facilitating change skills resource handbook · page 4 tips for workshop facilitators get prepared!...

Facilitating Change Skills

Resource Handbook

Definitions of Facilitation

The word facilitates comes from the Latin facilis which means, "to make easy". The dictionary definitions vary; these are some examples:

"To free from difficulties and obstacles, to make easy"

"To ease the labour of, to assist the progress of"

"To render easier, to promote, help forward" Trevor Bentley defines facilitation as:

"The provision of opportunities, resources, encouragement and support for the group to succeed on achieving its objectives and to do this through enabling the group to take control and responsibility for the way they proceed" Training Officer, July/August 1994

Aims of intervention The following definitions offer ways of understanding the purpose and role of the facilitator. Schein:

"Process consultation is a set of activities on the part of the consultant that help the client to perceive, understand and act upon the process events that occur in the clients environment in order to improve the situation as defined by the client" From Process Consultation, Vol. 1, 1988

Argyris: 3 basic requirements of intervention

The generation of valid data Free, informed choice by the client These choices made by the client are done in such a way

that internal commitment to these choices is high From Intervention Theory and Practice, 1990 Nervis

1. The role of the consultant is to teach the client system those skills necessary for understanding the cycle of experience and for functioning better in carrying out the processes involved

2. In the process of helping the client system to improve its functioning, the consultant aims to provide a presence that is otherwise lacking

From Organisational Consulting: A Gestalt Approach, 1987

The Facilitator

…focuses energy of the group on a common task

…suggests alternative methods and procedures

…protects individuals and their ideas from attack

…encourages everyone to participate

…helps the group find win/win solutions

…co-ordinates pre- and post-meeting logistics

Tips for workshop facilitators

Get prepared! Research the material, write notes, plan the order of activities, imagine what could arise in terms of questions and challenge ... and think through strategies to deal with that.

You don’t need to be an expert on an issue, it is not important that you have all the answers. As a facilitator, your job is to guide participants through a process of exploring.

Believe that you can do a good job. If you don’t believe in yourself and your message, no one else will.

Don’t let the little things get you down. It is all right to make mistakes, we learn from mistakes.

Use positive body language: look at people when they are talking, use your hands freely to aid in your presentation, smile...

State the goals of activities or exercises. Participants need to know why they are doing something and what they can expect as the result from the activity.

Give the instructions carefully. Never ask participants: “Do you understand my instructions?”, but rather: “Have I given you clear instructions?”

Announce how much time participants have for an activity (“You have 5 minutes to make your list“) and remind them when the time is about to end (“You have 1 minute left to finish your task“).

Never say, “no” or “wrong” in reply to a participant’s response. For example, if you ask participants to think of a situation when they tried to influence someone and they describe a situation when someone tried to influence them, instead of telling them that you did not ask about that, say something like: “Yes, this is a good example of somebody trying to influence you, could you also think of an example when you tried to influence somebody?”

Don’t point. Instead, use an open palm, nod of the head, or best, say their name.

Compliment, then comment. Use expressions such as: “Thank you for this great idea!”, “This is a good time to bring that up, thank you! “, “You did a very good job with your list, let’s see if we can make it even more specific.”

Avoid handing out books and materials in the middle of an activity. They will read rather than participate.

Difference between training and facilitation

The most common understanding of what a trainer does is very different to what a facilitator does.

TRAINING FACILITATION

Trainer starts from his/her own knowledge

Facilitator starts from the knowledge of the group

Trainer presents new information from the front of the room

Facilitator uses participatory methods – activities in which all members of the group participate

Information flows in one direction, from the trainer to the participants

Information flows in many different directions, between all members of the group – a true exchange of ideas

Trainer is concerned with participants understanding the right point of view

Facilitator encourages and values different views

Three Steps to Facilitation Learning in Groups Taking things in, making sense of them and intervening

Step one: Taking things in

This involves observing and noticing what is going on in the group, both task and process, and what is going on in me as the facilitator, physically, emotionally and thought processes. There is a lot to observe in the group in terms of the task being completed and how the group is working together to complete the task. So, non-verbals, body language, eye contact, laughter, patterns of speaking, what is said, to whom, by whom, the quality of the listening and the atmosphere is important information to notice. Given the vast amount of data available to us, many facilitators concentrate on the group to such an extent that we may not notice the other main source of information about the group - what is happening to me as the facilitator? What physical sensations am I having, what emotions are welling in me, what feeling am I experiencing? Am I relaxed, tense, confused, full of energy, etc? If we pay attention to these feelings, they tell us much about the group. Perhaps the really good facilitator is the person who can pay attention to both dimensions at once, to self-awareness and group-awareness.

Step two: Making sense

This is a crucial stage of attempting to make sense of what has been noticed and observed. This is a refining process, which sifts and sorts - sees patterns and meanings. In this step the facilitator applies models, theories and past experience to the information observed. Facilitators must carry a well-stocked bag of models with which they are familiar so that, as random observations flood in, they are matched quickly against the available stock, hoping that some model will be in stock which makes sense of some of the observations. For example, if we have a theory about group development which involves a storming or control phase, we need not get too alarmed when issues of power and authority surface and our own role is questioned.

Self Knowledge

Self knowledge is diferent from the moment-by-moment self-awareness mentioned in "Taking things in". As facilitators, our underlying values shape the way we work with groups. It is not possible for us to facilitate a process without influencing that process by our own values, about how a group might function and work together, how people should behave with each other and how individuals should be in this world. The important thing is ‘facilitator know thyself’. When you want to take someone in on anger, can you make sense of that in terms of what you know about yourself?

