models, senior women

serve as affirmation that career progression is possible despite existing barriers.

A role model can be defined as an inspirational person whose attributes are

imitated in the development of another individual‟s identity construction. It is not

an agreed upon relationship as in the case of a mentor, though both impact on

behavioural patterns and cognitive processes. Social comparison theory suggests

that individuals identify role models based on actual or perceived similarities

(Bandura, 1977, 1986). It is therefore essential for organisations to have women in

executive positions with which women can identify. The lack of role models in

managerial positions discourages women who strive for professional success and

negatively impacts on their motivational and commitment levels. Lack of role

models has been cited as the second largest barrier to career success, with sex-role

stereotyped leadership placed at the top (Sealy & Singh, 2009:2; Singh,

Vinnicombe & James, 2006:1).

Sealy and Singh (2009:4-5) demonstrate the need for role modelling at the mid-

and late-career stages and not only at the early-career stage. They refer to this as

progression of role model formation where the emphasis shifts from the „acquiring‟

stage (early-career) to the „refining‟ stage (mid-career) and finally to the late-career

„affirming‟ stage. During the mid- and late-career stages the cognitive process

enables the individual to generalise task-specific learnt behaviour to varied

circumstances. This principle is explained through social learning theory (Bandura,

1977), and entails observing the behaviours of others, noting the consequences of

the actions and applying the acquired knowledge to one‟s own experiences.

2.5.6 Exclusion from informal networks

A number of researchers (Luthans, Hodgetts & Rosenkrantz, 1988; Singh,

Vinnicombe & Kumra, 2006; Wolff & Moser, 2008) have identified networking as

positively related to career advancement and managerial success. Wolff and Moser

47

(2008:4) define networking as the process of building and maintaining informal

relationships. These relationships have the potential to expose individuals to

resources from which their careers may benefit. By bringing individuals with a

common interest together, networks serve as a relationship building tool, used to

develop a support base which could be beneficial to one‟s work or career in terms

of job opportunities, access to information, increasing visibility, career guidance,

social and professional support, business leads, resources and collaboration (Singh,

Vinnicombe & Kumra, 2006:2).

Women are often excluded from informal networks in organisations which adhere

to a masculine culture. It could, however, be argued that on a social level women

and men share limited common interests and that men may feel inhibited by the

presence of women when, for example, engaging in sport activities. Women may

need to be more proactive in establishing their own informal networks and

populating them with higher status individuals. They should actively use networks

to promote their careers as men appear to be doing and not mainly for psychosocial

support. This seems to be the trend as women become increasingly aware of the

benefits networking has for career advancement. Women, however, remain

disadvantaged as a result of time constraints. Family responsibilities leave them

with limited time for engaging in networking opportunities, both social and

professional. Women are also constrained by the shortage of higher status women

role models who could influence their career in male-dominated organisations.

2.5.7 Family responsibility and role conflict

Women are not a homogenous group, equally disadvantaged by existing barriers,

but they are to varying degrees united by common experiences related to family

responsibilities and role conflict (Legault & Chasserio, 2003). The impact of family

responsibility on women‟s career advancement is visible where they often lose

their seniority when resigning temporarily to raise children. They are also given

less developmental opportunities on the assumption that their service will be

shorter than that of males. Their primary care-giving responsibility can, in addition,

be interpreted as a lack of commitment to the workplace if they are unable to put

the needs of the organisation above personal and family needs.

48

The advocacy of gender equality over the past four decades resulted in the

women‟s lives expanding beyond domestic and family responsibilities, but

women‟s career advancement remains hindered in the absence of enabling

structures to balance their multiple roles. Social feminists in Europe have identified

women‟s care-giving burden as the main cause hampering women‟s advancement,

where on average only five to ten percent of male spouses contribute to domestic

responsibilities (Hewlett, 2002:4-5).

As a result of the constraints women‟s care-giving burden poses to career

advancement, an increasing number of women choose to remain childless or single

in order to pursue their careers (Hewlett 2002). In studies conducted on women in

science, engineering and technology (Madhavi, 2006:179; Bagchi-Sen, Rao,

Upadhyaya & Sangmi, 2009) the women indicated that long work hours into the

night and over weekend, posed a security risk and negatively impacted on family

responsibilities.

2.6 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF MAINSTREAMING WOMEN

The economic impact of gender diversity in corporate boardrooms is not

empirically tested in the current study, but discussed as justification for

organisations to transform their masculine culture, diversify their workforce in

terms of gender representivity and to provide the support women require for the

achievement of professional success.

2.6.1 Gender diversity and business performance

The late twentieth century transition to a global economy laid the foundation for

changing the way businesses viewed their activities. In the 1990s workforce

planning incorporated attention to the business advantage of diversifying the

workforce. Businesses started to awaken to the fact that failure to partake in the

opportunities created through the new-found interconnectivity of societies and

economies was a recipe for failure. Research (Kochan et al., 2002; Bilimoria &

Piderit, 2007; Monks, 2007) escalated over the past two decades on the business

49

imperative for gender diversity in the boardroom. The findings illustrate a positive

impact of gender diversity on organisational effectiveness and business

performance and an opportunity cost for firms adhering to the men-only archetype.

Research (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:217-222) indicates that mixed-gender teams

can enhance the effectiveness of team deliberations and that diverse groups can out

perform homogeneous groups in tasks requiring problem solving or creative

thinking. This has the potential to impact positively on complex assignments

requiring a broad range of knowledge. Organisations benefit from the market

intelligence of women on women‟s products, their potential to develop and adapt

products to suit women‟s needs and the provision of better methods for reaching a

diverse customer base (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:254). Singh, Vinnicombe and

Terjesen (2007:315-317) illustrate the impact of diversity on board behaviour as

indicated in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10: Relationships among gender diversity on boards, board

performance and corporate performance

Source: Adopted from Singh, Vinnicombe and Terjesen (2007:317)

CORPORATE

PERFORMANCE

Tangible benefits:

Financial

Social performance

Board Characteristics:

Diversity, size, independence

Leadership & governance model

Structures & culture

Accumulated human capital

Accumulated social capital

Intangible benefits of diversity:

More attractive to investors

Reputation

Legitimacy

Symbolic value of women directors

Boardroom Interactions

Intangible benefits of diversity

Effective boardroom behaviours

Understand market better

Better decision-making

Increased independence

Director characteristics:

Diversity

Human capital

Social capital

BOARD

PERFORMANCE

50

From Figure 2.10 the process through which gender diversity on boards influence

board and corporate performance is evident. It commences with director

characteristics, where diversity at director level influences board characteristics. A

diversified board produces intangible benefits at the level of boardroom

interactions (Singh, Vinnicombe & Terjesen, 2007). Although further research on

this topic is required, it is suggested that the diverse skills, knowledge, experience

and social connections of a diverse board increases an understanding of the

marketplace and enriches decision-making. An additional intangible benefit is the

enhancement of the organisation‟s reputation and image as a diversified and

inclusive organisation, which will potentially attract investors who are committed

to ethical values, thereby augmenting corporate performance.

With women constituting nearly half of the workforce capacity, the chances of

selecting competent leaders from a talent pool twice the size is statistically higher

(Singh, Vinnicombe & Terjesen 2007:315-317). Women are also increasingly

becoming important as future investors, where in 2005 they owned 48 percent of

Britain‟s personal wealth, a percentage which is estimated to rise to 60 percent by

2025. It does not make business sense to ignore these statistics.

As indicated earlier in paragraph 2.3.3, women often take an off-ramp as a result of

family responsibility and a lack of organisational support. The impact of the talent

pool exodus on the economy is significant, with only 74 percent of off-ramped

women taking an on-ramp again (Hewlett & Luce, 2005). However grim the

statistics are, they could be cathartic if they provoke action. Hewlett (2002:3)

argues that women should challenge the minor contribution of male spouses to

childcare and domestic chores and put pressure on employers and policy makers to

develop meaningful work-life policies that support working mothers.

2.6.2 Profitability of businesses with women at the top

Several studies (Catalyst, 2007; Public Policy Forum, 2003; Kotiranta et al., 2007)

using standardised profitability indicators, have been carried out over the past years

to establish whether companies with women directors or executives perform better

financially. The profitability indicators are:

51

Return on investment (ROI);

Return on equity (ROE); and

Earnings per share (EPS).

In 2007, Catalyst (2007) analysed the performance of Fortune 500 companies with

women directors in the United States. They based their analysis on the four-year

average for ROE and ROI for the years 2001 to 2004, but also included the Return

on Sales (ROS), calculated as pre-tax net profit divided by revenue (turnover) for

the same period, and women board director data for 2001 and 2003. The

researchers compared the top 25 percent companies which had the highest average

percentage of women in the position of board directors (132 companies) with the

bottom 25 percent of companies which had the lowest representation (129

companies). As financial performance measures vary by industry, comparisons

were made using standardised financial performance measures.

The results of this study are shown in Figure 2.11 to Figure 2.13. Figure 2.11

presents the ROE comparison by women‟s representation on boards.

Figure 2.11: ROE by women’s representation on boards

ROE BY WOMEN’S REPRESENTATION

ON BOARD

9.1%

13.9%

0.0%

2.0%

4.0%

6.0%

8.0%

10.0%

12.0%

14.0%

16.0%

ROE

Bottom Quartile

Top Quartile

53%

Catalyst. 2007. The Bottom Line: Corporate performance and

women’s representation on boards

Source: Catalyst 2007. The bottom line: Corporate performance and women‟s representation on

boards

52

As can be seen from Figure 2.11, based on ROE, companies in the top 25 percent

quartile of women board directors outperformed those in the bottom 25 percent

quartile by 53 percent. The percentage demonstrates the difference in average

ROEs. Figure 2.12 presents the ROS comparison by women‟s representation on

boards.

Figure 2.12: ROS by women’s representation on boards ROS BY WOMEN’S REPRESENTATION

ON BOARD

9.7%

13.7%

0.0%

2.0%

4.0%

6.0%

8.0%

10.0%

12.0%

14.0%

16.0%

ROS

Bottom Quartile

Top Quartile

42%




boards.

Figure 2.12 shows that for companies in the top 25 percent quartile of women

board directors, the average ROS is 42 percent higher than for those in the bottom

25 percent quartile. The percentage demonstrates the difference in average ROSs.

Figure 2.13 indicates the average ROI for companies with the most and those with

the least women board directors.

53

Figure 2.13: ROI by women’s representation on boards

ROI BY WOMEN’S REPRESENTATION ON

BOARD

4.7%

7.7%

0.0%

1.0%

2.0%

3.0%

4.0%

5.0%

6.0%

7.0%

8.0%

9.0%

ROI

Bottom Quartile

Top Quartile

66%




boards

Figure 2.13 illustrates a 66 percent better ROI performance for companies in the

top 25 percent quartile compared to companies in the bottom 25 percent quartile.

The percentage demonstrates the difference in average ROIs. It is evident from

Figures 2.11 to 2.13 that an increase in women board directors contributes

positively to the profitability of their companies.

These findings also seem to confirm those of the Public Policy Forum (2003).

They conducted a census of women in corporate leadership in the 50 largest

revenue-generating Wisconsin-based public companies, referred to as the

Wisconsin 50, in 2003 and examined the potential link between gender diversity

and financial performance by analysing the ROI, ROE, EPS and share price of

these companies using 1992 and 2002 data. Based on the findings with regard to

women directors and women corporate officers (general functional managers at the

level of vice president), they concluded that there is a definite link between gender

diversity and financial performance.

Wisconsin 50 companies with women directors outperformed those companies

without women directors as measured by:

54

Return on Investment (9,9 percent compared to 6,6 percent);

Earnings per share ($1.91 compared to $.98);

Return on Equity (13,4 percent compared to 9,1 percent); and

Share (stock) price (a $100 investment in 1992 is now valued at $431 for

companies with women directors, compared to $314 for companies

without)

Wisconsin 50 companies with women officers outperform those companies without

women officers as measured by:

Return on Investment (9,2 percent compared to 8 percent);

Earnings per Share ($1.63 compared to $1.50); and

Return on Equity (12,5 percent compared to 10.6 percent).

Kotiranta et al. (2007) report similar results from a study conducted in Finland in

2003. The target population comprised of Finnish limited companies employing at

least 10 persons. Measured on ROI, the results of company profitability linked to

women in the position of CEO averaged 1.8 percent higher than companies with

male only CEOs and the profitability results of companies with a majority of

women on their boards averaged 3.2 percent higher.

The question arises whether the better performance of these companies can be

ascribed to the leadership style of women or whether it is the result of a corporate

culture that utilises the strengths found in diversity and thus encourages success.

2.7 SUMMARY

The literature reviewed on women in management provided qualitative support that

women remain notably underrepresented in management. Entry barriers into

educational, business and professional institutions have been removed, but the

career path to the top has remained barricaded. Women are also unequally

represented in a number of employment sectors requiring technical expertise, such

as information technology and production. In employment sectors where women

are equally represented such as education and law, they are mostly segmented at

55

the lower end of the hierarchy and often in so-called feminised positions with

limited opportunity for career advancement. The evident earnings gap between

genders for performing the same job is further exacerbated by vertical and

horizontal career stratification.

It is concluded, that a number of career barriers, culminating in a glass ceiling,

impact on women‟s current position and that historical interventions were not

adequate in positioning women for professional success. Statistics providing

evidence that equal representation of women on corporate boards is linked to

increased performance and productivity, leading to higher profitability as measured

by ROI, ROE and EPS, makes it crucial for businesses to identify and implement

initiatives most likely to promote women‟s advancement.

The underrepresentation of women in executive positions and the barriers they face

in advancing to the top appear to be a universal problem. There are, however,

women who overcome barriers and advance to top positions in business and the

professions. This may be attributed to the personality and cultural traits of these

women. Another contributing factor may be the internal culture of the

organisations and external support from sources such as family, professional

associations, government and pressure groups and this will be investigated in

chapter 3.

56

CHAPTER 3

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE SUCCESS OF WOMEN

AS BUSINESS LEADERS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

An extensive literature review on women in management in Chapter 2 revealed that

women are highly underrepresented in a number of employment sectors and in

corporate positions. Persisting barriers contributing to the underrepresentation were

discussed and the business imperative for promoting women‟s advancement was

illustrated in an overview of the increased profitability of firms with more women

on their corporate boards.

It is argued in this chapter that the pool of women in corporate positions could be

increased by gaining insight into factors contributing to the career success of those

women who do succeed in advancing to leadership and management positions.

This knowledge will determine the nature and extent of interventions required for

the development of more women business leaders.

This chapter addresses the question of how some women manage to overcome

barriers and achieve success by reviewing the factors identified in literature as

instrumental to the achievements of successful professional women. These factors

include women‟s leadership and management styles; typical personality traits of

successful women; cultural values and their interaction with characteristics

expected to find in successful women; and external and internal support that

contribute to a favourable environment for achieving professional success. A

background to South African national culture is given to contextualise the study.

57

3.2 BACKGROUND TO THE INCLUSION OF PERSONALITY TRAITS

AND CULTURAL VALUES

The current study extends the research of Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et al.

(2006) to the South African context. The presupposition in Punnett et al’s and

Duffy et al.’s study is that despite variations in national culture, successful

professional women across cultures demonstrate high levels of certain

characteristics linked to professional success. This may indicate that personality

traits are an overarching determinant in how individuals respond to their

environment and may provide insight into why some women succeed in

overcoming barriers and others not.

The likelihood that personality traits and cultural values are influential factors to

women‟s career success is inferred from the many examples in history of women

who have progressed to top positions in a number of professions. A renowned case

in point in business management is Lillian Moller Gilbreth (1878 – 1972), dubbed

the mother of modern management, who was instrumental in pioneering industrial

management techniques still utilised today (Merry & Smart, 1997). At a time when

remarkably few women furthered their education and advanced to professional

careers, she obtained various degrees, including the first conferred doctorate in

Industrial Psychology. Gilbreth was the recipient of several honorary degrees, the

first female member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, professor

of management and the first female professor in the engineering school at Purdue

University (Merry & Smart, 1997). An increasing number of women are following

in the footsteps of equivalently successful predecessors, which is an indication that

barriers to career success are not insurmountable.

In addition to the findings of Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et al. (2006), the

argument for the inclusion of culture is based on contemporary research (Yoo,

Donthu & Lenartowicz, 2011) claiming that although individuals demonstrate the

values enculturated by national culture, culture is also visible at an individual level,

in particular, in countries with a heterogeneous population with different cultural

backgrounds. The measurement of culture at an individual level will therefore

provide insight into the cultural values of women who succeed professionally.

58

For comparison purposes, the same personality variables employed in Punnett et

al.’s (2006) and Duffy et al‟s (2006) study, namely high self-efficacy, an internal

locus of control and strong need for achievement are selected for this study. Duffy

et al. (2006:554) based their selection on earlier research of White, Cox and

Cooper (1992) that identified these variables as predictors of successful career

development. The selected cultural variables predicted to influence career success

are Hofstede‟s (1980) original four work-related cultural dimensions, namely:

individualism/collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance and

masculinity/femininity.

3.3 MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP STYLE OF WOMEN

Leadership in the work environment relates to an aptitude for motivating the

workforce and initiating action in order to achieve organisational goals (DuBrin

2010:3). The relational quality of leadership is increasingly emphasised in 21st

century literature on leadership and it is argued that positive relationships with co-

workers are important in the more people-oriented approach to effective leadership.

Most of the successful women interviewed in the study of Punnett et al. (2006:104-

108), with the exception of the United States, described their leadership and

management styles as participative. Although management style is influenced by

both cultural and individual characteristics, a number of characteristics are

generally ascribed to genders. Research (Helgeson, 1990; Kabacoff, 2000; Eagly &

Carli, 2003; Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:282; Jáñez & Moreno, 2008:88; Paton 2008)

on women‟s management style suggests that women are more collaborative,

encourage participation, and act as coaches, mentors and role models through a

relationship of trust and connect with others on a personal level. Bilimoria &

Piderit (2007:293) refers to Burns who in 1978 labelled this leadership style

„transformational leadership‟. The effectiveness of a transformational leadership

style has been validated in a number of studies. Eagly and Carli‟s (2003: 810-817)

meta-analyses of leadership style revealed that women are more transformational

and likely to reward performance. A positive correlation was found between

effectiveness and leadership style.

59

There are, however, arguments that the leadership styles of women and men are

similar and that women leaders are selected on the basis that they already enact

masculine roles, presumably as a result of leadership role expectations linked to

tasks (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:283). Women often have to find equilibrium

between gendered role expectations on the one hand and leadership role

expectations on the other (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:287). Both task-oriented and

interpersonally oriented behaviours are essential for effective leadership and the

divide in gendered leadership style at managerial level appears to be less visible

than at lower levels (Eagly & Carli, 2007:288). The question to be answered is

whether women‟s particular management and leadership style is a factor

contributing to their success. If it is a contributing factor, it is not yet clear whether

it can be attributed to a transformational style, the enactment of a masculine style

or an ability to balance the two.

3.4 PERSONALITY TRAITS OF SUCCESSFUL PROFESSIONAL

WOMEN

Personality can be defined as an individual‟s personal set of mental programmes

which are partly inherited and partly learned. Learned implies that traits are

modified by the cultural environment and personal experiences (Hofstede, 1997:6).

Duffy et al. (2006:554) suggest that the three personality traits which best predict

career success is self-efficacy, an internal locus of control and a strong need for

achievement. Self-confidence, a positive attitude, high energy, persistence and

work ethic are additional characteristics perceived by professional women as

influencing their career success (Duffy et al., 2006:554). These characteristics are

linked to self-efficacy and need for achievement and authors generally agree that

they, together with characteristics such as adaptability and resilience, are core

requirements for professional success (Rose, 2007). The three identified personality

traits are discussed in the paragraphs that follow.

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3.4.1 Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy can be defined as confidence in one‟s ability to perform successfully

(Punnett et al. 2006:12). Human beings have a natural desire to control occurrences

which impact on their lives. Motivation and performance is influenced by the

individuals‟ belief in their own potential and directly impacts on their ability to

transcend career barriers (Duffy et al., 2006: 555-556). Individuals with high levels

of self-efficacy are not only better equipped to persevere in challenging situations,

but also set more challenging goals for themselves. They respond with increased

effort and impetus to negative feedback.

Bandura‟s research (1977, 1986, 1994) from the 1970‟s on the development of self-

efficacy, guided his social cognitive theory which suggests that humans are capable

of controlling their behaviour and consequently of controlling events. His theory

developed from the social learning theories of psychologists like Sears (stimulus

response) and Skinner (classic conditioning). Bandura‟s theory implies that humans

cognitively store the consequences of behaviour on events, and use this information

to guide future behaviour. Perceived self-efficacy is determined by individuals‟

belief in their ability to apply this learnt behaviour to different circumstances

(Bandura, 1994). Bandura (1994:2) distinguishes between four main sources of

influence on self-efficacy beliefs, as illustrated in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Sources of influence for altering self-efficacy beliefs

Source Denotation

Enactive mastery experience Experience in successfully overcoming barriers through effort.

Vicarious experience Experiences appraised through modelling capabilities on the

achievements of others.

Social/verbal persuasion Impact of evaluative feedback received on performance.

Physiological and affective

states

Reaction to perceived stressful situations (sweating, shaking).

Stress reduced if perceived as normal reaction and performance

enhanced.

Source: Bandura, 1994:2

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The significance of these sources of influence is the potential for altering women‟s

behaviour through training and development initiatives. Self-efficacy can be

strengthened by equipping future women leaders with the skills to overcome

barriers and master challenges, exposing them to successful role models and giving

positive and helpful feedback on their performance. Women‟s performance is

further enhanced through knowledge that the physiological reaction to stressful

situations is normal human behaviour and not a sign of weakness.

Based on Bandura‟s (1994) research, typical characteristics of low versus high self-

efficacy and its likely consequences are depicted in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Typical characteristics and consequences of low versus high levels

of self-efficacy and potential impact of interventions

Source: Author‟s own adapted from Bandura‟s (1994)

Figure 3.1 illustrates the effect of developmental interventions on behavioural

patterns, including social modelling where other successful women serve as role

models and build confidence in women‟s own efficacy. The gradual introduction of

short term goals and lower risk tasks serves to build confidence and self-esteem,

which in turn has the potential to regulate success.

Low self-efficacy

Avoid challenging tasks, viewing them as

personal threats

Give up easily

Have low aspirations and commitment to goals

Focus on deficiencies and consequences of

failure

Consequences

Strategic thinking

Ascribes failure to insufficient

effort or lack of knowledge

and skills, which are

acquirable

Quick to recover from failure

Have low stress levels

High self-efficacy

Attempts difficult task

Sets challenging goals and remain

committed to them

High level of sustained effort

Consequences

Reduced level of effective

thinking

Takes failure personally

Slow to recover from failure

Have high stress levels

Training

Social modelling

Institutional support

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The development of self-efficacy has the potential to not only increase women‟s

representation in leadership positions, but also in traditional male careers.

Mukhopadyay and Sudarshan (2003:26) suggest that there is a relationship between

gender role identity and self-efficacy. Women with a more egalitarian view of the

role of women have a better sense of self-efficacy and have the confidence to

pursue careers traditionally associated with males. In contrast, women who

demonstrate a high level of femininity, have less confidence in their ability to

succeed in these occupations.

3.4.2 Internal locus of control

In order to define locus of control, a distinction is made between internal and

external locus of control. Individuals with a strong internal locus of control accept

responsibility for failure and take credit for success. Individuals with an internal

locus of control generally come from families who encourage education and who

value effort and a willingness to accept responsibility. Individuals with an external

locus of control not only blame outside forces for their failure, but also attribute

their success to external influences (Duffy et al., 2006:556).

The concept locus of control, initially referred to as locus of control of

reinforcement, was introduced by Rotter in the 1960s and referred to the measure

of confidence individuals had in their ability to control the outcomes of their

actions. Both the theory and research suggest that locus of control is mostly learnt

through reinforcement. The concept work locus of control was later developed by

Spector (1988) to explain behaviour in the work environment and the relationship

between work locus of control and workplace well-being. Instruments for locus of

control have been developed and tested extensively in South Africa by Prof Johann

Schepers (Schepers, 2005; Schepers, Gropp & Geldenhuys, 2006; Schepers &

Hassett, 2006; Schepers, 2007).

Punnett et al. (2006:10) summarise research evidence on individuals with an

internal locus of control, noting that they are more likely to attempt to improve or

control their environment; place greater emphasis on achievement; have greater

position mobility; more actively manage their own careers; and are more involved

in entrepreneurial activities. Internal locus of control in isolation is not instrumental

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in the achievement of career success, but must be complemented by competence,

self-efficacy and opportunity.

3.4.3 Need for achievement

McClelland (2009) (renowned for his achievement-based motivational theory and

models) identified three types of motivations needs, namely achievement

motivation (n-ach), authority/power motivation (n-pow) and affiliation motivation

(n-affil). McClelland‟s acquired-needs theory suggests that an individual‟s needs

are acquired over a period of time and that their experiences shape these needs

(NetMBA, 2010). He argued that a high need for achievement is a skill that can be

taught and he subsequently developed training programmes for this purpose

(McClelland, 2011). People with a high need for achievement have preference for

assignments which are challenging, but achievable. Their goal is to excel and as a

result they avoid both low and high risk situations. Succeeding at low risk projects

is not perceived as an achievement, whilst chance plays a more predominant role

than effort in high-risk projects.

Individuals demonstrating a high need for achievement are more likely to

overcome barriers to success as they are willing to work hard and indicate a

preference for challenging tasks (Punnett et al., 2006: 11). Thus, one could predict

that successful women would be more resilient to career barriers than those who

experience greater difficulty in climbing the corporate ladder. High n-ach women

should, however, be given projects with a moderate probability of success and

provided with feedback on their accomplishments, not for the purpose of

recognition, but as a means of measuring success. Feedback must, therefore, be

accurate and quantifiable. As n-ach people are intrinsically motivated, money is not

a primary motivator in itself, but valuable as a measurement of performance.

High n-ach people are result-oriented and work to capacity to excel, generally

making them successful in business and in entrepreneurial activities. This,

however, does not necessarily make them good managers, as the strong emphasis

on producing results may negatively impact on their social skills.

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3.5 CULTURAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE SUCCESS OF

PROFESSIONAL WOMEN

The concept of collective mental characteristics or national cultural values dates

back to the beginning of populations, with divided opinion on whether culture can

be ascribed to nature (environment) or nurture (genetics). National culture was

studied by 18th

century philosophers like Hume, Montesquieu and Kant and

embraced by anthropologists in the 20th

century (Hofstede & McCrae, 2004:53).

The concept lost popularity for a brief period in the 1960s but interest was regained

after the 1960s in particular amongst psychologist for studying the relationship

between personality and culture.

Cultural values at both national and individual levels are regarded in the current

study as a primary aspect of behaviour which can impact on professional success.

From a business perspective, both national and organisational culture play a role in

the way that they shape responses in the work environment and attention will be

given to both.

3.5.1 National culture defined

Several researchers from an array of disciplines, including sociology, psychology

and anthropology, have endeavoured to define culture. The consensus opinion

among anthropologists in defining culture is that it relates to patterned ways of

thinking, feeling and reacting. Culture embodies historically derived ideas and, in

particular, values which have been attached to them (Hofstede, 1980). These

symbolically-loaded values are transferred from one generation to the next.

Hofstede (1980:21) refers to culture as the personality of a collectivity of people,

the “collective programming of the mind”. Personality traits according to Hofstede

are „hard-wired‟ in people, because they come from the genes, but culture

originates in the environment and is the „software of the mind‟. Where personality

has been defined as “the interactive aggregate of personal characteristics that

influence the individual‟s response to the environment”, culture could be described

as “the interactive aggregate of common characteristics that influence a human

group‟s response to its environment” (Hofstede, 1980:21). Culture defines the

65

human group in the same way that personality defines the individual. Personality

and culture interact to the extent that cultural traits can sometimes be measured by

personality tests (Hofstede, 1980:21).

Because modern nations are complex and sub-culturally heterogeneous, it is

virtually impossible to ascribe a national character to them. The other traits are

proposed to originate from their sub-cultures (demographic factors in this study)

and include age, ethnicity, gender, religion, educational level and socio-economic

status. Hofstede (1997:10) refers to this as layers of culture visible at the following

levels:

National;

Regional and/or ethnic and/or religious and/or linguistic affiliation;

Gender;

Generation;

Social class, associated with education and profession; and

Organisational.

Hofstede (1980:29), however, argues that nations possess dominant national

character traits which can be exposed by survey studies and by the comparison of

measurable data at society level. Yoo, Donthu and Lenartowicz (2011) on the other

hand, suggest that due to individual cultural orientation, particularly prevalent in

countries with a heterogeneous population, the assignment of Hofstede‟s national

indices is not always appropriate.

3.5.2 Ethnic diversity and national culture in South Africa

South Africa as a nation comprises a rich array of ethnic backgrounds, languages

and religious beliefs. Based on the mid-2011 estimates from Statistics South Africa

(Statistics South Africa, 2011), the total population numbers approximately 50.5

million of which 79.5 percent are black, 9 percent white, 9 percent coloured and

2.5 percent are Indian/Asian. Four broad groupings make up the African

population, namely Nguni (Zulu, Xhosa, Ndebele and Swazi people); Sotho-

Tswane; Tsongo; and Venda. White South Africans include Afrikaners

(descendants of Dutch, German and French Huguenots); English-speakers

66

(descendents of settlers from the British Isles); and immigrants and their

descendents. Coloured South Africans descend from a mixed lineage and the

majority of the Asian population living in South Africa are Indian of origin. The

population also consists of a notable group of Chinese South Africans (South

Africa.info, 2012).

South Africa is a multilingual country and eleven official languages are recognised

in the democratic constitution which came into effect on 4 February 1997. The

official languages, with the percentage of home language speakers in brackets, are

isiZulu (23.82 percent); isiXhosa (17.64 percent); Afrikaans (13.35 percent);

Sepedi (9.39 percent); English (8.2 percent); Setswana (8.2 percent); Sesotho (7.93

percent); Xitsonga (4.44 percent); SiSwati (2.66 percent); Tshivenda (2.28

percent); and IsiNdebele (1.59 percent). The diverse population represents a variety

of religions, namely Christianity (79.8 percent, including most whites and

coloureds, approximately 60 percent of blacks and 40 percent of Indians); Islam

(1.5 percent); Hinduism (1.2 percent); Judaism (0.2 percent); other beliefs (0.6

percent); no religion (1.4 percent); and undetermined (1.4 percent) (South

Africa.info, 2012).

Hofstede (1997:15-16) makes provision for ethnic, age and religious differences

and argues that “ethnic and religious groups often transcend political country

borders. Such groups form minorities at the crossroads between the dominant

culture of the nation and their own traditional group culture”. According to

Hofstede (1997:15-16), some assimilate into the mainstream, but it may take a

generation or more. He cites the United States as the best example of a population

comprising of immigrants where assimilation and retention of group identities have

taken place over generations.

South Africa is a heterogeneous nation and it could be expected that Hofstede‟s

country level culture scores cannot be assigned to every member of this society.

The different ethnic groups have largely retained their own identities and their own

value systems. However, it can be reasonably argued that in a globalised society,

the majority of the people in managerial positions in South African firms,

irrespective of ethnicity, subscribe to Western work-related cultural values.

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Another argument is that work-related culture is not static and changes over time

(Wu, 2006). In the decades following Hofstede‟s country classification on work-

related cultural values, dynamic societal and environmental changes have taken

place in South Africa where, for example, the political (democracy) and

educational (greater access to education for previously disadvantaged groups)

environments have transformed dramatically.

The question arises whether Hofstede‟s country indices are still valid and

applicable to South Africa since 1994. Hofstede (1997:15-16) collected data from

a mostly white male perspective, whilst the country‟s business influence sphere

now reflects greater diversity. It could be argued that the indices may be closer to

those of East and West Africa, but as a generation has not passed since the change

in power, and in the absence of an appropriate alternative, the indices in Table 3.2

will be accepted for the purpose of this study.

Table 3.2: Index values for Hofstede’s dimensions for the Americas and East,

West and South Africa

Power Distance Uncertainty

Avoidance

Individualism/

Collectivism

Masculinity/

Femininity

Argentina 49 86 46 56

Brazil 69 76 38 49

Canada 39 48 80 52

Chile 63 86 23 28

Colombia 67 80 13 64

Costa Rica 35 86 15 21

East Africa 64 52 27 41

Ecuador 78 67 8 63

Guatemala 95 101 6 37

Jamaica 45 13 39 68

Mexico 81 82 30 69

Panama 95 86 11 44

Peru 64 87 16 42

Salvador 66 94 19 40

South Africa 49 49 65 63

Uruguay 61 100 36 38

USA 40 46 91 62

Venezuela 81 76 12 73

West Africa 77 54 20 46

Source: Hofstede (1997). Note: Scale 1 to 100 (1-25 = low; 26-50 = moderately low; 51-75 = moderately

high; 27 – 100 = high).

68

Unlike the predominantly white male population studied by Hofstede (1997:15-16),

data for the current study was collected from an ethnically diverse female

population and differences in cultural orientation are possible. The collected data

have the potential to direct further research at national level into the

appropriateness of Hofstede‟s indices four decades later. Measures for the current

study are at an individual level.

3.5.3 Hofstede’s cultural model

There are several frameworks within which culture can be studied, but Hofstede‟s

country classification on work-related cultural dimensions appears to be the most

widely-used framework in a number of disciplines, including management studies

(Wu, 2006; Soares, Farhangmehr & Shoham, 2007:280). In their motivation for

using Hofstede‟s model in their Successful Women Project, Punnett et al.

(2006:63-69) refer to its intuitive appeal and the fact that management academics

and practitioners find his dimensions readily understandable as the dimensions can

be easily related to management approaches and practices. The scale for measuring

work-related cultural dimensions was, however, replaced in Punnett et al.’s study

by the scale developed by Dorfman and Howell (1988), who argued that Hofstede‟s

scale was designed for measuring at the cultural level and was not suitable for

measuring individual differences. Dorfman and Howell‟s scale provided an

existing instrument with acceptable psychometric properties for measurement at the

individual level. Preference for a scale that measures at an individual level is

sufficiently supported by other researchers (Wu, 2006; Yoo et al., 2011) and

Dorfman and Howell‟s scale was consequently adopted for the current study.

Hofstede‟s cultural constructs were reported in his book Culture’s Consequences:

International Differences in Work-Related Values (1980) and followed by Cultures

and Organizations: Software of the Mind (1997). Hofstede‟s work was regarded as

a landmark in the national cultural literature, but it has also been criticised as

lacking in academic rigour by writers such as Dorfman and Howell (1988), Punnett

and Withane (1990) and Moulettes (2007:445). Despite the criticism, there is still

majority support for the theoretical relevance of Hofstede‟s model.

69

Hofstede‟s model followed the pioneering work of American anthropologists Ruth

Benedict (1887-1948) and Margaret Mead (1901-1978). They argued that societies

are confronted with generic problems and that only the approaches to finding

solutions differed (Hofstede, 1997:13). This concept was further exploited in 1954

by the sociologist Alex Inkeles and psychologist Daniel Levinson who identified

the following generic problem faced by all societies (Hofstede, 1997:13):

Relation to authority;

Conception of self, in particular, the relation between individual and society

and the individual‟s perception of masculinity and femininity; and

Methods of dealing with conflict.

Hofstede‟s (1980) findings in the IBM study, elaborated on in the paragraphs that

follow, support the views of Benedict, Mead, Inkeles and Levinson. Hofstede

(1997:13-14) identified the following areas in which common problems were

identified with different solutions identified at national level:

Social inequality, including the relationship with authority;

The relationship between the individual and the group;

Concepts of masculinity and femininity; and

Way of dealing with uncertainty.

These findings are closely related to the predictions of Inkeles and Levinson 20

years earlier (Hofstede 1997:14) which provide support for the argument that

problems experienced in different countries have overlapping commonalities.

Described as dimensions of culture, they represent facets of culture that can be

measured at a national level (Hofstede 1997:13-14).

Hofstede (1980) explored the differences in thinking and social behaviour between

members of 40 different nations. The data used for the empirical study was

obtained from survey results gathered within the subsidiaries of IBM. These

surveys, that were conducted twice in the late sixties and early seventies of the

previous century, producing approximately 116 000 completed questionnaires,

carried a vast number of questions about values. The respondents can be matched

on occupation, age and gender. Hofstede (1980) also used additional data gathered

70

among managers participating in international management development courses

unrelated to IBM. Based on theoretical reasoning and statistical analysis, he

identified four main work-related dimensions on which countries‟ cultures differed.

He labelled these dimensions Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance,

Individualism and Masculinity. During the nineties he added a fifth dimension

called Long Term Orientation. In the paragraphs that follow each of these

dimensions are defined and briefly described.

3.5.3.1 Power distance

Power distance, Hofstede‟s first cultural dimension, conveys the degree to which a

society accepts differences in power as right and appropriate as opposed to the

belief in equality and the potential to rise to any level, notwithstanding birth or

status (Punnett et al., 2006:63). In the work environment it refers to the power

inequality between superiors and their subordinates. Organisational hierarchy is

visible in high power distance organisations whereas low power distance

organisations tend to have flatter organisational structures. Hofstede (1980: 72)

defines it as the difference between the extent to which a boss can determine the

behaviour of his or her subordinate and the extent to which the subordinate can

determine the behaviour of the boss.

3.5.3.2 Uncertainty avoidance

Hofstede‟s second dimension, uncertainty avoidance, can be described as the

degree to which a society values certainty to ambiguity and the degree of risk-

taking that the members of that society consider as appropriate (Punnett et al.,

2006:63). It relates to how the members of a society tolerate uncertainty, also in

the work environment (Hofstede, 1980:110-147). Societies employ technology,

law and religion to help them cope with uncertainty, while organisations use

technology, rules, regulations and rituals for this purpose.

