John Flavell Metacognition consist of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experience.

Person variables - This includes how one views himself as a learner and thinker. Knowledge about how human

Task Variables – includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as type of processing demands it will place upon the individual.

Strategy Variables – Knowledge of strategy variables involves awareness of strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is effective.

Meta attention – awareness of SPECIFIC STRATEGIES SO THAT YOU CAN KEEP YOUR ATTENTION FOCUSEDON THE TOPIC OR TASK AT HAND

Metamemory – Awareness of memories strategies that work best for you

Metacognition – Highest level of thinking

Expert learners - Employed metacognitive strategies in learning

Novice learners – Have limited knowledge in different subject areas.

14 psychological principles are divided into a. cognitive and metacognitive b. motivational and affective c. developmental and sociald. invidual difference

Cognitive and metacognitive facotrs

1. Nature of learning process The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional

process of on constructing meaning form information and experience

2. Goals of the learning process The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance and

create meaningful, coherent representation of knowledge.

3. Construction of knowledge The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in

meaningful ways.

4. Strategic thinking The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning

strategies to achieve complex learning goals.

5. Thinking about thinking higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operation facilitate

creative and critical thinking

6. Context of learning Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology,

and instructional practices

Motivational and affective factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.

Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interest and goals, and habits of thinking .

8. Intrinsic motivation to learnthe learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute

to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by task of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests and providing for personal choice and interest

9. Effects of motivation on effort Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner efforts

and guided practice. Without learners, motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort in unlikely without coercion.

Developmental and social factor

10. Developmental influences on learning As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for

learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.

11. Social Influences of learning Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and

communications with others.

Individual differences factors

12. Individual differences in learning Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that

are a function of prior experience and heredity.

13 Learning and diversity Learning is most effective when differences in learner’s linguistic, cultural, and

social background are taken into account.

14 Standards and assessmentsSetting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as

well as learning progress – including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment – are integral parts of the learning process.

Part 2

Jean Piaget- cognitive theory of development – how individual constructs knowledge.

Piagetian task – a research method involved observing small number of individuals as they responded to cognitive task that has designed.

Genetic epistemology - Piaget general theoretical framework Interested in how knowledge developed in human organism

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema - refer to cognitive structure by w/c individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment.

Ex. If a child see’sa dog for the first time, he creates his own idea what a dog is

Assimilation – Process of fitting its new experience into an existing or previous schema Ex. If the child sees another dog and it is smaller one he is adding new

schema of a dog

Accommodation - a process of creating a new schema Ex. If a child sees now another animal that looks kike little bit like a dog,

but somehow a different height try fit it into a his schema of a dog

Equilibration – proper balance of assimilation and accommodationCognitive disequilibrium – experience not match to schemata or cognitive s

structure

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive development

Stage 1 Sensori – motor stage – first stage corresponds from birth to infancy.Ex. Child is gasping sucking reaching more organized

Object permanence – This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exist even without sight

Stage 2 Pre-Operational stage – The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven years old

Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature Ex Can make mental representation/ can use of symbols

Symbolic Function – Ability to represent objects and events. Develops in the children 2 – 7 years old

Egocentrism – This is the tendency of the child to see only his own point of view

Centration - refers to the tendency of the child focus on one aspects of a thing exclude other aspect.Ex. When a child is presented two identical glassand you

transferred the other glass to a much higher glass, the child might say that there is much water on the taller glass than the other

Irreversibility – Preoperational children still has the inability to reverse thinking.Ex. Can understand 2+3 = 5 but cannot understand 5-3 = 2

Animism – Tendency of children to attribute human like or characteristic inanimate objects

Ex. Ask child where is the sun and he will tell reply mr.sun is asleep

Transductive reasoning – A type of reasoning that is inductive nor deductive

Ex. A causes b vice versa everyday mommy is at home at 6 and if ask why is it evening the child will answer because

mommy is home.

