FAA-H-8083-9

AVIATION INSTRUCTOR’SHANDBOOK

1999

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATIONFEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

Flight Standards Service

Front Matter.qxd 7/15/2003 12:06 PM Page i

Front Matter.qxd 7/15/2003 12:06 PM Page ii

PREFACEThe Aviation Instructor’s Handbook is designed for ground instructors, flight instructors, and avia-tion maintenance instructors. It is developed by the Flight Standards Service, Airman TestingStandards Branch in cooperation with aviation educators and industry. This handbook provides thefoundation for beginning instructors to understand and apply the fundamentals of instructing. Thishandbook also provides aviation instructors with up-to-date information on learning and teaching,and how to relate this information to the task of conveying aeronautical knowledge and skills to stu-dents. Experienced aviation instructors also may find the new and updated information useful for improv-ing their effectiveness in training activities.

Chapters 1 through 5 concentrate on learning theory and the teaching process, emphasizing thecharacteristics of human behavior and the importance of communication. Chapters 6 and 7 providevaluable tools for critiquing and evaluating student performance and enhancing instructional presen-tations with teaching aids and new training technologies. Chapter 8 defines instructor responsibilitiesand emphasizes ways that instructors can develop and portray a professional image to their stu-dents. Chapter 9 contains useful information that can be applied when teaching in the aircraft, andalso provides comprehensive treatment for teaching aeronautical decision making (ADM) and judg-ment. Chapters 10 and 11 provide valuable information for planning instructional activity and contin-uing professional development. Occasionally, the word “must” or similar language is used wherethe desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to add to, interpret,or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR).

This handbook supersedes AC 60-14, Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, dated 1977; AC 61-101, PresoloWritten Test, dated 1989; and AC 61-115, Positive Exchange of Flight Controls, dated 1995. It can bepurchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO),Washington, DC 20402-9325, or from U.S. Government Bookstores located in major cities throughoutthe United States.

The current Flight Standards Service airman training and testing material and subject matter knowledgecodes for all instructor certificates and ratings can be obtained from the Regulatory Support Division,AFS-600, home page on the Internet.

The Regulatory Support Division’s Internet address is: http://www.mmac.jccbi.gov/afs/afs600

Comments regarding this handbook should be sent to U.S. Department of Transportation, FederalAviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City,OK 73125.

AC 00-2, Advisory Circular Checklist, transmits the current status of FAA advisory circulars and other flightinformation and publications. This checklist is free of charge and may be obtained by sending a request toU.S. Department of Transportation, Subsequent Distribution Office, SVC-121.23, Ardmore East BusinessCenter, 3341 Q 75th Avenue, Landover, MD 20785. The checklist is also available on the Internet athttp://www.faa.gov/abc/ac-chklst/actoc.htm

Front Matter.qxd 7/15/2003 12:06 PM Page iii

Front Matter.qxd 7/15/2003 12:06 PM Page iv

Repression ...............................................1-15Retention of Learning ..................................1-15

Praise Stimulates Remembering ..............1-15Recall is Promoted by Association...........1-15Favorable Attitudes Aid Retention ............1-15Learning with All Our Senses is Most Effective.1-15Meaningful Repetition Aids Recall ...........1-15

Transfer of Learning .......................................1-16Habit Formation ...........................................1-16

Chapter 2—Human Behavior

Control of Human Behavior..............................2-1Human Needs ..................................................2-2

Physical .........................................................2-2Safety.............................................................2-2Social .............................................................2-2Ego ................................................................2-2Self-Fulfillment ...............................................2-3

Defense Mechanisms.......................................2-3Compensation ...............................................2-3Projection.......................................................2-3Rationalization ...............................................2-3Denial of Reality ............................................2-3Reaction Formation .......................................2-3Flight ..............................................................2-3Aggression .....................................................2-4Resignation....................................................2-4

The Flight Instructor as a Practical Psychologist ...2-4Anxiety ...........................................................2-4Normal Reactions to Stress ...........................2-5Abnormal Reactions to Stress .......................2-5Flight Instructor Actions Regarding Seriously

Abnormal Students .....................................2-5

Chapter 3—Effective Communication

Basic Elements.................................................3-1Source ...........................................................3-1Symbols .........................................................3-2Receiver.........................................................3-2

Barriers to Effective Communication................3-3Lack of Common Experience ........................3-3Confusion Between the Symbol and the

Symbolized Object .....................................3-4Overuse of Abstractions ................................3-4Interference ...................................................3-5

Developing Communication Skills....................3-5Role Playing ..................................................3-5Instructional Communication .........................3-5

Listening .....................................................3-6Questioning ................................................3-7

Chapter 1—The Learning ProcessLearning Theory ...............................................1-1

Behaviorism...................................................1-1Cognitive Theory ...........................................1-1Combined Approach ......................................1-2

Definition of Learning .......................................1-2Characteristics of Learning ..............................1-2

Learning is Purposeful...................................1-2Learning is a Result of Experience ...............1-3Learning is Multifaceted ................................1-3Learning is an Active Process .......................1-3Learning Styles ..............................................1-3

Principles of Learning.......................................1-5Readiness......................................................1-5Exercise .........................................................1-5Effect ..............................................................1-5Primacy ..........................................................1-5Intensity .........................................................1-5Recency.........................................................1-5How People Learn .........................................1-5Perceptions ....................................................1-6

Factors Which Affect Perception................1-6Physical Organism .....................................1-6Basic Need.................................................1-6Goals and Values .......................................1-6Self Concept...............................................1-6Time and Opportunity.................................1-7Element of Threat.......................................1-7Insight.........................................................1-7Motivation ...................................................1-8

Levels of Learning............................................1-9Domains of Learning ...................................1-10

Cognitive Domain.....................................1-10Affective Domain ......................................1-10Psychomotor Domain ...............................1-10

Practical Application of Learning Objectives1-11Learning Physical Skills ..................................1-11

Physical Skills Involve More Than Muscles 1-12Desire to Learn.........................................1-12Patterns to Follow ....................................1-12Perform the Skill.......................................1-12Knowledge of Results ..............................1-12Progress Follows a Pattern......................1-12Duration and Organization of Lesson ......1-13Evaluation Versus Critique.......................1-13Application of Skill ....................................1-13