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3.5.3.3 Individualism

The third dimension, individualism/collectivism, relates to the degree to which a

society places value on individual as opposed to group contributions and to the

importance individuals attach to their immediate family group versus the wider

society (Punnett et al., 2006:63). Societies are regarded as individualistic where the

ties between individuals are loose, indicating that everyone is expected to take

responsibility for themselves and their immediate family. Collectivism is the

opposite and pertains to societies in which people from birth onwards are

integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which continue to protect them during

their lifetime in exchange for unquestioning loyalty (Hofstede, 1997:51).

Within the organisational context individuals with high individualistic values will

be more concerned about their own career and progress, whereas individuals with

low individualistic values will attribute greater value to the achievement of

organisational goals.

Individualism in Hofstede‟s (1997) research is most strongly associated with the

relative importance attached to personal time, freedom and challenge. Collectivists,

on the other hand, attach significant value to training, physical conditions and use

of skills.

3.5.3.4 Masculinity

Masculinity (MAS) and its opposite, femininity, refer to the distribution of roles

between the genders. It deals with the degree to which a society accepts

assertiveness, competitiveness and tangible rewards as traditional male values as

opposed to nurturing, care for others and concern for the environment as traditional

female values. This is also visible in organisations where men are likely to be given

more challenging assignments and appointed to higher end positions whilst women

are mostly assigned to soft skill activities at the lower end of the hierarchy.

Hofstede (1997) argues that the IBM studies revealed that women's values differ

less among societies than men's values. The values of men from different societies

range from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from women's

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values to modest and caring and similar to women's values. Hofstede refers to the

assertive pole as „masculine‟ and the modest, caring pole as „feminine‟. The

women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the men; in

the masculine countries they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as

much as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men's values and

women's values.

According to Hofstede (1997), feminine cultures tend to have the following

features:

Caring for others is a dominant value;

Relationships are important;

People should be modest;

Both men and women deal with facts and feelings;

People work to live;

Managers aim for consensus;

Equality, solidarity, and quality are important at work; and

Conflicts are solved by compromise.

Masculine cultures tend to have the following features (Hofstede, 1997):

Material success is a dominant value;

Possessions are important;

Men are assertive;

Women deal with feelings;

People live to work;

Managers are expected to be decisive;

Competition and performance are important at work; and

Conflicts are fought out.

This dimension thus refers to how much a society endorses and values traditional

male and female roles. Gender roles are not reversed in countries with a low MAS

score; the roles of males and females merely become blurred. In this case, men and

women follow the same professions; there is less occupational segregation and

sensitivity in men and assertiveness in women are regarded as acceptable

(Mindtools, 2011).

73

Because this dimension is sometimes regarded as controversial and not well

understood, Punnett et al. (2006) excluded it from their study. They argued that it

was also not clear how it could be related to personality characteristics. However,

countries that measure lower on the masculinity dimension tend to appoint more

women to better positions and are generally more positive about the abilities of

women (Roffey, 2000:6). The findings of Istodor (2009:145-152) on the other

hand, reveal a gross underrepresentation of women in managerial positions also in

feminine nations like Sweden and Denmark. A positive attitude towards women‟s

abilities alone does not appear to equalise the workforce and firms need to

implement additional measures to increase the percentage of women in managerial

positions. One of these measures may be training initiatives to enhance the

personality characteristics identified in paragraph 3.3 as the best predictors of

career success.

Istodor‟s (2009) findings correlate with Hofstede‟s (1997:95) argument that there is

no relationship between a country‟s score on the masculinity index and women‟s

entry into the labour market. Hofstede (1997:95) however, identified a positive

correlation between a country‟s femininity score and the participation of women in

higher level technical and professional jobs. Masculinity is, therefore, included in

the current study to correlate masculinity with the characteristics of professional

successful women. It is further regarded as a notably influential dimension in the

way gender roles are perceived within organisations and, therefore, a factor that

would impact on women‟s success. It is also argued that it can to an extent be

related to personality characteristics in a similar fashion to the other three cultural

dimensions included in the study.

3.5.3.5 Long term orientation (LTO)

Hofstede (1997) added the fifth dimension, LTO, after finding that Asian countries

with a strong link to Confucian philosophy behaved differently to Western cultures.

LTO refers to how much society values long-standing traditions and values

(Mindtools, 2011) and was discovered by Bond, a Canadian living in the Far East.

Hofstede (1997:14) suggests that this dimension may have been previously

overlooked due to cultural bias, where scholars of culture shared a Western thought

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pattern. In countries with a high LTO score, delivering on social obligations and

avoiding „loss of face‟ are considered very important. Hofstede (1997:14) found

that people in the United States (US) and United Kingdom (UK) have low LTO

scores, suggesting that creativity and novel ideas are expressed freely. It,

furthermore, implies that people in the US and UK do not value tradition to the

same extent as, for example, Asian people do. Countries with high LTO have the

following characteristics (Hofstede, 1997):

Family is the basis of society;

Parents and men have more authority than young people and women;

The people have a strong work ethic; and

High value is place on education and training.

In low LTO countries, on the other hand,

Equality is promoted;

Creativity and individualism are valued very highly;

People believe that one should treat others as one would like to be treated;

and

Self-actualisation is sought.

Hofstede (1997) has not extended his analysis of this dimension to South Africa

and consequently there is no LTO score for this country. It is, therefore, not

included in the current study.

3.6 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL

DIMENSIONS AND PERSONALITY TRAITS

The paragraphs that follow provide an overview of the proposed relationship

between the cultural dimensions selected for the current study and personality

traits.

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3.6.1 Overview of the proposed relationship

Trait psychology emerged over the past 30 years as theoretical basis for

understanding individual behaviour, including differences in individuals‟ responses

to the environment. Various researchers (Hofstede & McCrae, 2004; Srite, Mao, &

Rothenberger, 2008; Migliore, 2011), mainly in the field of Psychology, have

investigated the relationship between culture and personality variables and have

found evidence of a distinct, positive relationship.

The contemporary trait perspective replaced earlier psychoanalytic models aiming

to analyse the relationship between personality and dimensions of national culture

for work-related values. The renewed interest is most likely prompted by the need

for a better understanding of international cooperation in the global economy. It is

argued in the trait approach that personality traits are biologically based and that

personality transcends culture. This entails a shift from research into how culture

shapes personality to the interaction between personality traits and culture

(Hofstede & McCrae, 2004:57). This shift is based on the argument that in societies

where women have freedom to pursue careers, not all women become successful

professionals. The opposite is also true and in countries where women are

considerably oppressed, some succeed in transcending barriers to professional

success. Achieving success is argued to be dependent on characteristics linked to

assertiveness and the need for achievement, and differences in the mean level of

personality traits may influence cultural practices (Hofstede & McCrae, 2004:58).

Many of the contemporary studies (Hofstede & McCrae, 2004; Migliore, 2011)

apply the five-factor model (FFM) of personality and Hofstede‟s five cultural

dimensions to assess the inter-relational aspects of culture and personality. The

FFM is used as a theoretical basis which measures extraversion (assertive, action

oriented), agreeableness (concern for cooperation and social harmony),

conscientiousness (measure of focus, carefulness and reliability), neorotism

(measure of distress and ability to cope with daily activities) and openness to

experience (intellectual curiosity). Srite et al. (2008) conducted research on 163

students to examine the effect of culture on a set of personality variables associated

with technology acceptance. The researchers all found evidence of a distinct,

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positive relationship between Hofstede‟s cultural dimensions and personality.

Although the personality traits investigated in the current study is self-efficacy,

locus of control and need for achievement, there are peripheral similarities to the

FFM and the principle of interaction between the traits and culture applies (Srite et

al., 2008).

Modern-day studies suggest that Hofstede‟s original country level scores may not

be applicable to modern-day societies where globalisation and technological

advances make the measurement of traits and cultural values at an individual level

more plausible. Hofstede and McCrae (2004:65) however caution against

ecological fallacy stating that “In studying personality, we compare individuals; in

studying culture, we compare societies, even if our data have partly been collected

from individuals within those societies.” Individuals can, therefore, not be

compared on data about societies or reversely, societies on indices developed for

the individual level.

In this study, as was the case in the study of Punnett et al. (2006), the focus is on

the interaction of culture with the expected attributes of successful professional

women, using Hofstede‟s model as framework. The relationships between cultural

values and personality characteristics Punnett et al. (2006) expected to find are

summarised in Table 3.3. A fourth cultural dimension, masculinity/femininity, has

been added to the table for the purposes of the current study.

Table 3.3: Proposed relationships between cultural values and personality

characteristics

PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS

Cultural

Values

Relative

Value

Self-efficacy Internal Locus of

Control

Need for

Achievement

Power

Distance

High Performance

defined in terms

of what is

allowable given

one‟s position

Internal control

within context of

one‟s position and

status

Strive to achieve

goals appropriate

to one‟s position

and status

77


Cultural

Values

Relative

Value


Control

Need for

Achievement

Low Performance

based on one‟s

ability not one‟s

status

Indifferent to

status; internal

control based

individual ability

and ambitions

Strive to achieve

high goals and the

best you can be

Uncertainty

Avoidance

High Structure and

rules, policies,

procedures,

expertise, norms

assist in

performance

Structure and rules

contribute to

internal sense of

control

Structure and rules

used to identify the

best ways to meet

demanding goals

Low Having freedom,

flexibility

contributes to high

performance and

results

Dislike structure,

rules, see

ambiguity as

allowing internal

control

Ambiguity,

uncertainty

accepted as giving

freedom in

working toward

goals

Individualism/

collectivism

High

collectivism

Belief in group

ability to get the

job done and

accomplish goals

Success depends

on internal,

individual effort

but in concert with

others, sense that

„we are in control‟

Group effort

needed to meet

challenging group

goals

High

individualism

Belief in personal

ability to get the

job done and

accomplish goals

Individual hard

work leads to

success, with

sense of own

control

Individual effort

needed to meet

demanding goals

78


Cultural

Values

Relative

Value


Control

Need for

Achievement

Masculinity/

femininity

High

(Masculine)

Performance defined

in terms of what is

appropriate in terms

of gender

Internal control

within context of

one‟s gender

Strive to achieve

high goals

appropriate to

gender

Low

(Feminine)

Performance based

on one‟s ability, not

gender role

segregation

Indifferent to

gender; internal

control based on

individual ability

and ambitions

Strive to achieve

high goals

irrespective of

gender

Source: Adapted from Punnett et al., 2006:71

The relationships between the first three cultural dimensions and the personality

traits as defined in Punnett et al. (2006:69-70) are briefly explained in the

paragraphs that follow. This is followed by a short explanation of the expected

relationship between the masculinity dimension and personality characteristics.

Because the study of Punnett et al. (2006) focussed to a great extent on the

mentoring of women in organisations, conclusions were drawn about the

implications of these relationships for mentoring. These will be further discussed in

section 3.8.4.

3.6.2 The relationship between power distance and personality

characteristics

Where power distance is high, success is dependent on the imposed limitations of

permitted behaviour in relation to an individual‟s position in society. The

expression of personal traits is constrained by these limitations. In the case of low

power distance, performance is evaluated in terms of the individual‟s ability and

not status. Achievement, self-esteem and internal locus of control can be expressed

without the constraint of permitted behaviour in relation to the individual‟s position

(Punnett et al., 2006:69-70).

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3.6.3 The relationship between uncertainty avoidance and personality

characteristics

Where uncertainty avoidance is high, performance is guided by structure and rules.

Need for achievement, self-efficacy and internal locus of control would be

expressed within the constraints of firm policies and procedures. Where uncertainty

avoidance is low, freedom and flexibility is valued. Individuals are more willing to

take risks and as a consequence these personal characteristics may be expressed in

terms of openness to new opportunities and risks (Punnett et al., 2006:69).

3.6.4 The relationship between individualism and personality characteristics

In more collective societies, personal characteristics valued may be the ability to

work with others in socially acceptable ways and associated with group effort. In

more individualistic societies the need for achievement, self-efficacy and internal

locus of control may be expressed in terms of personal or individual ability, effort

and hard work (Punnett et al., 2006:69).

3.6.5 The relationship between masculinity and personality characteristics

In masculine societies, competitiveness and assertiveness is regarded as masculine

traits and not socially acceptable for women (Hofstede, 1997). Personality

characteristics valued in women may be a nurturing disposition. Success is

dependent on the imposed limitations of permitted behaviour in relation to an

individual‟s gender. The expression of personality traits is constrained by these

limitations. In feminine societies, performance is evaluated in terms of the

individual‟s ability and not gender. Achievement, self-esteem and internal locus of

control can be expressed unconstraint.

Masculine values reflect, to a large extent, gender stereotyping discussed in chapter

2 and argued to be a barrier to career success. However, in masculine societies

women employed in senior positions appear to be more assertive than women in

feminine societies and it is expected that successful women who break through the

glass ceiling share the values normally ascribed to men. Despite constraints

imposed by a masculine society, it is likely that their personality characteristics will

80

drive them to transcend the glass ceiling. Hofstede (1997:96) also found that

ambition in women is more evident in masculine societies. This may explain the

phenomenon identified by Istodor (2009:151) that in a feminine country like

Sweden where working conditions for women is exceptionally favourable, many

women sacrifice a career in favour of the traditional role of mother and wife. For

the purpose of this study, it is argued that women in both masculine and feminine

societies who achieve success may be nurturing of character in the family

environment, but are more assertive, competitive and driven (by material success)

in the work environment, more so than women in general.

Masculine traits associated with the suitability of a manager may not affect women

in executive positions. Women who are sufficiently motivated to pursue a career

are likely to demonstrate male characteristics (Hofstede, 1980:194) and on an

individual level women may score higher on masculinity than many of the men.

3.7 THE ROLE OF EXTERNAL SUPPORT IN THE ACHIEVEMENT

OF PROFESSIONAL SUCCESS

External support in this section refers to support and initiatives external to the work

environment that impact on women‟s ability to succeed. These include family

support; professional associations for networking; government initiatives; pressure

from feminist groups; and awards and the creation of role models.

3.7.1 Family support

Family support is instrumental in the provision of independence for women to

pursue a career path. This is particularly the case in historically male-dominated

societies such as India where women are confined to traditional prescribed roles

(Lockwood, 2009). In patriarchal societies where gender role segregation is

enacted less stringently, women have greater freedom in career choices, but family

responsibility remains a barrier if domestic and care-giving responsibilities are not

shared equally.

Freeman (2006:18) argues that both internal and external components of the

environment influence gendered role segregation. Externally within society,

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practices are informed by, for example, class and religion which influence identity

formation. The internal component involves the psyche, the individual‟s notion of

self and place in the social network, moulded by the family. Freeman‟s study

explores possible consequences of these influences which include the following:

Girls may model the mother‟s role-cast behaviour;

Mothers may hold up their own confined life as a negative model and

encourage daughters to break out of the mould of economic dependence;

and

Daughters may be encouraged to develop their attributes and advance their

careers when they experience the constraints of economic dependence and

female domesticity in the lives of their mothers.

From the above, it appears that the individual‟s reaction to environmental

constraints vary, which could be an indication that personality is a determining

factor in how women respond to internal and external influences. The

demographics of both the individual and the family environment, however, impact

on personality traits and therefore skills and attributes acquired in the family

setting, and encouragement to pursue a career play a role (Freeman, 2006). If the

effort a child makes to succeed during the formative years is valued; they are more

likely to attempt future challenging tasks. By inculcating confidence in individuals

that they are capable of pursuing any goal, self-efficacy, discussed in paragraph

3.3.1, is enhanced. Internal locus of control, discussed in paragraph 3.3.2, is

elevated where the child is raised by a family who encourage education, effort and

responsibility. The above illustrates the interrelatedness between personality traits

and demographics in the achievement of professional success. The contributing

role of the family lies in the provision of a stimulating and supportive environment.

3.7.2 Professional associations for networking

The positive impact of networking on career advancement (De Klerk, 2010) is the

driving force for the establishment of professional associations for networking for

women. This is regarded as a suitable alternative arrangement for formal and

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informal homogeneous organisational networks, discussed in paragraph 2.5.6, from

which women are the predominantly excluded (Palermo, 2004:27).

Vinnicombe, Singh and Kumra (2004:11-13) list twelve networks initiated by

respectively women, CEO‟s and joint initiatives, most of them over the past

decade. They are BT‟s network, 1986; Lloyds TSB, 1999; Citigroup women‟s

network, 2000; IBM Women in Blue network, 2001; UBS, 2000; Shell network,

2001; Barclaycard, 2003GE, with its origins in 1997; Deutsche Bank, 2000; Ford,

1999; Goldman Sachs, 2001 and Price Waterhouse Coopers, 2002. Career

development strategies of these networks include inter alia conferences, events,

women-only training, career development workshops, exposure to those in

leadership and the facilitation of mentoring. Other similar networks have been

established across the globe, such as the Forum for Women in Leadership (WILL)

in India, founded in 2007. The European Professional Women‟s Network (PWN)

(2008), an online networking community for women, found that professional

women network primarily for personal and secondly for business reasons. Business

reasons include career advancement, business development, sourcing jobs and

integration into their current jobs.

In order to address the networking needs identified in the informal sector, a number

of organisations and women business associations have been established in South

Africa to provide support to women entrepreneurs. Associations for women include

the South African Women Entrepreneurs Network (SAWEN) and Business

Women‟s Association of South Africa (BWASA). A large number of sector

specific organisations have also been established (Botha, 2006:120).

3.7.3 Awards and the creation of role models

The increasing number of awards presented to successful business women

internationally as well as in South Africa, not only gives visibility and exposure to

the recipients, but also contributes towards inspiring, encouraging and motivating

other women.

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Existing awards in South Africa include the South African Business Women of the

Year Award (Business Women‟s Association of South Africa (BWASA), 2010b).

This award, introduced in 1980, has the following objectives:

To recognise the success of women leaders in business, thereby creating a

cadre of female role models whose achievements will inspire other women

to raise their sights and reach their goals;

To create a mechanism for applauding and celebrating women‟s

contribution to the economy; and

To raise funds to offer bursaries for women in business studies.

Further South African awards include the Top Women in Business & Government

Award (TWBG) (The top women, 2011), which focuses on economic

transformation and equality in both the public and the private sector; as well as the

South African Women in Science Awards (WISA) (2011). Hosted by the

Department of Science and Technology (DST) since 2003, the WISA awards are

presented annually at the South African Women‟s Day celebrations in August. A

Social Sciences and Humanities category was introduced for the first time in 2010.

Awards introduced in other countries include the Telstra Business Women‟s

Awards (2011), the First Women Awards (2010) in the UK, and the Stevie Awards

for Women in Business in the United States (Stevie Awards Inc., 2010). With a

total of 54 award categories, the Stevie Awards for Women in Business also

awards the Mentor of the Year for guidance and support to women in business. The

Veuve Cliquot Business Women Award (Veuve Cliquot, 2010), first presented in

1972, has since expanded to sixteen countries across the world to honour inspiring,

high achieving women in the business world. In 2010, the award gave recognition

to the more modern business approach by integrating corporate social

responsibility with an equal weighting given to financial performance and business

practices employed. This step acknowledges business accountability towards

societal and environmental impact in addition to profit considerations.

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3.7.4 Government initiatives and pressure group interventions

Initiatives to facilitate women‟s advancement to management and executive

positions include legislation and recommendations for change by pressure groups.

The International Labour Organisation, Geneva (2004:2) makes the following

general recommendations:

High level commitment to change the existing culture;

Sensitisation programmes refuting the myths around women‟s capabilities;

Access to management training, mentors, role models and networks;

Monitoring of equal employment and opportunity policies;

Flexible work hours and child-care facilities;

Enforcement of anti-discrimination policies in non-traditional jobs; and

Women‟s forums where issues affecting them can be addressed.

A number of interventions aimed at equal opportunities and career advancement for

women are presented in Table 3.4 and discussed in the paragraphs that follow.

Table 3.4: Interventions to promote women’s advancement

Intervention Country Main Purpose

Title VII of the Civil

Rights Act, 1964 USA Equality

Establishment of the

Equal Employment

Opportunity Commission

(EEOC), 1965

USA Prevention of inequitable practices

Executive Order 11246,

1965 USA Affirmative action

Title IX of the Education

Amendments USA Banning of gender discrimination in schools

Pregnancy Discrimination

Act USA

Prevention of discrimination against pregnant

women

Employment Equity Act,

No. 55, 1998 South Africa

To address unfair discrimination amongst all

designated groups in all occupational

categories and at all levels in the workforce

85

Intervention Country Main Purpose

Broad-Based Black

Economic Empowerment

Act No53, 2003

South Africa

To establish a legislative framework for the

promotion of black economic empowerment,

including black women

Broad-Based Black

Economic Empowerment

Sector Charters, 2007

South Africa To achieve broad-based transformation in the

relevant industries

Quota legislation Norway (2002);

Spain(2007)

To increase women‟s representation at top

level

Voluntary equity and

equality charter

Germany;

Netherlands


level

Finnish Corporate

Governance Code

Recommendation 15

(2003)

Finland and

Sweden


level

Pressure from feminist

groups Global

To create a better dispensation for women,

including improved career opportunities

3.7.4.1 Legislation in United States

In the United States, demands for equality led to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act

of 1964 (Title VII) which makes employment discrimination based on race, colour,

religion, gender, or national origin illegal. Further to Title VII, the Equal

Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) was established in 1965 to look

into and prevent inequitable practices (Equality and Human Rights

Commission, 2008). An interesting outcome in its first year was that a third of the

charges filed related to gender discrimination and not racial tension, which

originally lead to the establishment of Title VII.

In 1965, President Lyndon Johnson's Executive Order 11246 mandated federal

contractors to take „affirmative action‟ to ensure they were not discriminating. By

1972, affirmative action became a public issue and the Secretary of Labour

specified the rules, whilst the federal courts were enforcing the Civil Rights Act

against institutions found guilty of discrimination. As a result of Title IX of the

Education Amendments which bans gender discrimination in schools, the

enrolment of women in professional schools increased dramatically. This period

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shows an increase in young women entering law and business schools to qualify for

the business world. Although the Pregnancy Discrimination Act bans any form of

discrimination against pregnant women, no support is in place for women who

wish to pursue a career, but also to start a family. Nordic and other industrialised

nations, such as Japan, provide institutional support for working mothers.

3.7.4.2 Legislation in South Africa

Gender inequality in the workplace was addressed in South Africa by the

Employment Equity Act, No. 55 of 1998 (Department of Labour South Africa,

2011) which came into effect in 1999. The purpose of the act is to address unfair

discrimination amongst all designated groups in all occupational categories and at

all levels in the workforce and has the following aims:

To promote the constitutional right of equality and the exercise of true

democracy;

To eliminate unfair discrimination in employment;

To ensure the implementation of employment equity to redress the

effects of discrimination;

To achieve a diverse workforce broadly representative of our people;

To promote economic development and efficiency in the workplace; and

To give effect to the obligations of the republic as a member of the

International Labour organisation.

The South African Government‟s recognition that the ineffective participation of

the majority of its citizens in the economy may weaken the country‟s economic

growth, gave effect to The Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment (B-

BBEE) Act No53 of 2003. The objective of the B-BBEE act was the promotion of

the constitutional right of its black citizens, including black women, to equality,

and to an equitable income distribution (Government Gazette, 2004).

In order to advance the objectives of the B-BBEE Act, the South African

department of trade and industry (dti) gazetted B-BBEE Sector Charters in

February 2007. Sector codes gazetted are Agri-BEE (2008); and Marketing,

87

Advertising and Communication (2008); Integrated Transport (2009); Forest

(2009); Construction (2009); Tourism (2009); and Chartered Accountancy (2011).

Draft sector codes submitted for gazetting are Property (2010); Financial (2010;

and Information and Communication Technology (Department: Trade and industry,

2012).

The impact of the Employment Equity Act on the advancement of women is

reflected in statistics over the past decade, illustrated on paragraph 2.4.2. However,

the achievement of racial equity targets prescribed by South Africa‟s affirmative

action policy and B-BBEE transformation codes appears to be prioritised. Firms

and institutions have more to gain by appointing candidates from the designated

group who meet both affirmative action and employment equity targets. The extent

to which this may be occurring is, however, not the focus of the current study and

further research on the topic to substantiate this hypothesis is required. This study

is focussed on women as a collective group.

3.7.4.3 Quota legislation

Despite the advances in women‟s representation as a result of employment equity

and affirmative action legislation, the desired impact has not been achieved, as is

evident from census reports (BWA South African women in leadership 2010

census; BWA South African women in leadership 2011 census 2010; Catalyst

2009, 2010a, 2010b, 2010c; 2010d and 2011). A number of countries have as a

result introduced quota legislation in an effort to increase women‟s representation

at top level, with Norway the leader in this initiative. Hole (2011) gives an account

of the motivation for a radical affirmative action step in the form of quota

legislation, proposed by Norway‟s Secretary of State for Trade and Industry,

Ansgar Gabrielson in November 2002. Quota legislation was initially introduced as

a voluntary measure. In 2003, however, despite its commitment to gender equality,

Norway lagged behind in gender representation in the corporate sector with only

seven percent women being represented on Public Limited Companies (PLC)

boards. A legal requirement of 40 percent gender representation was introduced by

parliament in November 2003 and was later amended to include a sanction

declaring that non-complying firms could be dissolved by court. The quota and

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accompanying penalties applied to public firms listed on the Oslo Stock exchange.

The legislation paid off and by 2008 female board representation had increased to

40 percent from only seven percent in 2003. An added advantage of the legislation

was the number of women-focussed search firms, training and mentoring

programmes and networking organisations that mushroomed (Hole, 2011).

The corporate sector was initially critical, questioning the availability of a pool of

women to serve on boards. The effortless step of merely searching beyond the

boundaries of the „old boys club‟, however, proofed to provide a solution. Access

to competent women for recruitment was further enhanced by a recruitment

programme coined Female Future, accompanied by the establishment of databases,

introduced by the Business Federation of Norway. The National Public Investment

Fund stepped forward to provide training courses nationally, aimed at capacitating

the women (Hole, 2011).

Similar legislation was passed by Spain in 2007, with companies given until 2015

to obtain a 40-60 percent female representation on boards. Obliging Spanish firms

have the incentive of obtaining priority status in the awarding of government

contracts. Germany has since introduced a voluntary equity and equality charter

and the Netherlands have committed to a similar initiative (Lewis & Rake, 2008;

Kilday, Mihailescu, Nolan & Schreve, 2009).

The Finnish Corporate Governance Code of 2003, Recommendation 15, has also

contributed to the increase in women‟s representation on boards, with Finland and

Sweden recorded as countries with the highest female representation in the

European Union. The Code stipulates that the effective functioning of boards is

dependent on a diversified composition, including gender. The Finnish Corporate

Governance Code was revisited in 2008 and Recommendation 9 of the code

explicitly states that both genders shall be represented on boards and non-

compliance must be accounted for. State-owned companies must adhere to a 40

percent gender representation and the Stock Exchange Rules make the Code

binding. Compliance of listed companies is monitored by the Helsinki Stock

exchange. The success of this Code is statistically evident in the increase from 51

percent representation of women on boards when it was issued in 2008, to 74

percent two years later in 2010. Transformation however requires the combined

89

efforts of amongst others government, the corporate sector and the media to rectify

historic inequities.

In the UK, where positive discrimination is not yet lawful, women are still

significantly underrepresented in boardrooms. Lewis and Rake (2008) argue that

complacency in the shortage of women in leadership positions, ignoring the robust

business case for inclusivity, calls for radical intervention to address the stagnating

and even downward trend in UK business, illustrated in the 2008 EHRC Sex and

Power report. This report followed the 2007 McKinsey and Catalyst analyses

which revealed a worldwide correlation between female board representation and

business performance. Lewis and Rake (2008:10) make the following practical

suggestions for increasing the number of women in leadership positions:

Utilise headhunters and procurement channels in the search for talent;

Promote the business case for diversity and incorporate gender

diversification at all management levels into the key performance areas of

those at the top;

Sensitise managers and recruitment personnel to the value of diversity and

take action to counter all forms of discrimination; and

Ensure that shortlists for promotion include at least one female applicant.

Linnainmaa (2010:2) suggest that the study by the Finnish Business and Policy

Forum EVA in September 2007, pointing to an increase in profitability of between

ten to twenty percent in firms led by women, may have been a catalyst in

transforming attitudes towards female executives.

A large number of other convincing studies demonstrate that gender balance in the

board room improves the quality of debate and decision making and enhances

financial performance, discussed in paragraph 2.6.2. Increased global attention to

corporate social responsibility, which includes fairness, equality and democracy, is

a further incentive for other countries to follow suit by adopting quota legislation.

Quotas are increasingly becoming internationally renowned as an effective

stimulant for gender equality at a time when progress can no longer be prolonged

and where other gender-parity initiatives are not making a notable impact (Coffman

et al., 2010:11).

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3.7.4.4 Pressure from feminist groups

The history of women‟s oppression reveals a global tendency through the ages

toward a male dominated society in which women were marginalised (Toussaint,

1993). This led to the formation of pressure groups and other movements to create

a better dispensation for women, including improved career opportunities. The

women‟s movement was instrumental in transforming the social, political and

economic order which led to the eradication of a number of barriers women faced

(Sweetman, 2000). It is briefly discussed here to demonstrate the potential impact

of external pressure groups on women‟s professional success. The necessity for

continued intervention is prompted by the fact that education, skills and training

has increased women‟s entry into the labour market, but not made a significant

impact on their promotion to executive positions.

The feminist movement was an intellectual revolution aimed at overturning

existing paradigms and deconstructing established denotations of the term women.

It has its origins in the belief that ideology is socially constructed by external

factors such as culture and that the prevailing societal ideology was rooted in the

dominant patriarchal system which marginalised women (Murgolo-Poore 2006).

The socialised perception that women are inferior to men is depicted not only in

behavioural patterns, but also in language, where loaded terminology refers to

women as inferior, sex objects and possessions (Bolinger, 1990).

Records of the feminist movement date back to the fifteenth century and the phrase

coined in the 1890s. The first wave started in the 1850s and continued for three

generations. Known as the suffragette movement, it culminated in gaining voting

rights for women over a number of decades (Murgolo-Poore, 2006:217-218). In

South Africa, white women obtained voting rights in 1930. Black South Africans,

including black women, gained voting rights in 1994. Australia was at the forefront

with women granted the right to vote in 1902, but in most countries women could

exercise their right to vote only much later, between the 1940s and 1990s (Inter-

Parliamentary Union, 2011).

Having voting rights did not secure equal rights and the second wave of feminism

focussed on equal access and representation for women. The feminist rhetoric

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leading to the phrase „Women‟s Liberation‟ was ignited by the feminist writers,

Simone de Beauvoir with The Second Sex in 1953 and Betty Friedan with The

Feminine Mystique in 1963. Kate Millet‟s Sexual Politics (1970) focussed on the

foundation for oppression, including capitalism and masculinity. Initiatives for the

establishment of an organisation for feminist women came from human rights

activists in the early sixties. Feminists in the late sixties reacted to continued

discrimination against them by starting their own freedom groups inside human

rights groups, both subsidiary to and as alternative to existing forms of political

struggle in which they were involved. Women‟s advancement over the past four

decades can be largely attributed to the establishment of organisations which

challenged existing policies and practices. An example is the Beijing Platform for

Action, an outcome of the 1995 United Nations Fourth Conference on Women,

where women‟s leadership was placed on the agenda.

Women in South African have a long history of canvassing for equal rights, dating

back to 1912, with a mass passive resistance campaign against starvation wages for

black women. A protest of black women in the Free State against the carrying of

identity passes followed in 1913. The first formal women‟s organisation in

resistance of the pass laws was established in 1918 by Charlotte Maxeke. In the

1950s the struggle became more militant and in 1954 the Federation of South

African Women (FEDSAW) was established. On 9 August 1956 FEDSAW

organised a march to the seat of government in Pretoria to hand a petition to the

prime minister against the carrying of passes by black women. Approximately 20

000 women participated in the march. The 1956 Women‟s March against pass laws

was an important milestone in the South African black women‟s movement in their

struggle for freedom and equal rights and is to date celebrated annually on 9

August (South African History Online, 2012).

Considerable progress has been made since the first feminist movement and the

younger generation demonstrates increased resilience, determination, overt

competitiveness and self-confidence. In the absence, however, of a framework for

contextualising female identity, young women‟s ability to detect inadvertent

discriminatory or differential practices in the workplace is obscured. This will

impact on their ability to recognise how for example a hegemonic male

organisational culture acts as barrier to advancement to executive positions despite

92

the removal of structural barriers. The younger generation take the gains which

were made over decades for granted as they were born into a world where earlier

barriers no longer exist. Education in the history of feminism is required to

enlighten them on the role of earlier pressure groups in the achievement of equality

and to create awareness of the potential benefits of further interventions (Kerr &

Sweetman, 2003:138). Feminist theory provides a framework for enquiry into

women‟s career advancement.

A number of researchers (Barns 2006:20) suggest that the battle for women‟s

rights is won and that merit is now the determinant for equal career opportunities

within a changed social, economic and political context. They reject feminism as

ideologically irrelevant in a post-feminist society. Other researchers like Kerr &

Sweetman (2003:135), however, argue that the women‟s movement is now faced

by new challenges which require intensified efforts and in particular in the form of

a global movement. A global feminist agenda is needed to address global political

changes and inter-generational tensions. The authors suggest (2003:136) that

factors such as age, ethnicity, culture, education and the economic and social

situation influence women‟s experience of inequality and one can therefore not

generalise. Measured against statistical evidence that women are still greatly

underrepresented at executive level, it can further be argued that the need for

intervention has only shifted to a higher level.

3.8 THE ROLE OF INTERNAL SUPPORT IN THE ACHIEVEMENT

OF PROFESSIONAL SUCCESS

Internal support in this section refers to organisational support provided to women

for the purpose of enhancing their potential to succeed and includes educational

programmes; transformation of organisational culture; management and leadership

style; and coaching and mentoring.

3.8.1 Educational programmes

De Vos and De Hauw‟s (2010) study on the relationship between competency

development, employability and career success accentuates the significance of

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organisational developmental initiatives. Although their study does not address

female employability per se, women in particular benefit given the lack of earlier

investment in their individual capital. Singh (2008) views development initiatives

as the collective process of creating an inclusive corporate environment for women.

This would include tailored induction programmes, succession planning, structured

monitoring of interactions, mentoring and a „scaffolding‟ approach. In the latter,

confidence is built by providing women with support in challenging situations, and

gradually removing support.

In an effort to accelerate women‟s advancement, a number of organisations have

invested in women-only development programmes (WODP) (Harwood, 2006;

Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007). De Vries (2006), however, suggests that for

organisations to be supportive of women‟s development, educational programmes

for both men and women are required. De Vries (2006) does not dispute the value

of WODP, but argues that these programmes are decontextualised and do not do

enough to challenge the status quo. This view is supported in the current study

where it is argued that, in addition to acquiring management and leadership skills,

women must be capacitated to identify and challenge gendered culture in the

workplace, whilst men must be educated in the cognitive processes of gender

construction and made aware of the negative impact of andocentric practices on

organisational success.

De Vries (2006:112) argues for a „duel focus‟ in the design and content of training

programmes where women‟s development is seen as „an organisational change

strategy‟ and not something which teaches women the trick of a gendered trade. If

the main barrier to women‟s professional success is the nature of the organisational

culture, discussed in paragraph 3.7.2, a single focus training programme for women

will not address the problem.

3.8.2 Transformation of organisational culture

Organisational culture relates to Hofstede‟s fourth cultural dimension, namely:

masculinity, denoting the degree to which gender values is accepted in a society.

From a business perspective, organisational culture, in addition to national culture,

impacts on the way gendered identity and roles are viewed. Gendered values and

94

perceptions are constructed within a corporate environment with the result that an

inclusive, genderless corporate culture will positively impact on women‟s

professional success and vice versa (Acker, 1990; Kerr & Sweetman, 2003,

Palermo, 2004; Singh, 2008). South Africa, however, as are most other countries, is

a patriarchal society and patriarchal values are to a great extent still enacted in the

corporate environment. As a result gender role differentiation is imposed in the

workplace, perpetuating the perception that women are not suitable for positions

traditionally occupied by men.

The perception that women are not suitable for leadership positions is often visible

in appointment processes. This occurs where prospective candidates for leadership

positions are pre-selected from a pool of candidates who demonstrate the

characteristics of a male hegemonic organisational culture. Women‟s exclusion can

be addressed through more transparent recruitment processes; familiarising them

with effective negotiation skills; mentoring them for leadership roles; and by

increasing the leadership recruitment pool to reflect a larger percentage of women

(Bagilhole & White, 2006:32-48).

Workplace policies and equal employment opportunities must be supported by a

change management programme which addresses cultural and attitudinal change

(Palermo, 2004:13; De Vries, 2006:111). In addition to numeric and hierarchical

gender representation, equal advancement opportunities and policies that support a

work-life balance, women‟s advancement is dependent on supportive and inclusive

cultural norms which are free from work-role stereotyping.

Bilimoria, Godwin and Zelechowski (in Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:233-243)

suggest that women‟s advancement in organisations is influenced by the interaction

between personal characteristics, the nature of their appointment and the extent of

support received within the organisation. They propose that women can be

characterised under four profiles, namely „strivers‟, „silent servants‟,

„accommodators‟ and „socialized achievers‟. Silent servants are described as token

appointments in a non-supportive environment and are unlikely to succeed. Strivers

are educated and have the ability to succeed, but work in a gendered corporate

culture and as a result hit a glass ceiling. Accommodators have not acquired

personal influence and despite a supportive environment which provides

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opportunities such as training and mentoring, are unable to move up the corporate

ladder. Socialised achievers are those women who succeed. They have the

necessary education and experience and work in a supportive environment.

Acker (1990) and Singh (2008) argue that gender relations, particularly in historic

male professions, are based on five interacting cultural processes which shape and

sustain a gendered culture. The interacting processes are illustrated in Figure 3.2

and would apply to any context in which leadership is enacted.