Stage 3 Concrete operational stage – the ability of the child to think logically but in terms concrete object only. For elementary years

Decentering – ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situation.

Reversibility – During the stage of concrete operations child can follow that certain operations can be done in reverse

Conservation – Ability to know that certain properties of objects like number mass or area do not change

even if there is a change in appearance

Seriation – ability to order or arrange according to volume mass and weight

Stage 4 Operational Stage – Final stage of operations covering 12 and 15 years of age Thinking is more logical

Hypothetical reasoning – Ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weight

data to make a final decision or Judgment

Analogical reasoning - Perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to narrow down

possible answer to in another similar situation or problem

Deductive reasoning - This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular instance or

situation

Erik Erikson – Psycho social theory5 psychosexual development Theory was largely influenced by Sigmund FreudCultural and social aspects

Epignetic principle – Principle says that we developed through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stage

Psychosocial crisis- two opposing emotional forces

Virtue – psychological strength w/c help us through the stage of our lives

Malignancy – is the worse of the two, and involves too little positive and too much negative

Maladaptation – not quite bad but too much positive

`Stage I Infancy Psychological Crisis - trust vs. mistrust

Maladaptation-Sensory maladjustment

Malignancy- withdrawalVirtue- Hope

Stage II EarlyChildhoodPsychological Crisis – Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

Maladaptation-ImpulsivenessMalignancy- Compulsiveness

Virtue- Will power/determination

Stage III ChildhoodPsychological Crisis – initiative vs. guilt

Maladaptation-RuthlessMalignancy- inhibitionVirtue- courage

Stage IV School age 6-12Psychological Crisis – Industry vs.Inferiority

Maladaptation-narrow virtuosity

Malignancy- inertiaVirtue- competency

Stage V Adolescence 18 – 20Psychological Crisis – Ego identity vs. role confusion

Maladaptation-Fanaticism Malignancy- RepudiationVirtue- Fidelity

Stage VI Young Adulthood 18 – 30Psychological Crisis – Intimacy vs. Isolation

Maladaptation-promiscuityMalignancy- exclusion

Virtue- love

Stage VII Middle adulthood 25 – 45Psychological Crisis – Generavity vs. stagnation

Maladaptation-StagnationMalignancy- rejectivityVirtue- Caring

Stage VIII Old age around 60Psychological Crisis – ego integrity vs despair

Maladaptation- presumptionMalignancy- disdainVirtue- Wisdom

Vygotsky – Socio Cultural Social interaction plays a very important role in cognitive development

Scaffolding - term for the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner Accomplish a task Social interaction and language two central factor in

cognitive development

Social Interaction – emphasize that effective learning happens through participation in social activities, making the social context of learning crucial.

Zone of actual development – when a child attempts to perform a skill alone she may not be immediately proficient at it. So, alone she may perform a certain level of competency.

Zone of proximal development – zone represents a learning opportunity where a knowledgeable adult such as a teacher or parent or a more advanced peer can assist the child’s development..

Scaffolding – Support assistance that lets child accomplish a task she cannot accomplish independently

Ex. Leading the straw to the hole and letting child put the straw through the tetra pack hole is scaffolding

Scaffold and fade-away technique – as learners become more proficient, able to complete task on their own that they could not initially do without assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg interested in studying the development of moral reasoning Utilized moral dilemmas (Kohlberg dilemma)

Six stages of Kohlberg’s Moral development

Level Stage Description Pre-conventional Level – Moral reasoning 1 Punishment - One is motivated be Is based on the consequence/result of the fear of punishment he will act to Act. Act may be good or bad avoid punishment

2 Mutual Benefit - One is motivated to act by the benefit that one

may obtain later you scratch mine I scratch yours

Conventional – Moral reasoning is based on 3 Social Approval One is motivated the conventions or norms of society include by what others expect in behaviorapproval of others , law and order god boy/girl he values what he

appears to others.