Memory ..........................................................1-13Sensory Register .........................................1-13Working or Short-Term Memory ..................1-13Long-Term Memory .....................................1-14Theories of Forgetting .................................1-15

Disuse ......................................................1-15Interference ..............................................1-15

CONTENTS

Front Matter.qxd 7/15/2003 12:06 PM Page v

Instructional Enhancement ...........................3-7

Chapter 4—The Teaching ProcessPreparation .......................................................4-1

Performance-Based Objectives.....................4-1Description of the Skill or Behavior............4-2Conditions ..................................................4-2Criteria........................................................4-2Other Uses of Performance-Based Objectives.4-3

Presentation .....................................................4-3Application........................................................4-3Review and Evaluation.....................................4-4

Chapter 5—Teaching Methods

Organizing Material ...........................................5-1Introduction.....................................................5-2

Attention ......................................................5-2Motivation....................................................5-2Overview .....................................................5-2

Development ..................................................5-2Past to Present ...........................................5-2Simple to Complex ......................................5-2Known to Unknown.....................................5-2Most Frequently Used to Least

Frequently Used......................................5-3Conclusion .....................................................5-3

Lecture Method ................................................5-3Teaching Lecture ...........................................5-3

Preparing the Teaching Lecture .................5-3Suitable Language .....................................5-4Types of Delivery........................................5-4Use of Notes ..............................................5-5

Formal Versus Informal Lectures ..................5-5Advantages and Disadvantages of the Lecture ..5-5

Cooperative or Group Learning Method ..........5-6Conditions and Controls ................................5-6

Heterogeneous Groups ..............................5-6Clear, Complete Directions and Instructions5-6All Students in the Group Must Buy Into the

Targeted Objectives ................................5-6Positive Interdependence...........................5-6Opportunity for Success.............................5-6Access to Must-Learn Information .............5-7Sufficient Time for Learning .......................5-7Positive Social Interaction Behaviors and

Attitudes ..................................................5-7Individual Accountability .............................5-7Recognition and Rewards for

Group Success........................................5-7Debrief on Group Efforts..............................5-7

Guided Discussion Method................................5-7Use of Questions in a Guided Discussion ......5-7Planning a Guided Discussion ........................5-8

Student Preparation for a Guided Discussion .5-9Guiding a Discussion—Instructor Technique ..5-9

Introduction ..................................................5-9Discussion ...................................................5-9Conclusion..................................................5-9

Demonstration-Performance Method .............5-10Explanation Phase.......................................5-10Demonstration Phase ..................................5-10Student Performance and Instructor

Supervision Phases..................................5-10Evaluation Phase.........................................5-10

Computer-Based Training Method ................5-10

Chapter 6—Critique and EvaluationThe Instructor as a Critic ..................................6-1

Purpose of a Critique.....................................6-1Characteristics of an Effective Critique .........6-2

Objective ....................................................6-2Flexible .......................................................6-2Acceptable..................................................6-2Comprehensive ..........................................6-2Constructive ...............................................6-2Organized ...................................................6-3Thoughtful ..................................................6-3Specific .......................................................6-3

Methods of Critique .......................................6-3Instructor/Student Critique..........................6-3Student-Led Critique ..................................6-3Small Group Critique..................................6-3Individual Student Critique by

Another Student..........................................6-3Self-Critique................................................6-3Written Critique ..........................................6-4

Ground Rules for Critiquing...........................6-4Evaluation .........................................................6-4

Oral Quizzes..................................................6-4Characteristics of Effective Questions .......6-5Types of Questions to Avoid ......................6-5Answering Questions from Students ..........6-5

Written Tests ..................................................6-6Characteristics of a Good Test ...................6-6

Test Development..........................................6-7Determine Level-of-Learning Objectives....6-8List Indicators/Samples of Desired Behavior ..6-8Establish Criterion Objectives ....................6-8Develop Criterion-Referenced Test Items ..6-8

Written Test Items ..........................................6-9Supply Type ...............................................6-9Selection Type............................................6-9

True-False...............................................6-9Multiple-Choice .....................................6-10Stems ....................................................6-11Alternatives ...........................................6-12

Front Matter.qxd 7/15/2003 12:06 PM Page vi

Matching ...............................................6-12Developing a Test Item Bank ...................6-12Principles to Follow ..................................6-13Presolo Knowledge Tests.........................6-13

Performance Tests .......................................6-14

Chapter 7—Instructional Aids and Training Technologies

Instructional Aid Theory ....................................7-1Reasons for Use of Instructional Aids ..............7-2Guidelines for Use of Instructional Aids ...........7-2Types of Instructional Aids ...............................7-3

Chalk or Marker Board ..................................7-3Supplemental Print Material ..........................7-4Enhanced Training Material ...........................7-5Projected Material..........................................7-5Video..............................................................7-6

Passive Video ............................................7-6Interactive Video ........................................7-7Computer-Based Multimedia......................7-7

Models, Mock-Ups, and Cut-Aways ..............7-9Test Preparation Material .................................7-9Future Developments .......................................7-9

Chapter 8—Instructor Responsibilities andProfessionalism

Aviation Instructor Responsibilities...................8-1Helping Students Learn .................................8-1Providing Adequate Instruction......................8-2Standards of Performance.............................8-3Emphasizing the Positive ..............................8-3

Flight Instructor Responsibilities ......................8-4Evaluation of Student Piloting Ability .............8-4Pilot Supervision ............................................8-5Practical Test Recommendations ..................8-5Flight Instructor Endorsements......................8-6

FAA Form 8710-1 .......................................8-6Additional Training and Endorsements ..........8-6

Flight Reviews............................................8-6Instrument Proficiency Checks...................8-9Aircraft Checkouts/Transitions ...................8-9

Pilot Proficiency .............................................8-9Professionalism..............................................8-10

Sincerity.......................................................8-10Acceptance of the Student...........................8-11Personal Appearance and Habits ................8-11Demeanor ....................................................8-11Safety Practices and Accident Prevention ...8-11Proper Language.........................................8-12Self-Improvement ........................................8-12Minimizing Student Frustrations ..................8-12Additional Responsibilities...........................8-13