Figure 3.2: Interaction of gendered culture processes

Source: Adapted from Singh (2008:5)

An inclusive corporate culture in which diversity is managed has the added

advantage of increased business performance (Monks, 2007; Bilimoria & Piderit,

2007:266-267), discussed in paragraph 2.6. Initiatives will, however, not have an

Gender

segregation: Women

viewed as outsiders

Gendered symbols

of culture:

Symbolic value of

professions

traditionally viewed

as masculine

Gendered

interactions: Make

assumption that women

are in support roles

Gendered

construction of

society: Socially

established roles and

expectations

FEMALE

Gendered identity

development:

Extent to which

women differ from

male norm

96

impact as stand-alone policies and practices but must be integrated into the

organisation‟s strategy and its culture (Monks, 2007:6). Transformed

organisational culture requires the re-visioning of workplaces to become equally

designed for and inclusive of the full diversity of women and men. Suggestions by

Eagly and Carli (2007) for management interventions to increase women‟s

representation in decision making positions include dispelling prejudice, ensuring

objectivity in performance evaluations; and ensuring that executive positions are

filled by a critical mass of women, not just tokenism.

The increasingly diverse workforce in South Africa poses a challenge to

organisations to adapt employment practices. Failure to do so will not only

perpetuate an inhospitable masculine culture, but diverse teams in a homogeneous

organisation are also less effective than they would be in diverse organisations

(Kochan et al., 2002:26). Diverse workforces may, however, have a negative

impact on performance (Kochan et al., 2002) if not managed and facilitated. In

group processes in particular, appropriate facilitation is essential for positive levels

of cohesion to unfold. Human resources are important role players in this regard in

implementing diversity initiatives, including training aimed at understanding and

valuing diversity and in accommodating the values, beliefs and needs of the

changing workforce. Leading change management and implementing change in a

gendered organisation is not an easy task. Harwood (2006:158-160) suggests a

„Trojan Horse‟ strategy where actions are subtle (small wins), and accomplished

through the backing of internal supporters.

3.8.3 Organisational management and leadership style

Effective management and leadership style is of critical importance not only for

organisations to succeed, but also for women‟s advancement to positions of power.

This raises the question of what is an effective management and leadership style in

the modern era. It is argued that the traditional autocratic and transactional male

leadership styles are not effective. They are not supportive to women‟s

advancement, nor are they appropriate in people-centred organisations which value

diverse views in an environment where geopolitical boundaries are declining.

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The leadership style debate gained impetus in the 1990s in pursuit of effective

styles for the modern-day environment. Research into a more future-oriented

leadership style escalated and findings indicate that an inspiring, human oriented

style that encourages creative thinking among subordinates and places greater

emphasis on coaching and mentoring is more effective. Burns in 1978 led the way

by labelling this „transformational leadership‟ (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:293).

This redefinition of effective leadership is consonant with female characteristics,

making it possible that women, who are inclined to demonstrate a more

transformational leadership style as illustrated in paragraph 3.2, are more suitable

for leadership positions (Eagly & Carli, 2003:809-810). It is, therefore, probable

that a corporate environment with either a notable number of women in executive

positions or with male leaders, who have adopted a more transformational style,

will be more supportive to the advancement of future women leaders. According to

Sweetman (2000:6), however, women leaders do not necessarily promote gender

equality, whilst the opposite could be true for male leaders. Sweetman (2000:6)

further argues that the debate about gender differences in leadership is less relevant

that the fact that 50 percent of the population is women and this percentage should

be reflected in leadership representivity.

Not all contexts require the same style and by diversifying their leadership

structure organisations have an opportunity to incorporate varying leadership

strengths. A diversified leadership structure has the benefit of exposing both men

and women to versatile styles and flexible approaches. This will develop the

capacity of leaders to adapt their individual style to the particular context, taking

into consideration factors such as national culture, organisational culture and

desired outcomes (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001; DuBrin, 2010). Investment

is further required in change leadership and other appropriate training programmes

for both men and women, focussed on addressing deficiencies in individual and

gender-related leadership dimensions (Kabacoff, 2000; Eagly & Carli, 2003; Eagly

& Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001; DuBrin, 2010). An example identified in earlier

research includes strategic analysis skills and envisioning for women leaders and

for interpersonal skills for men (Kabacoff, 2000).

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An additional consideration for effective leadership is country values about power

distance. Hofstede (1980:257-258) argues that leadership can as a result not be

developed as an independent characteristic. An individual perceived as a good

leader in one country may not be successful in another. A persuasive-paternalistic

leader may, for example, be valued in France, but not in Germany where a

participative style is attributed to a good leader. An authoritarian leadership style

may boost the morale and productivity of subordinates in India, but perceived as

inappropriate leadership in the United States and have the opposite effect.

American theories of leadership such as McGregor‟s Theory Y versus Theory X,

Likert‟s system 4, and Blake and Mouton‟s Managerial Grid (Hofstede, 1980:258)

are based on a middle-range power distance index value of 40. South Africa is

close to this with an index value of 49 and subordinates in South Africans firms are

likely to find an authoritarian style inappropriate. Business Schools internationally

often purchase American theories of leadership as training kits. However, with the

exception of Fiedler‟s Contingency Theory of Leadership, these theories do not

provide for cultural relativity and may lead to a cultural gap between superiors and

subordinates (Hofstede, 1980, 259-260)

A country‟s masculinity index also affects leadership styles. Countries scoring

lower on the masculinity index will have greater concern for consensus, whereas

those scoring higher on masculinity will place greater emphasis on facts and clearly

defined responsibilities (Hofstede, 1980:261).

3.8.4 Coaching and mentoring

Organisational commitment to and support for mentoring relationships is crucial to

women‟s career advancement and business success (Gray, 2005). Evidence (Dreher

& Ash, 1990) suggesting a strong relationship between mentoring and career

success, has led to renewed scrutiny of the dearth of available mentors for women.

The shortage can be attributed to the prevailing gender gap in leadership despite

initiatives to narrow the gap. The value of increasing the pool of female mentors

lies in the sharing of gender-based experiences and in the benefits for the mentor to

increase her visibility.

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The literature differentiates between coaching and mentoring, both of which have

benefits for career success. The difference is linked mainly to time-span and goal

(Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:157). Coaching is a component of the holistic mentoring

process and refers to training aimed at immediate performance improvement and

skills development, whereas mentoring is long-term and directed at career

development. The differences between coaching and mentoring are presented in

Table 3.5 and described in the paragraphs that follow.

Table 3.5 Mentoring/coaching

Mentoring Coaching

Focus on progress

Usually longer term

Intuitive feedback

Develops capabilities

Driven by mentee

Help you work it out yourself

Focus on task

Usually short term

Explicit feedback

Develops skills

Driven by coach

Shows where you went wrong

Source: Bell, 2008:31

3.8.4.1 Coaching

A number of development frameworks for executive coaching exist which draw on

the work of early psychologists such as Freud, Jung, Piaget and Erikson. Social

psychology, the study of interpersonal influence, is central to executive coaching

and its involvement with leadership dates back to World War II (Peltier, 2010:175

& 183).

More recently, coaches have adopted the concept of Emotional Intelligence (EQ),

and the work of Goleman, as an effective tool for predicting effective leadership.

Much of modern-day coaching revolves around developing the basic elements of

EQ in executive leaders, namely: self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation,

empathy and social skills (Peltier, 2010:185).

100

Peltier (2010:259-260) argues that gender-based differences, both biological and

socially enculturated, impact on women‟s position in the workplace. Coaches play

an important role in eradicating structural, social and interpersonal barriers to

women‟s professional success, but first have to understand these barriers, as

discussed in paragraph 2.5. An awareness of inhibiting forces will enable coaches

to analyse the work culture and assist with affecting change, but also to assist

individuals to effectively respond to the challenges.

3.8.4.2 Mentoring

The concept of mentoring dates back to Greek mythology, but its strategic

importance for career development only gained ground over the past three decades.

Teaming a mentor with an employer who shows potential, effectively contributes

to the exchange of knowledge and information.

A number of researchers (Ragins, Townsend & Mattis, 1998; Vinnicombe &

Singh, 2003; Davidson & Burke, 2004; Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:154-175) have

identified mentoring as a crucial tool in the career development of women

instrumental in breaking through the glass ceiling. Assigning mentors to potential

female leaders fast-tracks career development by building confidence and acting as

a gateway to senior staff members.

Woolnough and Davidson (in Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:156) distinguished two

groupings of mentoring functions, namely career and psychosocial. The first relates

to initiatives such as challenging assignments which will enhance career success,

whilst the latter builds on the individual‟s perception of self worth. This includes

counselling and role modelling.

Ibarra, Carter and Silva (2010) conducted interviews with forty high-potential men

and women to establish why the impact of mentoring is not statistically reflected in

the number of women promoted. With 59 percent of firms across twenty countries

reporting mentoring for women and networking programmes in a 2010 World

Economic Forum report, one would expect noticeable results in boardroom gender

composition. The researchers discovered that the prevailing underrepresentivity

can, at least partially, be ascribed to the fact that not all mentoring is equal. Men

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had the added benefit of „sponsoring‟, relating to the fact that their mentors

advocated their advancement with senior executives.

Work-related cultural values have the potential to influence the extent and types of

mentoring women receive (Punnett et al., 2006). This is depicted in Table 3.6.

Table 3.6: Relation between cultural values and mentoring

Cultural dimension Impact on mentoring

High power distance Selection of individuals regarded as suitable for

mentoring and promotion is based on the opinion of those

in power. Mentoring takes place among people with

similar status, perpetuating the status quo.

Low power distance Mentoring will probably be used as a strategy to equalise

status and candidates will be evaluated on performance,

presenting everyone with an equal opportunity to achieve

success.

High uncertainty avoidance Mentoring is formal and structured according to specific

objectives, procedures and schedules.

Low uncertainty avoidance Mentoring will most likely be unstructured and informal,

probably aiming at developing judgment in uncertain

situations.

Collectivism

Mentoring is used as a method of training the in-group

members or to increase their potential to succeed.

Individualism Mentoring might be performed as a personal strategy to

improve chances for success or as a formal organisational

programme.

Masculinity The selection of individuals regarded as suitable for

mentoring and promotion is based on masculine

perceptions. Mentoring takes place among same-sex

individuals, perpetuating patriarchal values.

Femininity Mentoring will probably be used as a strategy to

eradicate perceived gender-role differentiation and

candidates perceived as suitable for mentoring will be

evaluated on performance, presenting everyone with an

equal opportunity to achieve success.

Source: Adapted from Punnett et al., (2006)

Mentoring can be both formal and informal. Whereas formal mentoring is initiated

by a third party, informal mentoring relationships are often formed by two people

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who identify benefits to the relationship. A mentoring relationship could continue

for a period of three to six years in view of achieving long-term goals. Formal

mentoring has a much shorter life span of six months to a year, with a specified

immediate career goal. A contract would determine the frequency of meetings and

outcomes to be achieved.

Mentoring is not only beneficial to the mentee, but also has benefits for the mentor

and for the organisation. A 2005 survey of mentoring statistics (Gray, 2005:7)

point to the following organisational benefits of mentoring support:

Improved work performance, 75 percent;

Higher job retention, 67 percent;

Reduced absenteeism, 63 percent; and

Cost savings for the firm, 52 percent.

Both coaching and mentoring contribute substantially to equipping women with

skills and competencies required to succeed. As indicated in the discussion of

leadership styles, women already have the attributes to be effective managers and

leaders in the 21st century economy. Coaching and mentoring should be aimed at

developing the management, leadership and business skills from a female

perspective which would assist women in not only their professional careers, but

also in achieving work-life balance.

Woolnough and Davidson (in Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:169-171) demonstrate the

multifaceted value of mentoring relationships and the threats to the individual and

the organisation in the absence of mentoring support. The model, illustrated in

Figure 3.3, depicts the impact on the mentee and the mentor, as well as on the

organisation.

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Figure 3.3: Impact of mentoring relationships for women in business and

management

Source: Adapted from Woolnough and Davidson (in Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:170)

Development

influences

Gender of

mentee/mentor

Seniority of

mentor/mentee

Formal/informal

Availability of

mentors

Organisational

culture Organisation Development of talent

Retention of talent through

increased commitment

Transfer of organisational

knowledge

Increased role models

Diversified culture

Competitive advantage

Mentor Personal fulfilment

Increased visibility

Possible financial reward

Enhanced self-esteem

Increased marketability due

to experience

Mentee Career advancement

Enhanced self-esteem

Increased job satisfaction

Access to networks

Sense of well-being

Skilled in mentorship

Potential

positive

outcomes

Potential

negative

outcomes

Threats

Level of

management

support

Prejudice and

gender

stereotyping

Discrimination

Male dominance

Personality

Lack of

commitment to

mentoring

Individual Stress and anxiety

Decreased job satisfaction

Decreased self-esteem

Reduced career advancement

opportunities

Lack of propensity to engage

in mentoring relationships

Lack of motivation

Organisational Glass ceiling

Decreased productivity

Lack of female role models

Increased female staff

turnover

Reduced pool of future female

mentors

Reduced competitive

advantage

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Despite the advantages of mentoring and coaching in equipping women for

success, the gender gap is not closing rapidly enough. Researchers are as a result

increasingly advocating the importance of sponsoring as a key determinant of

women‟s progress, in particular at the upper end of the hierarchy where

competition is fierce (Anderson, 2011). Where mentoring focuses on social,

emotional and personal development, sponsorship is directly aimed at developing

skills that support advancement. A sponsor further serves to open access to

powerful and influential networks from which the protégée may benefit by gaining

visibility. Sponsors are influential in the advancement of protégés by advocating

for them in and outside of deliberation meetings and are generally regarded as a

substantially effective relationship for the specific purpose of career advancement.

3.9 SUMMARY

The literature overview of factors contributing to the success of women as business

leaders indicated that the advancement of more women to executive positions can

be accelerated through a number of interventions. The literature further revealed

that women have a natural tendency towards enacting a transformational leadership

style, identified as effective in modern-day diverse environments. No conclusive

evidence was, however, found that the management style of women at executive

level differ from that of men.

It is concluded in this chapter that the relationships between demographics,

national culture and corporate culture impacts on women‟s ability to enact the

personality traits identified as most likely to advance professional success by

shaping their response to internal and external influences. In terms of demographic

composition, education and work experience appear to be a critical influence. A

supportive family environment during the formative years and the equal sharing of

family and domestic responsibility in later years appears to have a substantial

influence on women‟s ability to succeed.

Hofstede‟s national cultural framework was found to have theoretical relevance for

the study of the interaction between South African national culture and personality

traits expected to find in successful South African women. South Africa is,

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however, a heterogeneous nation and it could be expected that Hofstede‟s country

level culture scores cannot be assigned to every member of society. The literature

also points out that work-related culture is not static and changes over time. In the

decades following Hofstede‟s country classification on work-related cultural

values, dynamic societal and environmental transformation have taken place in

South Africa.

Based on the literature overview for this chapter, it is concluded that barriers to

career success are not insurmountable. It is further concluded that the personality

traits identified as most likely to influence professional success can be taught and

developed. Internal organisational initiatives, together with increased external

support, therefore, have the ability to accelerate equal representation of women in

executive positions.

A conceptual framework of factors hypothesised to influence professional success

of professional women is presented and discussed in chapter 4.

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CHAPTER 4

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF FACTORS THAT

INFLUENCE PROFESSIONAL SUCCESS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

A number of factors influencing the professional success of women was identified

and discussed in chapters 2 and 3. These factors included barriers to career success

(chapter 2) and those factors influencing women‟s ability to overcome the barriers

(chapter 3). For the purpose of this study the factors influencing women‟s ability to

overcome career barriers and achieve professional success are categorised as

personality, interconnected with culture and demographics; and support through its

impact on career barriers. It is hypothesised that these factors are instrumental in

the gradual increase in women achieving professional success as reflected in recent

statistics (BWA South African women in leadership 2010 census; BWA South

African women in leadership 2011 census).

The theoretical argument in this chapter is that the identified factors related to

success and responsible for some women overcoming organisational and societal

barriers whilst others are less successful are systemically related. The selected

factors or variables were identified from secondary sources from the disciplines of

behavioural psychology, organisational culture, social cognitive theory and gender

studies.

As indicated in chapter 1, this study extends on the Successful Women Project of

Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et al. (2006) conducted in the Americas. The

influential factors identified in their research were therefore included in the

development of a conceptual framework to empirically test the relationships

between the variables. The objective was to establish, by means of comparison,

which of these factors are most important in determining the professional success

of South African business and professional women. The decision for inclusion of

the selected factors is further validated by their identification in the literature

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review for this study as the most probable influences on professional success.

Despite the fact that South Africa has its own distinct ethnic diversity and national

culture, it was argued that the variables selected for the Successful Women Project

will also influence the professional success of South African women.

In this chapter a conceptual framework of selected variables hypothesised to

determine career success is presented. The latter includes as independent variables

personality, culture, demographics, and internal and external support impacting on

career barriers. The dependent variable, professional success, as well as the

independent variables which constitute the basic building blocks of the framework,

will be discussed in conjunction with the hypothesised relationships.To

demonstrate the steps followed in the design of the conceptual framework a general

concentric influences model is first presented.

4.2 CONCENTRIC INFLUENCES MODEL

The concentric influences model was developed by Punnett et al. (2006:6) as a first

step in prioritising the many influences on professional success and is presented as

Figure 4.1. This model positions identified influences on professional career

success in concentric circles, denoting the proximity of each factor in relation to

professional success. It was adapted for this study to indicate, in brackets, the

corresponding factors in the conceptual framework presented as Figure 4.2. The

current study views both external and internal support as environmental factors and

distinguishes within this category between support factors internal to the

organisation and those external to the organisation.

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Figure 4.1: Concentric influences model

Source: Adapted from the study of Punnett et al. (2006:6)

4.3 THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

In order to guide the empirical study, a conceptual framework was developed,

derived from the concentric influences model; Punnett et al.‟s (2006:8) empirical

model; and from existing literature reviewed in the previous chapters. The decision

to base the framework on that of Punnett et al. (2006) was prompted by the use of

the same measuring instrument with only slight amendments for measuring

personality traits and cultural values for the current study. It was argued that this

would serve the objective of extending the study of Punnett et al. (2006) to the

South African national context in order to draw a comparison between South

African women and women in the Americas. Hofstede‟s masculinity dimension is

incorporated for the current study as it was regarded as a factor which has the

potential to influence women‟s success.

The model of Punnett et al. (2006) was adapted without deviating from the

presupposition that the selected variables are interconnected. Where Punnett et al.‟s

model, however, distinguishes between direct and interaction effects, the objective

of this study is not to differentiate or empirically measure interaction effects, but to

identify sets of relationships between success groups of women based on their

Environmental factors

(External support)

Organisational factors

(Internal support)

Departmental/workgroup

(Internal support)

Individual factors

(Personality, culture and demographics)

Success

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demographics and selected factors, and between the same factors and professional

success. In addition to the above, the variable job satisfaction included in Punnett et

al.’s (2006:8) research was not included as it is not an objective of this study to

empirically test the relationship between job satisfaction and professional success.

Job satisfaction is viewed as an integral part of professional success.

To test the most predominant barriers women encounter in the South African

national culture, the model of Punnett et al. (2006:8) was expanded to include

career barriers as a variable as it is regarded as considerably influential in the

achievement of professional success. As it is the eradication of career barriers that

contribute to professional success and not the barriers per se, they are

interconnected in the framework to external and internal support, viewed as

instrumental in eradicating barriers.

Punnett et al. (2006:8) depicted demographics as influencing success through its

interconnectedness with internal and external support, but qualify demographics in

their model as gender and national origin. As the current study empirically tests the

characteristics of women in South Africa, gender and nationality are already

demarcated. In the proposed framework gender and nationality were therefore

replaced by a number of specific demographic variables, identified in paragraph

4.4.4 and argued to have a relationship with the other selected variables.

The independent variables under personality and culture were derived from the

study of Punnett et al.(2006) who included under personality three selected

measures most likely to influence success, namely: self-efficacy, locus of control

and need for achievement. Other characteristics identified through their research as

contributing to success, namely: self-confidence, positive attitude, high energy,

persistence and hard work, were not included in the conceptual framework as

separate variables, based on the argument that they are strongly related to the three

variables already included. The variables selected to represent national cultural

dimensions, namely: individualism/collectivism, power distance, uncertainty

avoidance and masculinity were based on the work of Hofstede (1980).

Masculinity, as indicated earlier in this section, was excluded from the study of

Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et al. (2006), but was included in the current study.

110

4.4 VARIABLES INCLUDED IN THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

As the primary objective of this study is to investigate factors contributing to the

success of professional and business women in South Africa, the selected variables

that focus on these particular relationships are discussed in the paragraphs that

follow.

4.4.1 Dependent variable: Professional success

Salary and hierarchical progression appear to be the most general indicators of

success. Defining professional success is, however, complicated by personal

perceptions and the shifting of goal posts for career success. Professional success

could entail, amongst many other definitions, being an expert in one‟s profession,

possessing skills which enhance employability or receiving recognition for one‟s

accomplishments (Arthur et al. 2005; De Vos & De Hauw 2010:8). Other

researchers view success from a gender perspective and incorporate the

achievement of work-life balance (Lyons et al., 2009:7); job satisfaction; and

personal fulfillment (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:132-134) into the definition. As

discussed in paragraph 2.2, it could however be argued that women with high

achieving aspirations to progress to the top of the hierarchy may not perceive

success differently to men. The definition of success also adapts to the times and

the environment, and success for the modern day women in the upper echelons may

differ from women‟s perception of success two or three decades ago or of women

at lower levels in the hierarchy.

For the purpose of this study, professional success is defined as having progressed

to an executive management or leadership level in one‟s career. Although the

achievement of success is a progressive process and success is achieved at different

levels, the top end of the hierarchy was considered to be an indicator of success

which could be objectively determined from the biographical data provided by

respondents in the empirical study. Success was not directly measured in this study,

but used as an indicator to differentiate between women who have progressed to

the top of the hierarchy and those who have not yet done so. The differentiation

provided input data for the empirical analysis which employed advanced statistics

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to determine which of the selected variables discriminate between the two groups

of women identified through the application of a formula, as expounded in

paragraph 6.4.2.

4.4.2 Independent variable: Personality

Derived from the concentric model, personality variables are hypothesised to be

related to professional success. Women‟s personality characteristics vary regardless

of socialisation within the same national culture. The characteristics selected for the

purpose of this study is self-efficacy; internal locus of control; and need for

achievement. These are discussed in chapter 3 and briefly summarised in the

section that follows:

a) Self-efficacy can be defined as “people‟s beliefs about their capabilities to

produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events

that affect their live” (Bandura, 1994:1). Self-efficacy determines an

individual‟s perseverance and resilience to barriers, ultimately determining

their level of accomplishment. Perceived self-efficacy is not determined by the

individual‟s skills, but their belief in their capability to apply these skills to

different circumstances (Duffy et al., 2006: 555-556). Individuals with high

levels of self-efficacy are not only likely to set more challenging goals, but are

also better equipped to persevere when confronted with challenging situations.

b) Internal locus of control reflects the measure of confidence individuals have in

their ability to control the outcomes of their actions. Individuals with a strong

internal locus of control, accept responsibility for success as contingent on

their own actions and not on external forces. They are more likely to engage in

actions to improve or control their environment, tend to manage their careers

and place greater emphasis on achievement (Punnett et al. 2006:10).

c) Individuals demonstrating a high need for achievement are more likely to

overcome barriers to success as they are willing to work hard and indicate a

preference for challenging tasks (Punnett et al., 2006:11). They are

intrinsically motivated, result-oriented and work to capacity to excel, generally

making them successful in business and in entrepreneurial activities.

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The above characteristics have been identified in the literature review as most

likely to influence professional success and validated measures for them are

available (Duffy et al., 2006:559-560). It is proposed that professionally successful

women will tend to demonstrate high levels of the identified personality

characteristics.

4.4.3 Independent variable: Culture

The national culture in which individuals are brought up is a primary determinant

of their behaviour which can impact on professional success. It defines the human

group in the same way that personality defines the individual. Personality and

culture interact to the extent that cultural traits can sometimes be measured by

personality tests (Hofstede, 1980:21). The four dimensions included under culture

are theoretically and conceptually linked to the personality variables examined,

namely: self-efficacy, locus of control and need for achievement. In the current

study, however, the interaction was theoretically reasoned, but not empirically

measured. The focus was on the relationship between cultural variables and the

professional success of women.

As there is no generally accepted academic definition of culture, it is defined for

the purpose of this study as “the shared beliefs of a nation” (Punnett et al.,

2006:62), therefore national culture. It is argued that the historical, political,

economic and cultural context of a nation shapes the behaviour of its people. The

influence is enhanced by the likelihood that national culture has an effect on

organisational environments and culture. It is recognised that South Africa does not

have a homogenous national culture as elaborated in paragraph 3.4.2. Hofstede

(1980:29), however, argues that modern nations possess dominant national

character traits which can be exposed by survey studies and by the comparison of

measurable data on society level. The other traits stem from their sub-cultures

(demographics in this study), such as age, ethnicity, gender, religion, educational

level and socio-economic status.

For the purpose of this study, it is reasoned that the majority of women in

managerial and leadership positions in South African organisations would have

assimilated into the mainstream and that they subscribe to Western work-related

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cultural values, irrespective of ethnicity. Hofstede‟s cultural framework is further

used for its theoretical relevance to contextualise the study and the measuring

instrument adopted measures cultural values at the individual level.

Four of Hofstede‟s identified cultural dimensions, discussed in detail in chapter 3,

are included in the framework, namely: individualism/collectivism, power distance,

uncertainty avoidance and masculinity. These measures, summarised below, are

perceived as likely to distinguish countries from one another, leading to the

hypothesis that successful women will manifest national differences on Hofstede‟s

model.

a) Where power distance is high, success is dependent on the imposed limitations

of permitted behaviour in relation to an individual‟s position in society. The

expression of personal traits is constrained by these limitations. In the case of

low power distance, performance is evaluated in terms of the individual‟s

ability and not status. Achievement, self-esteem and internal locus of control

can be expressed without the constraint of permitted behaviour in relation to

the individual‟s position.

b) Where uncertainty avoidance is high, performance is guided by structure and

rules. Need for achievement, self-efficacy and internal locus of control would

be expressed within the constraints of firm policies and procedures. Where

uncertainty avoidance is low, freedom and flexibility is valued. Individuals are

more willing to take risks and as a consequence these personal characteristics

may be expressed in terms of openness to new opportunities and risks.

c) In more collective societies, personality characteristics valued may be the

ability to work with others in socially acceptable ways and associated with

group effort. In more individualistic societies the need for achievement, self-

efficacy and internal locus of control may be expressed in terms of personal or

individual ability, effort and hard work.

d) Masculinity denotes the degree to which gender values are accepted in a

society and if these values are enacted in the corporate environment, it is likely

that gender role differentiation will be imposed in the workplace, perpetuating

the perception that women are not suitable for positions traditionally occupied

by men. It can, therefore, be argued that women operating in a low-masculinity

culture will be better positioned to exhibit and develop the personality

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attributes associated with high achieving women. Success is dependent on the

imposed limitations of permitted behaviour in relation to an individual‟s

gender. The expression of personality traits is constrained by these limitations.

In feminine societies, performance is evaluated in terms of the individual‟s

ability and not gender. Achievement, self-esteem and internal locus of control

can be expressed unconstraint.

Punnett et al. (2006) excluded masculinity from their study on the grounds that it is

not clear how it relates to personality characteristics. Research, however, points to

the tendency that countries scoring lower on masculinity have a more equalitarian

view on the abilities of women which is reflected in job distribution and women‟s

representation in leadership positions (Roffey, 2006:6). It can, therefore, be argued

that women operating in a low-masculinity culture will be better positioned to

exhibit and develop the personality attributes associated with high achieving

women. Masculinity was, therefore, incorporated into the current study.

4.4.4 Independent variable: Demographics

The influence of background demographics on professional success is multi-

facetted, ranging from birth order to socio-economic status. Literature (Dattner,

2011) indicates that first born children are more confident, assertive and concerned

about position and rank. Parents also tend to invest more in first born children

(Michalski & Shackeford, 2002). Other attributes associated with first born

children include high achievement orientation, high level of motivation, and

leadership (Eckstein, 2000). Only children tend to be similar to oldest children and

are generally achievement oriented. The typical characteristics attached to birth

order may influence personality and, therefore, behaviour in the workplace.

Characteristics are, however, influenced by variables like gender; culture; socio-

economic status; family size; parent‟s attributes and marital status.

Demographic variables perceived to impact on professional success were identified

by Punnett et al. (2006) through a literature review on careers, leadership,

entrepreneurship, gender roles, women, international management and

organisational behaviour. These included year of birth, birth order, and gender of

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siblings, ethnicity, education level, parent‟s education level and profession, marital

status and number and age of children. A further literature review of this study

substantiated the findings.

4.4.5 Independent variable: External support

External support for the purpose of this study has been identified as family

support, professional association, government initiatives, pressure from feminist

groups and awards and the creation of role models. External support is discussed in

chapter 3, but briefly summarised below.

a) Family support is essential in light of evidence that one of the biggest

challenges for career women remains the belief that they are generally

primarily responsible for households and their families (Lockwood, 2009).

Commitment from partners to share in domestic and family responsibilities

advances women‟s mobility. Family support further constitutes skills and

attributes acquired during the formative years in the family setting, and a

supportive environment which encourages education and fosters confidence.

b) A number of professional associations for networking (Vinnicombe, Singh &

Kumra, 2004:11-13) have proliferated in the last decade. These associations

provide women with an alternative to internal organisational networks from

which they are excluded due to their homogenous nature.

c) Government initiatives include the Employment Equity Act of 1998, (chapter

2) and quota legislation, introduced in a number of countries in the past decade

in an effort to increase women‟s representation in leadership positions (chapter

3).

d) Government initiatives were influenced by the feminist movement, dating

back to the fifteenth century and active since the 1850s. An important

milestone was the granting of voting rights to women.

e) Although no longer under the banner of the feminist movement, not only

women‟s groups but also organisations continue to challenge exclusionary

practices and are instrumental in the development of support initiatives to

advance women. One such initiative is awards and the creation of role models.

The increasing number of awards (see paragraph 3.7.3) presented to successful

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business women internationally as well as in South Africa, not only gives

visibility and exposure to the recipients, but also contributes towards

encouraging and motivating other women. Through the creation of these role

models, other women are inspired to achieve. Access to role models can also

be created through internal support systems.

4.4.6 Independent variable: Internal support

It is evident from the literature that internal support has an effect on career barriers

and that it is consequently instrumental in the eradication of barriers to professional

success. Internal organisational support impacts on barriers by providing career

development opportunities such as training, mentoring programmes, access to

networks, provision of psychosocial support and access to role models. Internal

support is discussed in chapter 3 and the main points presented here.

a) The development of competencies through training initiatives impacts on

employability and professional success. Women in particular benefit, given the

lack of earlier investment in their individual capital (De Vos & De Hauw,

2010).

b) There is equally strong evidence of a relationship between mentoring and

coaching, and professional success in existing literature with both contributing

substantially to equipping women with skills and competencies required to

succeed (Dreher & Ash, 1990; Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:154-174; Peltier

2010:259-260; Ibarra et al., 2010). Mentoring can have both a career

(challenging assignments) and a psychosocial function (enhancing the

individual‟s perception of self worth) (Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:156). It is

argued that coaches play an important role in eradicating structural, social and

interpersonal barriers to women‟s professional success and that assigning

mentors to potential female leaders, fast-tracks career development by building

confidence and acting as a gateway to senior staff members.

c) The management and leadership style within an organisation can either hamper

or impact positively on professional success. A more transformational or

participative style is more likely to provide an inclusive environment

supportive of diversity and the advancement of women than, for example, an

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autocratic or transactional style. Leadership development programmes for both

men and women are required in order to develop skills in which women

leaders may be lacking; and for educating men in transformational leadership

style. The management style of the women themselves is an influential factor

in that women‟s leadership style in present-day conditions is generally

regarded as more effective (Eagly & Carli, 2003).

4.4.7 Independent variable: Career barriers

It is argued in this study that a number of persistent barriers hamper women‟s

professional success despite an increase in education levels and entry into the

labour force. It is further argued that eradication of the barriers will positively

influence professional success. Interpreting existing barriers will thus provide a

framework for identifying the internal and external support most likely to promote

women‟s professional success. The major identified barriers discussed in chapter 3

are presented below.

a) Persistent barriers to professional success are argued to culminate in a glass-

ceiling, barricading women‟s progress beyond middle management of their

professions (Carr-Ruffino, 1993:12; Simpson & Altman, 2000:190; Falk &

Grizard, 2003b:6; Daft, 2010:353).

b) Most of the entry barriers to the labour force have been eradicated due to

earlier intervention by women‟s groups and government legislation, but a

number of other barriers remain intact. A core barrier uniting women is their

multiple role commitment where they are still viewed as primarily responsible

for domestic chores and for their family (Hewlett, 2002).

c) A further barrier is gender stereotyping where women are typically stereotyped

as lacking in ability to deal with the challenges of senior management

(Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:23, 34 & 234).

d) A number of researchers have found that gender leadership stereotyping has

led to a perception both men and women hold that men are, by virtue of their

gender, more successful as managers and that women‟s leadership attributes

rank lower in importance to leadership effectiveness than the attributes of male

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leaders (De Vries, 2006:118; Sheridan & O‟Sullivan, 2006:286-296; Singh &

Point, 2006; Bilimoria & Piderit, 2007:136-137). Ibarra and Obodaru‟s (2009)

research, however, indicates that the stereotypical perception of women as less

competent leaders may be changing.

e) Literature on management (Laxton, 2008a, 2008b) identifies inhospitable

organisational culture as a major barrier to women‟s professional success.

Power in such organisations is asserted within the context of „hegemonic‟

masculinity (O‟Connor, 1996), where androcentric values and practices are

seen as the norm and female values and practices devalued as a deviation

(Bilimoria & Piderit 2007:38-39). This view results in men defining women‟s

role as a subordinate one.

f) A lack of role models has been cited as the second largest barrier to career

success, with sex-role stereotyped leadership identified as the most prominent

(Sealy & Singh, 2009:2; Singh, Vinnicombe & James, 2006:1). The lack of

role models in managerial positions discourages women who strive for

professional success and negatively impacts on their motivational and

commitment levels. As role models, senior women serve as affirmation that

career progression is possible despite existing barriers.

g) Inaccessible networks, as a consequence of masculine organisational culture,

have been identified as a major barrier to professional success. Researchers

(Luthans et al., 1988; Singh, Vinnicombe & Kumra, 2006:2) view networks, as

one of the most fervent predictors of managerial success. The relationship

building serves to develop a support base beneficial to one‟s career in terms of

job opportunities, access to information, increasing visibility, career guidance,

social and professional support, business leads, resources and collaboration.

h) Lastly, lack of developmental assignments, which have been found to be

instrumental in the achievement of professional success, is included in the

conceptual framework as a barrier to be empirically tested. Existing research

indicates that women are often assigned to relational tasks which are not

institutionally rewarded or valued when considered for promotion (Bickley et

al., 2006:65 – 85) and to non-influential positions with limited scope (Ryan &

Haslam, 2007:276). This is primary career limiting factor which, due to its

covert nature, often goes unnoticed.

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In light of evidence that many of the historic entry barriers into educational,

business and professional institutions have been removed, the empirical study

investigated which barriers persist in barricading progress to leadership positions.

Figure 4.2 presents the conceptual framework which demonstrates hypothesised

relationships.

Figure 4.2: Conceptual framework

Source: Author‟s own construct

H1

H3

H2

H5

H4

SUCCESS GROUPS

SuccessfulNot yet successful

CULTURE

Individualism/ collectivism

Power distance Uncertainty avoidance Masculinity/

femininity

PROFESSIONAL

SUCCESS

EXTERNAL SUPPORT

Family support Professional

associations Government initiatives Pressure from feminist

groups Awards and role

models

H6

H7

H8

H9

H10

0

INTERNAL SUPPORT

Organisational support Mentorship and

coaching Management and

leadership style

ERADICATION OF CAREER BARRIERS

Entry barriers Glass ceiling: Gender stereotyping Leadership stereotypes Inhospitable male

organisational culture

Lack of role models Inaccessible networks Family responsibility

DEMOGRAPHICS

Age Birth order Gender of siblings Ethnicity Profession Hierarchical level Education level Parent’s education

level Marital status Number and age of

children

PERSONALITY

Locus of control Self-efficacy Need for achievement

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Derived from the literature and the proposed conceptual framework depicted in

Figure 4.2, a number of hypotheses were formulated in order to answer the research

questions posed in chapter 1, namely: What are the characteristics of women and

their environments that enable some, and not others, to achieve professional

success?

Ten hypotheses were formulated as can be seen from Figure 4.2 and include:

H1: There is a significant difference between success groups of women

based on their demographics and personality variables.


based on their demographics and cultural variables.


based on their demographics and career barriers.


based on their demographics and external support.

H5: There is significant difference between success groups of women

based on their demographics and internal support.

H6: There is a significant relationship between personality variables and


H7: There is a significant relationship between cultural variables and


H8: There is a significant relationship between the eradication of

existing barriers to career success and professional success of

women.

H9: There is a significant relationship between external support and


H10 There is a significant relationship between internal organisational

support and professional success of women.

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4.5 SUMMARY

In this chapter, a concentric influences model was presented, reflecting the first

step in the development of the survey material for the study. This was followed by

the proposed conceptual framework demonstrating the factors that are proposed to

be significantly related to professional success. The proposed conceptual

framework was derived from the empirical model of Punnett et al. (2006) as well

as from a review of relevant literature.

For the purpose of the current study, six categories of independent variables

relating to professional success were identified and their relationships illustrated.