4 law and order Motivated to act in in order to uphold law and order

Post-conventional – Moral reasoning 5 Social contract - Laws that are Is based enduring or consistent principle. Wrong can changed/one act is Not just recognized law but the principle based on social justice

6 universal Principles This is associated with the

development of one’s conscience. Having set of

standards derives one to process moral responsibility to make societal

changes regardless of consequences to oneself

Just Community - Kohlberg and colleagues came up approach towards promoting moral development

Community meeting – w/c issues is related to life and discipline in the school are discussed

STUDENT DIVERSITY

Factors that bring about student diversity

Socio-economic status – the millionaires lifestyle differs from the middle income or lower income group

Thinking/learning style - Some of you learn better by seeing something or hearing something

Exceptionalities - In class there maybe one who has difficult spoken language or comprehension.

How student diversity enriches learning environment

1 student’s self awareness is enhanced by diversity - exposed student w/ diverse background and experiences also serves to help students focus on their awareness of themselves2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development gain access to the perspective of peers and to learn student from other students3 Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of society . the capacity to imagine situations or problems from all perspective and to appreciate all aspects of diversity 4. student diversity can promote harmony diverse student can be encourage to interact or collaborate with one another

Some tips of student diversity

1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences

2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promotes students multicultural and cross-cultural awareness

3. Aside from high lightning diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group differences

4. Communicate high expectations to students from all sub-groups

5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning style

6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple contexts are relevant to students from diverse background

7. Adapt the students diverse backgrounds and learning style by allowing them personal choice and decision making opportunities concerning what they will learn and how they will learn it8. Diversify your method of assessing and evaluating students learning

9. purposely, from small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds. You can forms groups of students with different learning style, different cultural background, etc.

LEARNING AND THINKING STYLES

Learning /thinking styles – refer to preferred way an individual process information

Bipolar dimension- styles are usually considered describe a persons thinking style

Sensory Preferences – individual tend to gravitate towards one or two types of sensory input and maintain a dominance

Visual learners – these learners must see their teachers action and facial expression to fully understand the content of the lesson Ri charde breaks down visual learners into:

Visual iconic - those who prefer this form of input are more interested in visual imagery such as films graphic display or pictures good picture memory

Visual symbolic – Those who prefer this form of input feel comfortable with abstract symbolism such as mathematic formulae or the written word

Auditory learners - They learn best in verbal lectures, discussion and talking thingsAuditory two categories

Listeners - this is more common type listeners most likely do well good in school

Talkers – they are the one who ones who prefers to talk and discuss

Tactile/kinesthetic learners – person on hands on approach, actively exploring the physical world around them

Global – Analytic Continuum

Analytic - Analytic thinkers tend toward the linear step-by-step process of learning/ tree seers

Global – Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought and tend to see the whole pattern rather than particle element/ Forest seers

Global analytical continuum left/right brain continuum

Left-brain dominant portrayed as the linear (analytic) verbal math, thinker Right brain – viewed as global; non-linear and holistic through preferences

Successive processor – prefers to learn a step by step sequential format, beginning with details leading to a conceptual understanding of skill

Simultaneous processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning with general concept and going on to specifics

Left brain Analytical right brain globalVerbal visualResponding to word meaning respond to tone of voiceSequential RandomProcess information linearly process information varied orderRespond to logic respond to emotionPlans ahead impulsiveRecalls people names recalls peoples facesSpeaks with few gestures gestures when speaking Punctual less punctual Prefers from study design prefers sound/music background

While studyingPrefers bright lights while studying prefers frequent mobility in studying

Multiple intelligence

Multiple intelligence - Howard Gardner an ability to or set of abilities that allows person to solve problem or fashion a product that is valued one or more cultures

Visual/spatial intelligence (picture smart) – learning visually ability to see things in ones mind in planning to create a product or solve a problem

Verbal /Linguistic (word smart) – learning through spoken and written word

Mathematical/Logical (Number/logic smart) – Learning through interaction with one environment. It promotes understanding through concrete experience

Musical – (Music smart) – Learning through patterns rhythms and music

Interpersonal (People smart) – learning through interactions with others

Intrapersonal (self smart) – learning through feelings

Naturalist (nature smart) – learning through classification categories and hierarchies. Its not study of nature but all areas of study

Existential (spirit smart) - learning by seeing big pictures ex. why are we here?

LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES

EXCEPTIONAL LEARNERS – learners with disabilities, giftedness, sensory impairment

Disability - is a measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with person’s ability ex. to walk lift, hear or mental condition.

Handicap – is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairmentEx two person in a with hearing impairment one can make sign language and can read lips, white the other cannot.

Categories of exceptionalities Learning disabilities – involves difficult in specific cognitive process like perception language and memory ex. Dyslexia (reading) dyscalculia (number operations) and dysgraphia (writing)

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) – manifested in difficult in focusing and maintaining attention and recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior.

Speech and communication disorders - involves the presence of emotional states like depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time

Autism – is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and communication repetitive behaviors and limited interest.

Mental retardation – refers to significant sub average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior.

Physical disabilities and health impairments

Physical and health impairments - involves medical condition like limited energy reduce mental alertness little muscle control

Severe multiple Disabilities – Refers to the presence of two or more different types of disability at times a profound level

Sensory impairments Visual impairments – there is malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves

Hearing impairments malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves

Giftedness - involves a significantly high level of cognitive development.

BEHAVIORISM

Behaviorism - focuses on the study of observable and measurable behaviorBehavior – mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (reward and punishment)

Ivan Pavlov known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution he’s most renowned experiments involved meat dog and a bell

Stimulus generalization – Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate other similar sounds

Extinction – if you stop pairing the bell w/food salivation will eventually cease and response to the bell

Spontaneous recovery – extinguished responses can be recovered after an elapsed time, but soon will extinguished again if the dog is not presented food

Discrimination – the dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern w/c bell would result in the presentation of food and w/c could not

Higher order conditioning – Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell w/food, another unconditioned stimulus such as light may flashed at the same time that the bell is rung.

Edward Thorndike – connectionism theory Gave the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology

Theory on connectionism stated that learning has taken place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and responsed is form.

Laws of Learning

Law of Readiness The Law of Readiness means a person can learn when physically and mentally adjusted (ready) to receive stimuli. Individuals learn best when they are ready to learn, and they will not learn much if they see no reason for learning. * this states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them.

Law of ExerciseThe Law of Exercise stresses the idea that repetition is basic to the development of adequate responses; things most often repeated are easiest remembered. The mind can

rarely recall new concepts or practices after a single exposure, but every time it is practiced, learning continues and is enforced. *Tell us that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond is practiced the stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect”

Law of Effect This law involves the emotional reaction of the learner. Learning will always be much more effective when a feeling of satisfaction, pleasantness, or reward accompanies or is a result of the learning process. Learning is strengthened when it is accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling and that it is weakened when it is associated with an unpleasant experience. *it is stated that a connection between stimulus and response is strengthened when the consequence is positive(reward)and the connection between the stimulus and the response is weakened when the consequence is negative.

Principles derived from Thorndike’s connectionism:

1. learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/exercise)2. a series of S-R connection can be chained together if they belong to the same

sequence (law of readiness)3. transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations4. intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

John Watson – works at Pavlov’s ideas, American psychologistHe initially involved in animal studies, later became involved in human behavior research

Burrhus Frederick Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior.

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning – based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt behavior

FINALS

Neobehaviorism – it has aspect of behaviorism but it also reaches out to the cognitive perspective

Two theories of reflecting neobehaviorism

Purposive Behaviorism – Edward TolmanSign Leaning theoryOften seen as a the link between behaviorism and cognitive theory

Edward Tolman – believed that learning is a cognitive process, learning involves forming believes and obtaining knowledgeabout the environment and an then revealing the knowledge through purposeful and goal directed behavior

Tolman’s Key concept

Learning is always purposive and and goal-directed he believed individuals do more than merely reepond to stimuli