The dangers of interpretation

Interpretation can limit learning and is frequently inaccurate. To avoid interpretation entirely is impossible; we do it all the time and there is value in considering a range of possible interpretations. The danger lies in going all out on one favourite interpretation to the exclusion of all others. We must constantly check that it is really what we are observing that determines what sense we are making of the happenings in the group or whether the few theories/models we have are shaping and limiting how we are able to make sense of what is happening.

Step three: Intervening

The primary aim of intervening is learning. The facilitator's job, is therefore, to help the group "work well together", how that is defined, usually in terms of process and/or task, as well as to help individuals learn. So the first goal is group awareness and the facilitator has to assist the group members to answer a simple-sounding question: What is happening to the group? It is actually an extremely complex and difficult question and presents a paradox: How do you instruct people to be aware? The learning model this comes from is an ancient one: the tradition of encouraging learning, not by telling but by questioning, not by the teacher always being right, or by knowing the answer, but by the teacher demanding exploration and pushing for explanation. This is the Socratic tradition. However, Socrates never pretended to be ignorant and his disciples could ask him questions too, so that at the right time (and here is the skill) he laid before them his own understanding. It is a perfect learning model for facilitators, who have to decide when to lay bare for the group what they, as facilitators, have taken in and how they have made sense of it, and when to let the group struggle on independently. This requires a delicate balance between sharing your own insights and holding back. A simple framework to help decide what insights to share with the group are:

What I have taken from self What I have taken in from group What I have made sense of, from what I have taken in My interpretations

You do not have to demonstrate genius, conjuring up profound explanations for what is happening, nor do you have to make sense of everything you have taken in. You are also not the only person in the group who can make sense of things. In deciding what to share with the group, the single test is: will it help learning? Taken from "Facilitating Learning in Groups" by David Casey, Paul Roberts and Graeme Salamec published in Leadership and Organisation Development Journal, 13,4

Typical Roles Statements for the Facilitation Role Grid

Counsellor

"You do it: I will be your sounding

board"

Coach

"You did well; you can add this next

time"

Facilitator

"You do it: I will attend to the

process"

Teacher

"Here are some principles you can use to solve problems of this type"

Reflective Observer

"You do it: I will watch and tell you

what I see and hear"

Technical Advisor

"I will answer your questions as you

go along"

© Champion, Kiel and McLendon, 1985

Phases of effective group work Putting the 'work' back into groups!

There are eight phases of effective group work. If any of these phases are missed, there is greater risk of dissatisfaction and unachieved outcomes. The phases are: 1. Planning & preparation

Content

Timescales

Resources

Methods

Facilitator & participants

Identifying stakeholders

Clarifying expectations 2. Contracting

Who does what

Roles and responsibilities 3. Task or purpose

What is to be done

Boundaries and outcomes of meeting 4. Clarification and definition

Are we all talking about the same thing?

Are we using language in the same way?

What is the "real" problem or issue?

What is, is not? 5. Exploration

Problem analysis

Generating options and alternatives 6. Convergence

Evaluation

Selecting key issues

Decision making

Action planning

7. Closure

Summarising

Checking for commitment and understanding

Next steps 8. Follow up

Looking forward to any subsequent meetings

Ongoing support

Evaluation

What has happened as a result of this meeting/event? In practice the phases merge and overlap. The implications the facilitator needs to consider are:

Timing

Appropriate facilitation style

Types of activity

Group dynamics Effective facilitators also ensure sufficient time is invested in Phases 1 to 3, i.e. the contracting, purpose and clarification phases. All too often, groups quickly move into exploration and convergence without being really clear they are talking about the same thing.

The Group Process 'Iceberg'

Content Topics

Subject

matter

Opinions

Views

Procedure Some options often used to give

structure to events:

Small group/syndicate work

Pairs

Brainstorm

Individual reflection/time out

Includes issues of:

Overall climate or atmosphere

Inclusion and exclusion

Power and status

Openness and trust

How people feel (about one another and the task)

What the overall climate/atmosphere is like

"hidden agendas"

often indicated by non-verbal behaviour

Process or dynamics

What the group is doing,

working on, the content of what

is being said.

How the group is organising

itself to carry out the task.

More visible and

up front

Often

below the

surface

What's happening

whilst the group is

working

Prevention is better than cure

Effective facilitators invest time early on with themselves and with their groups, putting in place 'prevention(s)' that will enable the group to function effectively early on. 'Going slow now, to go faster later' is a key feature of good facilitation. Setting up 'prevention(s)' is analogous to servicing your car and planning your route before a long journey - it reduces the chance of breakdowns on the motorway later on! Examples of key 'prevention' activities include:

Clarifying the overall purpose of the group and the primary task of each meeting Specifying realistic outcomes and deliverables for each meeting Formulating a fall-back position in case the desired outcome is not reached Ensuring that all group members share the same meaning for important words and

phrases Offering a model or definition or process for the group to use as a common starting

point Clarifying administrative boundaries such as start and finish times, breaks, needs of

group members, conditions of attendance Allocating roles and responsibilities (e.g. scribe, timekeeper) to group members Inviting group members to air their concerns and expectations early on Arranging the layout of the room in a way that is conducive to the work of the group Setting up 'procedures' as to how the group will work together or handle difficult

issues, e.g.:

For dealing with conflict and disagreement

For expressing their feelings for using power constructively

How decisions will be made

How minority views will be handled/accommodated Confronting and encouraging group members to take responsibility for achieving the

group's outcomes This list is not exhaustive, nor will all activities be necessary every time. The key question to ask yourself is:

What needs to be in place now, to enable this group to work effectively later on?