Ten statistical relationships between the independent variables and the dependent

variable, professional success, were hypothesised. These include five relationships

between success groups of women based on their demographics and the variables

personality; culture, career barriers; external support; and internal support; and five

relationships between personality; culture, career barriers; external support; and

internal support and professional success.

In chapter 5, the research design and methodology used for this study is presented.

Attention is be given to population selected for inclusion in the study; the sampling

technique employed; the data collection method; the design, reliability and validity

of the measuring instrument; and techniques drawn on to analyse the data.

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CHAPTER 5

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 4.2 in chapter 4 presented the conceptual framework of selected

independent variables hypothesised to determine the dependent variable,

professional success. It was proposed that the six categories of independent

variables influencing professional success are interrelated. The categories of

independent variables were demographics, personality characteristics, cultural

characteristics, external support, internal support and the eradication of career

barriers. In order to determine the interrelatedness of the independent variables in

effecting professional success, both primary and secondary research was

undertaken. The sourcing and collection of the data is described in this chapter to

expound the validity of the findings.

The interpretation of existing literature served primarily to develop the theoretical

framework and measuring instrument which was used to measure the relationship

between the independent variables and the achievement of professional success.

The empirical study served to test the hypothesised statistical relationships between

the independent variables and the dependent variable.

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the research design and methodology

employed to address the primary objective of this study presented in paragraph

1.4.1. Attention will be given to the design; population selected for inclusion; the

sampling technique employed; the data collection method; reliability and validity

of the measuring instrument; and techniques drawn on to analyse the data.

5.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

This section presents the plan according to which the research was conducted. It

provides details regarding the nature of evidence required to address the central

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research question, namely: What are the characteristics of women and their

environments that enable some, and not others, to progress to the top of their

business and professional fields? Table 5.1 presents a step-by-step summary of the

research design.

Table 5.1: Research design

STEP RESEARCH DESIGN

1 Collect existing literature Secondary research

2

Develop a theoretical framework to measure

personality and cultural characteristics of successful

professional women in South Africa and their

environments

Qualitative research design by

means of interpretation

3 Based on the theoretical framework, develop a

measuring instrument

Qualitative research design by

means of interpretation

4 Test the measuring instrument by means of a pilot

study

Quantitative research design

by means of online survey

5

Adapt measuring instrument if necessary and distribute

to main groups, namely: a minimum of 250 women in

higher education; women professionals; and women in

the business sector

Quantitative research design

by means of online survey

6 Analyse collected data and test hypotheses Quantitative research design

7 Draw conclusions Interpretation of quantitative

and qualitative data

5.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This section provides information on how the research design was executed; the

process and procedure followed, and the measuring instrument employed.

5.3.1 Method of data collection

Both secondary and primary research was conducted. The paragraphs that follow

give a description of how the data was collected.

5.3.1.1 Secondary research

Comprehensive international and national data searches were conducted through

the library of the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University including SABINET

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ONLINE: ArticleFirst, Current & Completed Research, ISAP (Index of South

African Periodicals), Kovsidex, NDLTD (Networked Digital Library of Theses and

Dissertations), SAe Publications, SACat, SANB (South African National

Bibliography) and Worldcat; EBSCOHOST: Academic Source premier, Business

Source premier and MasterFile premier; EMERALD INSIGHT: Emerald

Management Reviews; NEXUS: Research Projects; Science Direct and Google

searches. Data from other libraries were accessed through the inter-library loan

facility at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University.

5.3.1.2 Primary research

The primary research employed both qualitative and quantitative research design,

as illustrated in Table 5.1. This is discussed in the sections that follow.

a) Qualitative research design

The qualitative research phase involved the interpretation of gender related

literature sourced in the fields of management science, industrial psychology,

behavioural psychology and human resource management. A primary research

design of the comparative study (Punnett et al., 2006 & Duffy et al., 2006) was

followed. From the literature review, ten hypotheses were formulated and a

theoretical framework was developed. Based on the theoretical framework, a

measuring instrument was constructed to measure factors hypothesised to

contribute to the success of professional and business women in South Africa.

b) Quantitative research design

The primary role of the quantitative research was to test the hypotheses. The

quantitative research approach was both descriptive and explanatory. The

descriptive approach was employed to describe the demographic profile, and the

perceived personality and cultural characteristics of successful professional

women. A further aim was to describe the degree to which these women perceived

environmental factors, namely: external support, internal support and barriers to

influence their achievement of professional success. The explanatory approach was

employed to explain the reason why some women manage to overcome barriers

and succeed in progressing to the top and other women not. The major aim was to

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explain the causal relationship between the independent variables as well as their

combined causal relationship with the dependent variable, that of professional

success. The method employed to achieve this was statistical analysis of the data,

which was collected via a comprehensive online questionnaire (see Annexures A1

& A2). The nature of the quantitative testing and analysis is described in further

detail in section 5.4.

5.4 QUANTITATIVE TESTING AND ANALYSIS

The paragraphs below provide an overview of the population studied; the sampling

method employed; explains how the instrument was developed and the

questionnaire administered; and presents the method of data analysis.

5.4.1 Population studied

The aim of the current research was to draw conclusions about successful

professional women in South Africa. Due to the widespread nature of professional

women it was not possible to study the complete population, in other words the

complete collection of cases about which the research intends to make conclusions,

(Welman & Kruger, 1999:18), within the scope of the current study. At the onset of

the project, the group was delineated to women in executive

leadership/management positions from education, the business and professional

sectors in South Africa. The high professional level was regarded as sufficiently

objective and comparable as an indicator of success.

The study of Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et al. (2006) which this study expands

on, included a student comparison group. They eliminated the option of comparing

successful women with successful men, as the literature indicated a high

probability that successful men would demonstrate similar characteristics to

successful women. They further argued that comparing successful women to

unsuccessful women would address the research question, but may have ethical

considerations. Students were consequently included in their study, argued by the

authors to be a valid and reliable comparison group as a population sample likely to

demonstrate the personality characteristics identified and a likely base from which

successful women would emerge.

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Consideration was given to following the same approach, but subsequent to further

research and discussions with other academics in the field it was argued that the

inclusion of a student comparison group may not provide the desired results for the

purpose of the current study and that it may dilute the study. As the current study

was expanded to include in the empirical research work-related environmental

factors contributing to success, the same sets of survey material could not be

administered to the student group. A decision was consequently taken to not

include a comparison group, but rather a larger sample of women from a broader

hierarchical level in their professions. The same measuring instrument was

administered to all the women, eliminating any ethical concerns as women were

not pre-selected as successful or unsuccessful. It was argued that women who have

not achieved executive status may demonstrate high levels of the personality

characteristics identified and have the potential to succeed given the necessary

support.

The benefit of this approach was that the empirical study could identify the

variables proposed to be the best predictors of women’s professional success. The

personality and environmental characteristics of women who have achieved

success according to the definition selected for the current study served to identify

characteristics which could be developed in other women; identify organisational

support which advances career development; and identify external support

required, which could all serve as guidelines for government and external

organisations for the implementation of increased initiatives which have the

potential to accelerate women’s career advancement.

The current study did not target entrepreneurial women as a separate category for

analysis. The nature of some of the career barriers experienced by entrepreneurial

women may to an extent differ from those experienced by women in the formal

sector. The internal and external support variables included are also to a greater

degree applicable to the formal corporate environment. Entrepreneurial women

were, however, not excluded from participating in the survey as it was expected

that there would be sufficient commonalities in their experiences.

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5.4.2 Sampling method

Convenience sampling was employed to achieve the aim of selecting elements

from the South African population whose descriptions (statistics) portray the

parameters of the total population from which they were selected (Babbie &

Mouton, 2008:175). Sampling was complicated through a lack of accessibility to a

large population of women in the higher education, business and professional

sectors who were sufficiently representative of women who have achieved or have

the potential to achieve professional success. The sampling methodology for the

included sectors is described in the paragraphs that follow and challenges

encountered discussed in paragraph 5.4.4.2.

5.4.2.1 Business and professional sector

Consideration was given to different sampling methodologies for the collection of

data from women employed in the business and professional sectors. The prospect

of reaching a representative sample of professional women through individual

identification alone was argued to be too subjective and also arduous in terms of

identifying a sufficiently large and diversified sample. Access to existing databases

on the other hand was unobtainable due to the confidentiality of the information

contained in them. Consequently, in addition to the identification of a number of

professional women based on their career achievements, Business Women

Association South Africa (BWASA) (the largest association of professional and

business women in South Africa) was approached with the request to distribute the

survey to women on their database. BWASA has a national membership of 5000+,

representing business and professional women across the different regions of South

Africa. This method was regarded as the most suitable for access to a large

population of professional women and excluded any subjectivity with regard to

pre-selection. It was later decided (see paragraph 5.4.4.2) to also involve the South

African Institute of Chartered Accountants (SAICA) and a sample of Master of

Business Administration (MBA) graduates and alumni of the Nelson Mandela

Metropolitan University (NMMU) where the project was registered.

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5.4.2.2 Higher education sector

In order to delineate the higher education sector for the purposes of this study, the

classification of existing South African universities was taken into account.

Various classification criteria were considered and it was concluded that the

classification of the South African National Authority for Education, the Council

for Higher Education (CHE), together with the Carnegie Foundation Basic

Classification 2010 (The Carnegie Foundation, 2010) would be the most

appropriate. The latter is argued to be a well established and innovative framework

for classifying universities according to level of development and for describing

institutional diversity. It creates classes of institutions to fit purpose, including

research purposes (Gamage, 2010: 8-10).

Following the Department of Education’s merger initiative in mid-2000, South

Africa currently has 23 public universities. The CHE classified these universities

respectively as traditional universities: n=11, comprehensive universities: n=6 and

universities of technology: n=6, seemingly based on contextual and historical

factors. In addition to the CHE classification, consideration for the purposes of this

study was given to the Carnegie Foundation Basic Classification 2010 (The

Carnegie Foundation, 2010) criteria for determining academic hierarchy. A

decision was taken to focus on so-called doctorate-granting universities, defined as

institutions which award 20 or more doctorates in any particular year studied.

Research activity is classified as very high, high and low.

Only traditional and comprehensive universities were included in the current study,

as none of the universities of technology met the criterion of a doctoral-granting

university. It was predicted that the largest percentage of high performing women,

including academics who have advanced to the level of full professor, would be

employed by higher ranking universities. As one of the measurements for success

in the current study is progress to a professorial level, this was regarded as a likely

sub-sector for targeting a sufficiently comprehensive sample of successful

academics. The doctorate-granting South African universities are presented in

Table 5.2.

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Table 5.2: South African doctorate-granting universities by South African

CHE and the Carnegie Foundation Basic Classification 2010

Traditional Universities N=9 Comprehensive University N=4

Stellenbosch University (US)

Very high research

University of Johannesburg (UJ)

High research

University of Cape Town (UCT)

Very high research

University of South Africa (UNISA)

High research

University of KwaZulu Natal (UKZN)

Very high research

Nelson Mandela Metropolitan

University (NMMU) Low research

University of Pretoria (UP)

Very high research

University of Zululand (UZ)

Low research

University of the Witwatersrand (WITS)

Very high research

University of the Free State (UFS)

High research

North West University (NWU)

Low research

Rhodes University (RU)

Low research

University of the Western Cape (UWC)

Low research

Source: Adapted from Gamage, 2010

5.4.3 Instrument development

A literature review was conducted to substantiate the set of individual, cultural and

environmental characteristics identified by Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et al.

(2006) as most likely to influence professional success. Conclusive evidence was

found that the identified variables were suitable for inclusion in the current study.

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Permission was subsequently obtained from Duffy to administer the measuring

instrument employed in their Women at Work study in the Americas (Punnett et al.

(2006) and Duffy et al., 2006). This instrument consists of validated questionnaires

which include measures developed and validated by previous researchers (Duffy et

al., (2006: 559-560). Slight amendments were made in order to adapt the

questionnaire for the purpose of the current study. A further modification was

required for the survey to be more suitable as an online web-based instrument and

all the factors were measured on five Likert-type response choices, ranging from 1

= strongly disagree to 5 = agree.

Employing a sufficiently similar measuring instrument was considered essential for

the purpose of drawing a valid comparative conclusion in the current study which

was expanded to the South African context. The questionnaire sets for measuring

personality traits could be adopted, with slight amendments as discussed in the

previous paragraph, but additional questions were added to measure masculinity on

the cultural scale. These questions were adapted from research of Dorfman and

Howell (1988), Wu (2006) and Yoo et al. (2011).

A further set of questions was developed and incorporated on career barriers in

order to determine the major barriers South African women face in achieving

professional success. Questions for this section of the survey were formulated

based on existing literature on barriers to women’s career progression, discussed in

chapter 3. The inclusion of this sub-set of questions was regarded as being

necessary as the current study aimed at identifying not only the characteristic of

successful women, but also at determining support initiatives required to contend

with career barriers for the development of women as future business leaders.

Questions were, therefore, also developed to measure perceptions of the impact of

external support and internal organisational support on the achievement of success.

The structured questionnaires for the current study are described in further detail in

the paragraphs that follow. The discussion includes earlier reliability tests done on

the standardised measures in addition to that done in the pilot study of the current

study, and is described in paragraph 5.4.4.

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5.4.3.1 Biographical data

The theoretical argument for including biographical data was that they impact

success predominantly through their influence on the types and levels of support

people are likely to receive in life and in their professional careers. An individual

who, for example, was raised in an educated family is more likely to have been

encouraged to further their own education. Having improved their qualification

level, an individual’s career opportunities are enhanced. Data from the descriptive

statistics was also used to create discriminant categories of success groups. These

items included: hierarchical level in the organisation, years in current employment

sector and age, and are further expounded in paragraph 6.4.2. The biographical data

was also used in multivariate tests of significance, and is discussed in chapter 6.

5.4.3.2 Perceptions of personality traits and culture

The standardised test items to measure the identified personality characteristics

contained the three selected traits indicated in literature as most likely to influence

success, namely: self-efficacy, locus of control and need for achievement. These

personality variables remain relatively stable during a person’s lifetime and

differences are not attributed to age. They can, however, be cultivated in

individuals by means of training programmes. Punnett et al.’s (2006) research

established through persona interviews that other personal characteristics perceived

as contributing to success are: self-confidence, positive attitude, high energy,

persistence and hard work. They suggested that these characteristics be included in

future models and surveys. Inclusion was initially considered but abandoned

following a further literature review pointing to a close resemblance to the three

characteristics already included.

Sherer, Maddux, Mercadante, Prentice-Dunn Jacobs and Rogers’ (1982) seventeen-

item Likert-type General Self-efficacy Scale (GSS), developed to determine

individuals’ expectations of their ability to succeed in new situations, was

employed. General self-efficacy has been positively related to a number of other

motivational traits, including need for achievement. The self-efficacy questions

determined the respondents’ beliefs in their ability to perform well and influence

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events. Responses provided information on the respondent’s levels of perseverance

and resilience to career barriers, as an indicator of probability to achieve success.

Scale items included assessment of initiative, effort and persistence. Validity of

the scale was established by Sherer et al. (1982). They correlated the Self-efficacy

Scale with a number of other personality measures (Ego Strength Scale, the

Interpersonal Competency Scale and the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale) to

determine construct validity and obtained Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficients

of 0.86. Internal consistency reliability was also established in studies (Chen, Gully

& Eden, 2001) on university students and managers where a high reliability of

respectively 0.88 and 0.91 was reported. A study conducted by Iman (2007) on a

sample of 607 university students produced results indicating sufficient levels of

internal consistency and construct validity with a Cronbach alpha of 0.85.

The scale contained six items relating to high and eleven to low self-efficacy. Low

items were reverse scored and a high score indicated high levels of self-efficacy.

The next set of questions on perceptions of personality traits measured internal

versus external locus of control. Locus of control is associated with the individual’s

attitude towards their ability to influence events. The concept developed out of

social learning theory (Rotter, 1966) following observations that some individuals

do not respond to reinforcements, which could possibly be ascribed to a perception

that their actions would not impact on events. Because these individuals believed

that outcomes were controlled by external forces, feelings of incompetence resulted

in them actively pursuing external control and they were consequently described as

externals. Internals, on the other hand, believed that outcomes were controlled by

their actions. They were found to perform better and also to enjoy greater job

satisfaction.

Rotter’s (1966) measure for locus of control was a General Locus of Control Scale.

Spector (1988) later developed the Work Locus of Control Scale (WLCS) in an

attempt to find a work-specific measure. Spector’s (1988) Work Locus of Control,

sixteen-item scale, measuring generalised control beliefs in the work domain, was

used for the current study. Spector established Cronbach alphas of 0.85, 0.80 and

0.75 on various samples. Internal and external control was each measured by eight

133

items. The eight items relating to external control were reverse-scored and high

scores on the scale represented internality.

The final set of question measuring perceptions of personality related to the need

for achievement (n-ach). In the work setting, need for achievement implies that the

individual would accept challenging goals and work hard to achieve them.

Jackson’s (1989) scale (Duffy et al., 2006:560) consisting of 16 dichotomous items

was amended to a five-point Likert-type scale for the purpose of the web-based

instrument. Jackson argued that a high n-ach individual would aspire to high

standards, work hard at accomplishing challenging tasks and demonstrate ambition.

Eight items each respectively measured high and low n-ach. The eight items

relating to low n-ach were reverse-scored with the higher the score, the higher the

need for achievement.

The remaining sub-set of questions in section 1 identified perceptions of cultural

characteristics. The four cross-cultural variables included were based on Hofstede’s

work-related cultural dimensions. These dimensions were measured with a scale

developed by Dorfman and Howell (1988), which was specifically designed to

measure Hofstede’s original four dimensions, namely: individualism/collectivism,

power distance, uncertainty avoidance and masculinity. Satisfactory reliability

levels for this instrument are reported by several Duffy et al. (2006:560).

Power distance was measured on a five-item scale which measured the degree of

acceptance of power inequality between superiors and their subordinates in the

workplace. Individualism/collectivism was measured on a five-item scale and

measured participants concerned about their own career and progress as opposed to

value attached to the achievement of organisational goals. The scale for uncertainty

avoidance contained five-items and measured the degree to which participants

valued certainty to ambiguity and the degree of risk-taking that they consider as

appropriate. The last dimension, masculinity, was measured on a five-item scale

and measured the degree to which respondents accepted assertiveness,

competitiveness and tangible rewards as traditional male values as opposed to

nurturing, care for others and concern for the environment as traditional female

values. This was also measured by the degree to which they accepted the

appointment of men to more challenging assignments and to higher end positions

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on the one hand and women to soft skill activities at the lower end of the hierarchy.

High scores indicated high power distance, high uncertainty avoidance,

collectivism and masculinity.

5.4.3.3 Barriers, internal organisational support and external support

Scales for the measurement of perceptions of career barriers, internal support and

external support were designed from the literature review and tested for reliability

and validity in a pilot study, discussed in paragraph 5.4.4. The set of questions on

career barriers included five sub-factors, namely: perceptions of gender and

leadership stereotyping, lack of role models and mentors, family responsibility,

inaccessible networks and inhospitable organisational culture. A nineteen-item

five-point Likert-type scale measured barriers.

Internal organisational support included three sub-factors namely: organisational

support, mentoring and coaching and leadership and management style. These

factors were measured on a twenty to-item five-point Likert-type scale.

Organisational support was measured on a sub-set of fifteen questions. A high

score indicated a high level of support. The sub-set of five mentoring questions

were selected from Tepper, Shaffer and Tepper’s, (1996), sixteen-item scale and

measured the impact of both psychological (two items) and career-oriented (three

items) mentoring on the achievement of professional success. Psychosocial

mentoring referred to emotional and social support, role models and access to

social networks whereas career-oriented mentoring related to the sharing of

information. The higher the score, the greater the extent of mentoring support

received. Leadership and management style was measured on a sub-set of two

questions, with a high score indicative of a supportive environment.

A fourteen-item five-point Likert-type scale was developed to measure external

support factors. The scale for the measurement of external support included five

sub-factors namely: family support (four items), professional associations (two

items), government initiatives (four items), pressure from feminist groups (three

items) and awards and role models (two items). A high score for family support

indicated a high level of support with domestic chores and family responsibility,

but also in terms of encouragement to pursue a career. A high score for

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professional associations indicated the respondent’s belief that their career

benefited from these associations. A high score for government initiatives

illustrated the respondents’ perception that women benefit from legislation such as

labour laws and the Employment Equity Act. This sub-factor also measured

respondents’ belief that further legislation such as gender quotas would improve

women’s ability to progress in their careers. The items on feminist group initiatives

measured both women’s belief that earlier initiatives contributed to a better

dispensation for women and the perceived need for continued pressure to challenge

persistent exclusionary practices. The items relating to awards and role models

measured the degree to which women are motivated by the acknowledgement of

the achievements of other women.

5.4.4 Administration of questionnaire

The administration of both the pilot and the main study are described in the

paragraphs that follow.

5.4.4.1 Pilot study

Prior to the main study, a pilot study was conducted for the purpose of measuring

for internal consistency. Cronbach’s alpha was used to test for reliability. The

findings are presented in Table 5.3.

The manager of the George Business Chamber and chairperson of the Business

Professional Women (BPW) club in George were approached to circulate the self-

administered online questionnaire to a sample of 30 to 40 professional women who

were members. The target response rate was 20 and the survey was closed when

the 20 responses were received.

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Table 5.3: Summary of internal consistency measures for survey constructs in

pilot phase

Variable Mean Standard

deviation

Cronbach

alpha

Standardized

alpha

Average

inter-item

correlation

Self-efficacy 126.350 374.435 .999925 .999933 .999024

Locus of control 130.950 349.563 .999881 .999886 .998412

Need for

achievement

125.350 350.888 .999891 .999900 .998509

Power distance 45.6500 108.151 .999893 .999895 .999563

Uncertainty

avoidance

45.6500 108.151 .999893 .999895 .999563

Collectivism 41.1500 109.201 .999802 .999808 .999059

Masculinity 43.1000 132.556 .999784 .999791 .998830

Barriers 183.200 480.541 .997801 .998571 .998272

Internal support 149.500 417.059 .996973 .998039 .997291

External support 112.500 282.628 .999869 .999869 .998675

An alpha value of 0.7 is regarded as acceptable. As is evident from Table 5.3

alphas for all seven constructs measured were very high, indicating an extremely

high internal consistency of items measured.

5.4.4.2 Main study

The survey was self-administered and data gathering done through e-mail

distribution of link to web-based online questionnaire. In the business and

professional sectors, the executive committee of BWASA resolved that a separate

e-mail could not be sent as a result of increasing requests for survey distribution,

but agreed to disseminate the covering letter and link to the web-based survey via

their newsletter. It was anticipated that this method would result in fewer responses

and a decision was subsequently taken to also approach the South African Institute

of Chartered Accountants (SAICA), who similarly agreed to disseminate the survey

via their newsletter. The survey was, in addition, mailed to a sample of NMMU

MBA graduates and NMMU alumni.

137

The first contact for obtaining admission to the academic sector was the Deputy

Vice-Chancellors/Deans/Directors or related institutional research positions at the

thirteen doctorate-granting universities. They were approached via e-mail

correspondence to request the participation of their respective universities in the

study. It is evident that the offices of university staff at this level are in demand as

the initial contact was, in many cases, followed by a lengthy time-delay and

required follow-up, where after the request was filtered down to relevant staff,

mostly in institutional research and planning offices.

Another major time challenge was the requirement of some that an application had

to serve at their respective institutional ethics committees in addition to ethical

clearance obtained from the Research Ethics Committee: Human (REC: H) at

NMMU where the project is registered. This was requested from US, UCT, UP,

UNISA, and RU. Requirements from other institutions (WITS, UKZN) were for a

formal request directed to the institutional ethics committee and gatekeepers’

permission (UKZN) from the registrar. (Refer to Annexures B1-4 for letters of

approval.)

The requirement for UFS was not determined, as they indicated that pressure on

staff was already high with too many surveys circulating and that any additional

requests would only be considered in the second semester. The remaining

institutions (NWU, UJ, UZ, & UWC) required a copy of the original ethics

application and clearance from NMMU and of the survey instrument to serve at

their respective ethics committees.

It is evident that research in South Africa would benefit from a nationally

coordinated ethical approval system. As each South African university has its own

protocol, permission to conduct research entailed in some instances a cumbersome

process of completing ethics clearance application forms further to the original

application submitted and approved by NMMU REC: H. The scheduled meeting

dates of the ethics committees, one approximately four months after the initial

request, posed a practical problem as it would have notably delayed the research. It

was consequently decided to include only institutions which could respond within

the required time-frame. These institutions mostly have executive committees

meeting on a more regular basis and could fast-track the institutional clearance.

138

Following the elimination process the thirteen universities originally selected were

reduced to ten and included: US, UCT, UKZN, WITS, NWU, RU, UWC, UJ,

NMMU and UZ. The respective heads of research at these universities were

requested to provide the contact detail of a staff member with whom further liaison

could take place for assistance with dissemination of the survey to women

employed at the respective universities. The request was for inclusion of women in

management positions and women appointed to academic positions, in particular,

those in senior positions but also a random selection of female employees at lower,

yet professional levels.

5.4.5 Response rate and sample size

A total of 301 usable questionnaires were received from respondents by the closing

date. It was not possible to determine the actual response rate due to the method of

survey distribution discussed in paragraph 5.4.4.2.

5.4.6 Method of data analysis

Statistica 10 was employed to test for internal consistency and reliability of the

measuring instrument and to analyse the empirical data collected. Statistica 10

provided descriptive statistics for the whole group, giving an overall statistical

profile of respondents. Respondents were subsequently categorised into success

groups using data from the descriptive statistics on three items from the

biographical scale. This provided descriptive statistics for further analyses.

5.4.6.1 Chi-square tests

A group differences approach was followed to compare the success groups by their

mean scores, and chi-square tests were performed to determine the criterion related

validity of the scores. Chi-square tests were performed on the main factors selected

for the study to obtain quartile distribution for the success groups. This served to

determine whether there was a significant difference between the expected

frequencies and the observed frequencies of success groups. P-values were

139

obtained to determine whether differences between expected and observed

frequencies were as a result of real differences or due to sampling errors.

5.4.6.2 T-tests

T-tests were employed to make inferences about how the success groups compared

with regard to the selected factors. The t-tests provided inferential statistics,

indicating the probability of the factors influencing success. This served to

determine whether the difference between the hypothesised population parameter

and sample result was significant and not as a result of chance. T-tests were further

employed to provide Cohen’s d statistics, a standardised mean difference to

compare groups, to determine whether sample differences were large enough to

have a practical significance.

5.4.6.3 MANOVA

Univariate and multivariate tests (MANOVA) included a set of statistical

techniques that examined the relationship between multiple independent variables

and dependent variables. The chance of finding group differences was increased by

measuring multiple dependent variables. MANOVA was employed to determine

whether sufficient evidence existed to make conclusions about hypotheses one to

five of the study, which related to differences between groups of women based on

their demographics and the selected variables.

MANOVA was conducted with 17 demographic variables as independent variables

with the factors, namely: personality, culture, barriers, internal support and external

support, as dependent variables. MANOVA examined associations between the

dependent variables and the independent variables. A series of univariate analyses

were conducted with the same demographic variables as independent variables and

factors for dependent variables. The purpose was to determine which individual

dependent variables have a statistical relationship with each of the selected

independent variables.

140

5.4.6.4 Step-wise discriminant analysis using Wilks’ Lambda

After determining which dependent variables had a significant relationship with

each of the selected independent variables, step-wise discriminant analysis was

employed to identify the factors which best differentiated between the success

groups. Discriminant Function Analysis functions as a reverse MANOVA and uses

group membership as the dependent variable and MANOVA dependent variables

as predictors of group membership. Significant success factors were identified

through a forward stepping process using Wilks’ Lambda as multivariate test of

significance.

Multivariate F-values were obtained using Wilks’ Lambda as test statistic to test

the mean differences between the groups on a combination of dependent variables.

After multivariate F-values were obtained for main effects, univariate F-tests for

each variable were examined to identify the specific dependent variables that

contributed to the overall effect.

5.4.6.5 Pearson product-moment coefficient

Pearson Product Moment Correlation (Pearson r) was employed to determine

whether sufficient evidence exists to make conclusions about hypotheses six to ten,

relating to significant relationships between the selected independent variables for

the study and the professional success of women. Pearson r tested for both

statistical and practical significance, in other words, determined whether and to

what degree the variables were related. In Pearson r effect size indicating the

strength of a positive relationship is expressed as small (.10); medium (.30); and

large (.50). The strength of negative relationships are indicated by -.10; -.30; and -

.50, respectively.

5.5 SUMMARY

In this chapter, an overview was given of the research design and methodology

employed to address the primary objective of the study. The procedure followed

and challenges experienced in the selection of a representative sample population

141

for inclusion was described. It was concluded that the selected data collection

method was an objective and appropriate means of obtaining valid statistics on

women in business and the professions. The measuring instrument was found to be

reliable and valid based on Cronbach alpha scores obtained for some of the

constructs from earlier studies as well as the Cronbach alpha’s for the constructs

from tests performed on the pilot study of the current research. The techniques

drawn on to analyse the data were concluded to be suitable for determining the

interrelatedness of variables studied in determining factors most likely to influence

professional success.

The empirical results for the research conducted are reported in chapter 6.

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CHAPTER 6

EMPIRICAL RESULTS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 5 provided an overview of the research design and methodology employed

to investigate the factors influencing the perceived career success of professional

women in South Africa. It further described the statistical measures applied for the

analysis of the empirical data to assess the validity and reliability of the measuring

instrument and to test the theoretical model.

This chapter provides an exposition of the analysis of the empirical data. The

chapter presents the reliability and validity of the measuring instrument; a

statistical overview of the demographic profile of respondents for both the whole

sample and for success groups are provided; the relationship between the selected

factors and perceived professional success of women are deliberated; advanced

statistics employed to analyse factors influencing the success of women are

described; and finally conclusions are made about the hypotheses.

6.2 RELIABILITY OF THE MEASURING INSTRUMENT

Statistica 10 was used to test for internal reliability of the measuring instrument in

order to determine the degree to which the test scores were accurate and consistent.

The reliability test performed in the pilot study was repeated in the main study and

test scores were assessed for internal consistency by obtaining Cronbach’s

coefficient alpha. A summary of internal consistency measures for survey

constructs in the main study are presented in Table 6.1.

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Table 6.1: Internal consistency for survey constructs

Main Factor Sub-Factor Sub-Factor alpha

Personality Self-efficacy 0.81

Locus of control 0.86

Need for achievement 0.74

Culture Power distance 0.42

Individualism/collectivism 0.71

Uncertainty avoidance 0.77

Masculinity/femininity 0.69

Barriers Stereotyping 0.91

Lack of role models and mentors 0.85

Family responsibility 0.67

Inaccessible networks n.a.

Inhospitable organisational culture n.a.

Internal support Organisational support 0.87

Mentoring and coaching 0.90

Leadership and management style 0.73

External support Family support 0.91

Professional associations 0.61

Government initiatives 0.74

Pressure from feminist groups 0.53

Awards and role models 0.92

Although alphas for the main study were lower than the high alphas obtained in the

pilot study (see Table 5.2), from Table 6.1, it can be seen that with the exception of

two sub-factors, Cronbach alphas of higher than 0.6 and for most items higher than

0.7 were achieved. It can thus be argued that the measures contained internal

reliability (Berthoud, 2000; Hooper & Zhou, 2007:279).

144

As not enough items were included in the survey instrument to measure

perceptions of inaccessible networks and inhospitable organisational culture, the

numbers were too small to determine Cronbach alphas for these two sub-factors

(indicated as n.a. in Table 6.1).

6.3 VALIDITY OF THE MEASURING INSTRUMENT

A measuring instrument’s scores are considered valid if the instrument measures

what it purports to measure (Struwig & Stead, 2007:138). Scale items for

perceptions of personality and cultural factors included in the current study have

been validated in a number of earlier studies as discussed in 5.4.3.2. Scales for the

measurement of personality and cultural factors are those employed by Punnett et

al. (2006) and Duffy et al. (2006) in the comparative study. Satisfactory reliability

levels for the instrument measuring culture are described by several researchers

(Duffy et al., 2006:560). Additional questions were included in the current study to

measure masculinity on the cultural scale, which were excluded in the comparative

study. These questions were adapted from validated scales developed by Dorfman

and Howell (1988), Wu (2006) and Yoo et al. (2011).

An additional set of questions was developed and incorporated on career barriers in

order to determine the major barriers South African women face in achieving

professional success. Questions were also developed to measure perceptions of the

impact of external support and internal organisational support in transcending

career barriers. In order to establish content validity, items for external support,

internal support and barriers were constructed from factors identified in the

theoretical investigation as reflecting critical facets of the respective factors being

measured. Mentoring questions were selected from Tepper et al’s, (1996), sixteen-

item scale.

6.4 STATISTICAL OVERVIEW OF RESPONDENTS

A total of 301 women at various levels of professional success participated in the

survey. Statistica 10 was employed to obtain descriptive statistics for the whole

145

sample in order to obtain an overall picture of the data. A small number of

responses containing inconsistencies in the biographical data provided were deleted

from applicable analyses. In paragraph 6.4, the demographic profile of respondents

is discussed and descriptive statistics presented in a number of figures and tables

for the whole sample (n=301), followed by summary statistics for the other five

factors hypothesised to influence success. Hereafter, an overview is given of the

demographic profile of two identified success groups (n=149 successful and n=152

not yet successful) and descriptive statistics also presented through figures and

tables. The section concludes with a summary of the demographic profile for the

whole group.

6.4.1 Profile of whole sample

The purpose for inclusion of background demographics is its potential influence on

women’s achievement of professional success. Gregory, Mossop and Santos

(2006:47-48) refer to research demonstrating that factors such as socio-economic

status, birth order, and gender of siblings are amongst the factors likely to

influence, for example, parent’s career expectations for their daughters and

women’s achievement orientation. Demographics expected to influence

professional success were, therefore, included in the measuring instrument.

The target population for the current study was South African women who have

already achieved professional success or who were possible pipeline candidates for

management and leadership positions. As the survey was disseminated by

participating higher education institutions and industries, there was a probability

that a small percentage of non-South African citizens would participate.

Respondents’ country of birth is indicated in Figure 6.1.

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Figure 6.1: Respondents’ place of birth

As can be seen from Figure 6.1, the majority of the respondents (281 or 93 percent)

were South African citizens of whom 277 (92 percent) were raised in South Africa.

The remaining respondents were born in Africa, Australia, Europe and North

America. As they represent a low percentage of the total, they are not compared as

a separate group but included in the analysis. They are in addition currently

employed in South Africa and would be subjected to the same career barriers and

support systems as South African women.

There was a representative distribution of respondents from academic and non-

academic sectors, with 52 percent from the academic sector in higher education and

the remaining 48 percent representing the non-academic educational sector,

business sector and professional sector (see Annexure C).

The respondents were predominantly well-educated with 97 percent being in

possession of a post-matric qualification. Respondents’ level of education is given

in Table 6.2.

93%

1% 0%

4%

1%

South Africa

Africa

Australia

Europe

North America

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Table 6.2: Educational levels of respondents

Level Number Percentage

<Matric 1 0%

Matric 9 3%

Diploma 11 4%

Degree 25 8%

Post-graduate 255 85%

As illustrated in Table 6.2, the majority of respondents, namely 85 percent were in

possession of a post-graduate qualification, pointing to the importance of education

in the achievement of professional success, also for women in the pipeline.

Of the respondents with a post-graduate qualification, 16 percent (48) were in

possession of a doctorate; 19 percent (56) had progressed to the level of professor;

and one percent (4) of respondents were advocates (see Annexure C).

The definition of professionally successful women for the purpose of the current

study is: Women who have achieved professional success by having progressed to

an executive management or leadership position. Table 6.3 outlines the results of

the respondents’ level of professional success.

Table 6.3: Respondents’ level of professional success

Hierarchical level Number Percentage Comments

1 Executive manager/Professor 93 31%

Have achieved professional

success

2 Middle management/Senior

lecturer 105 35% Likely to be in pipeline

3 Professional support/Lecturer

General support/ Associate

lecturer

90

13

30%

4%

May either become pipeline

or alternatively remain at

current level

Table 6.3 shows that 31 percent of the respondents have achieved professional

success, while 35 percent are likely to do so.

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A total of 71 percent of respondents indicated that they aspire to a higher

hierarchical level. The majority of respondents (53 percent) believe that they have

achieved success to a reasonable extent and 31 percent believe that they have

achieved success to a great extent (see Annexure C).

The monthly salaries of respondents ranged from less than R9000 (2 percent only)

to more than R45 000 (18 percent). The majority of respondents (30 percent) earn

between R21 000 and R28 999 (see Annexure C). The gradual increase up to this

level, followed by a drop which increases again at the top level, may be indicative

of a gender gap in salaries at management level, as 66 percent of the respondents

are employed at middle management level and above. Measurement of this,

however, did not form part of the current study.

Table 6.4 illustrates the number of years respondents have been in their

employment sector.

Table 6.4: Respondents’ years in employment sector

Years Number Percentage

1-4 80 27%

5-9 76 25%

10-14 59 20%

15-19 38 13%

20+ 48 16%

Table 6.4 indicates that the majority of respondents (27 percent) have been

employed in their current sector for 1-4 years only and the second largest group (25

percent) for 5-9 years.

It is also evident from Table 6.4 that a substantial percentage of respondents have

been employed for a short number of years and may benefit from support directed

at their advancement. If they demonstrate potential and are provided with the

necessary training and support, they could possibly progress to higher professional

success levels.

149

Despite the relatively short period in their employment sector, only 10 percent of

respondents are under the age of 30, with the highest percentage between 35 and 49

years old. The age distribution is presented in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2: Respondents’ age

The findings illustrated in Figure 6.3 could point to late entry into the employment

sector, career gaps due to family responsibility or to respondents changing careers.

This was, however, not probed in the survey.