Chapter 9—Techniques of Flight Instruction

The Telling-and-Doing Technique.....................9-1

Instructor Tells–Instructor Does .....................9-1Student Tells–Instructor Does ........................9-2Student Tells–Student Does ..........................9-2Student Does–Instructor Evaluates ...............9-3

Integrated Flight Instruction..............................9-3Development of Habit Patterns .....................9-3Accuracy of Flight Control .............................9-4Operating Efficiency ......................................9-4Procedures ....................................................9-4Precautions ....................................................9-4Flight Instructor Qualifications .......................9-5

Obstacles to Learning During Flight Instruction...9-5Unfair Treatment............................................9-5Impatience .....................................................9-5Worry or Lack of Interest ...............................9-5Physical Discomfort, Illness, and Fatigue .....9-6Apathy Due to Inadequate Instruction ...........9-6Anxiety ...........................................................9-7

Positive Exchange of Flight Controls ...............9-7Background ...................................................9-7Procedures ....................................................9-7

Use of Distractions ...........................................9-8Aeronautical Decision Making ..........................9-8

Origins of ADM Training ................................9-9The Decision-Making Process .....................9-10

Defining the Problem ...............................9-10Choosing a Course of Action ..................9-11Implementing the Decision and

Evaluating the Outcome..............................9-11Risk Management ....................................9-11Assessing Risk.....................................................9-12

Factors Affecting Decision Making .................9-13Pilot Self-Assessment..................................9-13

Recognizing Hazardous Attitudes ............9-13Stress Management .................................9-14

Use of Resources ........................................9-15Internal Resources ...................................9-15External Resources..................................9-16

Workload Management ...............................9-16Situational Awareness .................................9-17

Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness ............................................9-17

Operational Pitfalls .........................................9-17Evaluating Student Decision Making ..............9-18

Chapter 10—Planning Instructional Activity

Course of Training..........................................10-1Objectives and Standards............................10-1

Blocks of Learning..........................................10-2Training Syllabus............................................10-3

Syllabus Format and Content......................10-3How to Use a Training Syllabus...............10-4

Lesson Plans..................................................10-5Purpose of the Lesson Plan ........................10-5Characteristics of a Well-Planned Lesson...10-6

Front Matter.qxd 7/15/2003 12:06 PM Page vii

How to Use a Lesson Plan Properly ...........10-6Lesson Plan Formats...................................10-7

Chapter 11—Professional DevelopmentGrowth and Development...............................11-1

The Instructor as a Safety Advocate ...........11-1Aviation Safety Counselors ......................11-1

Continuing Education ...................................11-2Government..............................................11-2

Educational/Training Institutions ...............11-2Commercial Organizations .......................11-3Industry Organizations .............................11-3

Sources of Material.........................................11-3Printed Material............................................11-4Electronic Sources .......................................11-4

Appendix A—Sample Test Items .....................A-1

Appendix B—Instructor Endorsements............B-1

References ......................................................R-1

Glossary ..........................................................G-1

Index ..................................................................I-1

Front Matter.qxd 7/15/2003 12:06 PM Page viii

To learn is to acquire knowledge or skill. Learningalso may involve a change in attitude or behavior.Children learn to identify objects at an early age;teenagers may learn to improve study habits; andadults can learn to solve complex problems.Pilots and aviation maintenance technicians(AMTs) need to acquire the higher levels ofknowledge and skill, including the ability to exer-cise judgment and solve problems. The challengefor the aviation instructor is to understand howpeople learn, and more importantly, to be able toapply that knowledge to the learning environ-ment. This handbook is designed as a basicguide to educational psychology. This chapteraddresses that branch of psychology directlyconcerned with how people learn.

LEARNING THEORYLearning theory may be described as a body ofprinciples advocated by psychologists and educa-tors to explain how people acquire skills, knowl-edge, and attitudes. Various branches of learningtheory are used in formal training programs toimprove and accelerate the learning process. Keyconcepts such as desired learning outcomes,objectives of the training, and depth of trainingalso apply. When properly integrated, learningprinciples, derived from theories, can be useful toaviation instructors and developers of instruction-al programs for both pilots and maintenance tech-nicians.

Over the years, many theories have attempted toexplain how people learn. Even though psycholo-gists and educators are not in complete agree-

ment, most do agree that learning may beexplained by a combination of two basicapproaches—behaviorism and the cognitive theo-ries.

BEHAVIORISMBehaviorists believe that animals, includinghumans, learn in about the same way. Behaviorismstresses the importance of having a particular formof behavior reinforced by someone, other than thestudent, to shape or control what is learned. In avi-ation training, the instructor provides the reinforce-ment. Frequent, positive reinforcement andrewards accelerate learning. This theory providesthe instructor with ways to manipulate students withstimuli, induce the desired behavior or response,and reinforce the behavior with appropriaterewards. In general, the behaviorist theory empha-sizes positive reinforcement rather than no rein-forcement or punishment.

Other features of behaviorism are considerablymore complex than this simple explanation.Instructors who need more details should refer topsychology texts for a better understanding ofbehaviorism. As an instructor, it is important tokeep in mind that behaviorism is still widely usedtoday, because controlling learning experienceshelps direct students toward specific learning out-comes.

COGNITIVE THEORYMuch of the recent psychological thinking andexperimentation in education includes somefacets of the cognitive theory. This is true in basic

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-1

as well as more advanced training programs.Unlike behaviorism, the cognitive theory focuseson what is going on inside the student’s mind.Learning is not just a change in behavior; it is achange in the way a student thinks, understands,or feels.

There are several branches of cognitive theory.Two of the major theories may broadly be classi-fied as the information processing model and thesocial interaction model. The first says that thestudent’s brain has internal structures whichselect and process incoming material, store andretrieve it, use it to produce behavior, andreceive and process feedback on the results.This involves a number of cognitive processes,including executive functions of recognizingexpectancies, planning and monitoring perform-ance, encoding and chunking information, andproducing internal and external responses.