Who am I as a facilitator? Internal and External Dimensions

Driver Behaviour

Be perfect

Be strong

Hurry up

Please me

Try hard

Self talk

I'm not good at handling conflict

Beliefs - about self and

others

Emotions - own and others

Crumple buttons

(Triggers)

Fears and Anxieties

Judgement

A good group member is…

Individuals are difficult when

they…

Self confidence

Rules

As a facilitator

I must…

I should…

I ought…

Non-verbal behaviour Personal style

Skills

Physical presence

Energy Levels

Impact on others

Contracting

A major part of setting up 'prevention(s)' is an explicit 'contract' the facilitator makes with the group. The contract specifies and clarifies the expectations both parties have of each other, i.e.: The role and responsibility of the facilitator The roles and responsibilities of other group members (particularly the manager) Procedural issues such as time commitments, administrative duties, meeting times

and venues, etc Process issues - how the facilitator will work with the group to facilitate group

process and progress, e.g. for making decisions, handling conflict, generating ideas. An explicit contract helps set out expectations between the facilitator and the group, communicates competence and professionalism, but most importantly legitimises interventions and confrontations the facilitator may make later on.

Dimensions of Facilitation Effectiveness

Being

Values Assumptions about

people/reality/change The kind of person I fundamentally am

Natural self

Doing

Tools Techniques

Skills Competencies

Role

Presence Integrated Congruent

Walk the talk

Effective action

Observing Group Dynamics Some key points to watch (and potentially incorporate in a group debrief)

Membership To what extent are group members included in the task? How do people include/exclude themselves? How do people include/exclude others? Are there sub-groups within the overall group/team? Influence How do people influence one another? Who is high in influence? Low in influence? How are decisions made in the group? How is leadership exercised in the group? What key acts of leadership did you observe? Climate What kind of atmosphere does the group generate? How does this change? How open are people in expressing:

Their thoughts and opinions

Their feelings What level of trust exists in the group?

Facilitation and Stages of Group Development

Stage 1: Forming Key facilitator behaviours

Create safety and comfort

Make objectives and task demands clear and explicit

Help people feel included

Create opportunities for contact and time for people to get to know one another

Be directive without being authoritarian, create clear structures for meetings, the way the group or team is to work, that can evolve and change over time in which participation can occur

Be prepared to allow a degree of dependency on the facilitator

Take initiatives

Try and avoid being excessively anxious

Value previous experience of new group/team members Concerns and feelings

Am I going to be liked/accepted?

Do I need to be liked/accepted?

Are these the right people for the group/team?

How anxious do I feel?

Stage 2: Storming Key facilitator behaviour

Allow conflict to surface in the group; don't avoid, deflect, deny or reject conflict

Legitimate the expression of different opinions and feelings

Respond to challenges constructively

Don't give in to blackmail, threats

Accept responsibility for and confirm own facilitation

Encourage negotiation of responsibilities

Avoid scapegoating and polarisation

Differentiate between conflicts about task and interpersonal conflicts

Be clear about limits; what is and what is not negotiable

Try and take feedback seriously without collapsing under criticism

Distinguish between you and your role

Concerns and feelings

Is this all going to fall apart?

Do I really know what I am doing?

How much should I stay in control?

Likely feelings of anger, frustration, resentment, apathy

Stage 3: Norming Key facilitator behaviours

Help create norms rather than rules

Make norms conscious and explicit

Allow norms to be created by the group/team as far as possible, not created entirely by facilitator

Be honest about own values and norms

Create climate where feedback can be more openly given and received

Build on and develop roles

Don't allow group/team to get too rigid about ways of doing things

Don't be reluctant to allow further autonomy and lose centrality of facilitator Concerns and feelings Likely feelings of relief, sense of progress and possible boredom now that life is more settled

Stage four: Performing Key facilitator behaviours

Challenge existing norms and assumptions

Develop creativity, allow room for mistakes and experimentation

Allow others to lead and/or facilitate, let go as far as possible of control

Create more sense of equality in team, partnership and interdependence

Don't allow team to get too cosy and internally focused - help them develop relationships with external individuals/teams/departments

Concerns and feelings

Feeling good, involved, committed, that the whole of you is being used

More able to relax with and enjoy the group or team

Excitement of achievement

Stage 5: Mourning Key facilitator behaviours

Predicting varied individuals reactions to ending (sometimes endings trigger strong individual feelings)

Communicating maximum clarity about timing of end-point, letting people know of ending well in advance

Help create appropriate ending rituals, e.g. meals, parties…that have real meaning and are not going through the motions

Helping individuals and group/team learn from their work together as a whole; encourage reminiscing

Allowing and facilitating expression of the appreciation and acknowledgement of contributions within the group/team and towards the facilitator

Helping individuals plan and prepare for the future (e.g. next job, next project etc)

Create successful outcome(s) Concerns and feelings

Feelings of sadness at ending

Satisfaction with successful outcome(s)

What is Process? Content What is being said or done?

Process How the 'what' is said or done

Words

Music behind the words Revealed non-verbally Reflects feelings of the person

From: E Schein, Process Consultation, Vol. 2 (1987) p39

"Process is everywhere. In order to help, intervene and facilitate human problem solving, one must focus on communication and interpersonal processes. The processes we need to learn to observe and manage are those that make a demonstrable difference to problem solving, decision making and organisational effectiveness in general."