Most of the respondents were married or in a permanent relationship. The marital

status of respondents is presented in Figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3: Respondents’ marital status

10%

12%

16%

21%

15%

12% 11%

4%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

<30 30 - 34 35 – 39 40 – 44 45 – 49 50 – 54 55 – 59 60+

21%

63%

14%

2%

Single

Married/permanentrelationship

Divorced

Widowed

150

It can be concluded from respondents’ marital status, as shown in Figure 6.3, that a

permanent relationship does not appear to negatively impact on career success,

whether already achieved or in the pipeline. This could possibly be attributed to a

high level of external support the successful women could receive, for example,

spouse/partner and domestic support providing independence to pursue a career

path. Internal organisational policies may also be sufficiently flexible to afford a

work/life balance.

An interesting finding was the notably large percentage of the respondents (35

percent) with no children, compared to the finding presented in Figure 6.2 that 79

percent of the respondents were 35 years and above. Number of children is

indicated in Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4: Respondents’ number of children

The statistics reflecting number of children, as shown in Figure 6.4, are indicative

of a probability that women are postponing starting a family in order to pursue their

careers. It is also possible that some may not want children. Of those who have

children, the majority (20 percent) have children in the age group 18+.

Items relating to family environment were included in the biographical data scale

due to the potential impact of the family environment on an individual’s

achievement of success. These included: parents’ highest qualification, number of

siblings and respondents’ birth order. Parents’ highest qualification is presented in

Figure 6.5.

35%

16%

35%

12%

1% 1%

0

1

2

3

4

5

151

Figure 6.5: Highest qualification of respondents’ parents

Results from the analysis indicated, as shown in Figure 6.5, that the majority of

respondents were raised in families where both parents had at least matric, with a

large percentage being reasonably well-educated and holding post-matric

qualifications. It is noteworthy that despite a higher percentage of mothers who

have matric, a diploma or a degree, the percentage drops substantially for those

with a post-graduate qualification. A likely cause may be family responsibility

during this stage of their life in the absence of support systems and at a time when

it was not customary for women to further their careers.

Compared to the 12.5 percent of mothers with post-graduate qualifications, 85

percent of the respondents have a post-graduate qualification as was illustrated in

Table 6.2. This may be as a result of increased opportunities available to younger

generations. It could also, at least partially, be the result of increasing standards. In

the higher education sector a post-graduate qualification at master’s level for

academic appointments is generally regarded as the minimum requirement. Non-

academic support staff are, however, also increasingly expected to be in possession

of formal qualifications, in accordance to the level of their appointment.

The number of siblings respondents have is depicted in Figure 6.6.

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

Father

Mother

152

Figure 6.6: Respondents’ number of siblings

Of the respondents who had siblings, the majority had only one (39 percent) or two

(20 percent) as illustrated in Figure 6.6.

The generally small households in which respondents were raised could be a

contributing factor to their professional achievements. The financial strain on

smaller households is lower and attention to children less divided. In such

households there is generally a greater probability that post-school education can

be afforded and that children would be encouraged to obtain a qualification and

pursue a career. Figure 6.7 illustrates respondents’ birth order.

Figure 6.7: Respondents’ birth order

31.5%

39%

20%

7.5%

1.5% 0% 0%

0.5%

0 1

2 3

4 5

6 7

7%

41%

24%

28% Only child

Oldest

Middle

Youngest

153

As can be seen from Figure 6.7, the majority of respondents (41 percent) are oldest

children, followed by youngest (28 percent).

Because typical characteristics attached to birth order may influence behaviour in

the workplace, this may be an explanation for the high percentage of first born

successful women. First born children are described in literature (Eckstein, 2000;

Dattner, 2011) as generally achievement oriented and motivated, confident,

assertive, and likely to exhibit leadership attributes.

In addition to demographic statistics, descriptive statistics were obtained for the

other five factors hypothesised to influence success and measured in the survey.

Summary statistics for these factors for the whole group is presented in Table 6.5.

(The frequency distribution for individual items is provided in Annexure C.)

Table 6.5: Summary statistics for factors influencing success for whole group

Main Factor Sub-Factor

Mea

n

Sta

nd

ard

Dev

iati

on

Min

imu

m

Qu

art

ile

1

Med

ian

Qu

art

ile

3

Ma

xim

um

Factor total 3.33 0.38 3.32

Personality 4.01 0.36 4.02

Self-efficacy 4.17 0.45 2.71 3.88 4.24 4.47 5.00

Locus of control 3.90 0.53 2.13 3.56 3.94 4.31 5.00

Need for achievement 3.96 0.46 2.69 3.69 3.94 4.31 5.00

Culture

Power distance

2.73

2.10

0.37

0.45

1.00

1.83

2.75

2.17

2.33

3.50

Individualism/collectivism 3.12 0.68 1.00 2.60 3.20 3.60 4.80

Uncertainty avoidance 3.92 0.60 1.80 3.60 4.00 4.40 5.00

Masculinity/femininity 1.78 0.60 1.00 1.33 1.67 2.17 3.83

Barriers

Stereotyping

3.33

3.58

0.86

0.86

1.00

3.08

3.42

3.67

4.17

5.00

Lack of role models and

mentors 3.01 1.26 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

Family responsibility 2.99 1.02 1.00 2.33 3.00 3.67 5.00

Inaccessible networks

Inhospitable organisational

culture

3.49

3.57

1.24

1.19

1.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

4.00

5.00

5.00

5.00

5.00

154


Mea

n

Sta

nd

ard

Dev

iati

on

Min

imu

m

Qu

art

ile

1

Med

ian

Qu

art

ile

3

Ma

xim

um

Internal

support

Organisational support

2.95

3.01

0.77

0.67

1.00

2.60

3.00

3.07

3.47

5.00

Mentoring and coaching 2.43 1.02 1.00 1.60 2.40 3.20 5.00

Leadership and

management style 3.40 1.07 1.00 3.00 3.50 4.00 5.00

External

support

Family support

3.61

4.40

0.59

1.01

1.00

4.00

3.64

5.00

5.00

5.00

Professional associations 3.25 0.98 1.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 5.00

Government initiatives 3.23 0.88 1.00 2.75 3.35 3.75 5.00


groups 3.69 0.86 1.00 3.00 4.00 4.50 5.00

Awards and role models 3.48 1.13 1.00 3.00 3.50 4.00 5.00

From Table 6.5 it can be seen that the mean and median scores for factors,

provided as measures of central tendency, are high in most cases with the exception

of two of the cultural sub-factors. Standard deviation, as measure of dispersion or

variability, varies between 0.45 and 1.26 for the sub-factors. The measures are

further expounded in paragraphs 6.5.1 – 6.5.5.

6.4.2 Profile for success groups

Three items from the biographical scale of the survey instrument were identified

for the purpose of creating discriminant categories of success groups. These were:

(i) Hierarchical level in the organisation (Q1-12);

(ii) Years in current employment sector (Q1-15); and

(iii) Age (Q1-16).

Data from the descriptive statistics was used to create the groups. Response options

for each of the three questions were combined to reduce the number of categories,

in particular, where percentages were low. The original and new categories are

given in Table 6.6.

155

Table 6.6: Original and new success categories created from descriptive

statistics

Question Original categories Percentage

responses New categories

Percentage

responses

Q1-12

Hierarchical level

Executive Manager/

Professor

Middle Management/Senior

Lecturer

Professional

Support/Lecturer

General Support/Associate

Lecturer

31%

35%

30%

4%

Top

Middle

Lower

31%

35%

34%

Q1-15

Years in

employment

sector

1-4

5-9

10-14

15-19

20+

27%

25%

20%

13%

16%

1-4

5-9

10-14

>15

27%

25%

20%

29%

Q1-17

Age

<30

30 - 34

35 - 39

40 - 44

45 - 49

50 - 54

55 – 59

60+

10%

12%

16%

21%

15%

12%

11%

4%

< 30-39%

40-49

50+

38%

36%

27%

From Table 6.6 it can be seen that the number of categories for hierarchical level of

respondents was reduced from five to three. After reducing the number of

categories, respondents were categorised in terms of success. Based on hierarchical

level (Q1.12), number of years in the industry (Q1.15) and age (Q1.16), the

following formula was applied:

If Q1-12 = 1 (top) then success = 1 (successful)

If Q1-12 = 2 (middle) then:

If Q1-15 = 1 (<5 years) OR Q1-16 = 1 (<40) then success = 1 (successful)

If Q1-15 ≠ 1 (<5 years) OR Q1-16 ≠ 1 (<40) then success = 2 (pipeline)

If Q1-12 = 3 (lower) then:

If Q1-15 = 1 (<5 years) OR Q1-16 = 1 (<40) then success = 1 (pipeline)

If Q1-15 ≠ 1 (<5 years) OR Q1-16 ≠ 1 (<40) then success = 3 (possible pipeline)

156

Based on the above formula, respondents were initially divided into three groups,

namely: successful, pipeline and possible pipeline. The characteristics of these

groups are summarised in Table 6.7.

Table 6.7: Characteristics of the three success groups

Success Group Characteristics

Successful All respondents at the top hierarchical level;

Middle hierarchical level and <5 years in the industry or

<40 years old.

Pipeline Middle hierarchical level and 5 years or more in the

industry or 40 years old or older;

Lower hierarchical level and <5 years in the industry or

<40 years old

Possible Pipeline Lower hierarchical level and 5 years or more in the industry

or 40 years old or older.

Because the scores of the latter two groups were very similar, it was decided to

treat them as one group called not yet successful. Thus two groups were finally

specified, namely: Successful (n=149) and Not yet successful (n=152).

Subsequent to categorising respondents in terms of success, a frequency

distribution for success grouping was determined. This distribution is given in

Table 6.8.

Table 6.8: Frequency distribution for success groupings

Two groups Three groups

Successful 149 49.5% Successful 149 49.5%

Not yet successful 152 50.5% Pipeline 115 38.2%

Not pipeline 37 12.3%

There was no noteworthy difference in mean scores between the pipeline and

possible pipeline groups (refer to Annexure D), and it was decided to use the two

groups, namely: successful and not yet successful, for the purpose of describing the

groups and for further analyses. As can be seen from Table 6.8, there was a

157

balanced distribution of respondents categorised as successful and not yet

successful. Following the application of the formula, 18.5 percent more of the

respondents were categorised as successful compared to the application of only the

definition used for the study.

Chi-square tests were used next with each of the demographic items to determine

whether there was a relationship between the success groups. Cramér’s V statistics

were obtained for the six items where significant p-values were indicated in order

to test whether sample differences were big enough to have real meaning. The

complete findings are given in Annexure E with only the significant relationships

presented here. One large, three moderate and two small differences were found

which were big enough to have meaning. The significant results should, however,

be treated with caution as some cell frequencies were very low. Practical

significance interpretation intervals for Cramér’s V are provided in Table 6.9.

Table 6.9: Practical significance interpretation intervals for Cramér’s V

Cramérs V Small Moderate Large

df* = 1 .10 < V <.30 .30 < V <.50 V > .50

df* = 2 .07 < V <.21 .21 < V <.35 V > .35

df* = 3 .06 < V <.17 .17 < V <.29 V > .29

Significant relationships between the identified success groupings and their

demographic profiles were found for the following items:

Title (Chi²(d.f. = 3, n = 301) = 65.69; p < .0005; V = 0.47 Moderate);

Hierarchical level (Chi²(d.f. = 2, n = 301) = 191.63; p < .0005; V = 0.80

Large);

Hierarchical level aspiring to (Chi²(d.f. = 1, n = 297) = 17.68; p < .0005; V

= 0.24 Small);

Salary range (Chi²(d.f. = 6, n = 301) = 58.06; p < .0005; V = 0.44

Moderate);

Extent to which respondents believe they have achieved career success

(Chi²(d.f. = 2, n = 301) = 27.09; p < .0005; V = 0.30 Moderate); and

158

Profession (Chi²(d.f. = 3, n = 301) = 15.76; p = .001; V = 0.23 Small).

A descriptive comparison of the demographic profile of the two success groups is

provided in the paragraphs that follow through a number of graphs and tables.

Figure 6.8 illustrates the relationship between title and success of the respondents

in the two success groups.

Figure 6.8: Respondents’ title per success category

The high percentage of women with doctoral degrees categorised as not yet

successful could possibly be attributed to them aspiring to professorial positions as

most of them are likely to be employed in the higher education sector. As a result

of family responsibility many women obtain their higher degree qualification at a

later age and with more years in the employment sector. The reasonably high

percentage of women categorised as successful but without a doctoral degree is

likely to be employed in the non-academic sector. If that were the case, it would

point to a difference in women’s perception of professional success in the academic

versus the non-academic sector. This was, however, not probed.

Table 6.10 depicts the educational level of respondents in each of the two success

groups.

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

Ms/Mrs Dr Prof Adv

Successful

Not yet successful

159

Table 6.10: Respondents’ education level per success category

Education level Successful Not yet successful

<Matric 1 100% 0 0%

Matric 6 67% 3 33%

Diploma 6 55% 5 45%

Degree 10 40% 15 60%

Post-graduate 126 49% 129 51%

From Table 6.10 it is clear that the majority of respondents in both success groups

had obtained a post- graduate qualification. The higher number of respondents in

the not yet successful group with degrees and post-graduate degrees represents

those women who may benefit from support initiatives aimed at advancing their

careers. Numbers are provided in Table 6.10 together with percentages, as

percentages alone give a skewed profile. Only one respondent indicated that she

had less than matric, which may have been an error or alternatively an exception.

The highest qualification of only nine respondents was matric, of eleven a diploma

and of 25 a degree.

The hierarchical level at which respondents in each success group are appointed is

illustrated in Figure 6.9.

Figure 6.9: Respondents’ hierarchical level per success category

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

Top Middle Lower

Successful

Not yetsuccessful

160

Respondents at the top level, as indicated in Figure 6.9, of the hierarchy are all

categorised as successful (refer to Table 6.7). The majority of respondents at the

lower end are not yet successful and there is a relatively equal representation of

success groupings at the middle level.

The degree to which respondent aspired to a higher level of success than their

current level is illustrated in Figure 6.10.

Figure 6.10: Degree of aspiration to higher level per

respondents’ success category

As could be expected, a higher percentage (82 percent) of respondents in the not

yet successful category aspired to a higher level. However, of respondents who are

already categorised as successful more than half (60 percent) aspire to higher

levels. It is evident from the results that the underrepresentation of women at the

upper end of the hierarchy is not a consequence of women’s lack of interest in

management and leadership positions. Although the sample population has to

varying degrees achieved career success, a notable number aspire to higher levels.

As the majority are in possession of a post-graduate qualification (see Table 6.10)

and nearly half (n=145) had more than ten years experience in their current

employment (see Figure 6.12) sector, it is more likely that a glass ceiling at the

higher end of the hierarchy may be barricading their progress. It is also possible

that a large number of respondents are highly ambitious and will continue to aspire

to higher levels, despite level of success achieved.

60%

82%

Successful

Not yet successful

161

The high percentage of respondents aspiring to higher levels of success could

possibly be inflated by the large number of respondents from the academic sector.

These respondents may want to improve their academic profile for promotion to

professorial level, in other words, academic success and not necessarily to

management positions. This was, however, not determined in the current study.

Figure 6.11 illustrates the salary range of the successful and not yet successful

groups of the respondents.

Figure 6.11: Salary range per respondents’ success category

Figure 6.11 indicates that at the upper salary range successful women earned

substantially higher salaries than the not yet successful group. In the R29 000 –

R35 000 range distribution is almost equally split and below this range the not yet

successful group appears to be earning higher salaries than the successful group.

Figure 6.12 illustrates respondents’ years in their employment sector per success

grouping.

0%

50%

<R

9 0

00

R9

00

0 –

R1

4 9

99

R1

50

00

– R

20

99

9

R2

1 0

00

– R

28

…

R2

9 0

00

– R

35

…

R3

6 0

00

– R

45

…

>R

45

00

0

Successful

Not yet successful

162

Figure 6.12: Respondents’ years in employment sector per success

category

Most of the respondents in the successful category have been in their current

employment sector for more than 15 years, as illustrated in Figure 6.12. The

reasonably high percentage (40 percent) of respondents categorised as not yet

successful but with more than 15 years experience may point to the thickening of

the glass ceiling towards the higher end of the hierarchy. It is also possible that

these respondents did not receive sufficient internal and external support or that

they do not demonstrate the personality characteristics associated with high

achieving women.

The age distribution of respondents in each of the success groupings is presented in

Figure 6.13.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

One to four Five to nine Ten tofourteen

More thanfifteen

Successful

Not yet successful

163

Figure 6.13: Respondents’ age per success category

The highest percentage of successful women are 50+ (55 percent), followed

closely, however, by those younger than 40 (52 percent). This is aligned to

literature suggesting that the younger generation are more resilient to barriers to

career progression.

Figure 6.14 presents perceptions of the two success groups of the extent to which

they have achieved professional success.

Figure 6.14: Respondents’ perception of professional success achieved

per success category

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

<40 40-49 50+

Successful

Not yet successful

42%

20%

51%

55%

7%

26%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

Successful Not yet successful

Slight/None

Reasonable

Great Extent

164

What is noticeable from the results in Figure 6.14 is that 7 percent of respondents

in the successful group believe that they have not yet achieved success and 51

percent that they have achieved success to a reasonable extent only. A total of 58

percent of successful respondents, therefore, believe that they are equipped for

higher levels of success.

The reasonably high percentage of not yet successful respondents who felt that they

have achieved a great extent of professional success may be an indication that these

respondents do not aspire to higher levels of success, but it is also possible that

they perceive themselves as successful in relation to the number of years in the

employment sector as 56 percent of the not yet successful group has been in their

current employment sector for one to four years only. There is also a probability

that the 26 percent in the slight/none category may be those aspiring to high levels

of success. Figure 6.15 gives the birth order of respondents in each of the success

categories.

Figure 6.15: Respondents’ birth order per success category

From Figure 6.15 it is evident that birth order had minimum relevance to success.

The same percentage of respondents was only children in the success groups. The

only notable discrepancy between the groups was for youngest child, where 16

percent more of the not yet successful group were the youngest. There was also a

slightly higher percentage of successful respondents who were oldest children,

which agrees with research (Eckstein, 2000; Dattner, 2011; ) indicating that first

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Only child Oldest Middle Youngest

Successful

Not yet successful

165

born children are generally achievement oriented and motivated, confident,

assertive, and likely to exhibit leadership qualities. The findings for the number of

siblings for respondents in each of the success categories are presented in Figure

6.16.

Figure 6.16: Number of siblings of respondents per success category

From Figure 6.16 it is clear that there were an equal number of respondents in each

of the success groups with no siblings and an almost equal number who had two to

four siblings. It was, however, notable that in the 5+ category, the not yet

successful group escalated to 62 percent and the successful group is only 38

percent. It, therefore, appears that the number of siblings only discriminates

between success groups when there are more than five siblings.

A comparison of respondents’ marital status per success group is illustrated in

Figure 6.17.

Figure 6.17: Respondents’ marital status per success category

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

0 1 2 3 4 5+

Successful

Not yet successful

0% 20% 40% 60%

Single

Married/Perm. Rel.

Divorced

Widowed

Not yet successful

Successful

166

It is evident from Figure 6.17 that success groups had a similar marital status

profile. It was only in the widowed category that there were slightly more (14

percent) successful women than not yet successful women. The current study,

however, did not determine the reason for this.

The employment sector of respondents per success grouping is given in Figure

6.18.

Figure 6.18: Respondents’ employment sector per success category

The most notable variation between the success groups in the employment sector

depicted in Figure 6.18 was in the business and professional sectors with,

respectively, a 40 percent and a 30 percent differentiation between the groups in

these categories. From these findings presented in Figure 6.18, it appears that there

are less rigid rules in the business and professional sectors for the achievement of

certain success levels. It is further evident that respondents from the business and

professional sector were more successful than those from the academic sector.

Variation between success groupings in terms of number of children is given in

Figure 6.19.

0% 20% 40% 60% 80%

Education: Academic

Education: Non-academic

Business

Professional

Not yet successful

Successful

167

Figure 6.19: Respondents’ number of children per success category

It is evident from Figure 6.19 that with the exception of respondents with two

children, there is a reasonable variation between success groups in terms of number

of children. Most notable is the event of having children, with as few as one child

indicating a variation of 26 percent in success groups’ achievement of success. This

finding manifests the need of women with children for having external and internal

support in order to pursue their careers.

From Figure 6.19 it is clear that respondents with 3+ children were the most in

terms of not yet successful in their career, while respondents with one child was the

group that were the most successful.

There were no notable variations between the success groups with regards to the

age groups of the children. Additional child care responsibilities associated with

school-going children, however, appears to impact slightly on women’s ability to

progress in their careers. In the age groups between 7-12 and 13-17 there were,

respectively, 18 percent and 10 percent more respondents in the successful group.

The highest qualification of fathers of respondents per success grouping is

presented in figures 6.20 and of mothers of respondents in Figure 6.21.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

0 1 2 3+

Successful

Not yet successful

168

Figure 6.20: Highest qualification of respondents’ fathers per success

category

The high percentage of respondents in the not yet successful group, whose parents

had no qualification, must be viewed in perspective. As shown in Figure 6.20 only1

percent of respondents had a father in this category and as shown in Figure 6.21

only 0.7 percent had a mother in this category.

Figure 6.21: Highest qualification of respondents’ mothers per success

category

It is evident from Figures 6.20 and 6.21 that there were an equal number of

respondents in each of the success groups whose parents had matric and only slight

success group variations where parents had post-school qualifications. The only

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Successful

Not yet successful

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

Successful

Not yet successful

169

notable pattern is that in the case of both parents’ qualifications, a lower percentage

of the not yet successful group’s parents compared to that of the successful group

had less than matric; a slightly higher percentage a diploma or degree; and where

parents had a post-graduate qualification, percentages for the successful group were

higher.

A summary of the demographic profile of the whole group (n=301) is provided in

Table 6.11. For the purpose of the summary a number of the survey items and

response options were combined.

Table 6.11: Summary of respondents’ demographic profile

Demographic item Response options Number of

respondents

Percentage

responses

Nationality South African 281 93

Other 20 7

Title Ms/Mrs 193 64

Dr 48 16

Title continued Prof 56 19

Adv 4 1

Highest qualification <Matric 1 0

Matric 9 3

Diploma/degree 36 12

Post-graduate 255 85

Hierarchical level Top 91 30

Middle 106 35

Lower 104 35

Hierarchical level aspiring to Higher 211 71

Same 86 29

Salary range <R9000 - R14 999 32 10

R15 000 – R20 999 49 16

R21 000 – R28 999 89 30

R29 000 – R35 999 50 17

R36 000 – R45 000 26 9

>R45 000 55 18

Years in employment sector 1-4 80 27

5-9 76 25

10-14 59 20

15+ 86 29

Age <40 113 38

40-49 106 35

50+ 82 27

170

Demographic item Response options Number of

respondents

Percentage

responses

Perception of success achieved Great extent 92 31

Reasonable extent 159 53

Slight/none 50 17

Birth order Only child 20 7

Oldest 123 41

Middle 73 24

Youngest 85 28

Number of siblings 0 20 7

1-3 235 78

4+ 46

15

Ethnicity Asian 12 4

Black 21 7

Coloured 18 6

White 237 79

Prefer not to answer 13 4

Profession Education sector: Academic 158 52

Education sector: Non-

academic 57 19

Business and professional 86 29

Marital status Single 63 21

Married/permanent

relationship 190 63

Divorced 41 14

Widowed 7 2

Number of children None 104 35

(n=298) 1 49 16

2 106 35

3+ 42 14

Age groups of children n/a 104 35

(n= 298) <3 25 8

3-6 39 13

7-12 58 19

13-17 55 18

18+ 80 27

Parents’ highest qualification:

father; mother None/< matric 30; 27 10; 9

Matric 107; 115 36; 39

(n=299) Diploma/degree 91; 118 30; 40

Post-graduate 71; 37 24; 12

171

6.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FACTORS AND PERCEIVED

PROFESSIONAL SUCCESS OF WOMEN

The previous section provided a statistical overview of respondents’ demographic

profile. In this section the remaining five factors hypothesised to influence success

are discussed. The factors include:

Personality;

Culture;

Perspectives of external support;

Perspectives of internal support; and

Career barriers.

Descriptive statistics of respondents’ mean scores for these five factors are

presented in Table 6.12. Mean scores with a ten and higher variation between

success groups are indicated in red.

Table 6.12: Summary statistics for factors influencing success for success

groups

Mean Standard

deviation


Su

cces

sfu

l

No

t y

et

succ

ess

ful

Su

cces

sfu

l

No

t y

et

succ

ess

ful

Factor total 3.33 3.32 0.38 0.38

Personality

Self-efficacy

4.05

4.20

3.98

4.15

0.36

0.42

0.36

0.47

Locus of control 3.95 3.85 0.52 0.54

Need for achievement 3.99 3.94 0.45 0.47

Culture

Power distance

2.69

2.12

2.77

2.08

0.36

0.45

0.37

0.45

Individualism/collectivism 3.11 3.14 0.66 0.71

Uncertainty avoidance 3.84 4.00 0.64 0.55

Masculinity/femininity 1.71 1.85 0.57 0.64

172


Su

cces

sfu

l

No

t y

et

succ

ess

ful

Su

cces

sfu

l

No

t y

et

succ

ess

ful

Barriers

Stereotyping

3.34

3.66

3.32

3.50

0.84

0.85

0.89

0.87


mentors

Family responsibility



culture

2.92

2.99

3.47

3.63

3.11

2.98

3.51

3.52

1.29

1.04

1.26

1.15

1.23

1.01

1.23

1.23

Internal support


2.99

3.06

2.91

2.96

0.79

0.66

0.74

0.67

Mentoring and coaching 2.43 2.43 1.12 0.92

Leadership and management

style 3.47 3.34 1.08

1.05

External support

Family support

3.60

4.35

3.62

4.45

0.62

1.07

0.55

0.96

Professional associations 3.27 3.24 1.08 0.89

Government initiatives 3.21 3.25 0.88 0.88

Pressure from feminist groups 3.61 3.77 0.93 0.78

External support continued

Awards and role models 3.44 3.53 1.17 1.08

Spouse support 3.64 3.50 1.52 1.49

Domestic support 3.66 3.61 1.45 1.40

As is evident from Table 6.12, mean scores for the two groups were very similar.

This could be expected due to the homogeneity of the sample group.

The results provided in Tables 6.5 and 6.12 are expounded in paragraphs 6.5.1 to

6.5.5.

6.5.1 Relationship between personality factors and success

The personality traits associated with high achieving women and therefore

professional success had a high factor total mean score of 4.01. A high mean score

of 4.17 for self-efficacy indicates that the respondents have confidence in their

ability to succeed and that they believe that they are capable of overcoming barriers

and influencing events. The locus of control mean score was 3.90, similarly

173

indicating the respondents’ belief in their ability to influence events. Need for

achievement also scored high at 3.96, implying that successful South African

women are ambitious, likely to accept challenging goals and would work hard to

achieve them and that they aspire to high standards.

Mean scores for the personality characteristics associated with high achieving

women were slightly higher (4.05; 3.98) for the successful group, with the greatest

difference (0.10) for internal locus of control. Of the personality sub-factors, a

belief in one’s ability to influence events (internal locus of control), therefore,

appears to have the strongest relationship with success.

6.5.2 Relationship between cultural factors and success

The factor total mean score for perceptions of cultural characteristics was below 3

at 2.73. The low total score was particularly attributed to two sub-factors namely

power distance (2.10), measuring the degree of acceptance of power inequality

between superiors and their subordinates in the workplace, and masculinity (1.78).

A low power distance score indicates that successful South African women,

therefore, appear to support power equality, which according to the literature could

probably be attributed to the more transformational leadership style they may

favour.

The very low masculinity score points to femininity and indicates the respondents’

belief that they should be afforded equal employment opportunities, also at the

higher end of the hierarchy. The scale measured the degree to which respondents

accept assertiveness, competitiveness and tangible rewards as traditional male

values as opposed to nurturing, care for others and concern for the environment as

traditional female values. It can be reasoned that respondents predominantly value

assertiveness and competitiveness in women and that they do not construe the

appointment of men to more challenging assignments and to higher end positions

on the one hand and women to soft skill activities at the lower end of the hierarchy,

to be appropriate.

Individualism/collectivism, measuring participants concern about their own career

and progress as opposed to value attached to the achievement of organisational

goals, measured moderately high at 3.12. This indicates a tendency towards

174

collectivism, therefore for respondents putting organisational goals above their

own. The moderate score also suggests that they are relatively willing to cooperate

in the work environment. They generally do not perceive an authoritarian

leadership style as positive and prefer to work in a stable environment.

The score for uncertainty avoidance, denoting the degree to which the respondents

value certainty to ambiguity and the degree of risk-taking that they consider to be

appropriate, was high at 3.92. They, therefore, appear to value certainty and do not

consider a high degree of risk-taking as appropriate.

The 0.16 (1.71; 1.85) difference for masculinity, where the not yet successful group

scored higher, indicates that the successful group has a greater orientation towards

femininity and, therefore, believes more strongly in equal employment

opportunities than the not yet successful group.

6.5.3 Relationship between external support and success

The factor total mean score for external support was high at 3.61. Scale items

measured the degree of family support received; perceived impact of professional

associations; perceptions of government initiatives and women’s movement groups

in the advancement of women; and the motivational impact of awards and role

models. Respondents generally appear to have a supportive family environment

where they have a spouse/partner who shares equally in domestic and family

responsibilities (3.44) and employ household help (3.63). Particularly high mean

scores were obtained on the items measuring encouragement of education in the

formative years (4.42) and of pursuing career goals (4.38).

Respondents generally did not believe that cultural values in South Africa

encourage employment equity. They, however, do believe that labour laws and

regulations contributed substantially to gender equity in the workplace (3.52), that

the Employment Equity Act of 1998 was instrumental in eradicating most of the

barriers to women’s advancement (3.23), and that South Africa will benefit from

gender quotas in the workplace at the upper end of the hierarchy (3.22). The

perception that earlier pressure from feminist groups contributed substantially to

the creation of a better dispensation for women was high (3.64), and even higher

175

that there is a continuing need for challenging persistent exclusionary practices

(3.74). There was also strong support for the value of professional associations for

networking (3.25) and for the provision of support initiatives to advance women

(3.66). Respondents appear to be motivated by awards presented to successful

business women (3.40) and perceive these awards as creating role models to whom

they can look up to (3.56).

In terms of the encouragement of an education and pursuit of a career, the not yet

successful group scored higher. They may be a younger generation, born and raised

in an era where both genders are equally encouraged to pursue a career. It is

interesting that this group also has a higher perception that earlier pressure from

feminist groups have contributed substantially to creating a better dispensation for

women and that there is a continued need for such groups. The successful group

appears to receive a greater degree of spouse support, but with a high standard

deviation of 1.52 and 1.49 respectively for the two groups.

6.5.4 Relationship between internal support and success

The scale items measuring internal organisational support measured the degree to

which women perceive their organisations as conducive to the achievement of

professional success. The low factor total mean score of 2.95 should alert

organisations to the fact that more needs to be done to provide an inclusive

environment which contributes to women’s advancement. The lowest sub-factor

score was for mentoring and coaching (2.43). All five survey items measuring this

sub-factor had a score well below three. Given the importance of mentoring and

coaching in the achievement of professional success, illustrated in contemporary

literature and discussed in paragraph 3.5.4, organisations should take cognisance of

this finding in the structuring of development programmes.

Another need identifiable from the findings is for flexible work solutions, including

options for longer leave programmes and the facilitation of return to the workplace

following career breaks. Items measuring the availability of such options and

programmes all scored well below three.

176

The only scale items measuring relatively high (>3) pertained to workplace policies

on, for example, maternity leave and employment and promotional opportunities;

training initiatives including leadership development programmes; and leadership

style of senior management which is perceived as supportive of diversity. Findings,

however, point to a probability of a gender salary gap, with a mean score of 2.82

for organisational monitoring of salary differences between male and female

employees holding similar positions. Another apparent need (2.75) is for

accelerated programmes for women demonstrating exceptional potential and the

proactive inclusion of women in networking opportunities for social support (2.89).

Inclusion in networking opportunities for professional support, however, scored

higher, but only moderately high (3.03).

Mean score differences between success groups indicated that the not yet

successful group appear to require more internal support, in particular with regards

to organisational support (3.06; 2.96) and a more inclusive and transformational

management and leadership style (3.47; 3.34).

6.5.5 Relationship between barriers and success

Items measuring career barriers were reverse scored so that a high score indicated a

low perceived barrier. The argument was that professionally successful women

would have succeeded in transcending these barriers. The mean score measured

was high at 3.33, but this factor also has a high standard deviation of 0.86,

indicating that many of the respondents continue to experience barriers to career

progression. The scale measured stereotyping, lack of role models and mentors,

family responsibility, inaccessible networks and inhospitable organisational culture

as potential barriers to professional success.

The lowest mean score of the five sub-factors was family responsibility (2.99)

indicating that this appears to be the biggest persistent barrier to women in pursuit

of a successful career. The mean score for number of children was low at 1.31,

pointing to a probability that domestic responsibilities, in addition to child care, is

still primarily viewed as the responsibility of women. This can also be inferred

from the age groups of children, where the highest percentage of respondents (35

percent) had no children and the second highest percentage (20 percent) had

177

children in the age group 18 and older. The only other item which scored low, in

addition to items relating to family responsibility, was lack of appropriate mentors

and coaches to whom respondents could turn to for support. Respondents appear to

experience this as a prominent barrier to advancement. This corresponds with the

low sub-factor score for mentoring and coaching on the internal organisational

support scale.

The successful group appeared to experience stereotyping to a lesser extent (3.66;

3.50), but to have a higher need for role models and mentors (2.92; 3.11). This is an

area where organisations need to intervene, as it may be assumed that women at the

higher end of the hierarchy no longer require mentoring.

6.6 ADVANCED STATISTICS OF FACTORS INFLUENCING

SUCCESS

Based on the literature reviewed, ten hypotheses were developed for this study and

were discussed in chapter 4. The previous section provided an overview of the

relationship between factors and perceived professional success of women, using

the descriptive statistics obtained.

A number of further tests were performed to test the significance of hypothesised

success group differences and hypothesised relationships between factors and

success. The results of these tests are provided in the paragraphs that follow.

6.6.1 Chi-square results to investigate group differences

Chi-square test scores were obtained for main factors and respondents divided into

three groups, using quartiles. The three groups were those below quartile 1, those

between quartiles 1-3 and those above quartile 3. Table 6.13 presents the

distribution of respondents in the two success groups for each of the main factors

measured.

178

Table 6.13: Quartile distribution of success groups for main factors

Personality and success

(p = .191) Successful

Not yet

successful Total

< Quartile 1 31 41% 44 59% 75

Q1 - Q3 76 50% 75 50% 151

> Quartile 3 42 56% 33 44% 75

Total 149 50% 152 40% 301

Culture and success


Not yet

successful Total

< Quartile 1 43 57% 32 43% 75

Q1 - Q3 74 48% 80 52% 154

> Quartile 3 32 44% 40 56% 72

Total 149 50% 152 50% 301

Barriers and success


Not yet

successful Total

< Quartile 1 32 44% 41 56% 73

Q1 - Q3 81 53% 72 47% 153

> Quartile 3 36 48% 39 52% 75

Total 149 50% 152 50% 301

Internal support and success


Not yet

successful Total

< Quartile 1 36 49% 38 51% 74

Q1 - Q3 73 48% 79 52% 152

> Quartile 3 40 53% 35 47% 75

Total 149 50% 152 50% 302

External support and success


Not yet

successful Total

< Quartile 1 44 62% 27 38% 71

Q1 - Q3 65 41% 95 59% 160

> Quartile 3 40 57% 30 43% 70

Total 149 50% 152 50% 301

As could be expected due to the homogeneity of the group, group distribution in

the quartiles provided only one significant relationship (p-value<0.05). The only

significant p-value obtained was for external support and success (p=.004). For

179

personality, the successful group ranked slightly higher with 56 percent above

quartile 3 as opposed to 44 percent of the not yet successful group. The successful

group, thus, demonstrated to an extent a higher level of personality characteristics

associated with high achieving women.

For cultural factors, 56 percent of the not yet successful group were in the top

quartile as opposed to 44 percent of the successful group. As the sub-factor

measures included the degree to which respondents accepted power distance and a

masculine culture, it appears that successful women are more likely to believe in

equality of power between superiors and their subordinates and equal employment

opportunities, also at the higher end of the hierarchy.

Score differences for barriers were minimal with only a 4 percent deviation in the

top quartile. It, therefore, appears that successful women continue to experience

career barriers. Successful women in the top quartile appear to receive slightly

more internal support (53 percent versus 47 percent) and their perception of the

influence of external support on women’s career progression is also higher at 57

percent as opposed to 43 percent.

6.6.2 Results of the t-tests to investigate factors related to success

To make inferences about how the two success groups compared with regard to the

selected factors, t-tests were performed. Table 6.14 provides the p-values obtained

from the t-tests.