Cognitive maps in rats his most famous experiments, one group of rats put in the maze

Latent learning learning that remain in the learners until neededExample. A child sees her dad operate the tv remote control volume, channel is changed and parents are surprised that the child knows how to operate the remote control

The concept of intervening variable are variables that are not readily seen but serve as determinants of behavior. Learning is mediated or is influenced by expectations and other internal or environmental variables

Reinforcement not essential for learning – it provides an incentives in performance

Social Learning theory – Albert Bandura

Focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. Iot consider that people learn from one another including such as concepts as observational learning imitation and modeling

General principles of social learning theory

1. People can learn by observing 2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior 3. Cognition plays a role in learning 4. Social learning theory can be a bridfge or a transition between behaviorist

learning theories and cognitive learning theories

How environment reinforces and punishes modeling – people are often reinforce modeling the behavior of others

1. The observer is reinforced by the model 2. The observer is reinforced by the third person3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences4. Consequences of the models behavior affects the observers behavior

vicariously

Vicarious reinforcement – model is reinforced for a response and then then the observer shows an increase in that same response.

Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement and punishment

1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on learning

2. Reinforcement and punishment influence that extent to which an individual exhibits a behavior that has been learned

3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes to promote learning

Cognitive factors in social learning

Learning without performance; Bandura makes a distinction between learning through observation and the actual imitation of what has been learned

Cognitive processing during learning : Social learning theorists contend the attention is a critical factor in learning

Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring

Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the environment and the person .

Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur

Attention – the person must first pay attention to the model

Retention- The Observer must be able to remember the behavoirthat has been observed

Motor reproduction – the third condition is the ability to replicate

Motivation the final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur

Gestalt Psychology – was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. it served as the foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning. Was the initial cognitive response to the behaviorism. Adheres to the idea of learning taking place by discovery or insight

Gestalt principles

Law of proximity - elements that are closer together will be perceived as a coherent object. We perceiove them as belonign together

Law of similarity - elements that are look similar will be perceived as part of the same form

Law of closure – We tend to fill the gaps or close the figure was perceived

Law of good continuation individuals have the tendency to continue contours whenever the elements of the pattern established an implied direction

Law pf good Pragrnanz – The stimulus will be organized into as good a figure as possible example good refers to symmetry, simplicity and regularity

Law of figure/ground – we tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first a stimulus will be perceived as separate from its ground

Discovery learning - the important aspects of learning was not reinforcement, but the coordination of thinking to create new organization

Information processing – is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge enters and is stored and retrieved from our memory

Information processing theory – describes how the learner receives information(stimuli) from the environment through the senses what takes place in between determines whether the information will continue to pass through the sensory register, then the short term memory and the long term memory

Types of knowledge

General vs. specific – this involves whether the knowledge useful in many task or only in one

Declarative – This refer to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are.

Procedural – this includes knowledge on how to do things

Episodic – This includes memories of life events, like oyur high school graduation

Conditional – Knowing whn and why to apply declarative or procedural strategies

3 stages of information processing theory

1. Encoding – Information is sensed perceived and attended to.

2. Storage – The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time, depending upon the processes of encoding

3. Retrieval – The information is bought back at the appropriate time and reactivate for a use of a current task. True measure of effective memory

Sensory register

Capacity – Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is morethan what our minds can hold and perceive

Duration – The sensory register only holds the information for an extreme brief – in order of 1 to 3 seconds

Role of Attention

1. To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give attention to

2. Gate – things that pass through our attention

3. Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested in the material

4. Before information is perceived, it is known as precategorical information this means that until the point, the learner has not established a determination of the categorical membership of the information

Short term memory - can hold 5 to 9 chunks of information Working memory the new information is temporarily placed when it is mentally processed duration 18 sec.