"Understanding of human interpersonal and group processes is critical for the manager because effective managers spend far more time in intervening in how things are done than on what is done."

Process Interventions Taken from "Unfinished Business" by Clark, Phillips and Barker (1984) Our working definition of a process intervention is any intervention made by the facilitator specifically, to affect directly:

The quality and nature of the relationship with the group

The feelings, behaviour, attitudes of the individual

The relationships between the facilitator and the group, or an individual within it

We can look at different levels of process Intrapersonal

Interpersonal

Group

Inter-group

Organisation

Process interventions with groups Process interventions can be used with groups. The aim of the intervention(s) being to influence the quality of relationships within the group, including the relationship between the facilitator and the group. The group level interventions can be: Implicit e.g. comparing current group with past groups, or Explicit e.g. offering direct feedback on your perceptions of the group The process intervention you use with a particular group will depend on a number of factors:

The stage in the group’s development (see Schein's model of group development)

The experience of the facilitator(s)

The 'contract' you are working with

The structure of the meetings

"readiness" of the individual group members to respond There are additional risks attached to using process interventions at a group level compared with working individuals.

Conflict with individual members of the group who disagree with the facilitator's perceptions

Challenge from group members on 'how' the facilitator arrived at their perceptions

Criticism for taking an 'impersonal' stance in the group Given the risks, nevertheless, interventions at a group level are worth using as they can reduce tension in the group, offer a professional perspective on what is happening, offer support and reassurance and give ideas of alternative courses of action.

Group interventions can be made in a number of different ways e.g.:

There and then "I thought the group handled the feedback session really well yesterday"

Here and now "What's happening in this group now" Directive "I want you to be more challenging with each other" Non-directive "You remind me of a group…" Interpretative "This group is avoiding making some key decisions" Descriptive "This is the third period of silence we have had in this

group" Negative "You are not challenging each other enough" Positive "I like the way you are supporting each other" Sharing feelings "I feel excited at the moment with what is going on" Not sharing feelings "Silence"

It is important that you give yourself the right to make group level interventions, these are often very useful in providing support/challenge to the group without putting pressure on particular individuals. Remember they should be used in conjunction with personal process interventions, not as an alternative to them.

Intervention styles There / Then Reviewing: Activities Interviews Exercises Role plays Were you aware of your frown then? What was going through your mind then? Your voice was very quiet at that point

Here / Now How do you feel about that comment? What are you thinking now? What's your response to that feedback? What's going on for you now? What do you want to do? Can anyone here help you with that? Notice your non verbal response

Directive I want you to pay close attention to what's said Ask the group for feedback I want you to challenge any use of generalised

statements Be clear and direct in your comments Use "I" not one/people/all etc Look toward the group - describe what you see

Non Directive

What do you want to happen now? What options are there for you? Where would you focus your energies? What ideas spring to mind for you? How would you react to that statement When might you use this approach?

Interpretative You’re looking confused I don't think you’re listening You're avoiding the problem You seem to resent that statement I see you're getting angry

Non interpretative I notice you're frowning You use the word 'angry' often I see your colour has changed from pale to

quite red I was struck by the speed of your reply I'm conscious of the fact that you are not

looking at me while I'm speaking to you

Showing feelings I feel: Hurt Angry Isolated Full of energy Accepted Welcomed Happy Pleased to be here

Not showing feeling Silence Respond at content level Deflect using humour Rationalise / generalise

Techniques for helping groups We have identified five main categories of facilitation techniques, and have listed specific techniques within each. The list is not exhaustive, but covers most of what we believe are the main techniques. In a way this is a variant of de Bono's 'Six Thinking Hats'.

Idea generation and categorisation methods

Metaphor

Re-framing

Draw a picture

Write a story

Make a myth

Build a collage

Brainstorming

Mindstorming

Clustering

Write ideas on 'post-its'

Magnetic hexagons Shifting state

Take a break

Energisers

Act out the problem

Sculpt it

Line up

Physical movement

Change seats

Work in bare feet

Write with your other hand

Problem analysis techniques

Force-field analysis

SWOT

Fishbone / cause-effect diagram

Mind-maps

Onion method Restructuring the group

Divide into pairs

Work individually

Break into syndicates

Create a sub-group task-force Verbal interventions

Summarise where we are now

Confront individuals who are obstructive

Disclosure 'How I'm feeling' 'This is where I'm at'

Diagnose the source of the block

Bringing groups to closure

Another key skill of effective facilitators is the ability to bring group activity to an effective close. 'Effective' in this case means:

The group has achieved the outputs/outcomes it planned, to the satisfaction of its members

Or, having failed to achieved its outcomes, the group has an understanding about where it is and has a plan in place as to how it will achieve its outcomes next time

There is little or no 'unfinished business' in the group

The 'next steps' are clear for the group as a whole and the individuals within it Techniques for bringing closure

Summarising is the key to good closure

Summarise key points and action items, or ask someone else to summarise

Check with the group: 'Is there anything else'

Making a closing statement, e.g. 'Well, I sense from the group that we're about finished here"

Create a 'ritual' that will signal closure to the group, e.g. ask everyone to tell a 'good news' story

Where the meeting has been 'difficult', e.g. unresolved and unfinished business

Ask each member of the group to make a closing statement about where they are and how they feel

Invite the group to help you devise a way forward, e.g. 'In the five minutes we have left, I'd like you to suggest ways we could plan the next meeting so it will help us move forward'

State your own feelings and views, e.g. 'I feel vaguely dissatisfied about the way the meeting has gone. How is everyone else feeling?'