Table 6.14: T-test results of factors related to success

Factor t-Test results

Self-efficacy t

p (df = 299)

0.89477

.372

Locus of control t

p (df = 299)

1.71428

.088

Need for achievement t

p (df = 299)

0.91131

.363

Power distance t

p (df = 299)

0.72887

.467

180


Individualism/collectivism t

p (df = 299)

-0.33856

.735

Uncertainty avoidance t

p (df = 299)

-2.40893

.017

Masculinity/femininity t

p (df = 299)

-2.07469

.039

Stereotyping t

p (df = 299)

1.63373

.103

Lack of role models and mentors t

p (df = 299)

-1.25273

.211

Family responsibility t

p (df = 299)

0.11027

.912

Inaccessible networks t

p (df = 299)

-0.25691

.797

Inhospitable organisational culture t

p (df = 299)

0.80703

.420

Organisational support t

p (df = 299)

1.38339

.168

Mentoring and coaching t

p (df = 299)

-0.02872

.977

Leadership and management style t

p (df = 299)

1.09384

.275

Family support t

p (df = 299)

-0.87225

.384

Professional associations t

p (df = 299)

0.24959

.803

Government initiatives t

p (df = 299)

-0.4454

.656

Pressure from feminist groups t

p (df = 299)

-1.56682

.118

Awards and role models t

p (df = 299)

-0.71813

.473

Spouse support t

p (df = 294)

0.82736

.409

Domestic support t

p (df = 294)

0.36004

.719

181


Personality t

p (df = 294)

1.61367

.108

Culture t

p (df = 294)

-1.77051

.078

Barriers t

p (df = 294)

0.13528

.892

Internal support t

p (df = 294)

0.89214

.373

External support t

p (df = 294)

-0.38046

.704

FT t

p (df = 294)

0.26572

.791

As illustrated by the p-values presented in Table 6.14, no significant differences

were found, with the exception of two of the cultural factors, namely uncertainty

avoidance and masculinity/femininity. The largest level of agreement was for the

sub-factors family responsibility (p=.912), inaccessible networks (p=.797),

mentoring and coaching (p=.977), professional association (p=.803),

individualism/collectivism (p=.735), and domestic support (p=.719) and for the

main factors barriers (p=.892) and external support (p=.704).

6.7 RESULTS OF TESTING HYPOTHESES ONE TO FIVE OF THE

STUDY

In order to determine whether sufficient evidence existed to make conclusions

about hypotheses one to five which related to differences between groups of

women based on their demographics and the selected variables, univariate and

multivariate tests (MANOVA) were employed. MANOVA was conducted with 17

demographic variables as independent variables with the factors, namely:

personality, culture, barriers, internal support and external support as dependent

variables. The 17 independent variables included: hierarchical level; hierarchal

level aspiring to; salary range; year of service; age; perceived extent of professional

success achieved; birth order; profession; marital status; number of children; age

groups of children: <3; age groups of children: 3-6; age groups of children: 7-12;

182

age groups of children: 13-17; age groups of children: 18+; father’s education

level; and mother’s education level. MANOVA examined associations between the

dependent variables and the independent variables. The findings are presented in

Table 6.15, with significant p-values indicated in red.

Table 6.15: Multivariate tests of significance - profile of all dependent

variables

Independent variable F DF p

Hierarchical level 1.2919 44; 452 .106

Hierarchal level aspiring to 1.8749 22; 226 .012

Salary range 1.2124 110; 1112.0 .075

Years of service 0.9177 66; 675.8 .661

Age 1.1954 44; 452 .190

Perceived extent of professional success

achieved 2.0472 44; 452 .000

Birth order 1.7876 66; 675.8 .000

Profession 1.7922 66; 675.8 .000

Marital status 3.0669 44; 452 .000

Number of children 1.2546 66; 675.8 .092

Age groups of children: <3 1.2737 22; 226 .191

Age groups of children: 3-6 1.0025 22; 226 .462



Age groups of children: 18+ 2.5356 22; 226 .000

Father’s education level 1.1379 88; 896.1 .191

Mother’s education level 1.0102 88; 896.1 .457

MANOVA results in table 6.15 show a significant multivariate effect for the

hierarchical level respondents aspire to (p=.012); perceived extent of professional

success achieved (p=.000); birth order (p=.000); profession (p=.000); marital status

(p=.000) and having children aged 7-12 (p=.015) and above 18 years old (p=.000).

183

These demographic factors, therefore, have a significant relationship with women’s

achievement of success.

A series of univariate analyses were conducted with the same demographic

variables as independent variables and factors for dependent variables. The purpose

was to determine which individual dependent variables have a statistical

relationship with each of the selected independent variables. The complete

statistical results are attached as Annexure F. Table 6.16 presents only those

dependent variables that have a statistical relationship with the selected

independent variables.

Table 6.16: Statistical univariate effects for individual dependent variables

Question

number

Independent

variable

Dependent

variable: Main

factor

Dependent variable:

Sub- factor P-value

Q1-12 Hierarchical

level Barriers


mentors .000

External support Family support

Government initiatives

.019

.040

Q1-13 Hierarchal level

aspiring to

Barriers


mentors



culture

.000

.007

.019

Internal support


Leadership and

management style

.041

.010

External support Spouse support .034

Q1-14 Salary range Barriers Inaccessible networks .004

External support Professional associations .022

Q1-15 Years of service

Internal support


Mentorship and coaching

.008

.012


Q1-16 Age External support Awards and role models .006

Q1-17 Perceived extent

of professional

success achieved

Personality Locus of control .000

Barriers

Stereotyping


mentors

.000

.000

184

Question

number

Independent

variable

Dependent

variable: Main

factor

Dependent variable:

Sub- factor P-value

Family responsibility



culture

.001

.049

.000

Internal support


Mentoring and coaching

Leadership and

management style

.003

.001

.000

External support Government initiatives .034

Q1-18 Birth order Personality Locus of control .022

Barriers Lack of role models and

mentors .036


Q1-23 Profession

Culture

Individualism/collectivism

Uncertainty avoidance

Masculinity/Femininity

.045

.006

.005

External support

Professional associations


groups

Awards and role models

.014

.048

.001

Q1-24 Marital status Personality Locus of control .042

Internal support


Leadership and

management style

.016

.015

External support Spouse support

Domestic help support

.000

.001

Q1-26 Number of

children

Culture Masculinity/Femininity .041

External support Domestic help support .032

Q1-27 Age groups of

children:

Q1-27.1 <3 Internal support Organisational support .030

Q1-27.2 3-6 External support Domestic help support .035

Q1-27.3 7-12 Culture Masculinity/Femininity .039

Q1-27.4 13-17

Internal support


Leadership and

management style

.048

.039

External support Awards and role models .049

Q1-27.5 18+ Culture Uncertainty avoidance .027

185

Question

number

Independent

variable

Dependent

variable: Main

factor

Dependent variable:

Sub- factor P-value

masculinity/Femininity .024

Barriers Family responsibility .038

Internal support Leadership and

management style .034

External support Awards and role models .017

Q1-28 Father’s

education level

Culture Uncertainty avoidance .019

External support Family support .011

Q1-30 Mother’s

education level None

None n/a

The results in Table 6.16 show the statistical relationships between the different

groups of women and the success factors

As indicated, MANOVA was utilised to determine which dependent variables had

a significant relationship with each of the selected independent variables. Step-wise

discriminant analysis was subsequently employed to identify the factors which best

differentiate between the success groups. Significant success factors were

identified through a forward stepping process using Wilks’ Lambda as multivariate

test of significance. Summary results of the forward stepping process are presented

in Table 6.17.

Table 6.17: Discriminant analysis – summary results of forward stepping

process (n=301)

Factor Wilks’ Lambda F-remove (1,288) p-value

Locus of control (F1.2) 0.925 1.558 .213

Power distance (F2.1) 0.941 6.431 .012

Uncertainty avoidance (F2.3) 0.940 6.094 .014

Masculinity/femininity (F2.4) 0.936 5.091 .025

Stereotyping (F3.1) 0.938 5.555 .019

Lack of role models and mentors (F3.2) 0.937 5.442 .020

Family responsibility (F3.3) 0.925 1.382 .241

186

Factors identified as best discriminating between the groups as indicated in Table

6.17, were locus of control (F1.2), power distance (F2.1), uncertainty avoidance

(F2.3), masculinity/femininity (F2.4), stereotyping (F3.1), lack of role models and

mentors (F3.2) and family responsibility (F3.3). F-tests were performed to test for

statistical significance and a statistically significant F-value (p-value <0.05)

indicated a difference between the groups of women with reference to the

independent variables. Statistically significant p-values were observed for power

distance (.012), uncertainty avoidance (.014), masculinity/femininity (.025),

stereotyping (.019) and lack of role models and mentors (.020).

The coefficients of the functions derived from the discriminant analysis to classify

the respondents as either successful or not yet successful are reported in Table 6.18.

Table 6.18: Coefficients of functions derived from discriminant analysis

Successful

*P=.495

Not yet successful

*P=.505

Constant -57.0854 -56.7469

Locus of control (F1.2) 12.9936 12.6586

Power distance (F2.1) 8.4115 7.6373

Uncertainty avoidance (F2.3) 7.5966 8.1238

Masculinity/femininity (F2.4) 3.6453 4.1508

Stereotyping (F3.1) 2.4051 1.9513

Lack of role models and mentors (F3.2) -1.052 -0.7868

Family responsibility (F3.3) 0.822 0.9804

*Sample proportion successful and not yet successful

Wilks’ Lambda was employed to determine the coefficients reported in Table 6.18

based on the discriminant analysis formulas for the classification of respondents.

A classification matrix for the success groups resulting from the discriminant

analysis performed is presented in Table 6.19. Observed classifications are

indicated in rows and predicted classification in columns.

187

Table 6.19: Discriminant analysis classification matrix

Percentage

correct Successful Not yet successful

Successful 62.4 93 56

Not yet successful 63.2 56 96

Total 62.8 149 152

As can be seen from the classification matrix in Table 6.19, 62.4 percent of the

successful group and 63.2 of the not yet successful group were classified correctly

through the employment of discriminant analysis as opposed to the expected 50

percent if the classification was performed randomly.

T-tests were further employed to provide Cohen’s d statistics to determine whether

sample differences were large enough to have practical significance. A number of

mean differences had small practical significance (effect size) (0.2<d< 0.5) and

only one case of moderate difference (0.5 <d<0.8) was indicated, namely: for

salary range <R15 000; R36 000 – R45 000 in relation to inaccessible networks

(0.59).

The criteria applied to distinguish between the levels are presented in Table 6.20.

Table 6.20 Levels for determining Cohen’s d statistics for practical

significant mean differences

Questions Levels

1-12 Top; Middle; Lower

1-13 Higher; Same

1-14

<R15 000; R15 000 - R20 999; R21 000 - R28 999; R29 000 - R35

999;

R36 000 - R45 000; >R45 000

1-15 1-4; 5-9; 10-14; 15+

1-16 <40; 40-49; 50+

1-17 Great extent; Reasonable extent; Slight/none

1-18 Only child; Oldest; Middle; Youngest

188

Questions Levels

1-23

Education sector: Academic; Education sector: Non-academic;

Business sector; Professional sector

1-24

Single

Married/Permanent relationship

Divorced

Widowed

1-26 None; One; Two; 3+

1-27.1 No; <3

1-27.2 No; 3-6

1-27.3 No; 7-12

1-27.4 No; 13-17

1-27.5 No; 18+

1-28 <Matric; Matric; Diploma; Degree; Post-graduate

1-30 <Matric; Matric; Diploma; Degree; Post-graduate

From Table 6.20, practical significant mean differences for samples’ hierarchical

level (Q1-12) were found for top; middle and top; lower in relation to lack of role

models (F3.2). There were no practically significant mean differences for

hierarchical level to which respondents aspire (Q1-13).

For salary levels (Q1-14) a number of practical significant differences were

indicated. The largest number of significant differences related to inaccessible

networks, uncertainty avoidance, organisational support, need for achievement,

inhospitable organisational culture, awards and role models, and domestic help

support. As could be expected, the largest number of significant mean difference

factor scores was for the salary ranges where levels differentiated between <R15

000/R15 000 and salaries higher than R29 000. It was interesting to note that for

the salary ranges <R15 000; and >R45 000 there were only six significant mean

factor difference scores.

For number of years in employment sector the largest difference was for 1 - 4

years; and 15+, but in relation to two factors only, namely: organisational support,

189

and mentoring and coaching. The only age group difference was for <40; and 50+,

in relation to awards and role models. For the extent to which respondents felt they

have achieved professional success, the highest difference was for great extent;

slight/none in relation to locus of control, stereotyping, lack of role models, family

responsibility, inhospitable organisational culture, organisational support,

mentoring and coaching, and leadership and management style.

Birth order does not appear to have a great effect, with three significant differences

indicated for only child: middle in relation to locus of control, power distance and

inaccessible networks and two for only child: youngest in relation to locus of

control and inaccessible networks. Profession also did not appear to have a large

effect. The highest difference was for business sector; professional sector in

relation to masculinity; professional associations and awards, and role models. For

number of children the largest effect was for one: three+, in relation to uncertainty

avoidance, stereotyping, inhospitable organisational culture, organisational support,

leadership and management style, and family support. Age groups of children had

no practically significant mean differences.

For father’s qualification the only effects indicated were for the levels where

fathers had less than matric as opposed to a post-matric qualification of a diploma,

a degree or a post-graduate degree. For mother’s highest qualification, the highest

number of practically significant mean difference scores were for matric; post-

graduate in relation to locus of control, need for achievement, power distance,

stereotyping, inaccessible networks, pressure from feminist groups and awards, and

role models.

In the paragraphs that follow, each hypothesis is presented, followed by a

discussion of empirical evidence determining whether or not it is supported by the

data.

6.7.1 Results of testing hypothesis 1


based on their demographics and personality variables

190

MANOVA (see Table 6.15) showed significant multivariate effect for the




Univariate tests (see Table 6.16) indicated significant p-values for three of the

thirteen demographic factors in relation to one of the sub-factors of personality,

namely, locus of control. Demographic variables significantly related to personality

(locus of control) were:

Perceived extent of professional success achieved (p=.000)

Birth order (p=.022); and

Marital status (p=.042)

As demonstrated above, only limited evidence of significant difference between

groups of women based on their demographics and personality variables were

indicated. Based on the findings, hypothesis 1 is therefore only partially supported

by the data.






Univariate tests (see Table 6.16) indicated significant p-values for five of the

thirteen demographic factors in relation to culture. Demographic variables

significantly related to culture were:

Profession, in relation individualism/collectivism (p=.045), uncertainty

avoidance (p=006) and masculinity/femininity (p=.005)

Number of children in relation to masculinity/femininity (p=.041);


based on their demographics and cultural variables

191

Age group of children, 7-12, in relation to masculinity/femininity (p=.039);

Age group of children 18+ in relation to uncertainty avoidance (p=.027) and

masculinity/femininity (p=.024); and

Father’s education level in relation to uncertainty avoidance (p=.019).

Based on the above findings, hypothesis 2, namely, that there is a significant

difference between groups of women based on their demographics and cultural

variables is supported by the data.






Univariate tests (see Table 6.16) indicated significant p-values for six of the

thirteen demographic factors with career barriers. Demographic variables

significantly related to barriers were:

Hierarchical level in relation to lack of role models and mentors (p=.000);

Hierarchal level aspiring to in relation to lack of role models and mentors

(p=.000), inaccessible networks (p=.007), and inhospitable organisational

culture (p=.019);

Salary range in relation to inaccessible networks (p=.004);

Perceived extent of professional success achieved in relation to stereotyping

(p=.000), lack of role models and mentors (p=.000), family responsibility

(p=.001), inaccessible networks (p=.049), and inhospitable organisational

culture (p=.000);

Birth order in relation to lack of role models and mentors (p=.036); and

Number of children 18+ in relation to family responsibility (p=.038).


based on their demographics and career barriers

192

Based on the above findings, hypothesis 3 is supported by the data.






Univariate tests (see Table 6.16) indicated significant p-values for eleven out of

thirteen demographic factors in relation to external support. Demographic variables

significantly related to external support were:

Hierarchical level in relation to family support (p=.019) and government

initiatives (p=.040); Hierarchal level aspiring to in relation to spouse

support (p=.034);

Salary range in relation to professional associations (p-.022);

Years of service in relation to spouse support (p=.019);

Age in relation to awards and role models (p=.006);

Perceived extent of professional success achieved in relation to government

initiatives (p=.034);

Birth order in relation to spouse support (p=.032);

Profession in relation to professional associations (p=.014), pressure from

feminist groups (P=.048), and awards and role models (p=.001);

Marital status in relation to spouse support (p=.000) and domestic help

support (p=.001);

Number of children in relation to domestic help support (p=.032);

Age group of children 3-6 in relation to domestic help support (p=.035);

Age group of children 13-17 in relation to awards and role models (p=.049);

Age group of children 18+ in relation to awards and role models (p=.017;

and


based on their demographics and external support

193

Father’s education level in relation to family support (p=.011).

Based on the above, hypothesis 4 is supported by the data, namely that there is a

significant difference between groups of women based on their demographics and

external support.






Univariate tests (see Table 6.16) indicated significant p-values for five of the

thirteen demographic factors in relation to internal support. Demographic variables

significantly related to external support were:

Hierarchal level aspiring to in relation to organisational support (p=.041)

and leadership and management style (p=.010);

Years of service in relation to organisational support (p=.008) and

mentorship and coaching (p=.012);

Perceived extent of professional success achieved in relation to

organisational support (p=.003), mentoring and coaching (p=.001) and

leadership and management style (p=.000);

Marital status in relation to organisational support (p=.016) and leadership

and management style (p=.015);

Age groups of children <3 in relation to organisational support (p=.030);

Age groups of children 13-17 in relation to organisational support (p=.048)

and leadership and management style (p=.039); Age groups of children 18+

in relation to leadership and management style (p=.034).


based on their demographics and internal support

194

Based on the above findings, evidence was found to support hypothesis 5, namely,

that there is a significant difference between groups of women based on their

demographics and external support. Hypothesis 5 is therefore supported by the

data.

6.8 RESULTS OF TESTING HYPOTHESES SIX TO TEN OF THE

STUDY

Results of t-tests (see Table 6.14) to investigate factors related to success were

considered in testing hypotheses six to ten. Pearson Product Moment Correlation

was employed, in addition, to determine whether sufficient evidence exists to make

conclusions about hypotheses six to ten. Because correlation is not causation and

merely indicates the absence or presence of a relationship between X and Y in that

they vary together, it cannot be concluded that any of the factors measured would

influence success. One may be a cause and another an effect or they may vary

together because of a third reason. The large sample size would also be sensitive to

small correlations. If statistically and practically significant, the factors can,

however, be regarded as possible and even probable indicators and considered for

inclusion in a model to guide the development of women leaders. The main and

sub-factor codes are provided in Table 6.21 for an understanding of Table 6.22.

Table 6.21: Factor codes used in Pearson Product Moment Correlations table

Main Factor Code Sub-Factor Code

Personality F1 Self-efficacy F1.1

Locus of control F1.2

Need for achievement F1.3

Culture F2 Power distance F2.1

Individualism/collectivism F2.2

Uncertainty avoidance F2.3

Masculinity/femininity F2.4

Barriers F3 Stereotyping F3.1

Lack of role models and mentors F3.2

Family responsibility F3.3

Inaccessible networks F3.4

Inhospitable organisational culture F3.5

195

Main Factor Code Sub-Factor Code

Internal Support F4 Organisational support F4.1

Mentoring and coaching F4.2

Leadership and management style F4.3

External support F5 Family support F5.1

Professional associations F5.2

Government initiatives F5.3

Pressure from feminist groups F5.4

Awards and role models F5.5

Spouse support F5.6

Domestic help support F5.7

Pearson Product Moment Correlations illustrating the relationships between the

variables measured that are at least statistically significant for the sub-factors and

main factors, are presented in Table 6.22.

Table 6.22: Significant Pearson Product Moment Correlations for sub-factors

and main factors

SUB-FACTOR

F1.1

Self-efficacy

F1.2

.297

F1.3

.503

F2.1

-.129

F2.3

.154

F2.4

-.191

F3.3

.150

F3.4

.163

F4.3

.136

F5.5

.138

F5.6

.127

F1

.778

F3

.144

F4

.119

F5

.128

FT

.294

F1.2

Locus of

control

F1.1

.297

F1.3

.228

F2.4

-.197

F3.1

.473

F3.2

.283

F3.3

.319

F3.4

.255

F3.5

.398

F4.1

.382

F4.2

.168

F4.3

.451

F5.2

.166

F5.3

.200

F5.6

.121

F1

.717

F3

.438

F4

.393

F5

.192

FT

.538

F1.3

Need for

achievement

F1.1

.503

F1.2

.228

F2.1

-.189

F2.4

-.267

F1

.750

F2

-.162

FT

.116

F2.1

Power distance

F1.1

-.129

F1.3

-.189

F2.2

.131

F2.3

.255

F2.4

.389

F3.1

-.148

F1

-.182

F2

.630

F2.2

Individualism/

collectivism

F2.1

.131

F.3

.132

F2.4

.128

F4.1

.217

F4.2

.144

F4.3

.165

F5.2

.150

F5.3

.164

F2

.614

F4

.203

F5

.150

FT

.276

F2.3

Uncertainty

avoidance

F1.1

.154

F2.1

.131

F2.3

.132

F2.4

.389

F3.4

.114

F5.2

.128

F5.3

.207

F5.5

.227

F1

.143

F2

.615

F5

.240

FT

.275

F2.4

Masculinity

F1.1

-.191

F1.2

-.197

F1.3

-.267

F2.1

.389

F2.2

.128

F2.3

.163

F3.3

-.150

F1

-.291

F2

.657

196

SUB-FACTOR

F3.1

Stereotyping

F1.2

.473

F2.1

-.148

F3.2

.524

F3.3

.450

F3.4

.610

F3.5

.825

F4.1

.527

F4.2

.297

F4.3

.550

F5.3

.121

F5.6

.153

F1

.288

F3

.867

F4

.538

FT

.685

F3.2

Lack of role

models and

mentors

F1.2

.283

F3.1

.524

F3.3

.244

F3.4

.441

F3.5

.511

F4.1

.383

F4.2

.359

F4.3

.403

F5.3

.204

F5.4

.202

F1

.144

F3

.726

F4

.456

F5

.201

FT

.612

F3.3

Family

responsibility

F1.1

.150

F1.2

.319

F2.4

-.150

F3.1

.450

F3.2

.244

F3.4

.432

F3.5

.348

F4.1

.269

F4.2

.198

F4.3

.304

F5.5

.156

F5.6

.143

F5.7

-.183

F1

.217

F2

-.133

F3

.621

F4

.306

FT

.392

F3.4

Inaccessible

networks

F1.1

.163

F1.2

.255

F2.3

.144

F3.1

.610

F3.2

.441

F3.3

.432

F3.5

.571

F4.1

.418

F4.2

.263

F4.3

.378

F5.6

.133

F1

.223

F3

.802

F4

.412

FT

.604

F3.5

Inhospitable

organisational

culture

F1.2

.398

F3.1

.825

F3.2

.511

F3.3

.348

F3.4

.571

F4.1

.488

F4.2

.281

F4.3

.524

F5.1

.168

F5.6

.154

F1

.229

F3

.841

F4

.508

F5

.122

FT

.658

F4.1

Organisational

support

F1.2

.382

F2.2

.217

F3.1

.527

F3.2

.383

F3.3

.269

F3.4

.418

F3.5

.488

F4.2

.545

F4.3

.681

F5.2

.292

F5.3

.303

F5.6

.253

F1

.219

F2

.179

F3

.538

F4

.845

F5

.316

FT

.755

F4.2

Mentoring and

coaching

F1.2

.168

F2.2

.144

F3.1

.297

F3.2

.359

F3.3

.198

F3.4

.263

F3.5

.281

F4.1

.545

F4.3

.450

F5.2

.338

F5.3

.160

F5.5

.124

F5.6

.255

F2

.141

F3

.366

F4

.809

F5

.319

FT

.636

F4.3

Leadership and

management

style

F1.1

.136

F1.2

.451

F2.2

.165

F3.1

.550

F3.2

.403

F3.3

.304

F3.4

.378

F3.5

.524

F4.1

.681

F4.2

.450

F5.1

.129

F5.2

.208

F5.3

.263

F5.6

.318

F1

.297

F2

.115

F3

.556

F4

.859

F5

.281

FT

.760

F5.1

Family support

F3.5

.168

F4.3

.129

F5.2

.114

F5.3

.130

F5.6

.155

F5.7

.114

F4

.119

F5

.449

FT

.242

F5.2

Professional

associations

F1.2

.166

F2.2

.150

F2.3

.128

F4.1

.292

F4.2

.338

F4.3

.208

F5.1

.114

F5.3

.390

F5.4

.325

F5.5

.410

F5.6

.185

F2

.115

F4

.330

F5

.605

FT

.391

F5.3

Government

initiatives

F1.2

.200

F2.2

.164

F2.3

.207

F3.1

.121

F3.2

.204

F4.1

.303

F4.2

.160

F4.3

.263

F5.1

.130

F5.2

.390

F5.4

.211

F5.5

.185

F1

.114

F2

.225

F3

.134

F4

.280

F5

.516

FT

.396

197

SUB-FACTOR

F5.4

Pressure from

feminist groups

F2.3

.177

F3.2

.202

F5.2

.325

F5.3

.211

F5.5

.326

F5

.463

FT

.210

F5.5

Awards and

role models

F1.1

.138

F2.3

.227

F3.3

-.156

F4.2

.124

F5.2

.410

F5.3

.185

F5.4

.326

F5.6

.161

F1

.137

F5

.573

FT

.229

F5.6

Spouse support

F1.1

.127

F1.2

.121

F3.1

.153

F3.3

.143

F3.4

.133

F3.5

.154

F4.1

.253

F4.2

.255

F4.3

.318

F5.1

.155

F5.2

.185

F5.5

.161

F5.7

.179

F1

.116

F3

.172

F4

.331

F5

.575

FT

.424

F5.7

Domestic

support

F3.3

-.183

F5.1

.114

F5.6

.179

F5

.486

FT

.195

MAIN FACTORS

F1

Personality

F1.1

.778

F1.2

.717

F1.3

.750

F2.1

-.182

F2.3

.143

F2.4

-.291

F3.1

..288

F3.2

.144

F3.3

.217

F3.4

.223

F3.5

.229

F4.1

.219

F4.3

.297

F5.3

.114

F5.5

.137

F5.6

.116

F3

.279

F4

.249

F5

.148

FT

.439

F2

Culture

F1.3

-.162

F2.1

.630

F2.2

.614

F2.3

.615

F2.4

.657

F3.3

-.133

F4.1

.179

F4.2

.141

F4.3

.115

F5.2

.115

F5.3

.225

F4

.168

F5

.180

FT

.289

F3

Barriers

F1.1

.144

F1.2

.438

F3.1

.867

F3.2

.726

F3.3

.621

F3.4

.802

F3.5

.841

F4.1

.538

F4.2

.366

F4.3

.556

F5.3

.134

F5.6

.172

F1

.279

F4

.575

F5

.118

FT

.768

F4

Internal

support

F1.1

.119

F1.2

.393

F2.2

.203

F3.1

.538

F3.2

.456

F3.3

.306

F3.4

.412

F3.5

.508

F4.1

.845

F4.2

.809

F4.3

.859

F5.1

.119

F5.2

.330

F5.3

.280

F5.6

.331

F1

.249

F2

.168

F3

.575

F5

.363

FT

.851

F5

External

support

F1.1

.128

F1.2

.192

F2.2

.150

F2.3

.240

F3.2

.201

F3.5

.122

F4.1

.316

F4.2

.319

F4.3

.281

F5.1

.449

F5.2

.605

F5.3

.516

F5.4

.463

F5.5

.573

F5.6

.575

F5.7

.486

F1

.148

F2

.180

F3

.118

F4

.363

FT

.568

FT

Factor total

F1.1

.294

F1.2

.538

F1.3

.116

F2.2

.276

F2.3

.275

F3.1

.685

F3.2

.612

F3.3

.392

F3.4

.604

F3.5

.658

F4.1

.755

F4.2

.636

F4.3

.760

F5.1

.242

F5.2

.391

F5.3

.396

F5.4

.210

F5.5

.229

F5.6

.424

F5.7

.195

F1

.439

F2

.289

F3

.768

F4

.851

F5

.568

198

The correlations are statistically significant at .05 level if r is greater than 0.113 for

n = 301, except for F5.6 where r greater than 0.114 is statistically significant for n

= 296. Practically significantly correlations (r>=.300), are indicated in red. They

are also statistically significant, as they are greater than the threshold value for n =

296.

Practical significance indicates effect size. In the current study it indicates the

potential effect of the particular independent variable on professional success. The

closer the correlation coefficient is to 1.0, the stronger the relationship between

variables presented in Table 6.16. Positive correlation coefficients indicate that

higher variable 1 values tend to correspond with higher variable 2 values, whilst a

negative correlation indicates a relationship in the opposite direction, in other

words, higher variable 1 values tend to correspond with lower variable 2 values.

The findings obtained were used to test hypothesised relationships six to ten.

6.8.1 Results of testing hypothesis six

Results of t-tests (see Table 6.14) to investigate factors related to success did not

indicate a large level of agreement for personality. Results of Pearson Product

Moment Correlations (see Table 6.22), however, point to a significant relationship

between personality variables and professional success of women. Positive

statistically significant relationships were found between self-efficacy and thirteen

variables. Negative correlations were found for power distance and masculinity.

Therefore, the higher respondents’ self-efficacy, the less likely it is that they will

accept differences in power and a masculine culture which does not view women as

equal. Two of the correlations also have practical significant, namely: need for

achievement and personality, indicating a high probability that they have a

potential effect on professional success. Personality has a high correlation value of

.778.

Statistically significant relationships were found between locus of control and

nineteen variables, of which nine also had practical significance. Practical

H6: There is a significant relationship between personality variables and

professional success of women

199

significant correlations were found for three of the barrier sub-variables namely:

stereotyping, family responsibility and inhospitable organisational culture as well

as for barriers as a main factor. It is, therefore, likely that women with a strong

locus of control would transcend career barriers. Other practical significant

correlations were for organisational support and leadership and management style

as well as with the main factors of personality, internal support and factor total.

Personality again had a high p-value of .717. One negative correlation was found,

namely, with masculinity.

Need for achievement had seven statistically significant relationships of which

three were negative and two had practical significance, namely: self-efficacy and

personality (p=.750). Negative correlations were with the main factor culture and

two of the cultural sub-factors, namely: power distance and masculinity.

Masculinity featured in all three personality sub-factors and power distance in two,

clearly indicating a probability that women with personality traits associated with

high achieving women believe in equalitarian gender relationships and equal

opportunities. Both these variables also had a negative correlation with personality

as a main factor.

As could be expected, a high practical significance was found for correlations

between personality and each of its sub-factors: self-efficacy (p=.778), locus of

control (p=.717) and need for achievement (p=.750).

Based on the above, hypothesis 6 which states that there is a significant

relationship between personality variables and professional success of women, is

supported by the data.

6.8.2 Results of testing hypothesis seven

Results of t-tests (see Table 6.14) to investigate factors related to success, did not

indicate a large level of agreement with culture, with the exception of the sub-

factor individualism/collectivism (.735). Although a number of statistical

significant correlations were found in the results of Pearson Product Moment

H7: There is a significant relationship between cultural variables and


200

Correlations (see Table 6.22), practical significant relationships between cultural

variables and professional success of women were only found for power distance

with masculinity and culture as main factor, individualism/collectivism and

uncertainty avoidance with culture, and masculinity with power distance and

culture. Culture as main factor had practical significant correlations with its sub-

factors only. It was notable that power distance and masculinity had negative

correlations with personality. Insufficient evidence was found for a significant

relationship between cultural variables and professional success of women and

hypothesis 7 is not supported by the data.

6.8.3 Results of testing hypothesis eight

Results of t-tests (see Table 6.14) to investigate factors related to success indicated

a large level of agreement for the sub-factors: family responsibility (p=.912),

inaccessible networks (p=.797) and for the main factor barriers (p=.892). Results

for Pearson r indicated a large number of practical significant correlations (see

Table 6.22) between the eradication of barriers and professional success of women.

Of the fifteen correlations which had statistical significance for stereotyping,

thirteen had practical significance. Particularly high was inhospitable organisations

culture (p=.825) and barriers as main factor (p=.867). For lack of role models and

mentors, fifteen statistically significant scores were found, nine of these with

practical significance.

For family responsibility, eighteen statistically significant scores were obtained

with eight of these having practical significance. Of the fifteen statistically

significant correlations for inaccessible networks, nine had practical significance

and of the twelve for inhospitable organisational culture, eight. Barriers as main

factor had eleven practical significant correlations of the sixteen statistically

significant correlations. These were with locus of control, stereotyping (high at

p=.867), lack of role models and mentors (high at p=.726), family responsibility,

inaccessible networks (high at p=.802), inhospitable organisational culture (high at

H8: There is a significant relationship between the eradication of existing

barriers to career success and professional success of women

201

p=.841), organisational support, mentoring and coaching and leadership and

management style, as well as with main factor internal support and factor total

(p=.768). Sufficient evidence was found of a significant relationship between the

eradication of existing barriers to career success and professional success of

women. Hypothesis eight is therefore supported by the data.

6.8.4 Results of testing hypothesis nine


a large level of agreement for the sub-factors professional association (p=.803) and

domestic support (p=.719) as well as for the main factor external support (p=.704).

However, Pearson r (see Table 6.22) indicated very few practical significant

correlations. Other than with the main factor external support, no practical

significant relationships were found with family support. Seven moderate

correlations were indicated with professional associations, four with government

initiatives three with pressure from feminist groups, five with awards and role

models, four with spouse and one with domestic support. Although eleven

correlations with practical significance were indicated for main factor external

support, most of these were with external support sub-factors. No high correlations

were indicated and sufficient evidence of significance was not found. Hypothesis 9

is therefore only partially supported by the data.

6.8.5 Results of testing hypothesis ten


a large level of agreement for the sub-factor mentoring and coaching (p=.977).

H9: There is a significant relationship between external support and


H10 There is a significant relationship between internal organisational

support and professional success of women

202

Results of Pearson r (see Table 6.22) indicated that the majority of correlations for

internal support with statistical significance also had practical significance.

Organisational support had eighteen significant correlations of which eleven had

practical significance. Significant correlations were with barriers, internal support

sub-factors and external support. Mentorship and coaching also has eighteen

statistically significant correlations with eight of these having practical

significance. Most of the leadership and management style correlations had

practical significance, namely, twelve of the twenty statistically significant

correlations. All the factor total correlations for sub-factors had high practical

significance with respectively p=.755, p=.636, p=.760 and p=.851. Correlations for

the main factor, internal support, had statistical significance for personality and

culture and practical significance for the eradication of barriers and external

support. The data therefore supported hypothesis 10, namely that there is a

significant relationship between internal organisational support and professional

success. Table 6.23 gives a summary of the hypotheses testing and statistical tests

employed to make the conclusions.

Table 6.23: Summary of hypotheses testing

Hypotheses

Supported

or not

supported

Statistical test

H1: There is a significant difference between

success groups of women based on their

demographics and personality variables.

Partially

supported

by the data

MANOVA

Univariate test of

significance



demographics and cultural variables.

Supported

by the data

MANOVA

Univariate test of

significance



demographics and career barriers.

Supported

by the data

MANOVA

Univariate test of

significance



demographics and external support.

Supported

by the data

MANOVA

Univariate test of

significance

203

Hypotheses

Supported

or not

supported

Statistical test



demographics and internal support.

Supported

by the data

MANOVA

Univariate test of

significance

H6: There is a significant relationship

between personality variables and


Supported

by the data

T-tests

Pearson Product

Moment Correlation


between cultural variables and


Not

supported

by the data

T-tests

Pearson Product

Moment Correlation


between the eradication of existing

barriers to career success and


Supported

by the data

T-tests

Pearson Product

Moment Correlation


between external support and


Partially

supported

by the data

T-tests

Pearson Product

Moment Correlation

H10 There is a significant relationship

between internal organisational support

and professional success of women.

Supported

by the data

T-tests

Pearson Product

Moment Correlation

6.9 SUMMARY

For hypotheses 1 – 5, the findings indicate that existing theory may contain gaps as

the empirical findings for some of the tests employed did not demonstrate

significant differences between the two success groups or differences in effect of

factors.

Although a number of differences relating to all five hypotheses were found, the

model developed for the investigation does not adequately succeed in

discriminating between successful and not yet successful groups.

There were slight mean score differences, chi-square tests to test for significance in

success group distribution and t-tests to make inferences about how the two groups

204

compared with regard the selected factors, but it did not provide significant

probability values, with the exception of chi-square tests for hypothesis 4 which

had a significant p-value for external support and success (p=.004).

MANOVA showed a number of significant multivariate effects and univariate tests

indicated a significant p-value for some of the demographic factors.

Cohen’s d statistics to determine whether sample differences were large enough to

have a practical effect indicated a limited number of sample differences with only

small practical significance and one with moderate practical significance.

It is, however, possible that due to the homogeneity of the groups, there are too

many similarities to significantly discriminate between them. Further research is

required to establish whether the model succeeds in discriminating between less

homogeneous groups.

Pearson Product Moment Correlation employed to test hypothesis 6-10 provided a

substantial number of both statistically and practically significant correlations.

Sufficient conclusive evidence supporting the hypotheses were, however, found for

only three of the hypotheses, namely those relating to a significant relationship

between personality and professional success; eradication of barriers and

professional success; and internal organisational support and professional success.

Conclusive evidence was not found for a significant relationship between culture

and professional success and only partial evidence for external support and

professional success. Personality, eradication of career barriers and internal support

can therefore be regarded as possible and even probable indicators of success and

included in a training and development model to increase the representation of

more women in management and leadership positions. Table 6.23 showed which

hypotheses were supported by the data and which were not supported.

A summary of the study and conclusions are presented in chapter 7, the final

chapter. Chapter 7 will in addition indicate how the objectives of the study were

met and research questions answered and finally recommendations will be made

for future research.

205

CHAPTER 7

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 7, the concluding chapter, provides a summary of the research. The most

pertinent research findings are highlighted and the research questions posed in

chapter one, paragraph 1.5, are addressed. This includes the question of whether the

personality and cultural characteristics of professionally successful South African

women resemble those of professionally successful women in the comparative

study (Punnett et al., 2006 & Duffy et al., 2006). The chapter further indicates how

the objectives of the study were met.

In order to address the final secondary objective, recommendations are made to

organisations and government for the development and advancement of women to

leadership positions in business and the professions. The recommendations are

based on contemporary literature and empirical findings in the current study.