The social interaction theories gained prominencein the 1980s. They stress that learning and sub-sequent changes in behavior take place as aresult of interaction between the student and theenvironment. Behavior is modeled either by peo-ple or symbolically. Cultural influences, peer pres-sure, group dynamics, and film and television aresome of the significant factors. Thus, the socialenvironment to which the student is exposeddemonstrates or models behaviors, and the stu-dent cognitively processes the observed behav-iors and consequences. The cognitive processesinclude attention, retention, motor responses, andmotivation. Techniques for learning include directmodeling and verbal instruction. Behavior, per-sonal factors, and environmental events all worktogether to produce learning.

Both models of the cognitive theory have commonprinciples. For example, they both acknowledgethe importance of reinforcing behavior and meas-uring changes. Positive reinforcement is impor-tant, particularly with cognitive concepts such asknowledge and understanding. The need to eval-uate and measure behavior remains because it isthe only way to get a clue about what the studentunderstands. Evaluation is often limited to thekinds of knowledge or behavior that can be meas-ured by a paper-and-pencil exam or a perform-ance test. Although psychologists agree that thereoften are errors in evaluation, some means ofmeasuring student knowledge, performance, andbehavior is necessary.

COMBINED APPROACHBoth the behavioristic and the cognitive approach-es are useful learning theories. A reasonable way

to plan, manage, and conduct aviation training isto include the best features of each major theory.This provides a way to measure behavioral out-comes and promote cognitive learning. The com-bined approach is not simple, but neither is learn-ing.

DEFINITION OF LEARNINGThe ability to learn is one of the most outstandinghuman characteristics. Learning occurs continu-ously throughout a person’s lifetime. To definelearning, it is necessary to analyze what happensto the individual. For example, an individual’s wayof perceiving, thinking, feeling, and doing maychange as a result of a learning experience. Thus,learning can be defined as a change in behavioras a result of experience. This can be physicaland overt, or it may involve complex intellectual orattitudinal changes which affect behavior in moresubtle ways. In spite of numerous theories andcontrasting views, psychologists generally agree

on many common characteristics of learning.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNINGAviation instructors need a good understanding ofthe general characteristics of learning in order toapply them in a learning situation. If learning is achange in behavior as a result of experience, theninstruction must include a careful and systematiccreation of those experiences that promote learn-ing. This process can be quite complex because,among other things, an individual’s backgroundstrongly influences the way that person learns. Tobe effective, the learning situation also should bepurposeful, based on experience, multifaceted, andinvolve an active process. [Figure 1-1]

LEARNING IS PURPOSEFULEach student sees a learning situation from a dif-ferent viewpoint. Each student is a unique individ-ual whose past experiences affect readiness to

Figure 1-1. Effective learning shares several common character-istics.

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-2

learn and understanding of the requirementsinvolved. For example, an instructor may give twoaviation maintenance students the assignment oflearning certain inspection procedures. One stu-dent may learn quickly and be able to competent-ly present the assigned material. The combinationof an aviation background and future goals mayenable that student to realize the need and valueof learning the procedures. A second student’sgoal may only be to comply with the instructor’sassignment, and may result in only minimumpreparation. The responses differ because eachstudent acts in accordance with what he or shesees in the situation.

Most people have fairly definite ideas about whatthey want to do and achieve. Their goals some-times are short term, involving a matter of days orweeks. On the other hand, their goals may becarefully planned for a career or a lifetime. Eachstudent has specific intentions and goals. Somemay be shared by other students. Students learnfrom any activity that tends to further their goals.Their individual needs and attitudes may deter-mine what they learn as much as what the instruc-tor is trying to get them to learn. In the process oflearning, the student’s goals are of paramount sig-nificance. To be effective, aviation instructorsneed to find ways to relate new learning to the stu-dent’s goals.

LEARNING IS A RESULT OF EXPERIENCESince learning is an individual process, the instruc-tor cannot do it for the student. The student canlearn only from personal experiences; therefore,learning and knowledge cannot exist apart from aperson. A person’s knowledge is a result of experi-ence, and no two people have had identical expe-riences. Even when observing the same event,two people react differently; they learn differentthings from it, according to the manner in whichthe situation affects their individual needs.Previous experience conditions a person torespond to some things and to ignore others.

All learning is by experience, but learning takesplace in different forms and in varying degrees ofrichness and depth. For instance, some experi-ences involve the whole person while others maybe based only on hearing and memory. Aviationinstructors are faced with the problem of providinglearning experiences that are meaningful, varied,and appropriate. As an example, students canlearn to say a list of words through repeated drill,or they can learn to recite certain principles of flightby rote. However, they can make them meaningfulonly if they understand them well enough to applythem correctly to real situations. If an experience

challenges the students, requires involvement withfeelings, thoughts, memory of past experiences,and physical activity, it is more effective than alearning experience in which all the students haveto do is commit something to memory.

It seems clear enough that the learning of a phys-ical skill requires actual experience in performingthat skill. Student pilots learn to fly aircraft only iftheir experiences include flying them; student avi-ation maintenance technicians learn to overhaulpowerplants only by actually performing that task.Mental habits are also learned through practice. Ifstudents are to use sound judgment and developdecision-making skills, they need learning experi-ences that involve knowledge of general principlesand require the use of judgment in solving realisticproblems.

LEARNING IS MULTIFACETEDIf instructors see their objective as being only to traintheir students’ memory and muscles, they are under-estimating the potential of the teaching situation.Students may learn much more than expected if theyfully exercise their minds and feelings. The fact thatthese items were not included in the instructor’s plandoes not prevent them from influencing the learningsituation.

Psychologists sometimes classify learning bytypes, such as verbal, conceptual, perceptual,motor, problem solving, and emotional. Other clas-sifications refer to intellectual skills, cognitivestrategies, and attitudinal changes, along withdescriptive terms like surface or deep learning.However useful these divisions may be, they aresomewhat artificial. For example, a class learningto apply the scientific method of problem solvingmay learn the method by trying to solve real prob-lems. But in doing so, the class also engages inverbal learning and sensory perception at thesame time. Each student approaches the task withpreconceived ideas and feelings, and for manystudents, these ideas change as a result of expe-rience. Therefore, the learning process mayinclude verbal elements, conceptual elements,perceptual elements, emotional elements, andproblem solving elements all taking place at once.This aspect of learning will become more evidentlater in this handbook when lesson planning is dis-cussed.