Common reasons for failing to achieve closure

Too many options

Unwillingness, inability to make a decision

Inadequately planned or unrealistic outcomes

Unfinished business within the group, e.g. strong feelings not accommodated, unresolved conflict

Introduction of new ideas or information at an inappropriate time, e.g. near the end of the meeting

Inadequate solutions to a messy problem

Closure

Purpose To summarise To check for commitment and understanding To action plan To look ahead to next steps To clear up any 'unfinished business' ___________________________________________________________ Methods Specific things you can say or do Summarising

FFrom facilitator

"So the key decisions from this meeting have been…"

FFrom group

"In pairs, spend one minute discussing where you think we've got with this issue today, then we'll quickly hear from each pair" "Going around the group, let's hear from each person the one key thing they're going to do as a result of today's meeting"

Check level of achievement of outcome(s) Remind group of outcome (perhaps from a written statement on flipchart or handout). Ask to what extent that has been achieved. If not fully, ask how the outcome can now be achieved (e.g. outside meeting, follow up action, further meeting).

'Ritual' that signals the end of the meeting

Round robin of closing statement, e.g.

OOne thing I'm going to do as a result of this meeting

OOne thing I'm pleased with about today, one thing for us to do better next time

TThree words that describe how the meeting has been for me

Action planning and looking ahead

CComplete framework of

What Who When How for further actions

Individual action points, discussed and thought through in pairs, then shared in fours, etc, etc, up to the whole group

Addressing unresolved issues and/or 'unfinished business'

"I feel vaguely dissatisfied about the way the meeting has gone. How is everybody else feeling?" Ask in final 5 minutes for ideas for making future meetings more productive or satisfying

Clarification and definition Early stages of group work Purpose

To surface an issue

To make it OK to discuss it (legitimise)

To air different points of view

To avoid "perception wars"

To get group agreement to work on the problem Methods Specific things you can say or do Legitimise

AAccept v agreement

IIt’s OK to have or see the problem

"Why don't each of you take a minute or two to present your view of the problem. Let's not interrupt and at the end, only clarifying questions will be allowed. All right?" "Wait a minute Joe. That is how Mary sees the problem. You don't have to agree with her, but can you accept that she see it differently?" "It may not be a problem for you but do you understand it's an issue for him?" "How do you see the problem?" "It's natural. People see things differently depending on their point of view".

How does it feel?

GGetting at the affective or emotional aspect of the issue

LLegitimise feelings

"How does it feel to have to face that issue every day?" "You seem very upset. Why don't you take some time to share your feelings with the rest of the group?" "If you were she, how would you feel?"

What's the 'real' problem?

SSpeaking the unspeakable

FFloating a trial balloon

"I don't get the feeling you've got to the real issue. What is the real problem?" "Is that the real problem?" "What's really going on?" "I may be really off base…but is the real issue about losing your jobs?"

Best, worst and most probable

BBacking in to the issue

"What's the best possible thing that might happen if we tackle this problem?…What's the worst possible thing that might happen?…What's the most likely? "If that happened, would that be so bad?" "OK, I understand that some of you have doubts about whether anything new will happen if we work on this problem. Are you willing to give it a try for the next few minutes?"

Whose problem?

GSetting ownership of the problem

NNot trying to solve someone else's problem

"Who's responsible for dealing with this problem?" "Can this group deal with this problem in this meeting?" "Who else should be involved?" "Can we tackle this problem today?" "Who has responsibility for this problem?" "What did you do that allowed this problem to become so difficult?…What could you have done to avoid the problem?"

Skills for working with groups Foundation skills

Listening

Questioning

Articulation - expressing self clearly and concisely

Observation

Timing of interventions

Self awareness

Basic understanding of group dynamics Advanced skills

Dealing with ambiguity of role - Dealing with one's needs so they do not intrude/interfere - Acceptance of marginality of role

Ability to observe, understand and intervene at different levels in a group situation - Intrapersonal - Interpersonal - Group - Organisational/cultural

Understanding parallel process - I.e., how what happens to a consultant can mirror organisational processes

Flexibility of style having an increasing range about choices/intervention - E.g. along Heron's six dimensions - Or Schein's types of intervention

Having multiplicity of different models/orientations by which to understand, e.g. systems perspective/NLP/gestalt/psychoanalytical

Organisational sensitivity - Understanding of organisational culture - Awareness/impact of other aspects of organisation upon the group or team

Ability to discuss and negotiate appropriately management of the facilitating contract with the 'client'

Facilitation Continuum Group Centred Facilitator Centred _________________________________________________________________________________________

Use of control by facilitator

Area of freedom for group

Facilitator uses inductive

question and answer to

"sell" an idea or concept

Facilitator presents ideas

or concepts and invites

responses; idea is

'considered' but not open

to rejection

Facilitator presents

subject, gets responses

and guides a group to a

conclusion

Facilitator defines

boundaries and asks

group to explore issue

Facilitator picks up

issues generated by

group and manages a

free discussion

Leading skills Leading and

shaping skills

Shaping skills

Shaping and

following skills Following skills

John Heron's Facilitation Model From 'The Abridged Facilitator's Handbook' The six dimensions of facilitation The Planning Dimension

This is the goal orientated, ends-and-means aspect of facilitation; that is, it is to do with the aims of the group, and what programme it should undertake to fulfil them. The facilitative question here is; how shall the group acquire its objectives and its programme?

The meaning dimension

This is the cognitive aspect of facilitation: it is to do with participants' understanding of what is going on, with their making sense of experience, and with their knowing how to do things and to react to things. The facilitative question is; how shall the meaning be given to and found in the experiences and actions of group members?