Finally, the contribution of the study is set out, its limitations indicated, and areas

for future research suggested.

7.2 SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH

The paragraphs below serve to briefly summarise the contribution of each chapter

to the study.

7.2.1 Chapter 1

Chapter 1 served to introduce and demarcate the study, which is an extension of

research conducted by Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et al. (2006) on the

characteristics of successful professional women in the Americas. This chapter

provides the problem statement; purpose and objectives of the study; the research

questions to be answered; the methodology employed; and the scope and

206

demarcation of the study. A summary of prior research on women in management

was also given.

7.2.2 Chapter 2

Chapter 2 provided an overview of evidence in existing literature of a notable

underrepresentation of women in executive and decision making positions and of

persistent career barriers. Chapter 2 gave effect to these concerns by addressing a

number of the secondary objectives set out in chapter 1 by means of an overview of

the current representivity of women in the workplace; a statistical overview of

women in management; the identification of the major barriers women face in

achieving career success; and an overview of the economic benefits of

mainstreaming women.

7.2.3 Chapter 3

Chapter 3 provided a literature review of existing literature on personality and

cultural characteristics of women who have achieved professional success. Specific

attention was given to those personality characteristics associated with high

achieving women. Hofstede’s country classification on work-related cultural

dimensions, used in the current study as framework for investigating cultural

characteristics, was discussed. The chapter addressed the question of how some

women manage to overcome barriers and achieve success by reviewing the factors

identified in literature as instrumental to the achievements of successful

professional women. The factors discussed, in addition to personality and cultural

traits, included women’s leadership and management styles; and external and

internal support that contribute to a favourable environment for achieving

professional success

It was argued in chapter 3 that the pool of women in corporate positions could be

increased by gaining insight into factors contributing to the career success of those

women who do succeed in advancing to leadership and management positions.

This knowledge would determine the nature and extent of interventions required

for the development of more women business leaders.

207

7.2.4 Chapter 4

Chapter 4 demonstrated the steps followed in the design of a conceptual framework

for the empirical study. Six categories of independent variables relating to

professional success were identified from secondary sources from the disciplines of

behavioural psychology; organisational culture; social cognitive theory; and gender

studies. The developed conceptual framework of factors perceived to influence

professional success and which was employed to empirically test the relationships

between the variables was presented. The framework includes as independent

variables personality, culture, demographics, internal support; external support; and

the eradication of career barriers. The dependent variable is professional success.

The variables were discussed in conjunction with their hypothesised relationships.

Ten hypotheses, derived from the literature and the proposed conceptual

framework, were formulated in order to answer the research questions posed in

chapter 1.

7.2.5 Chapter 5

The research design and methodology employed to address the primary objective

of the study was provided in chapter 5. Attention was given to the sampling

technique employed and population selected for inclusion. Challenges experienced

in the selection of a representative sample were described. A detailed description

was given of factors taken into account in the development of the measuring

instrument. The data collection method was described and it was concluded that the

selected data collection method was an objective and appropriate means of

obtaining valid statistics on women in business and the professions. It was,

however, not without challenges, in particular with regard to individual

institutional ethical clearance policies.

The reliability and validity of the measuring instrument and techniques drawn on to

analyse the data, were discussed. The measuring instrument was found to be

reliable and valid based on Cronbach alpha scores obtained from tests performed

on both the pilot study and the main study. The techniques drawn on to analyse the

data were concluded to be suitable for determining the interrelatedness of variables

studies in determining factors most likely to influence professional success.

208

7.2.6 Chapter 6

In chapter 6, the empirical results of the study were provided. Using Statistica 10, a

statistical overview of the profile of respondents who participated in the survey was

presented. Three items from the biographical scale of the survey instrument were

identified for the purpose of creating discriminant categories and two success

groups. After providing a profile of the two success groups, Successful and Not Yet

Successful, the analysis of the empirical results was expounded through the

employment of a number of statistical test instruments, including t-tests, chi-square

tests, MANOVA, univariate tests of significance, stepwise discriminant analysis

using Wilks’ Lambda; and Pearson Product Moment Correlation.

The findings were used to reach conclusions about the hypotheses. Seven of the

hypotheses were supported by the data, two were partially supported and one was

not supported (see paragraph 6.8). The hypotheses testing indicated significant

differences between success groups of women based on their demographics and

personality traits (partially supported); demographics and cultural values;

demographics and career barriers; demographics and internal support; and

demographics and external support. The hypotheses testing further indicated

significant relationships between professional success of women and personality

traits; the eradication of barriers; internal support; and external support (partially

supported). The hypothesised relationship between cultural variables and

professional success of women was not supported by the data.

7.2.7 Chapter 7

Chapter 7, as indicated under 7.1, provides an overview of the study; highlights the

major research findings; addresses the research questions; indicates how the

objectives of the study were met; and gives effect to the final secondary objective,

namely: to propose recommendations for the advancement of more women to

leadership positions. It further sets out the contribution and limitations of the study

and suggests areas for future research.

209

7.3 MAJOR FINDINGS

This section provides the major findings pertaining to the demographic profile of

respondents. A brief overview of the major finding relating to the remaining five

variables included in the study is given. They are further exploited in paragraph

7.4.

7.3.1 Demographic profile of respondents

Based on existing literature and earlier research findings, it was expected that the

sample selected for the current study would be predominantly well educated and

that a large percentage would be in possession of a post-graduate qualification; that

they would be ambitious in their aspiration to higher levels of success; would have

been raised in households where the parents were relatively well educated; and that

they would be reasonably well remunerated. As respondents were already

successful to varying degrees, it was further expected that they may be somewhat

older. It was also expected that a reasonable percentage may be first born children

and that they may have delayed or chosen not to start a family. These expectations

were confirmed by descriptive statistics obtained.

In addition to confirmation of predictions, the descriptive statistics also indicated

an apparent salary gap at middle management level; that the majority of

respondents have been in their employment sector for a relatively short period of

time; and were mainly married or in a permanent relationship. An interesting

finding was that they were in fact predominantly first born children; mostly raised

in relatively small households and not only had small families, but that a large

percentage of respondents (35 percent) had no children.

7.3.2 Personality

Respondents in both success groups demonstrated high levels of the personality

traits measured and associated with high achieving women. The findings, therefore,

supported earlier research that successful professional women are likely to

demonstrate the identified traits and that these characteristics have a relationship

with professional success. An internal locus of control, in particular, was identified

210

as a determining factor for professional success. In comparing the findings with

those obtained in the comparative study (Punnett et al., 2006 & Duffy et al., 2006),

(see Table 7.1) successful professional women in South Africa to a great extent

resembled high achieving women in the Americas, but appeared to have a much

greater internal locus of control than that of their counterparts.

7.3.3 Culture

The findings did not indicate a significant relationship between cultural variables

and professional success of women. The low mean score observed for power

distance and masculinity, however, suggests that successful South African women

support power equality and value assertiveness and competitiveness in women.

They would typically not consider the appointment of men to higher-end positions

and women at the lower-end of the hierarchy to be appropriate. These findings

agreed to a great extent with the findings of Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et al.

(2006), indicating that professionally successful South African women resemble

their counterparts when cultural values are considered (see Table 7.2).

7.3.4 External support

The findings indicated that external support was important to the career

advancement of women. Enabling factors included: encouragement to pursue a

career, spouse support, domestic help support, professional associations for

networking, awards presented to successful business women, and the creation of

role models. There was a perception that South Africa would benefit from gender

quotas in the workplace at the upper end of the hierarchy and that there is a

continued need for challenging persistent exclusionary practices.

7.3.5 Internal support

The findings for internal support indicated a significant relationship between

internal organisational support and professional success of women. The findings

further pointed to a need for interventions which will create an inclusive

organisational environment. It is apparent that the provision of mentoring and

211

coaching should receive greater attention. Another need identifiable from the

findings is for flexible work solutions and for accelerated programmes for women

demonstrating exceptional potential as well as for the proactive inclusion of women

in networking opportunities for social support.

7.3.6 Barriers

Evidence was found of a significant relationship between the eradication of barriers

to career success and professional success of women. A high standard deviation

(0.86) in mean scores suggested, however, that even successful professional

women continue to experience certain barriers to career progression, in particular,

family responsibility and lack of appropriate mentors and coaches. Despite

evidence that a number of barriers have been eradicated, others are merely

transcended. The findings indicate the glass ceiling remains a contributing factor to

women’s under-representation in leadership and management positions in South

Africa.

7.4 ADDRESSING THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The findings which address the four central research questions posed in chapter 1

and which were based on the purpose and primary objective of the study are

discussed in the paragraphs that follow.

7.4.1 Research question 1

The personality traits included in the study were those associated with high

achieving women, namely: self-efficacy, internal locus of control and need for

achievement. Respondents in both success groups demonstrated high levels of

these personality traits. The mean score average measured for personality was also

high (4.01). The findings indicated that respondents had confidence in their ability

to succeed and to overcome barriers; were ambitious and likely to accept

What are the personality characteristics that enable some women, and not others,

to conquer barriers and progress to the upper echelons?

212

challenging goals; and were willing to work hard to achieve success. An internal

locus of control implying confidence in one’s ability to influence events appeared

to have the strongest relationship with success. Results of Pearson Product Moment

Correlations employed to test the hypothesised relationship between personality

variables and professional success of women also pointed to a significant

relationship. The findings, therefore, supported earlier research that successful

professional women are likely to demonstrate the identified traits and that these

characteristics have a relationship with professional success.


a) External support

Descriptive statistics for items measuring respondents’ perception of external

support provided a profile of participants within three broad domains namely: the

degree of past and present family support received; their view on the role of

existing legislation and earlier pressure from feminist groups in the attainment of

an equitable dispensation; and perceptions on the need for continued interventions,

including professional associations for networking and awards. In terms of family

support, respondents were, to a large extent, raised in families where an education

(4.42) and the pursuit of career goals (4.38) were encouraged. In their current

situation they generally appeared to have a supportive family environment and they

employed household help (3.63) to enable them to pursue their career.

With regards to perceptions on existing equity legislation and earlier pressure from

feminist groups, there was a moderately strong belief (see annexure C) that labour

laws and regulations contributed substantially to gender equity in the workplace;

that the Employment Equity Act of 1998 was instrumental in eradicating most of

the barriers to women’s advancement; and that earlier pressure from feminist

groups contributed substantially to the creation of a better dispensation for women.

What environmental factors (external and internal support) contribute to

women’s ability to achieve professional success?

213

Respondents held a moderately high perception (see annexure C) that South Africa

will benefit from gender quotas in the workplace at the upper end of the hierarchy

and that there is a continued need for challenging persistent exclusionary practices.

There was also reasonable support for the value of professional associations for

networking and for the provision of support initiatives that advance women.

Respondents appear to generally be motivated by awards presented to successful

business women and perceive these awards as creating role models to whom they

can look up to.

Results of t-tests to investigate factors related to success indicated a large level of

agreement for the sub-factors professional associations (p=.803) and domestic

support (p=.719) as well as for the main factor external support. However, Pearson

Product Moment Correlation employed to test the hypothesised relationship

between external support and success indicated very few practical significant

correlations. Despite limited evidence of practical significance for its role, results

indicate a relationship between external support and success.

b) Internal support

Internal support had a low mean score (2.95), indicating that more needs to be done

to provide an inclusive organisational environment which contributes to women’s

advancement. The lowest sub-factor score was for mentoring and coaching (2.43).

Given the importance of mentoring and coaching in the achievement of

professional success, illustrated in contemporary literature and discussed in

paragraph 3.5.4, organisations should take cognisance of this finding in the

structuring of development programmes. Another need identifiable from the

findings is for flexible work solutions, including options for longer leave

programmes and the facilitation of return to the workplace following career breaks.

Another apparent need (2.75) is for accelerated programmes for women

demonstrating exceptional potential and the proactive inclusion of women in

networking opportunities for social support (2.89).

Pearson Product Moment Correlations employed to test the hypothesised

relationship between internal support and success provided a large number of

correlations with practical significance. The findings indicate that that there is a

214

significant relationship between internal organisational support and professional

success of women and that more needs to be done to provide the required support.


Findings on personality characteristics of successful professional women in South

Africa to a great extent confirm the findings of Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et

al. (2006) on personality characteristics of high achieving women in the Americas.

Professionally successful South African women, therefore, resemble professionally

successful women in the comparative study. The comparative mean scores are

presented in Table 7.1. The apparent discrepancy for need for achievement is

expounded in the discussion.

Table 7.1 Statistical results of personality: Comparison with women in

Americas

N Self-

efficacy

Locus of

control

*Need for

achievement

South Africa

Mean

Alpha

301

4.17

0.81

3.90

0.86

3.96

0.74

Argentina

Mean

Alpha

105

4.06

0.76

2.45

0.77

12.80

0.39

Brazil

Mean

Alpha

210

4.07

0.89

2.46

0.73

12.42

0.52

Canada

Mean

Alpha

199

4.23

0.79

2.04

0.82

12.75

0.66

Chile

Mean

84

4.25

2.11

12.33

Do the personality and cultural characteristics of professionally successful South

African women resemble those of professionally successful women in the

comparative study (Punnett et al., 2006 & Duffy et al., 2006)?

215

N Self-

efficacy

Locus of

control

*Need for

achievement

Alpha 0.68 0.77 0.73

Mexico

Mean

Alpha

232

4.26

0.76

1.95

0.75

13.22

0.65

USA

Mean

Alpha

126

4.22

0.82

2.32

0.86

12.57

0.70

*A dichotomous scale was employed in the comparative study which scored from 0-16

On the self-efficacy score, South African women most closely compared with

women in the United States. On the locus of control scale, successful South African

women appear to have a much greater internal locus of control than their

counterparts. Duffy et al. (2006:566-567) attributed the lower than expected locus

of control finding in their study to a likelihood that it is a belief and values-oriented

characteristic and, therefore, performed more similarly to the cultural variables.

They suggest that it be reconceptualised and pursued in future research as a cultural

variable. This is, however, not supported in the South African study, where locus of

control correlated with findings for the other personality traits measured.

Need for achievement could not be directly compared due to the difference in

scoring employed in the studies of Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et al. (2006).

They used a dichotomous scale with agree/disagree which was scored from 0 – 16,

which was adapted to a 5 point Likert-type scale for the current study. The added

average for the Successful Women Project is, however, high at 79,2 percent, the

same as the percentage score for the South African study. The high need for

achievement scores, therefore, agrees with scores for South African women.

The investigation into the perceived cultural values of professionally successful

South African women provided a low average mean score (2.73). The low total

score was particularly influenced by two sub-factors, power distance (2.10) and

masculinity (1.78), indicating that successful South African women appear to

support power equality; value assertiveness and competitiveness in women; and do

216

not consider the appointment of men to higher end positions and women at the

lower end of the hierarchy to be appropriate.

The findings on cultural characteristics agree to a great extent with the findings of

Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et al. (2006), again indicating that professionally

successful South African women resemble their counterparts. The comparative

mean scores are presented in Table 7.2. Masculinity is not indicated as it was

excluded from the comparative study.

Table 7.2: Statistical results of culture: Comparison with women in Americas

N Individualism/

collectivism

Power

distance

Uncertainty

avoidance

South

Africa

Mean

Alpha

301

3.12

0.71

2.10

0.42

3.92

0.77

Argentina

Mean

Alpha

105

3.68

0.78

2.29

0.61

3.60

0.67

Brazil

Mean

Alpha

210

3.55

0.71

2.02

0.57

3.73

0.73

Canada

Mean

Alpha

199

3.29

0.73

1.94

0.44

3.64

0.71

Chile

Mean

Alpha

84

3.57

0.75

2.06

0.19

3.59

0.71

Mexico

Mean

Alpha

232

3.34

0.71

2.29

0.55

3.90

0.67

USA

Mean

Alpha

126

3.19

0.67

2.14

0.54

3.54

0.84

217

As is evident from Table 7.2 on the individualism/collectivism scale, South African

women are more individualistic than their counterparts, although they also slant

towards collectivism. They compare the closest with women from the United

States. Mean scores for power distance was low for all groups, with South African

women again closest to the United States. Contrary to expectations based on the

literature, uncertainty avoidance had a high mean score for all groups, with South

Africa measuring the highest. It is evident that women across cultures tend to avoid

uncertainty; South African women more so than their counterparts.


Evidence was found in the empirical investigation of a significant relationship

between the eradication of barriers to career success and professional success of

women, which may lead one to conclude that the class ceiling has been removed.

The moderately high average mean score for barriers (3.33) in the study may,

however, not be the result of the eradication of barriers, but may suggest that

respondents had to an extent succeeded in transcending career barriers, possibly as

a result of personality characteristics. The high standard deviation (0.86) suggests

that many of the respondents continue to experience barriers to career progression.

The biggest persistent barriers appeared to be family responsibility and, in

particular, child care and lack of appropriate mentors and coaches. Despite

evidence that a number of barriers have been eradicated, there was insufficient

evidence in the study that the glass ceiling has been demolished. It may be

transcended by some, but statistics on women’s underrepresentation, in

particularly, leadership and management positions point to the continued existence

of the glass ceiling.

To what extent does the glass ceiling still exist in South Africa?

218

7.5 MEETING THE OBJECTIVES

The paragraphs below summarise how the objectives of the study were met.

7.5.1 Primary objective

The primary objective of this study was to investigate factors contributing to the

success of professional and business women in South Africa. This was achieved

through a literature review of contemporary research and through an empirical

investigation which measured perceptions of personality traits; cultural values;

internal support; and external support of a sample (n=301) of professionally

successful women in South Africa. The empirical data collected was subjected to a

series of statistical tests and the results considered in testing the hypotheses.

Results of the hypotheses testing showed that the most important factors

contributing to women’s advancement were, in terms of personality traits

measured, the sub-factor internal locus of control. Self-efficacy and need for

achievement, however, also pointed to a strong relationship with success.

Important external sub-factors were family support during the formative years;

spouse/partner and domestic help support; professional associations for

networking; and the creation of role models and awards. Internal organisational

culture and support to a large degree correlated with success. This included an

inclusive internal organisation environment which values power equality and

supports the eradication of barriers to women’s career advancement. Further

important internal support factors were accelerated programmes for women

demonstrating management and leadership potential and access to mentoring and

coaching.

7.5.2 Secondary objectives

The secondary objectives of the study are provided in Table 7.3 together with a

summary of how they were met.

219

Table 7.3: Summary of meeting the secondary objectives

Secondary objectives How objective was met

To give an overview of the

current representivity of women

in the workplace

Chapter 2 provided a literature overview of women’s

representivity in the workplace

To give a statistical overview of

women in management

Chapter 2 provided a statistical overview of women in

management, demonstrated through a number of figures and

tables which indicates their underrepresentivity

To give an overview of the

economic benefits of

mainstreaming women

A literature overview of the economic benefits of

mainstreaming women was discussed and supported through a

number of figures and tables in chapter 2

To investigate the major barriers

women face in achieving career

success in order to determine the

extent to which the glass ceiling

still exists in South Africa

Chapter 2 identified major barriers women face through a

literature review. These were included in a conceptual

framework (chapter 4) and empirically tested (chapter 6)

To investigate perceptions of the

influence of external support on

the achievement of professional

success

Chapter 3 provided a literature overview of external support

which has the potential to influence women’s success. These

were included in a conceptual framework (chapter 4) and

empirically tested (chapter 6)

To investigate the extent of

internal support successful

professional women received

Chapter 3 provided a literature overview of internal support

which has the potential to influence women’s success. These

were included in a conceptual framework (chapter 4) and

empirically tested (chapter 6)

To investigate successful women

in terms of personality and

cultural characteristics

Chapter 3 provided a literature overview of personality

characteristics of high achieving women which has the

potential to influence women’s success and of the influence of

cultural values. These were included in a conceptual

framework (chapter 4) and empirically tested (chapter 6)

To propose recommendations for

the advancement of more women

to leadership positions

Recommendations to organisations and government for the

advancement of more women to leadership position are made

in chapter 7, based on existing literature and the empirical

findings in the current study. An example of a gender

management system is provided for this purpose

220

7.6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF WOMEN

TO LEADERSHIP POSITIONS

In order to address the final secondary objective, namely, to propose

recommendations for the advancement of more women to leadership positions,

recommendations for organisations are provided in the paragraphs that follow.

A number of researchers (Rowan-Campbell, 1999; Frankson, 2000; Sweetman,

2000; Kerr & Sweetman, 2003; Mukhopadhyay, Steehouwer & Wong, 2006) have

attempted to address this question and have made recommendations for policy

makers and practitioners to promote gender equality. Attempts at gender

mainstreaming have, however, had limited success. Reasons for this include failure

to question unequal power relations, existing gender role assumptions leading to

stereotyping and enculturated behavioural patterns. An escalating number of other

organisational development concerns (HIV aids, affirmative action, disability,

globalisation, climate change) have also diverted the attention from gender issues.

Women, however, are also at times responsible for seemingly lacking in qualities

expected of a leader by, for example, assuming a powerless and reliant disposition,

promoting their sexuality rather than their competencies, falling prey to playing a

nurturing role in the workplace, not being sufficiently assertive, or not making

adequate effort in finding support which could enable them to pursue their careers.

7.6.1 Gender mainstreaming

The strategy of integrating a gender equality perspective into all organisational

mainstream activities evolved from attempts of the international women’s

movement to promote gender equality. It had as goal the transformation of

practices and activities in public institutions which continued to contribute to

gender inequalities. Although gender mainstreaming is often associated with the

1995 Beijing World Conference on Women and the Beijing Platform of Action, the

concept of moving from a Woman in Development (WID) strategy to a gender and

development (GAD) strategy was already advocated at the time. Advocates for

gender equality came to realise that the systemic causes of gender inequality must

be uncovered for organisational change to be addressed (Mukhopadhyay et al.,

221

2006: 22). This calls for the facilitation of change beyond organisational

boundaries.

7.6.2 Leadership culture and social transformation

A culture of transformational leadership which has social transformation as a goal

is instrumental to gender equality. Many organisations are founded on patriarchal

world-views which reinforce social relations rather than challenge them. If the

dominant ideology in organisations remain male biased, transformation is unlikely

to take place. Male dominated hierarchical power often purposefully excludes

women’s participation or devalues their contributions, creating a disabling

environment for women’s advancement. These intangible informal institutional

values, norms, structures, and processes are difficult to recognise and often

constitute a greater barrier than formal rules. For women to benefit, leadership

needs to become actively involved in the social transformation of patriarchic norms

and values and must include women’s perspectives on and participation in the

transformation process. Women in leadership positions likewise need to challenge

the rules, not play by them, which is often what leadership courses for women

teach them.

7.6.3 Organisational change approach

It is evident from existing and current research that a core requirement for change

is a culture of gender equitable organisational change. Mukhopadhyay et al., (2006:

121 & 69) point to the contradiction in attempts to change gender relations from

within an organisation which itself reflects and sustains patriarchy and male

privilege. They quote Audre Lourde (1984) who wrote that the master’s tools will

never dismantle the master’s house (Mukhopadhyay et al., (2006:69).

It is further clear that training has a critical role to play in cultivating organisational

change, but not as a stand-alone initiative. An over-emphasis on training may lead

to a false sense of complacency and jeopardise further action for change. Simply

increasing women’s representivity runs the same risk, although it has the potential

to serve as catalyst for further initiatives. An increase in women’s representivity

also creates more role models to which other women can aspire.

222

Based on exiting literature and the current research, recommendations for an

organisational change approach are summarised in Table 7.4. Some of the strategic

priorities and action plans overlap and the guidelines are not intended to be

conclusive. An example of a Gender Management System (GMS) is illustrated in

Figure 7.1 and the strategic priorities and action plans summarised in Table 7.4 can

be used to populate an organisation specific GMS.

Table 7.4: Proposed recommendations for organisational change

Strategic

priority Action plan

Equal gender

representation at

decision-making

level

Gender analysis of representation at all levels of the hierarchy

Determine desired benchmark

Develop recruitment procedures aimed at redressing women’s

representivity, in particular at senior level

Build in-house expertise

Introduce a credible monitoring mechanism and be accountable for

progress with gender equity quotas

Gender friendly

policies and

practices

Implement gender policies conducive to the achievement of work-family

balance

Modify technical barriers such as structures and procedures

Create a gender sensitive environment, job descriptions and service rules

Challenge gender-biased institutional rules

Develop gender-sensitive management systems

Appoint change agents working inside the mainstream to transform the

bureaucracy from within

Amend organisational rules to provide for entry and retention of women

Include gender issues in performance appraisal

Women’s

leadership

development

Develop trainable characteristics associated with successful women (e.g.

self-efficacy and need for achievement

Accelerated programmes for women with potential

Allocate mentors, coaches and sponsors to women with potential

External

collaboration

Collaborate with other organisations and change agencies to promote a

gender-equality agenda

Form alliances and coalitions between e.g. government, women’s groups,

researchers

Institutional

reform

Transform patriarchal privilege and gender-based power hierarchies by

redistributing power and privilege

Create awareness and understanding of concepts such as gender

Incorporate a gender perspective in staff training programmes

Training for supervisors to enable them to identify and eradicate barriers

Training aimed at counteracting enculturated attitudes

Train senior staff to become mentors, coaches and sponsors and appoint

them to women demonstrating leadership potential

Promote compliance with gender-sensitive behaviour

223

Strategic

priority Action plan

Development of programmes which challenge gendered norms and values

Gender-sensitive training to transform individuals to effect broader

social change

Develop a collective gender transformation goal and take joint

responsibility for gender equality

Uncover the core of gender inequality in the workplace.

Take steps to prevent new forms of inequality to replace eradicated forms

Measure and act on incidents of gender stereotyping

Ensure that current gender issues are placed on the agenda and addressed

Ensure equitable resource allocation

Eradicate gender-related salary gaps

The recommendations for an organisational change approach in Table 7.4 will not

have the desired results if not actively managed and monitored. Time-frames for

the achievement of gender equity targets must be set, with an ombudsman

monitoring progress; investigating complaints; and ensuring that the organisational

culture is genderless, with both men and women enjoying equal benefits. As the

purpose of the current study is only to make recommendations and not to develop a

detailed model, the latter is not further expounded.

7.6.4 Gender Management system (GMS)

The commonwealth developed a gender management system to, amongst other

goals, advance gender-awareness and equality and increase the number of women

in decision-making positions. It was aimed at increasing government gender

awareness, but can be adapted to any organisation (Frankson, 2000). The GMS is

provided as an example for organisations in the structuring of a management

system which will address their particular needs, and more building blocks can be

added or existing blocks amended. The important feature is that it is integrated into

a single interacting system and that it is the combined effect of strategies (see table

7.3) which has the potential to accelerate women’s professional advancement. The

GMS is presented in Figure 7.1.

224

Figure 7.1: The Gender Management System (GMS)

Source: Adapted from Frankson, 2000:27

As can be seen in Figure 7.1, a GMS requires commitment at management level

and an enabling environment, determined by a number of interrelated factors.

Adequate financial resources for training and development initiatives are required,

not only for women, but for gender sensitisation of all. Organisational policies and

procedure must be conducive to advancing gender equality.

Structures and mechanism could be a unit in the human resources department or in

a centre for transformation and equity. The purpose is to monitor, coordinate

initiatives and report to management. It is critical that a gender analysis be done not

only of representivity, but also of exposure to developmental opportunities and

equal treatment. Key indicators pertaining to women’s status must be monitored

and evaluated and findings fed into the next planning cycle. It is, thus, an ongoing

process.

GMS Process

Setting up GMS structures and

mechanisms

Developing and implementing a

Gender Action Plan

Mainstreaming gender in the

organisational strategic plan

Monitoring and evaluation

Enabling Environment

Political will and commitment

Policies and procedures which

enhance gender equality

Adequate financial resources

Women in decision-making

positions at all levels

GMS Mechanisms

Gender analysis

Gender training: sensitising

both men and women

GMS Structures

Gender management unit with

ombudsman for monitoring

progress

225

7.7 CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY

The study was motivated by census statistics (BWA South African women in

leadership 2010 census; BWA South African women in leadership 2011 census)

revealing that South African women remain notably underrepresented in executive

and decision making positions, despite the enactment of Equal Opportunity and

Affirmative Action policies. The study has the potential to contribute to the

achievement of equal gender representivity in the workplace by expanding the

body of knowledge on women in business and management. A literature review

yielded evidence of a multitude of barriers inhibiting women’s progress beyond an

apparent glass ceiling, but not which of the factors culminating in a glass ceiling

constitute the major barriers to women’s career advancement. In addition, only

limited empirical evidence could be found (Punnett et al., 2006; Duffy et al., 2006)

which identified the characteristics of women who have progressed to positions

where they influence decision making. The current study expanded the empirical

body of research and knowledge on factors contributing to the success of

professional women and of factors inhibiting the career progression of women in

general by extending the study of Punnett et al. (2006) and Duffy et al. (2006)

conducted in the Americas to the South African context.

The current study identified a number of internal organisational support factors and

government interventions which are recommended for inclusion in development

initiatives for the achievement of gender equity. If these recommendations are put

into effect, it has the potential to facilitate and promote the development of women

as future business and professional leaders. The importance in particular of women

in leadership in higher education was noted as these women serve as role models

for a young generation of future leaders who are likely to evolve through this

environment.

The recommendations for the development of women and for the social

transformation of organisations have the potential to not only benefit women, but

also organisations. The study underscores the advantages of a workforce where

alternative experiences and perspectives diversify customary and often archaic

thought patterns. Evidence was provided of the potential financial benefits to

226

organisations that strengthen their competitive advantage by diversifying their

workforce and pool of leaders.

A final contribution of the study was the development of a conceptual framework

(see figure 4.2) for testing factors contributing to the success of professional

women. This framework, employed in the current study, can be used in its existing

or adapted format by other researchers for enquiry into factors contributing to the


7.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR

FUTURE RESEARCH

Limitations identified in the current study are presented in the section that follows,

together with recommendations for future research.

7.8.1 Limitations of the study

Limitations identified relate to the measuring instrument, the sample, sampling

method and data collection methodology.

The first limitation pertains to the measuring instrument. A potential limitation of

any survey instrument is always a possible element of social desirability in

responses. In the current study this may pertain, in particular, to the items which

measured personality traits. The possibility exists that some participants may have

responded in terms of how they would like to be perceived rather than reporting on

actual traits.

The second identified limitation is that no comparison group was included in the

sample. It was, therefore, not possible to compare respondents to discriminant

groups like males or unsuccessful women in order to determine whether successful

women in South Africa differed significantly from any other population parameter

in South Africa. Participants were further predominantly white women with the

result that the sample was not sufficiently diverse to portray the South African

female population.

227

Due to convenience sampling employed, there was a risk of making generalisations

in the identification of successful women. The data collection methodology

employed imposed the potential risk of response bias. Respondents may to an

extent be primarily women demonstrating high levels of personality characteristics

associated with high achieving women. Further, although guidelines were provided

to institutions that disseminated the survey, there was limited control from the side

of the researcher in terms of distribution method.

Finally, due to time and financial constraints, evidence was collected through self-

reporting only and not through probing my means of personal interviews.

Interviews with individuals and with focus groups would have provided answers to

question like whether respondents, in order to pursue a career, postponed having or

chose to not have children; how family responsibility has impacted on their career

advancement, and if/how perceptions of success in the education sector differ in the

various employment sectors.

7.8.2 Recommendations for future research

There are a vast number of opportunities for expanding the current research. Topics

identified in the current study which require further research, include the following:

Extending of the current research on successful professional women to a

comparison group. The sample population can be women at the lower levels

of the hierarchy to determine whether they differ significantly on the

selected variables from women employed at the upper end of the hierarchy.

Extending of the current research on successful professional women to a

more ethnically diverse sample to determine whether there are significant

differences on the selected variables between ethnic groups who constitute

the female population of South Africa.

Extending the current research on successful professional women to a

sample of women in entrepreneurship to investigate, for example, whether

the barriers they encounter differ from those experienced by women in the

formal sector; whether organisational culture in the formal sector influenced

their decision to become entrepreneurs; and the typical personality traits of

women who exercise this choice.

228

Analysis of South African data to investigate the economic benefit of

mainstreaming women. Using standardised profitability indicators, the

research can determine whether companies with women appointed to

executive positions perform better financially. Financial performance

should include for example investors’ confidence as reflected in the

company share prices. This research can, in addition, determine whether the

skills, knowledge, experience and social connections of diverse boards

increase an understanding of the marketplace and thereby enrich decision-

making.

The relationship between external support and success should be further

researched, as the current study indicated limited practical significant

correlations. This could be the results of selected survey items used to

measure the construct.

The relationship of sponsorship to success in addition to mentoring and

coaching. This research should include a sample of both men and women to

investigate not only the potential benefits sponsoring has for career

advancement, but also whether men are more likely than women to receive

sponsorship.

The impact of the Employment Equity Act on the advancement of women

to determine whether the achievement of racial equity targets prescribed by

South Africa’s affirmative action policy is prioritised. The current research

did not investigate the prospect that organisations in South Africa may give

preference to the appointment of candidates from the designated group who

meet both affirmative action and employment equity targets.

The impact on communities should gender equity in the workplace become

a reality.

The competency of women in historically male dominated employment

sectors like engineering and employment sectors requiring physical power.

Research at a national level into the appropriateness of Hofstede’s cultural

indices four decades later.

229

7.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The achievement of gender equality in the workplace will benefit not only women,

but organisations, governments and countries. Activities and jobs in which men are

predominantly involved are not necessarily superior to those for which women

have an aptitude. The intellectual revolution for equity and equality is not aimed at

sameness, but at overturning the socially constructed ideology rooted in a

patriarchal system that women are inferior to men. The solution is likely to be

found in an understanding that women and men can complement each other in the

workplace, but with the proviso that the contribution of both genders are assessed

and appreciated on an equal basis, also financially.

It is hoped that this research will encourage more researchers to fill existing

knowledge gaps in the area of women in leadership and management; stimulate the

creation of inclusive organisational environments which contribute to women’s

advancement; persuade women to play an active role in the achievement of equity;

and alert organisations and governments to their social responsibility for

transforming mindsets and diversifying their boardrooms.

230

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261

ANNEXURE A (1)

SURVEY COVERING LETTER

Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University

Private Bag X6531

George

6530

16 May 2011

Successful professional women in South Africa project

As a professional woman you understand that career success is important to

women, but that there are often obstacles hampering their success. An increasing

number of women are however becoming business and professional leaders. This

PhD project is launched to gain insight into factors contributing to their success and

to identify the extent to which career barriers and support impact on career success.

It is envisaged that the identification of these factors has the potential to promote

the development of women as future business and professional leaders.

By completing the questionnaire you give your consent to participate in the project.

All survey material will be treated in the strictest confidence and your anonymity is

ensured. It will take about 20 minutes to complete the survey.

You are invited as a professional woman to participate by following the link

provided:

http://www.nmmu.ac.za/websurvey/q.asp?sid=304&k=aibolrxcus

Thank you for your time and valued inputs

Marianne Doubell

For any enquiries or additional information relevant to the study, I can be contacted

via e-mail at the address below:

[email protected]

You can also contact my Promoter for this study:

Prof Miemie Struwig

Director: School of Management Sciences

Tel . +27 (0)41- 5042574

[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.nmmu.ac.za/

262

The study is an extension of a collaborative global research project. The USA

project conducted by Jo Ann Duffy and Suzy Fox has been reviewed by

respectively Sam Houston State University’s committee for the Protection of

Human Subjects (936) 294-3621 and Loyola University Chicago’s Institutional

Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects (773) 508-2479.

The South African project has been reviewed by the Faculty Research, Technology

and Innovation (FRTI) committee of the Faculty Business and Economic Sciences

and the Research Ethics Committee (Human) of the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan

University (NMMU) H 2011 BUS BMa 10.

263

ANNEXURE A (2)

SURVEY INSTRUMENT

Successful Women Project

By completing the questionnaire you stand a chance to win a R500 book voucher. Simply click on the link at the end of the survey which will enable you to enter. Should you wish to receive feedback on the survey, kindly type `mail findings` in your lucky draw e-mail. A summary of results will be mailed to you when the data analysis is concluded.

1. Biographical data

Please provide the following information to assist in the analysis

1.1 * Nationality

South African Other

1.2 If other, please specify

1.3 * Country in which you were predominantly raised

South Africa Other


1.5 * Title

Ms/Mrs Dr Prof Adv Other


1.7 * Highest qualification level you have achieved

School leaving certificate Diploma Degree Post-

graduate Other


1.9 * Highest qualification description (eg. NDip Marketing; BCom Accounting; MBA; PhD Business Management)

1.10 * Job title

1.11 * Job title of person you report to

1.12 * Your hierarchical level on the organisational structure in the organisation you are currently employed in

Executive Manager/Professor Middle Management/Senior Lecturer

Professional Support/Lecturer General Support/Associate Lecturer

1.13 * The hierarchical level you aspire to if different to your current position

1.14 * Your salary range per month (excluding deductions)

< R9 000 R9 000 - R14 999 R15 000 - R20 999 R21 000 -

http://www.nmmu.ac.za/websurvey/default.asp




264

R28 999 R29 000 - R35 999 R36 000 - R45 000 >R45 000

1.15 * Approximate number of years in current employment sector

1-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20+

1.16 * Age

<30 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 44 45 - 49 50 -

54 55 - 59 60+

1.17 * The extent to which you feel you have achieved professional career success

To a great extent To a reasonable extent To a slight extent

Not yet at all

1.18 * Your birth order

Only child Oldest Youngest Middle

1.19 * Number of sisters (in numeric format eg 2)

1.20 * Number of brothers (in numeric format eg 2)

1.21 * Ethnicity

Asian Black Coloured White Other Prefer not

to answer


1.23 * Your profession

Education sector: Academic Education sector: Non-academic

Business sector Professional sector

1.24 * Marital status

Single Married Divorced Widowed Other


1.26 * Number of children (in numeric format eg 3)

1.27 Age groups of children

Younger than 3 3 to 6 7 to 12 13 to 17 Older than

18

1.28 * Father's highest qualification


graduate Other


1.30 * Mother's highest qualification


graduate Other


265

2. Perceptions of personality & cultural environment

Please click on the button that best illustrates the extent to which you agree with the following statements regarding personal and cultural influences on your career success. (1) stands for “strongly disagree”, (2) “disagree”, (3) “neutral”, (4) “agree” and (5) “strongly agree”. Note that there are no correct or incorrect answers.