Learning is multifaceted in still another way. Whilelearning the subject at hand, students may belearning other things as well. They may be devel-oping attitudes about aviation—good or bad—depending on what they experience. Under a skill-

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-3

ful instructor, they may learn self-reliance. The listis seemingly endless. This type of learning issometimes referred to as incidental, but it mayhave a great impact on the total development ofthe student.

LEARNING IS AN ACTIVE PROCESSStudents do not soak up knowledge like a spongeabsorbs water. The instructor cannot assume thatstudents remember something just because theywere in the classroom, shop, or airplane when theinstructor presented the material. Neither can theinstructor assume that the students can apply whatthey know because they can quote the correctanswer verbatim. For students to learn, they needto react and respond, perhaps outwardly, perhapsonly inwardly, emotionally, or intellectually. But iflearning is a process of changing behavior, clearlythat process must be an active one.

LEARNING STYLESAlthough characteristics of learning and learningstyles are related, there are distinctions betweenthe two. Learning style is a concept that can playan important role in improving instruction and stu-dent success. It is concerned with student prefer-ences and orientation at several levels. For exam-ple, a student’s information processing technique,personality, social interaction tendencies, and theinstructional methods used are all significant fac-tors which apply to how individual students learn.In addition, today’s culturally diverse society,including international students, must be consid-ered. The key point is that all students are differ-ent, and training programs should be sensitive tothe differences.

Some students are fast learners and others havedifficulties; and, as already mentioned, motivation,experience, and previous training affect learningstyle. Any number of adjectives may be used todescribe learning styles. Some common exam-ples include:

• Right/left brain• Holistic/serialist• Dependent/independent• Reflective/impulsive

Theories abound concerning right- or left-braindominance. In general, those with right-brain dom-inance are characterized as being spatially orient-ed, creative, intuitive, and emotional. Those withleft-brain dominance are more verbal, analytical,and objective. However, the separate hemi-spheres of the brain do not function independent-ly. For example, the right hemisphere may recog-nize a face, while the left associates a name to go

with the face. The term dominance is probablymisleading when applied to brain hemipheres;specialization would be a more appropriate word.

Learning style differences certainly depend onhow students process information. Some relyheavily on visual references while others dependmore on auditory presentations. For example,visual students learn readily through reading andgraphic displays, and auditory students have moresuccess if they hear the subject matter described.Another difference is that some learn more easilywhen an idea is presented in a mathematicalequation, while others may prefer a verbal expla-nation of the same idea. In addition, where hands-on activities are involved, students also learn byfeel. This is sometimes called kinesthetic learning.

Information processing theories contain severalother useful classifications. As an example, in theholistic/serialist theory, the holist strategy is a top-down concept where students have a big picture,global perspective. These students seek overallcomprehension, especially through the use ofanalogies. In contrast, the serialist student focus-es more narrowly and needs well-defined,sequential steps where the overall picture isdeveloped slowly, thoroughly, and logically. This isa bottom-up strategy.

Two additional information processing classifica-tions describe deep-elaborative and the shallow-reiterative learners. Testing practices whichdemand comprehension, rather than a regurgita-tion of facts, obviously encourage students toadopt a deep-elaborative learning style. Detailedinformation on testing procedures, as well as cur-riculum design and instructor techniques, isincluded later in this handbook.

As indicated, personality also affects how studentslearn. Dependent students require a lot of guid-ance, direction, and external stimulation. Thesestudents tend to focus on the instructor. The moreindependent students require only a minimumamount of guidance and external stimulation. Theyare not overly concerned with how the lesson ispresented.

Students with a reflective-type personality may bedescribed as tentative. They tend to be uncertainin problem-solving exercises. The opposite appliesto impulsive students. Typically, they dive right inwith enthusiasm and are prone to make quick, andsometimes faulty, decisions.

The social interaction concept contains furtherclassifications of student learning styles. Likemost of the other information on learning styles,these classifications are derived from research on

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-4

tendencies of undergraduate students.

Some generalizations about these classificationsindicate that compliant students are typically taskoriented, and anxious-dependent students usual-ly score lower than others on standardized tests.Discouraged students often have depressed feel-ings about the future, and independent studentstend to be older, intelligent, secure, and comfort-able with the academic environment. Attentionseekers have a strong social orientation and arefrequently involved in joking, showing off, andbragging. In contrast, silent students usually arecharacterized by helplessness, vulnerability, andother disconcerting behaviorisms.

Other studies identify more categories that areeasily recognized. Among these are collaborative,sharing students who enjoy working with others,and competitive students who are grade con-scious and feel they must do better than theirpeers. Participant students normally have a desireto learn and enjoy attending class, and avoidantstudents do not take part in class activities andhave little interest in learning.

The existing learning environment also influenceslearning style. In real life, most students find it nec-essary to adapt to a traditional style learning envi-ronment provided by a school, university, or othereducational/training establishment. Thus, the stu-dent’s learning style may or may not be compati-ble.

Instructors who can recognize student learning styledifferences and associated problems will be muchmore effective than those who do not understandthis concept. Also, these instructors will be preparedto develop appropriate lesson plans and provideguidance, counseling, or other advisory services, asrequired.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNINGOver the years, educational psychologists haveidentified several principles which seem generallyapplicable to the learning process. They provideadditional insight into what makes people learnmost effectively.

READINESSIndividuals learn best when they are ready tolearn, and they do not learn well if they see noreason for learning. Getting students ready tolearn is usually the instructor’s responsibility. Ifstudents have a strong purpose, a clear objective,and a definite reason for learning something, theymake more progress than if they lack motivation.Readiness implies a degree of single-mindednessand eagerness. When students are ready to learn,

they meet the instructor at least halfway, and thissimplifies the instructor’s job.

Under certain circumstances, the instructor can dolittle, if anything, to inspire in students a readinessto learn. If outside responsibilities, interests, orworries weigh too heavily on their minds, if theirschedules are overcrowded, or if their personalproblems seem insoluble, students may have littleinterest in learning.