The confronting dimension

This is the challenge aspect of facilitation: it is to do with raising consciousness about the group's resistance to and avoidance of things it needs to face and deal with. The facilitative question is; how shall the group's consciousness be raised about these matters?

The feeling dimension This is the affective aspect of facilitation: it is to do with the management of feeling within the group. The facilitative question is; how shall the life of feeling within the group be handled?

The structuring dimension

This is the formal aspect of facilitation: it is to do with methods of learning, with what sort of form is given to experiences within the group and with how they are to be structured. The facilitative question is; how can the group's learning experience be structured?

The valuing dimension

This is the integrity aspect of facilitation: it is to do with creating a supportive climate which honours and celebrates the personhood of group members; a climate in which they can be genuine, disclosing their reality as it is, keeping in touch with their true needs and interests. The facilitative question is; how can such a climate of personal value, integrity and respect be created?

The three modes of facilitation Each of the above six dimensions can be handled in three different ways. It is one of these three ways which will provide the answer as to who should make decisions on each dimension. The hierarchical mode

Here the facilitator directs the learning process, exercising power over it and doing things for the group: the facilitator leads from the front by thinking and acting on behalf of the group.

The co-operative mode

Here the facilitator shares power over the learning process and managing the different dimensions with the group: s/he enables and guides the group to become more self-directing in the various forms of learning by conferring with them. S/he prompts and helps group members.

The autonomous mode

Here the facilitator respects the total autonomy of the group: s/he does not do things for them, or with them, but gives them freedom to find their own way, exerting their own judgement without any intervention.

Communications

The following ideas are based on Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) types.

When presenting to, influencing, explaining to, or trying to understand:

SENSORS

INTUITIVES

Be factual

Document successful applications

Reduce risk factors

Work out details in advance

Show why it makes sense

Give the global scheme

Don’t let an opportunity pass

Be confident and enthusiastic

Indicate challenges

Point out future benefits

THINKERS

FEELERS

Be logical

State principles involved

Stress competent handling of issue

Have clear arguments

List the costs and benefits

Mention other supporters / use testimonials

Be personable and friendly

Indicate how it is helpful

Tell why it’s valuable to people

Show how it supports personal goals

HOW TO PERSUADE STs

Show me that it works

Indicate how it saves time and money

Demonstrate a good cost-to-benefit ratio

Show how the results can be measured

Allow me to try it before I buy it

Offer specific applications and benefits

Answer all my questions

HOW TO PERSUADE SFs

Indicate its practical results for people

Show how it will clearly benefit me and those I care about

Use personal testimonies from those who have benefited from it

Show that it provides immediate results

Set it in a personal context

Show respect to me and others in your presentation

Explicitly state the benefits; don’t just imply them

HOW TO PERSUADE NFs

Show how it will enhance relationships

State how it helps people grow and develop

Focus on my own and others’ giftedness

Show how it gives new insights and perspectives

Indicate that people will like it, and, by implication, will like me

Point out how it will help me find meaning

Say it’s enjoyable and fun

HOW TO PERSUADE NTs.

Discuss its research base

Highlight its theoretical background

Demonstrate how it fits a strategy

Show how it will increase competency

Indicate its broad and far-reaching possibilities

Show that it has intriguing and fascinating possibilities

Influencing strategies for facilitators

Many facilitators underestimate the need for choosing an influencing strategy when they are engaged with a group. They mistakenly imagine that we are always using the same style when we are facilitating for learning. In fact, we can move up and down a continuum which runs from teaching through to pure facilitation, where the facilitator’s influence is minimal.

Influencing Strategies

Directive Participative

Teaching Facilitating

Push Build

A typical “Push”, or teaching approach is characterised by:

Mostly one-way communication

Confidently presented

Short (<20 mins.) and to the point

Logically structured

Clear visual aids

Firm conclusions.

When done well this approach can be efficient, clear and appreciated by a group, who are looking for the expert opinion on a matter.

The danger of excessive "push" is that it can provoke active or passive resistance from other parties; you must have sat through presentations where perceived arrogance from the presenter was met with a quietly hostile response in the audience.

A typical “Build”, or facilitation approach is characterised by:

Two-way communication

Active involvement of the group

The structure and pace is determined by the needs of the group. More time may be spent where the group need it.

No conclusions or recommendations from the facilitator. These are generated by the group itself.

The group maintains responsibility for the solution or outcome.

The facilitator’s responsibility is for the process, not the content.

The facilitation approach can be a very powerful way to engage people and gain their full commitment. The only potential disadvantage is that it is a more time-consuming process, so people may get impatient if they believe that all that is necessary is to hear the expert’s opinion. Nevertheless, when facilitation is used for learning, it can enable the learning to stick in a more permanent way than teaching can because people have been involved in the process of coming to conclusions.

FACILITATORS NEED FLEXIBILITY

Even if we accept that true learning probably occurs more through a facilitated approach than a teaching approach, nevertheless there may be moments when facilitators need to move more towards the directive end of the continuum. When groups are very inexperienced, sometimes the instructions given by a directive facilitator can help give them some structure and discipline.