2.1 * When I make plans, I am certain I can make them work strongly disagree

1 2 3 4 5 strongly agree

2.2 * One of my problems is that I cannot get down to work when I should

strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5

strongly agree

2.3 * When I can't do a job the first time, I keep trying until I can strongly disagree


2.4 * When I set important goals for myself, I rarely achieve them strongly disagree


2.5 * I give up on things before completing them strongly disagree


2.6 * I avoid facing difficulties strongly disagree


2.7 * If something looks too complicated, I will not even bother to try it


strongly agree

2.8 * When I have something unpleasant to do, I stick to it until I finish it


strongly agree

2.9 * When I decide to do something, I get right to work on it strongly disagree


2.10 * When trying to learn something new, I soon give up if I am not initially successful


strongly agree

2.11 * When unexpected problems occur, I don't handle them well strongly disagree


2.12 * I avoid trying to learn new things when they look too difficult for me


strongly agree

2.13 * Failure just makes me try harder strongly disagree


2.14 * I feel insecure about my ability to do things strongly disagree


2.15 * I am a self-reliant person strongly disagree


2.16 * I give up easily strongly disagree


266

2.17 * I do not seem capable of dealing with most problems that come up in my life


strongly agree

2.18 * A job is what you make of it strongly disagree


2.19 * On most jobs, people can accomplish what they set out to accomplish


strongly agree

2.20 * If you know what you want out of a job, you can find a job that gives it to you


strongly agree

2.21 * If employees are unhappy with a decision made by their boss, they should do something about it


strongly agree

2.22 * Getting the job you want is mostly a matter of luck strongly disagree


2.23 * Making money is primarily a matter of good fortune strongly disagree


2.24 * Most people are capable of doing their jobs well if they make the effort


strongly agree

2.25 * In order to get a really good job you need to have family members or friends in high places


strongly agree

2.26 * Promotions are usually a matter of good fortune strongly disagree


2.27 * When it comes to landing a really good job, who you know is more important than what you know


strongly agree

2.28 * Promotions are given to employees who perform well on the job


strongly agree

2.29 * To make a lot of money you have to know the right people strongly disagree


2.30 * It takes a lot of luck to be an outstanding employee on most jobs


strongly agree

2.31 * People who perform their jobs well generally get rewarded for it


strongly agree

2.32 * Most employees have more influence on their supervisors than they think they do


strongly agree

2.33 * The main difference between people who make a lot of money and people who make little money is luck


strongly agree

2.34 * People should be more involved in their work strongly disagree


2.35 * I enjoy difficult work strongly disagree


267

2.36 * I have rarely done extra studying in connection with my work


strongly agree

2.37 * I try to work just hard enough to get by strongly disagree


2.38 * I will not be satisfied until I am the best in my field of work strongly disagree


2.39 * I do not let my work get in the way of what I really want to do strongly disagree


2.40 * In my work I seldom do more than is necessary strongly disagree


2.41 * My goal is to do at least a little bit more than anyone else has done


strongly agree

2.42 * I often set goals that are difficult to reach strongly disagree


2.43 * People seldom think of me as a hard worker strongly disagree


2.44 * It doesn't really matter to me whether or not I become one of the best in my field


strongly agree

2.45 * I seldom set standards which are difficult to reach strongly disagree


2.46 * As a child I worked a long time for some of the things I earned strongly disagree


2.47 * I don't mind working while other people are having fun strongly disagree


2.48 * I am not really very certain what I want to do or how to go about doing it


strongly agree

2.49 * I would work just as hard whether or not I had to earn a living


strongly agree

2.50 * Managers should not delegate important tasks to employees strongly disagree


2.51 * Group success is more important than individual success


strongly agree

2.52 * Employees should only pursue their goals after considering the welfare of the group


strongly agree

2.53 * It is more important for men to have a professional career than it is for women


strongly agree

2.54 * Meetings are usually run more effectively when they are chaired by a man


strongly agree

2.55 * It is important to have job requirements and instructions spelled out in detail so that employees always know what they are expected to do


strongly agree

268

2.56 * Standard operating procedures are helpful to employees on the job


strongly agree

2.57 * Being accepted by the members of your group is very important strongly disagree


2.58 * It is frequently necessary for a manager to use authority when dealing with subordinates


strongly agree

2.59 * It is preferable to have a man in a high level position rather than a woman


strongly agree

2.60 * Men usually solve problems with logical analysis; women usually solve problems with intuition


strongly agree

2.61 * Managers should avoid off the job social contacts with employees


strongly agree

2.62 * Managers should encourage group loyalty even if individual goals suffer


strongly agree

2.63 * Solving organisational problems usually requires an active, forcible approach, which is typical of men


strongly agree

2.64 * Employees should not disagree with management decisions strongly disagree


2.65 * It is important to closely follow managers' instructions and procedures in the workplace


strongly agree

2.66 * Group welfare is more important that individual rewards


strongly agree

2.67 * There are some jobs that a man can always do better than a women


strongly agree

2.68 * Rules and regulations are important because they inform employees what the organisation expects of them


strongly agree

2.69 * Instructions for operations are important for employees on the job


strongly agree

2.70 * Managers should make most decisions without consulting subordinates


strongly agree

2.71 * Managers should seldom ask for the opinions of employees strongly disagree


269

3. Perceptions of internal & external environment

Please click on the button that best illustrates the extent to which you agree with the following statements regarding your internal organisational and external environment. (1) stands for “strongly disagree”, (2) “disagree”, (3) “neutral”, (4) “agree” and (5) “strongly agree”. Note that there are no correct or incorrect answers.

3.1 * Career breaks due to family responsibility negatively impacted on my advancement


strongly agree

3.2 * I have to sacrifice family/personal life to prove my commitment to the organisation


strongly agree

3.3 * My views and contributions often appear to be less valued than those of my male counterparts


strongly agree

3.4 * I feel that my leadership attributes are perceived as ranking lower in importance than the attributes of male leaders


strongly agree

3.5 * There is a lack of role models in managerial positions with whom I can associate


strongly agree

3.6 * There is a lack of appropriate mentors and coaches to whom I can turn to for support


strongly agree

3.7 * I feel excluded from male dominated networks because of limited common interest with men on a social level


strongly agree

3.8 * Family responsibility leave me with limited time for networking strongly disagree


3.9 * Men generally dominate meetings strongly disagree


3.10 * Men generally dominate teamwork activities strongly disagree


3.11 * I often feel that I am perceived as lacking in ability to deal with the challenges of senior management despite being suitably qualified


strongly agree

270

3.12 * There is a lack of training opportunities to enhance my career development


strongly agree

3.13 * The male dominated work environment is not receptive to my equal participation


strongly agree

3.14 * I am appointed to a non-influential position with limited scope for promotion


strongly agree

3.15 * I am not given sufficient opportunities for critical work experience compared to my male counterparts


strongly agree

3.16 * I am not given adequate responsibility compared to my male counterparts


strongly agree

3.17 * I am often expected to play a nurturing role in the organisation


strongly agree

3.18 * My male counterparts are to a greater extent than I engaged in activities which are considered for promotional purposes


strongly agree

3.19 I have served on appointment committees where subjective appraisal favoured the appointment of men


strongly agree

3.20 * My organisation provides training initiatives for advancing women


strongly agree

3.21 * My organisation has an accelerated programme for women demonstrating exceptional potential


strongly agree

3.22 * I have been/am ear-marked for an accelerated advancement programme


strongly agree

3.23 * Women are proactively included in networking opportunities for social support


strongly agree

3.24 * Women are proactively included in networking opportunities for professional support


strongly agree

3.25 * Organisational policies adequately address equal employment opportunities for women


strongly agree

3.26 * Organisational policies adequately address promotional opportunities for women


strongly agree

3.27 * Organisational policies provide flexible work solutions for balancing career and family responsibilities


strongly agree

3.28 * The organisation has specified targets, quotas or other affirmative policies to increase the percentage of women in senior management or executive positions


strongly agree

271

3.29 * Diversity is generally introduced in the organisation at all levels of the hierarchy


strongly agree

3.30 * The organisation monitors salary differences between male and female employees holding similar positions


strongly agree

3.31 * The maternity leave policy is adequate in providing time-off for child birth


strongly agree

3.32 * The organisation has longer leave programmes which provide for career breaks for women with children


strongly agree

3.33 * The organisation has programmes that facilitate employees return to the workplace after a career break


strongly agree

3.34 * Adequate information exists about diversity policies strongly disagree


3.35 * Mentor(s) and/or coaches are formally assigned to potential female leaders to fast-track their career development


strongly agree

3.36 * Mentor(s) have assigned responsibilities to me that have increased my contact with influential people


strongly agree

3.37 * Mentor(s) have made me aware of risks that could pose a threat to opportunities for promotion


strongly agree

3.38 * Mentor(s) have given me assignments that have prepared me for higher ranking positions


strongly agree

3.39 * Mentor (s) have given me tasks that present opportunities to learn new skills


strongly agree

3.40 I have/had a supportive spouse/partner who shares equally in domestic and family responsibilities


strongly agree

3.41 * The leadership style of senior management is supportive of diversity and thus the advancement of women


strongly agree

3.42 * Leadership development programmes for both men and women are in place


strongly agree

3.43 * I employ household help to enable me to pursue my career strongly disagree


3.44 * I had a supportive family in my formative years who encouraged an education


strongly agree

3.45 * I was raised in a family who encouraged me to pursue my career goals


strongly agree

3.46 * Cultural values in South Africa encourage employment equity strongly disagree


272

3.47 * Labour laws & regulations in South Africa has contributed substantially to gender equity in the workplace


strongly agree

3.48 * The Employment Equity Act of 1998 was instrumental in eradicating most of the barriers to women's career advancement


strongly agree

3.49 * South Africa will benefit from gender quotas in the workplace at the upper end of the hierarchy


strongly agree

3.50 * My career has benefited from professional associations for networking


strongly agree

3.51 * Professional associations for women are instrumental in the provision of support initiatives to advance women


strongly agree

3.52 * Earlier pressure from women's movement groups have contributed substantially to the creation of a better dispensation for women


strongly agree

3.53 * There is still a need for women's groups to challenge persistent exclusionary practices


strongly agree

3.54 * Awards presented to successful business women motivate me strongly disagree


3.55 * Awards for successful women create role models to whom I can look up


strongly agree

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273

ANNEXURE B (1)

LETTER OF APPROVAL

274

ANNEXURE B (2)

LETTER OF APPROVAL

275

ANNEXURE B (3)

LETTER OF APPROVAL

276

ANNEXURE B (4)

LETTER OF APPROVAL

277

ANNEXURE C

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF RESULTS BY PERCENTAGE

Note: Responses to open ended question are not presented

Section 1: Biographical data 1.1 Nationality

South African Other

1.2 If other, please specify _____________________________________________

1.3 Country in which you were predominantly raised

South Africa Other


1.5 Title

Ms/Mrs Dr Prof Adv Other


1.7 Highest qualification level you have achieved

School leaving certificate Post-graduate

Diploma Other

Degree

1.8 If other, please specify ______________________________________________

1.9 Highest qualification description (eg. NDip Marketing; BCom Accounting; MBA;

PhD Business Management) __________________________________________

1.10 Job title __________________________________________________________

1.11 Job title of person you report to _______________________________________

1.12 Your hierarchical level on the organisational structure in the organisation you are

currently employed in

Executive Management/Professor

Middle Management/Senior Lecturer

Professional Support/Lecturer

General Support/Associate Lecturer

85

4

3

0

35

30

31

4

1 19 16 64 0

93 7

8

92 8

278

1.13 The position you aspire to if different to your current position ______________

1.14 Your salary range per month (excluding fringe benefits)

<R9 000 R9 000 – R14 999 R15 000 – R20 999

R21 000 – R28 999 R29 000 – R35 999

R36 000 – R45 000 >R45 000

1.15 Approximate number of years in current employment sector

1-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20+

1.16 Age

>30 30-34 35 – 39 40 - 44

45 – 49 50 – 54 55 – 59 60+

1.17 The extent to which you feel you have achieved professional career success

To a great extent To a reasonable extent

To a slight extent Not yet at all

1.18 Your birth order

Only child Oldest Youngest Middle

1.19 Number of sisters (in numeric format eg. 2) ______________________________

1.20 Number of brothers (in numeric format eg. 2)_____________________________

1.21 Ethnicity

Asian Black Coloured White Other

Prefer not to answer


1.23 Your profession

Education sector: Academic Education sector: Non-academic

Business sector Professional sector

1.24 Marital status

Single Married Divorced Widowed Other

1.25 If other, please specify _______________________________________________

2 14 63 21

13 20 25 27

19 52

14 14

18

30

16 8

17

2

11 12

16

15

21 12

0

24 28 41 7

7 79 6 4 0

53

14

3

1 3

10

4

9

16

4

279

1.26 Number of children

0 1 2 3 4 5

1.27 Age groups of children

Younger than 3 13 to 17

3 to 6 Older than 18

7 to 12

1.28 Father’s highest qualification

School leaving certificate Diploma Degree

Post-graduate Other


1.30 Mother’s highest qualification

School leaving certificate Diploma Degree

Post-graduate Other


23.7

17.5 22.2

12.5

38.7

9.1

16.1 14.4

10

35.8

1 12 35 16 35 1

280

Section 2: Perceptions of personality and cultural environment

Scores indicate frequency percentages. The mean score and standard deviation for

each item is indicated in the last two columns.

Note: An * indicates reverse scored items.

No.

Statement Str

on

gly

Dis

ag

ree

Dis

ag

ree

No

t S

ure

Ag

ree

Str

on

gly

Ag

ree

Mea

n s

core

Sta

nd

ard

dev

iati

on

2.1 When I make plans, I am certain I can

make them work

1

2

8

50

39

4.23

0.78

*2.2 One of my problems is that I cannot

get down to work when I should

32

33

16

16

3

3.74

1.17

2.3 When I can’t do a job the first time, I

keep trying until I can

1

1

8

46

44

4.31

0.75

*2.4 When I set important goals for

myself, I rarely achieve them

53

40

3

2

2

4.40

0.80

*2.5 I give up on things before completing

them

57

36

5

1

1

4.47

0.74

*2.6 I avoid facing difficulties 36

38 14 11 1 3.96 1.03

*2.7 If something looks too complicated, I

will not even bother to try it

51

41

5

3

0

4.41

0.72

2.8 When I have something unpleasant

to do, I stick to it until I finish it

4

13

15

41

28

3.75

1.10

2.9 When I decide to do something, I get

right to work on it

2

8

24

39

28

3.83

0.98

*2.10 When trying to learn something new,

I soon give up if I am not initially

successful

48

40

7

4

1

4.28

0.87

*2.11 When unexpected problems occur, I

don’t handle them well

36

46

11

7

1

4.09

0.89

*2.12 I avoid trying to learn new things

when they look too difficult for me

50

38

7

5

0

4.33

0.83

281

No.

Statement Str

on

gly

Dis

ag

ree

Dis

ag

ree

No

t S

ure

Ag

ree

Str

on

gly

Ag

ree

Mea

n s

core

Sta

nd

ard

dev

iati

on

2.13 Failure just makes me try harder 1 7 19 47 26 3.90 0.91

*2.14 I feel insecure about my ability to do

things

31

38

18

10

3

3.83

1.08

2.15 I am a self-reliant person 2 3 3 39 53 4.39 0.83

*2.16 I give up easily 61 32 4 1 1 4.51 0.75

*2.17 I do not seem capable of dealing with

most problems that come up in my

life

64

28

3

3

1

4.52

0.79

2.18 A job is what you make of it 1 1 6 36 55 4.43 0.77

2.19 On most jobs, people can accomplish

what they set out to accomplish

1

3

15

50

31

4.07

0.80

2.20 If you know what you want out of a

job, you can find a job that gives it to

you

3 8 20 44 25 3.80 1.00

2.21 If employees are unhappy with a

decision made by their boss, they

should do something about it

0

4

17

50

29

4.05

0.78

*2.22 Getting the job you want is mostly a

matter of luck

22

45

22

11

1

3.75

0.96

*2.23 Making money is primarily a matter

of good fortune

23

44

22

8

3

3.76

0.98

2.24 Most people are capable of doing

their jobs well if they make the effort

1

2

9

50

38

4.22

0.78

*2.25 In order to get a really good job you

need to have family members or

friends in high places

41

32

18

8

2

4.01

1.04

*2.26 Promotions are usually a matter of

good fortune

34

42

13

9

2

3.96

1.01

*2.27 When it comes to landing a really

good job, who you know is more

26

32

24

14

5

3.59

1.16

282

No.

Statement Str

on

gly

Dis

ag

ree

Dis

ag

ree

No

t S

ure

Ag

ree

Str

on

gly

Ag

ree

Mea

n s

core

Sta

nd

ard

dev

iati

on

important than what you know

2.28 Promotions are given to employees

who perform well on the job

2

9

20

53

16

3.73

0.90

*2.29 To make a lot of money you have to

know the right people

22

34

23

17

3

3.54

1.11

*2.30 It takes a lot of luck to be an

outstanding employee on most jobs

46

41

10

2

1

4.29

0.81

2.31 People who perform their jobs well

generally get rewarded for it

3

11

24

48

15

3.61

0.97

2.32 Most employees have more

influence on their supervisors than

they think they do

2

16

27

45

10

3.45

0.94

*2.33 The main difference between people

who make a lot of money and people

who make little money is luck

39

44

12

4

1

4.15

0.88

2.34 People should be more involved in

their work

0

4

23

47

27

3.96

0.80

2.35 I enjoy difficult work 1 4 13 54 29 4.06 0.79

*2.36 I have rarely done extra studying in

connection with my work

67

22

4

6

1

4.48

0.89

*2.37 I try to work just hard enough to get

by

65

23

4

5

3

4.43

0.98

2.38 I will not be satisfied until I am the

best in my field of work

1

9

21

41

28

3.85

0.97

*2.39 I do not let my work get in the way of

what I really want to do

9

31

26

28

7

3.08

1.10

*2.40 In my work I seldom do more than is

necessary

68

25

2

2

2

4.54

0.84

2.41 My goal is to do at least a little bit

more than anyone else has done

13

12

20

37

19

3.38

1.27

283

No.

Statement Str

on

gly

Dis

ag

ree

Dis

ag

ree

No

t S

ure

Ag

ree

Str

on

gly

Ag

ree

Mea

n s

core

Sta

nd

ard

dev

iati

on

2.42 I often set goals that are difficult to

reach

5

17

17

41

21

3.56

1.13

*2.43 People seldom think of me as a hard

worker

56

29

8

4

3

4.31

0.99

*2.44 It doesn’t really matter to me

whether or not I become one of the

best in my field

40

35

10

12

3

3.97

1.12

*2.45 I seldom set standards which are

difficult to reach

35

42

10

12

2

3.96

1.05

2.46 As a child I worked a long time for

some of the things I earned

5

11

18

36

30

3.76

1.14

2.47 I don’t mind working while other

people are having fun

2

10

14

45

30

3.90

0.99

*2.48 I am not really very certain what I

want to do or how to go about doing

it

48

36

9

4

3

4.21

0.98

2.49 I would work just as hard whether or

not I had to earn a living

2

9

15

43

32

3.92

1.01

2.50 Managers should not delegate

important tasks to employees

37

45

11

6

1

1.89

0.90

2.51 Group success is more important

than individual success

4

13

32

37

15

3.46

1.02

2.52 Employees should only pursue their

goals after considering the welfare of

the group

9

26

31

28

7

2.98

1.07

2.53 It is more important for men to have a

professional career than it is for

women

71

17

6

4

2

1.49

0.92

2.54 Meetings are usually run more

effectively when they are chaired by a

man

68

21

9

1

0

1.44

0.73

284

No.

Statement Str

on

gly

Dis

ag

ree

Dis

ag

ree

No

t S

ure

Ag

ree

Str

on

gly

Ag

ree

Mea

n s

core

Sta

nd

ard

dev

iati

on

2.55 It is important to have job

requirements and instructions spelled

out in detail so that employees always

know what they are expected to do

2

10

11

39

39

4.03

1.02

2.56 Standard operating procedures are

helpful to employees on the job

0

2

8

51

38

4.24

0.73

2.57 Being accepted by the members of

your group is very important

2

8

25

48

17

3.69

0.92

2.58 It is frequently necessary for a

manager to use authority when

dealing with subordinates

10

30

27

29

4

2.87

1.07

2.59 It is preferable to have a man in a

high level position rather than a

woman

73

18

5

2

1

1.41

0.81

2.60 Men usually solve problems with

logical analysis; women usually solve

problems with intuition

36

28

22

13

2

2.17

1.11

2.61 Managers should avoid off the job

social contacts with employees

8

35

32

20

5

2.79

1.01

2.62 Managers should encourage group

loyalty even if individual goals suffer

14

36

31

16

3

2.59

1.02

2.63 Solving organisational problems

usually requires an active, forcible

approach, which is typical of men

43

40

13

4

0

1.78

0.83

2.64 Employees should not disagree with

management decisions

41

50

7

1

1

1.70

0.71

2.65 It is important to closely follow

managers’ instructions and

procedures in the workplace

2

17

36

38

7

3.29

0.91

2.66 Group welfare is more important that

individual rewards

8

28

34

26

4

2.90

1.00

2.67 There are some jobs that a man can

always do better than a women

34

24

18

19

6

2.41

1.29

285

No.

Statement Str

on

gly

Dis

ag

ree

Dis

ag

ree

No

t S

ure

Ag

ree

Str

on

gly

Ag

ree

Mea

n s

core

Sta

nd

ard

dev

iati

on

2.68 Rules and regulations are important

because they inform employees what

the organisation expects of them

0

4

14

58

24

4.01

0.75

2.69 Instructions for operations are

important for employees on the job

0

3

15

58

24

4.04

0.70

2.70 Managers should make most

decisions without consulting

subordinates

38

48

11

4

0

1.81

0.79

2.71 Managers should seldom ask for the

opinions of employees

56

36

5

3

0

1.54

0.72

Section 3: Perceptions of internal organisational and external

environment

Note: Items 3.1 - 3.19 were reverse scored so that a high score would indicate low

perceived barrier.

No.

Statement Str

on

gly

Dis

ag

ree

Dis

ag

ree

No

t S

ure

Ag

ree

Str

on

gly

Ag

ree

Mea

n s

core

Sta

nd

ard

dev

iati

on

3.1 Career breaks due to family

responsibility negatively impacted on

my advancement

23

21

25

18

13

3.24

1.33

3.2 I have to sacrifice family/personal

life to prove my commitment to the

organisation

15

21

13

32

19

2.80

1.36

3.3 My views and contributions often

appear to be less valued than those of

my male counterparts

24

36

12

19

9

3.47

1.29

3.4 I feel that my leadership attributes are

perceived as ranking lower in

importance than the attributes of male

22

30

15

26

8

3.32

1.28

286

No.

Statement Str

on

gly

Dis

ag

ree

Dis

ag

ree

No

t S

ure

Ag

ree

Str

on

gly

Ag

ree

Mea

n s

core

Sta

nd

ard

dev

iati

on

leaders

3.5 There is a lack of role models in

managerial positions with whom I can

associate

17

28

13

28

14

3.07

1.34

3.6 There is a lack of appropriate mentors

and coaches to whom I can turn to for

support

17

25

14

27

18

2.96

1.38

3.7 I feel excluded from male dominated

networks because of limited common

interest with men on a social level

25

32

16

22

6

3.49

1.24

3.8 Family responsibility leave me with

limited time for networking

12

25

22

27

15

2.91

1.25

3.9 Men generally dominate meetings 17

31 15 26 11 3.16 1.29

3.10 Men generally dominate teamwork

activities

17

35

18

22

8

3.31

1.21

3.11 I often feel that I am perceived as

lacking in ability to deal with the

challenges of senior management

despite being suitably qualified

22

35

17

19

7

3.46

1.23

3.12 There is a lack of training

opportunities to enhance my career

development

30

33

14

16

6

3.64

1.24

3.13 The male dominated work

environment is not receptive to my

equal participation

25

35

19

16

6

3.57

1.19

3.14 I am appointed to a non-influential

position with limited scope for

promotion

39

31

13

10

7

3.83

1.25

3.15 I am not given sufficient opportunities

for critical work experience compared

to my male counterparts

38

36

14

8

4

3.95

1.11

3.16 I am not given adequate responsibility

compared to my male counterparts

44

36

11

6

3

4.11

1.04

287

No.

Statement Str

on

gly

Dis

ag

ree

Dis

ag

ree

No

t S

ure

Ag

ree

Str

on

gly

Ag

ree

Mea

n s

core

Sta

nd

ard

dev

iati

on

3.17 I am often expected to play a

nurturing role in the organisation

20

28

21

24

7

3.31

1.23

3.18 My male counterparts are to a greater

extent than me engaged in activities

which are considered for promotional

purposes

28

30

18

15

8

3.55

1.27

3.19 I have served on appointment

committees where subjective

appraisal favoured the appointment of

men

36

29

22

9

4

3.83

1.15

3.20 My organisation provides training

initiatives for advancing women

7

15

23

37

18

3.45

1.15

3.21 My organisation has an accelerated

programme for women demonstrating

exceptional potential

19

21

36

17

8

2.75

1.17

3.22 I have been/am ear-marked for an

accelerated advancement programme

36

24

28

9

3

2.21

1.13

3.23 Women are proactively included in

networking opportunities for social

support

14

19

39

21

7

2.89

1.12

3.24 Women are proactively included in

networking opportunities for

professional support

12

17

35

28

8

3.03

1.11

3.25 Organisational policies adequately

address equal employment

opportunities for women

8

11

24

43

16

3.48

1.11

3.26 Organisational policies adequately

address promotional opportunities for

women

8

11

31

37

14

3.38

1.10

3.27 Organisational policies provide

flexible work solutions for balancing

career and family responsibilities

18

22

26

24

10

2.86

1.25

3.28 The organisation has specified targets,

quotas or other affirmative policies to

increase the percentage of women in

7

11

37

34

12

3.33

1.05

288

No.

Statement Str

on

gly

Dis

ag

ree

Dis

ag

ree

No

t S

ure

Ag

ree

Str

on

gly

Ag

ree

Mea

n s

core

Sta

nd

ard

dev

iati

on

senior management or executive

positions

3.29 Diversity is generally introduced in

the organisation at all levels of the

hierarchy

8

16

21

40

16

3.39

1.17

3.30 The organisation monitors salary

differences between male and female

employees holding similar positions

18

15

41

18

8

2.82

1.16

3.31 The maternity leave policy is

adequate in providing time-off for

child birth

9

11

26

36

20

3.47

1.17

3.32 The organisation has longer leave

programmes which provide for career

breaks for women with children

30

25

31

9

6

2.37

1.17

3.33 The organisation has programmes that

facilitate employees’ return to the

workplace after a career break

25

24

36

10

5

2.46

1.12

3.34 Adequate information exists about

diversity policies and practices

6

18

35

30

12

3.24

1.07

3.35 Mentor(s) and/or coaches are formally

assigned to potential female leaders to

fast-track their career development

33

34

25

5

3

2.11

1.02

3.36 Mentor(s) have assigned

responsibilities to me that have

increased my contact with influential

people

32

26

22

15

6

2.38

1.24

3.37 Mentor(s) have made me aware of

risks that could pose a threat to

opportunities for promotion

30

28

24

13

5

2.34

1.17

3.38 Mentor(s) have given me

assignments that have prepared me

for higher ranking positions

28

23

22

20

7

2.54

1.28

3.39 Mentor (s) have given me tasks that

present opportunities to learn new

25

19

19

28

9

2.78

1.34

289

No.

Statement Str

on

gly

Dis

ag

ree

Dis

ag

ree

No

t S

ure

Ag

ree

Str

on

gly

Ag

ree

Mea

n s

core

Sta

nd

ard

dev

iati

on

skills

3.40 I have a supportive spouse/partner

who shares equally in domestic and

family responsibilities

18

7

16

19

40

3.57

1.50

3.41 The leadership style of senior

management is supportive of diversity

and thus the advancement of women

11

9

21

40

18

3.44

1.21

3.42 Leadership development programmes

for both men and women are in place

10

12

26

35

17

3.36

1.19

3.43 I employ household help to enable me

to pursue my career

15

9

9

31

36

3.63

1.42

3.44 I had a supportive family in my

formative years who encouraged an

education

5

2

6

21

66

4.42

1.03

3.45 I was raised in a family who

encouraged me to pursue my career

goals

5

4

5

21

65

4.38

1.08

3.46 The general norms and cultural

practices in South Africa allow for

employment equity

15

22

29

22

13

2.95

1.24

3.47 Labour laws & regulations in South

Africa has contributed substantially to

gender equity in the workplace

6

12

25

40

18

3.52

1.09

3.48 The Employment Equity Act of 1998

was instrumental in eradicating most

of the barriers to women’s career

advancement

8

17

32

31

12

3.23

1.11

3.49 South Africa will benefit from gender

quota’s in the workplace at the upper

end of the hierarchy

13

15

24

33

15

3.22

1.25

3.50 My career has benefited from

professional associations for

networking

9

19

26

30

16

3.25

1.20

290

No.

Statement Str

on

gly

Dis

ag

ree

Dis

ag

ree

No

t S

ure

Ag

ree

Str

on

gly

Ag

ree

Mea

n s

core

Sta

nd

ard

dev

iati

on

3.51 Professional associations for women

are instrumental in the provision of

support initiatives to advance women

9

13

34

32

12

3.26

1.11

3.52 Earlier pressure from women’s

movement groups have contributed

substantially to the creation of a better

dispensation for women

5

7

27

41

20

3.64

1.03

3.53 There is still a need for women’s

groups to challenge persistent

exclusionary practices

4

8

23

39

26

3.74

1.06

3.54 Awards presented to successful

business women motivate me

8

14

28

29

21

3.40

1.19

3.55 Seeing other women awarded for their

success have exposed me to role

models to whom I can aspire

6

11

25

34

23

3.56

1.15

291

ANNEXURE D

DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION ANALYSIS: SUCCESS GROUPS 3

Mean

Standard deviation


Su

cces

sfu

l

Pip

elin

e

Po

ssib

le

pip

elin

e

Su

cces

sfu

l

Pip

elin

e

Po

ssib

le

Pip

elin

e

Factor total 3.33 3.34 3.26 0.38 0.38 0.40

Personality

Self-efficacy

4.05

4.20

3.98

4.15

3.97

4.14

0.36

0.42

0.36

0.46

0.34

0.52

Locus of control 3.95 3.88 3.77 0.52 0.53 0.56

Need for achievement 3.99 3.92 4.00 0.45 0.47 0.48

Culture 2.69 2.81 2.64 0.36 0.38 0.33

Power distance 2.12 2.13 1.94 0.45 0.44 0.44

Individualism/collectivism 3.11 3.12 3.18 0.66 0.72 0.69

Uncertainty avoidance 3.84 4.05 3.85 0.64 0.53 0.57

Masculinity/femininity 1.71 1.94 1.57 0.57 0.66 0.47

Barriers 3.34 3.31 3.34 0.84 0.90 0.86

Stereotyping 3.66 3.50 3.50 0.85 0.85 0.95

Lack of role models and mentors 2.92 3.13 3.01 1.29 1.24 1.22

Family responsibility 2.99 2.95 3.07 1.04 1.02 0.98

Inaccessible networks 3.47 3.49 3.57 1.26 1.21 1.30

Inhospitable organisational culture 3.63 3.50 3.57 1.15 1.20 1.34

Internal support 2.99 2.95 2.79 0.79 0.73 0.77

Organisational support 3.06 2.98 2.89 0.66 0.67 0.70

Mentoring and coaching 2.43 2.47 2.32 1.12 0.91 0.94

Leadership and management style 3.47 3.39 3.16 1.08 1.02 1.14

External support 3.60 3.64 3.55 0.62 0.51 0.68

Family support 4.35 4.47 4.36 1.07 0.90 1.13

Professional associations 3.27 3.29 3.09 1.08 0.88 0.90

Government initiatives 3.21 3.33 2.99 0.88 0.88 0.85

Pressure from feminist groups 3.61 3.72 3.93 0.93 0.76 0.84

Awards and role models 3.44 3.60 3.31 1.17 1.02 1.26

Spouse support 3.64 3.46 3.59 1.52 1.45 1.61

Domestic support 3.66 3.62 3.57 1.45 1.37 1.50

292

ANNEXURE E

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUCCESS GROUPING AND DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE

Question d.f. Number Chi-

value

p-value Cramér’s V

1-1 Nationality 4 301 1.84 .766 n/a

1.3 County in which predominantly

raised

4 300 4.54 .338 n/a

1-5 Title 3 301 65.69 <.0005 0.47 Moderate

1-7 Highest qualification 4 301 3.10 .542 n/a

1-12 Hierarchical level 2 301 191.63 <.0005 0.80 Large

1-13 Hierarchical level aspiring to 1 297 17.68 <.0005 0.24 Small

1-14 Salary range 6 301 58.06 <.0005 0.44 Moderate

1-15 Years in employment sector 3 301 5.89 .117 n/a

1-16 Age 2 301 3.39 .184 n/a

1-17 Perception of professional success

achieved

2 301 27.09 <.0005 0.30 Moderate

1-18 Birth order 3 301 2.63 .452 n/a

1.19 Number of sisters 3 301 1.27 .735 n/a

1-20 Number of brothers 3 301 2.88 .410 n/a

1-19+20 Number of siblings 5 301 1.41 .923 n/a

1-19 Sisters (no/yes) 1 301 0.54 .462 n/a

1-19 Brothers (no/yes) 1 301 1.29 .256 n/a

1-19 Siblings (no/yes) 1 301 0.00 .963 n/a

1-21 Ethnicity 4 301 0.69 .953 n/a

1-23 Profession 3 301 15.76 .001 0.23 Small

1-24 Marital status 3 301 0.24 .971 n/a

1-26 Number of children 3 301 5.94 .114 n/a

1-27.0 Age groups of children

(some/none)

1 298 1.28 .258 n/a

1-27.1 Age groups of children (no/<3) 1 298 0.44 .508 n/a

1-27.2 Age groups of children (no/3-6) 1 298 0.02 .899 n/a



1-27.5 Age groups of children (no/18+) 1 298 0.51 .475 n/a

1-28 Father’s highest qualification 5 299 1.44 .920 n/a

1-30 Mother’s highest qualification 5 297 4.24 .516 n/a

293

ANNEXURE F

MANOVA: UNIVARIATE RESULTS (P-VALUES)

1.1 1.2 1.3 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7

Q1-12 .463 .221 .712 .161 .739 .153 .111 .702 .000 .388 .335 .514 .301 .521 .564 .019 .324 .040 .403 .984 .982 .641

Q1-13 .299 .850 .123 .607 .191 .372 .889 .052 .000 .096 .007 .019 .041 .206 .010 .066 .796 .178 .716 .578 .034 .954

Q1-14 .381 .608 .192 .551 .906 .055 .427 .367 .225 .246 .004 .228 .052 .152 .434 .597 .022 .250 .371 .076 .196 .124

Q1-15 .249 .667 .684 .824 .661 .139 .785 .167 .050 .633 .506 .321 .008 .012 .164 .363 .220 .187 .798 .871 .019 .602

Q1-16 .661 .505 .127 .197 .627 .727 .105 .810 .326 .182 .137 .448 .661 .864 .711 .201 .928 .673 .439 .006 .627 .494

Q1-17 .209 .000 .054 .720 .916 .279 .755 .000 .000 .001 .049 .000 .003 .001 .000 .487 .189 .034 .330 .991 .139 .476

Q1-18 .411 .022 .890 .058 .788 .121 .903 .429 .036 .403 .072 .777 .452 .817 .694 .088 .245 .345 .796 .507 .032 .252

Q1-23 .222 .419 .210 .163 .045 .006 .005 .559 .621 .116 .282 .344 .552 .378 .975 .469 .014 .130 .048 .001 .735 .928

Q1-24 .671 .042 .547 .756 .162 .186 .304 .890 .948 .380 .711 .410 .016 .384 .015 .277 .919 .654 .866 .209 .000 .001

Q1-26 .219 .531 .678 .375 .932 .070 .041 .068 .495 .159 .770 .154 .149 .848 .110 .085 .396 .875 .641 .451 .647 .032

Q1-27.1 .465 .546 .724 .746 .095 .218 .540 .534 .154 .628 .343 .290 .030 .964 .141 .139 .254 .362 .440 .921 .469 .067

Q1-27.2 .115 .277 .080 .527 .854 .117 .359 .469 .956 .981 .713 .591 .768 .660 .359 .101 .877 .922 .917 .210 .716 .035

Q1-27.3 .085 .515 .599 .138 .144 .366 .039 .280 .526 .609 .369 .239 .754 .975 .328 .102 .198 .288 .797 .239 .741 .692

Q1-27.4 .314 .564 .223 .819 .304 .071 .346 .505 .842 .176 .331 .208 .048 .056 .039 .530 .486 .474 .975 .049 .861 .167

Q1-27.5 .058 .480 .918 .095 .641 .027 .024 .074 .284 .038 .655 .052 .872 .910 .034 .576 .339 .406 .857 .017 .298 .519

Q1-28 .102 .382 .358 .091 .318 .019 .311 .110 .169 .960 .191 .133 .594 .309 .753 .011 .467 .680 .201 .240 .745 .239

Q1-30 .405 .469 .653 .103 .626 .404 .550 .271 .998 .545 .560 .580 .874 .108 .883 .227 .843 .061 .053 .311 .735 .418

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