Maintenance rehearsal – it is using repetition to keep the information is active in STM

Long term memory – Final or storing housefor memory information

Executive control process – involve the executive processor or what is reffered as the metacognitive skill

Forgetting – id the inability to retrieve or access information was needed

Decay – information is not attended to and eventually fades away

Interference – new or old information blocks access to the information in question

Methods for increasing retrieval of information

Rehearsal – repeating information verbatim , either mentally or aloud

Meaningful learning – making connection between new information and prior knowledge

Organization – it is making connection among various pieces of information

Elaboration - this is adding additional ideas to new information based on what one already knows

Visual imagery – forming picture of the information

Generation – things we produce are easier to remember than things we hear

Context – remembering the situation helps recovers information

Personalization – it is making the information relevant to the individual

Other memory methods

Serial position Effect (recency and primacy) - You will remember the beginning and the end of list most readily

Part learning – Break up the list or chink information to increase memorization

Distributed Practice - Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at once (massed practice)Mnemonic aids – memory techniques the learners may employ to help them retain and retrieve information more effectively

Jerome Bruner – first proponents of constructivism A major theme in the theory of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learner construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge

Bruner’s Main Concepts

Representation

Enactive representation – At the earliest ages, children learn about the world through actions on physical objects and the outcomes of these actions.

Iconic representation – Second stage learning can be obtained through busing models and pictures

Symbolic representation – third stage, learners has developed the ability to think in abstract terms. The most common symbols are language and mathematical

Spiral curriculum

Spiral Curriculum – teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching by the same content in different ways depending on students developmental levels.

Principles of instruction Spiral

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experience and contexts that make the students willing and able to learn (readiness)

2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily graspedby the student (spiral organization)

3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given)

Discovery learning

Discovery Learning – refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself teachers plans and arranges activities in such a way that students search , manipulate explore and investigate

Four major concepts of Bruner’s theory of instruction

Predisposition to learn – introduced ideas of readiness for learning

Structure of knowledge – ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner.

Categorization – a fundamental process in structuring of knowledge

Effective sequencing – No none sequencing will fit every learner but in general, the lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty Sequencing or lack of it can make learning easier or more difficult

Reinforcement - rewards and punishments should be selected and paced appropriately

Categorization

Categorization – are rules that specify four things about objects Construction of cognitive maps

Rules of categorization

1. Criterial attributes – required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a category

2. Second rule prescribes citerial attributes are combined 3. Third rule assign weights to various properties 4. Fourth rules sets acceptance limits on attributes

Kinds of category

Identity category – includes objects based on their attributes and or features

Equivalent categories – provide rules for combining categories equivalence can be determined b y affective criteria which render object equivalent by emotional reactions, fuinctional criteria based on related function

Coding system - are categories that serves to recognize sensory inputs.

Ausubel’s theory knowledge is hierarchically organized; the new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related to what is already unknown

Focus of Ausubels theory1. the most important factor influencing learning2. Meaninful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in

some sensible way to ideas that the learners already possess

Subsumption – a process by which new material is related to relevant idea the existing cognitive structure what we learned is based on what is already known

Meaningful learning can take place through four process

Derivative Subsumption – describes the situation in which the new information you learn in\s an example of a concept that you have already learned

Correlative subsumption – valuable learning than that of derivative subsumption since it enriches the higher level conc ept

Superordinate learning - a child already knew a lot of exmples of the concept, but did not know the concept itself until it was taught to her.

Combinatorial learning – newly acquired knowledge combines with prior knowledge to enrich the understanding of both concepts Its different it describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another idea that is neither higher nor lower in the hierarchy , but the same level.

Advance Organizer – is a major tool proposed by Ausubel facilitate learning by helping you organize and strengthen your cognitive structure. Help you link the new learning to your existing scheme

Benefit of Advance organizer

1. you will find it easier to connect new information with what you already know about the topic

2. you can readily see how the concepts in a certain topic are related to each other.

Types of advance organizer

Expository – describes new content Narrative – presents the new information in the form of story to students

Skimming – is done by looking over the new material to gain a basic overview Graphic Organizer – Visual to set up or outline the new information Progressive differentiation – increase th stability and clarity of anchoring ideas.