EXERCISEThe principle of exercise states that those thingsmost often repeated are best remembered. It isthe basis of drill and practice. The human memo-ry is fallible. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate,and apply new concepts or practices after a singleexposure. Students do not learn to weld duringone shop period or to perform crosswind landingsduring one instructional flight. They learn byapplying what they have been told and shown.Every time practice occurs, learning continues.The instructor must provide opportunities for stu-dents to practice and, at the same time, makesure that this process is directed toward a goal.

EFFECTThe principle of effect is based on the emotionalreaction of the student. It states that learning isstrengthened when accompanied by a pleasant orsatisfying feeling, and that learning is weakenedwhen associated with an unpleasant feeling.Experiences that produce feelings of defeat, frus-tration, anger, confusion, or futility are unpleasantfor the student. If, for example, an instructorattempts to teach landings during the first flight,the student is likely to feel inferior and be frustrat-ed.

Instructors should be cautious. Impressing stu-dents with the difficulty of an aircraft maintenanceproblem, flight maneuver, or flight crew duty canmake the teaching task difficult. Usually it is betterto tell students that a problem or maneuver,although difficult, is within their capability tounderstand or perform. Whatever the learning sit-uation, it should contain elements that affect thestudents positively and give them a feeling of sat-isfaction.

PRIMACYPrimacy, the state of being first, often creates astrong, almost unshakable, impression. For theinstructor, this means that what is taught must beright the first time. For the student, it means thatlearning must be right. Unteaching is more difficult

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-5

than teaching. If, for example, a maintenance stu-dent learns a faulty riveting technique, the instruc-tor will have a difficult task correcting bad habitsand reteaching correct ones. Every studentshould be started right. The first experience

should be positive, functional, and lay the founda-tion for all that is to follow.

INTENSITYA vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experienceteaches more than a routine or boring experience.A student is likely to gain greater understanding ofslow flight and stalls by performing them ratherthan merely reading about them. The principle ofintensity implies that a student will learn morefrom the real thing than from a substitute. In con-trast to flight instruction and shop instruction, theclassroom imposes limitations on the amount ofrealism that can be brought into teaching. Theaviation instructor should use imagination inapproaching reality as closely as possible. Today,classroom instruction can benefit from a widevariety of instructional aids to improve realism,motivate learning, and challenge students.Chapter 7, Instructional Aids and TrainingTechnologies, explores the wide range of teach-ing tools available for classroom use.

RECENCYThe principle of recency states that things mostrecently learned are best remembered.Conversely, the further a student is removedtime-wise from a new fact or understanding, themore difficult it is to remember. It is easy, forexample, for a student to recall a torque valueused a few minutes earlier, but it is usually impos-sible to remember an unfamiliar one used a weekearlier. Instructors recognize the principle of

recency when they carefully plan a summary fora ground school lesson, a shop period, or a post-flight critique. The instructor repeats, restates, orreemphasizes important points at the end of alesson to help the student remember them. Theprinciple of recency often determines thesequence of lectures within a course of instruc-tion.

HOW PEOPLE LEARNInitially, all learning comes from perceptions whichare directed to the brain by one or more of the fivesenses: sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste.Psychologists have also found that learningoccurs most rapidly when information is receivedthrough more than one sense. [Figure 1-2]

PERCEPTIONSPerceiving involves more than the reception ofstimuli from the five senses. Perceptions resultwhen a person gives meaning to sensations.People base their actions on the way they believethings to be. The experienced aviation mainte-nance technician, for example, perceives anengine malfunction quite differently than does aninexperienced student.

Real meaning comes only from within a person,even though the perceptions which evoke thesemeanings result from external stimuli. The mean-ings which are derived from perceptions are influ-enced not only by the individual’s experience, butalso by many other factors. Knowledge of the fac-tors which affect the perceptual process is veryimportant to the aviation instructor because per-ceptions are the basis of all learning.

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT PERCEPTION

There are several factors that affect an individ-ual’s ability to perceive. Some are internal to eachperson and some are external.

• Physical organism• Basic need• Goals and values• Self-concept• Time and opportunity• Element of threat

Physical Organism

The physical organism provides individuals withthe perceptual apparatus for sensing the worldaround them. Pilots, for example, must be able tosee, hear, feel, and respond adequately whilethey are in the air. A person whose perceptualapparatus distorts reality is denied the right to flyat the time of the first medical examination.

Figure 1-2. Most learning occurs through sight, but the combina-tion of sight and hearing accounts for about 88 percent of all per-ceptions.

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-6

Basic Need

A person’s basic need is to maintain and enhancethe organized self. The self is a person’s past,present, and future combined; it is both physicaland psychological. A person’s most fundamental,pressing need is to preserve and perpetuate theself. All perceptions are affected by this need.

Just as the food one eats and the air one breathesbecome part of the physical self, so do the sightsone sees and the sounds one hears become partof the psychological self. Psychologically, we arewhat we perceive. A person has physical barrierswhich keep out those things that would be dam-aging to the physical being, such as blinking at anarc weld or flinching from a hot iron. Likewise, aperson has perceptual barriers that block thosesights, sounds, and feelings which pose a psy-chological threat.

Helping people learn requires finding ways to aidthem in developing better perceptions in spite oftheir defense mechanisms. Since a person’sbasic need is to maintain and enhance the self,the instructor must recognize that anything that isasked of the student which may be interpreted bythe student as imperiling the self will be resistedor denied. To teach effectively, it is necessary towork with this life force.

Goals and Values

Perceptions depend on one’s goals and values.Every experience and sensation which is fun-neled into one’s central nervous system is col-ored by the individual’s own beliefs and valuestructures. Spectators at a ball game may see aninfraction or foul differently depending on whichteam they support. The precise kinds of commit-ments and philosophical outlooks which the stu-dent holds are important for the instructor toknow, since this knowledge will assist in predict-ing how the student will interpret experiencesand instructions.

Goals are also a product of one’s value structure.Those things which are more highly valued andcherished are pursued; those which are accordedless value and importance are not sought after.

Self-Concept

Self-concept is a powerful determinant in learn-ing. A student’s self-image, described in suchterms as confident and insecure, has a greatinfluence on the total perceptual process. If astudent’s experiences tend to support a favor-able self-image, the student tends to remainreceptive to subsequent experiences. If a stu-

dent has negative experiences which tend tocontradict self-concept, there is a tendency toreject additional training.