Here is a guide to when you can push and when you are better off building:

THE CONTINUUM OF INFLUENCING STRATEGIES

Directive Push

Participative Build

Confident body language and voice Rapport and matching

Logical arguments Careful questioning

Structured presentations Extensive preparation

Expert opinion Coalition building

Proposing your ideas and solutions Incorporating ideas of others

Talk more than listen Listen more than talk

Criteria for use: Criteria for use:

High credibility Low to medium credibility

You are the accepted expert Resistance may occur

One right answer Complex matter

It is sufficient for people to understand

The group must own the process

Only need approval/acceptance Need participation/full buy-in

Neutral environment Emotionally tense/hidden agendas

Being Aware of Your Natural Preference

You will probably have an inherent preference either for "push" or "build", regardless of the situation; this is a question of personal style. In order to be successful, you will need to develop your skills across the whole continuum, so that you can use both push and build effectively.

Using the wrong style in the wrong moment can lead to some undesirable outcomes:

Using push, when you should be building Resistance (maybe even sabotage, in the worst cases.)

Using build, when you should be pushing Loss of credibility, wasting time, inefficiency.

THE IMPACT OF CULTURE IN INFLUENCING

Clearly culture plays an important role in determining which behaviours will work in which situations. A skilful influencer is also someone, who has a good sensitivity for cultural differences and can adapt his style accordingly. Here are some of the key areas where culture can affect your choice of push or build:

Power Distance Differences

In high power distance cultures, there is a big gap between the people at the bottom of the hierarchy and those at the top. The ones at the top are the decision-makers and the ones further down are the implementers. Communication runs from top to bottom. People tend not to challenge the opinions of people who are higher in the hierarchy. Consequently, if you are in a position of authority in this culture people will expect to see, and will tolerate, a lot of push behaviour. In a low power distance culture, the inverse is true. In this culture there is very little difference between the top and the bottom. The mentality of people in this culture is that everyone is entitled to an opinion, whatever their level. People tend to challenge and question frequently. These cultural differences influence how groups will perceive the facilitator. In high power distance cultures, the facilitator often has authority just because of their role as facilitator. People may expect therefore that this person brings expertise and answers. They may resist being asked to participate in the process. In low power distance cultures, people may resent a facilitator, who does not ask for the group’s opinions or input.

Working in a high power distance culture does not automatically mean that you must always teach. Sometimes people could benefit from a more facilitative approach. You simply need to be aware that they may not be used to the idea that everyone’s idea is equally valid and the facilitator does not provide all the answers.

Direct/Indirect Communication Styles

Some cultures tend to communicate very directly. People tend to pass a message in the most concise, simple format possible. We often refer to these cultures as low context because you do not have to understand the context, or have a relationship with the people involved, to understand the communication. The communication is all contained in the message. Typical low context cultures are US, NL, DK, S, CH, Germany. These cultures look for efficiency in communication and will appreciate the directness of a push strategy, providing of course, that the other criteria for using push are fulfilled.

On the other hand, high context cultures, which include the Arab world, and most of Africa, Southern Europe and Belgium, operate differently. Here it is desirable to have lots of discussion before a decision is made. Great importance is placed on relationship-building. There is a good reason for this because in these cultures the communication is not just in the message you hear. You are expected to read between the lines because you know the people and you understand the context. A very fast push strategy may be interpreted in these cultures as being too impersonal.

The Facilitator’s Toolbox This section covers the following techniques:

1. Generating and collecting ideas 2. Organising ideas 3. Making decisions 4. Passing on information or ideas 5. Problem-solving 6. Parking lot 7. Energisers

1. Generating and collecting ideas Probably the best known technique for this is brainstorming.

Advantages Disadvantages

Easy to apply, many people know this technique Fast and efficient Usually generates large numbers of ideas to choose from

Is not necessarily the best techniques for introverts Works less well when the topic is controversial or people are scared to say what they really think

The rules of brainstorming:

Quantity breed quality – go for lots of ideas Hitch-hike other’s suggestions – build on ideas Freewheel – make changes in direction Postpone judgement – evaluation comes later Be succinct – each idea expressed in maximum of 7 words

Other variations on brainstorming There may be situations where you fear that people will not say what they really think. Perhaps they are scared of looking stupid in front of the group or maybe the issue is a controversial one and people do not dare express an opinion for fear that they are associated with that point of view and even sanctioned for daring to express it.

In these cases, it is better to use either:

Small group discussions with a summary report from each group Individuals write their ideas on post-its or small cards and stick them

anonymously on to boards around the room.

2. Organising Ideas – Metaplan or affinity diagrams Metaplan or affinity diagrams are two names for the same technique of organising information into clusters. Writing on small cards or post-it notes during the brainstorming session has the advantage of making it easier to organise ideas later. Even when the brainstorm is a collective one, you may still consider using cards or post-its. When organising ideas, ask the group to scan all the cards in silence and move them together into clusters of similar themes. It is best when people do not discuss during the process. The process is over when everyone stops moving cards around. At this point you, the facilitator, may comment on what you observe has happened in this exercise. You can comment on the process and also on the outcome. You may propose (or ask the group to come up with) titles for the various clusters that have emerged. 3. Decision-making When the Metaplan is complete, you may need to decide which course of action you will pursue. It may be a matter of prioritising the clusters you have generated to decide which topics you will work on first. It may be a matter of choosing the one best cluster of ideas to develop further. In either case, majority voting tends to work best with these kinds of decisions where there is a lot of information to choose from. The easiest way to organise voting with the Metaplan system is to give each participant four or five votes that they can distribute over the list of suggestions as they so wish. The votes may be given in the form of sticky dots, which they can physically stick on their preferred items. Alternatively, you may ask people to make pen marks next to the suggestions they want to vote for. People may put all of their votes on one item or distribute their votes over several items.

Majority voting vs. consensus decision-making

Majority voting Consensus

Fast and efficient May be very time-consuming and frustrating process

Enables the group to move on, but people may not all be delighted with the result

High level of commitment to the decision once it has been reached

Easy to facilitate Takes a lot of skill on the part of the facilitator to draw out people’s concerns and reach true consensus

Can be used as a stepping stone to break a deadlock on the way to reaching consensus

All or nothing – either you have consensus or not

Consensus decision-making

As we have seen, this can be a much more difficult way to get a decision, but is critical when all the members of the group need to defend this decision and be fully committed to its implementation. As the facilitator, ask the following questions:

Can you live with this action?

Will you support this action within the group?

Will you support this action outside the group? If anyone cannot answer yes to all these questions, ask…. What has to change for you to be able to support this decision? When a decision has been reached, confirm this to the group and check once again that everyone is in agreement. For consensus decision-making it may be useful to have a contingency plan, in other words what will we do if we cannot reach consensus in the time allocated?

4. Passing on Information One of the techniques that you can use for teaching concepts or passing ideas around the whole group is third party teaching.

Split the group into sub-groups, working on different topics or different aspects of the same topic.

Groups brainstorm at their own flipchart to produce the answer to the question or an explanation of the issue as they see it.

At the end of the brainstorm, each sub-group selects a presenter, who will present this to the next group.

All groups rotate so that they visit the next flip-chart and hear their presentation. At the end of the presentation, a new presenter is chosen and the rest of the

group rotates around. Rotate until each group has been to each flipchart. This is a powerful technique for learning, as people are forced to explain

something that they have listened to. It tests their listening skills and their ability to assimilate the information and pass it on.

5. Problem-solving Techniques “The greatest challenge for any thinker is stating the problem in a way that will allow a solution” Bertrand Russell First define the problem. This step often determines how successful the group will be in finding a solution. There are different techniques, depending on how much creativity is required. One analytical, “left-brain” option is the grid overleaf:

The problem is…… The problem is not…..

Who

When

Where

What

How it is manifested

How to….. A more creative, right-brained approach is to ask the group to reformulate the problem in a range of “how to…” statements. For example, if the problem were “solve the traffic congestion problems in London”, the group may reformulate as:

How to ensure the traffic flows more smoothly around the city

How to encourage people to use other means of transport

How to get people out of the city centre

How to have fewer cars on the roads Etc. This may already stimulate some new ways of looking at the problem, which could contribute to its solution.

Why-Why Diagrams

This involves asking the question why as many times as possible. For example: Problem = delays in the project

1. Why?……unreliable contractors….. 2. Why?……contractors do not read the briefing we give them…. 3. Why?……the briefings are long and written in complicated English… 4. Etc.

Fishbone Diagrams

These “whys” can also be represented on a fish-bone diagram, which shows all the potential root causes to a problem. Parking Lot This is a good tool to keep the session focussed on the issues at hand and yet not lose sight of other important points that may be raised. Whenever someone raises an issue, which is worthy of discussion, but does not fit with the topic being discussed at that moment, you may agree to “park” that issue and come back to it later. Simply set up a sheet of paper, which is designated as the parking lot. Issues can be posted there at any moment and then dealt with when the moment is right.

6. Energisers These are exercises used at particular moments of the day to keep the energy levels high. They may be activities that in themselves have a link to the theme of the workshop, or they may be simply opportunities to move around and get people’s blood circulating.

De Bono's - 6 Hats This technique can be used to maximise diverse thinking in a group. Participants are allocated different ‘hats’ and asked to ensure they contribute from the perspective of the hat wearer. This can also be a useful structure for looking at how a group works together, what perspectives they mostly use and what gaps there might be in their thinking and working.

White Hat Information needed, facts

Yellow Hat Brightness & optimism

Black Hat What may not work, difficulties & dangers

Red hat Feelings, hunches - express emotions

Green Hat Creativity, possibilities, alternatives

Blue Hat Process, control

Personal

development

Support and

challenge

On going

development

Personal awareness

Style

Patterns of operating / triggers

Fears / anxieties, blocks, who am I?

Ethics / integrity

Positive integration

Role

Purpose

Limits?

Why? - whose request?

Expectations of the group?

Power - perceptions of their and ours

When / how to use appropriately

Picking things up

Observation skills

Using all our senses

Intuition

Engaging

Energy / focus

Conscious / unconscious data gathering

Making sense

Understanding how groups work

Theories / frameworks / experience

Psychology

Individual behaviour and group behaviour

Our toolkit

Contracting

Structure / design / stages

Interventions - range and

flexibility

Techniques and methods

Difficulties

How I manage myself to work

effectively

Positive anchors

Mapping Facilitation Skills

Reading List

Consulting skills and facilitation

Flawless Consulting (1981) By Peter Block (Pfeiffer) The Facilitators Handbook (1990) By John Heron (Kogan Page) Process Consultation, Volumes 1 & 2 (1988) By Edgar Schein (Addison-Wesley) A Consultancy Approach for Trainers (1989) By Keri Phillips and Patricia Shaw (Gower) Client-centred Consulting (1992) By P Cockman, B Evans and P Reynolds (McGraw-Hill) Organisational Consulting - A Gestalt Approach (1987) By Ed Nevis (Gardner Press) Changing Perspectives on Facilitation Skills Development By Midi Berry (Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol 17, No 3, 1993) Practical Guide to Facilitation Skills - a real world approach (1993) By Tony Spinks and Phil Clements (Kogan Page) Group Facilitation - theories and models for practice (1993) By John Heron (Kogan Page)

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