A negative self-concept inhibits the perceptualprocesses by introducing psychological barrierswhich tend to keep the student from perceiving.They may also inhibit the ability to properly imple-ment that which is perceived. That is, self-conceptaffects the ability to actually perform or do thingsunfavorable. Students who view themselves posi-tively, on the other hand, are less defensive andmore receptive to new experiences, instructions,and demonstrations.

Time and Opportunity

It takes time and opportunity to perceive. Learningsome things depends on other perceptions whichhave preceded these learnings, and on the avail-ability of time to sense and relate these newthings to the earlier perceptions. Thus, sequenceand time are necessary.

A student could probably stall an airplane on thefirst attempt, regardless of previous experience.Stalls cannot really be learned, however, unlesssome experience in normal flight has beenacquired. Even with such experience, time andpractice are needed to relate the new sensationsand experiences associated with stalls in order todevelop a perception of the stall. In general,lengthening an experience and increasing its fre-quency are the most obvious ways to speed uplearning, although this is not always effective.Many factors, in addition to the length and fre-quency of training periods, affect the rate of learn-ing. The effectiveness of the use of a properlyplanned training syllabus is proportional to theconsideration it gives to the time and opportunityfactor in perception.

Element of Threat

The element of threat does not promote effectivelearning. In fact, fear adversely affects perceptionby narrowing the perceptual field. Confronted withthreat, students tend to limit their attention to thethreatening object or condition. The field of visionis reduced, for example, when an individual isfrightened and all the perceptual faculties arefocused on the thing that has generated fear.

Flight instruction provides many clear examples ofthis. During the initial practice of steep turns, a stu-dent pilot may focus attention on the altimeter andcompletely disregard outside visual references.Anything an instructor does that is interpreted asthreatening makes the student less able to acceptthe experience the instructor is trying to provide. It

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-7

adversely affects all the student’s physical, emo-tional, and mental faculties.

Learning is a psychological process, not neces-sarily a logical one. Trying to frighten a studentthrough threats of unsatisfactory reports orreprisals may seem logical, but is not effectivepsychologically. The effective instructor canorganize teaching to fit the psychological needs ofthe student. If a situation seems overwhelming,the student feels unable to handle all of the fac-tors involved, and a threat exists. So long as thestudent feels capable of coping with a situation,each new experience is viewed as a challenge.

A good instructor realizes that behavior is directlyinfluenced by the way a student perceives, andperception is affected by all of these factors.Therefore, it is important for the instructor to facili-tate the learning process by avoiding any actionswhich may inhibit or prevent the attainment ofteaching goals. Teaching is consistently effectiveonly when those factors which influence percep-tions are recognized and taken into account.

INSIGHTInsight involves the grouping of perceptions intomeaningful wholes. Creating insight is one of theinstructor’s major responsibilities. To ensure thatthis does occur, it is essential to keep each stu-dent constantly receptive to new experiences andto help the student realize the way each piecerelates to all other pieces of the total pattern of thetask to be learned.

As an example, during straight-and-level flight in anairplane with a fixed-pitch propeller, the RPM willincrease when the throttle is opened and decreasewhen it is closed. On the other hand, RPM changescan also result from changes in airplane pitch atti-tude without changes in power setting. Obviously,engine speed, power setting, airspeed, and air-plane attitude are all related.

True learning requires an understanding of howeach of these factors may affect all of the othersand, at the same time, knowledge of how a changein any one of them may affect all of the others. Thismental relating and grouping of associated per-ceptions is called insight.

Insight will almost always occur eventually, whetheror not instruction is provided. For this reason, it ispossible for a person to become an electrician bytrial and error, just as one may become a lawyer byreading law. Instruction, however, speeds thislearning process by teaching the relationship of

perceptions as they occur, thus promoting thedevelopment of the student’s insight.

As perceptions increase in number and areassembled by the student into larger blocks oflearning, they develop insight. As a result, learn-ing becomes more meaningful and more perma-nent. Forgetting is less of a problem when thereare more anchor points for tying insights together.It is a major responsibility of the instructor toorganize demonstrations and explanations, and todirect practice, so that the student has betteropportunities to understand the interrelationshipof the many kinds of experiences that have beenperceived. Pointing out the relationships as theyoccur, providing a secure and nonthreateningenvironment in which to learn, and helping thestudent acquire and maintain a favorable self-con-cept are key steps in fostering the development ofinsight.

MOTIVATIONMotivation is probably the dominant force whichgoverns the student’s progress and ability tolearn. Motivation may be negative or positive, tan-gible or intangible, subtle and difficult to identify,or it may be obvious.

Negative motivation may engender fear, and beperceived by the student as a threat. While nega-tive motivation may be useful in certain situations,characteristically it is not as effective in promotingefficient learning as positive motivation.

Positive motivation is provided by the promise orachievement of rewards. These rewards may bepersonal or social; they may involve financial gain,satisfaction of the self-concept, or public recognition.Motivation which can be used to advantage by theinstructor includes the desire for personal gain, thedesire for personal comfort or security, the desirefor group approval, and the achievement of a favor-able self-image.

The desire for personal gain, either the acquisi-tion of possessions or status, is a basic motiva-tional factor for all human endeavor. An individualmay be motivated to dig a ditch or to design asupersonic airplane solely by the desire for finan-cial gain.

Students are like typical employees in wanting atangible return for their efforts. For motivation tobe effective, students must believe that theirefforts will be suitably rewarded. These rewardsmust be constantly apparent to the student duringinstruction, whether they are to be financial, self-

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-8

esteem, or public recognition.

Lessons often have objectives which are not obvi-ous at first. Although these lessons will pay divi-dends during later instruction, the student may notappreciate this fact. It is important for the instruc-tor to make the student aware of those applica-tions which are not immediately apparent.Likewise, the devotion of too much time and effortto drill and practice on operations which do notdirectly contribute to competent performanceshould be avoided.

The desire for personal comfort and security is aform of motivation which instructors often forget.All students want secure, pleasant conditions anda safe environment. If they recognize that whatthey are learning may promote these objectives,their attention is easier to attract and hold.Insecure and unpleasant training situations inhib-it learning.

Everyone wants to avoid pain and injury. Studentsnormally are eager to learn operations or proce-dures which help prevent injury or loss of life. Thisis especially true when the student knows that theability to make timely decisions, or to act correct-ly in an emergency, is based on sound principles.

The attractive features of the activity to be learned

also can be a strong motivational factor. Studentsare anxious to learn skills which may be used totheir advantage. If they understand that each taskwill be useful in preparing for future activities, theywill be more willing to pursue it.

Another strong motivating force is group approval.Every person wants the approval of peers andsuperiors. Interest can be stimulated and main-tained by building on this natural desire. Most stu-dents enjoy the feeling of belonging to a groupand are interested in accomplishment which willgive them prestige among their fellow students.

Every person seeks to establish a favorable self-image. In certain instances, this self-image maybe submerged in feelings of insecurity or despon-dency. Fortunately, most people engaged in atask believe that success is possible under theright combination of circumstances and good for-tune. This belief can be a powerful motivatingforce for students. An instructor can effectivelyfoster this motivation by the introduction of per-ceptions which are solidly based on previouslylearned factual information that is easily recog-nized by the student. Each additional block oflearning should help formulate insight which con-tributes to the ultimate training goals. This pro-motes student confidence in the overall trainingprogram and, at the same time, helps the student

Figure 1-3. Learning is progressive and occurs at several basiclevels.

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-9

develop a favorable self-image. As this confirma-tion progresses and confidence increases,advances will be more rapid and motivation willbe strengthened.

Positive motivation is essential to true learning.Negative motivation in the form of reproofs orthreats should be avoided with all but the mostoverconfident and impulsive students. Slumps inlearning are often due to declining motivation.Motivation does not remain at a uniformly highlevel. It may be affected by outside influences,such as physical or mental disturbances or inade-quate instruction. The instructor should strive tomaintain motivation at the highest possible level.In addition, the instructor should be alert to detectand counter any lapses in motivation.

LEVELS OF LEARNINGLevels of learning may be classified in any num-ber of ways. Four basic levels have traditionallybeen included in aviation instructor training. Thelowest level is the ability to repeat somethingwhich one has been taught, without understand-ing or being able to apply what has been learned.This is referred to as rote learning. Progressivelyhigher levels of learning are understanding whathas been taught, achieving the skill for applicationof what has been learned, and correlation of whathas been learned with other things previously

learned or subsequently encountered. [Figure 1-3]

For example, a flight instructor may explain to a

beginning student the procedure for entering alevel, left turn. The procedure may include sever-al steps such as: (1) visually clear the area, (2)add a slight amount of power to maintain air-speed, (3) apply aileron control pressure to theleft, (4) add sufficient rudder pressure in the direc-tion of the turn to avoid slipping and skidding, and(5) increase back pressure to maintain altitude. Astudent who can verbally repeat this instructionhas learned the procedure by rote. This will not bevery useful to the student if there is never anopportunity to make a turn in flight, or if the stu-dent has no knowledge of the function of airplanecontrols.

With proper instruction on the effect and use of theflight controls, and experience in controlling the air-plane during straight-and-level flight, the studentcan consolidate these old and new perceptions intoan insight on how to make a turn. At this point, thestudent has developed an understanding of theprocedure for turning the airplane in flight. Thisunderstanding is basic to effective learning, butmay not necessarily enable the student to make acorrect turn on the first attempt.

When the student understands the procedure forentering a turn, has had turns demonstrated, andhas practiced turn entries until consistency hasbeen achieved, the student has developed theskill to apply what has been learned. This is amajor level of learning, and one at which theinstructor is too often willing to stop. Discontinuinginstruction on turn entries at this point and direct-ing subsequent instruction exclusively to other

Figure 1-5. D. R. Krathwohl’s hierarchical taxonomy for the affec-tive domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values) contains five educa-tional objective levels.

Figure 1-4. Dr. Bloom’s hierarchical taxonomy for the cognitivedomain (knowledge) includes six educational objective levels.

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-10

elements of piloting performance is characteristicof piecemeal instruction, which is usually ineffi-cient. It violates the building block concept ofinstruction by failing to apply what has beenlearned to future learning tasks. The buildingblock concept will be covered later in more detail.

The correlation level of learning, which should bethe objective of aviation instruction, is that level atwhich the student becomes able to associate anelement which has been learned with other seg-ments or blocks of learning. The other segmentsmay be items or skills previously learned, or newlearning tasks to be undertaken in the future. Thestudent who has achieved this level of learning inturn entries, for example, has developed the abili-ty to correlate the elements of turn entries with theperformance of chandelles and lazy eights.

DOMAINS OF LEARNINGBesides the four basic levels of learning, educa-tional psychologists have developed severaladditional levels. These classifications considerwhat is to be learned. Is it knowledge only, achange in attitude, a physical skill, or a combina-tion of knowledge and skill? One of the moreuseful categorizations of learning objectivesincludes three domains: cognitive domain(knowledge), affective domain (attitudes, beliefs,and values), and psychomotor domain (physicalskills). Each of the domains has a hierarchy ofeducational objectives.

The listing of the hierarchy of objectives is oftencalled a taxonomy. A taxonomy of educational

objectives is a systematic classification schemefor sorting learning outcomes into the three broadcategories (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor)and ranking the desired outcomes in a develop-mental hierarchy from least complex to most com-plex.

Figure1-6. E.J. Simpson’s hierarchical taxonomy for the psy-chomotor domain (physical skills) consists of seven educationalobjective levels.

Figure 1-7. A listing such as the one shown here is useful fordevelopment of almost any training program.

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-11

COGNITIVE DOMAINThe cognitive domain, described by Dr. BenjaminBloom, is one of the best known educationaldomains. It contains additional levels of knowl-edge and understanding and is commonlyreferred to as Bloom’s taxonomy of educationalobjectives. [Figure 1-4]

In aviation, educational objectives in the cognitivedomain refer to knowledge which might be gainedas the result of attending a ground school, read-ing about aircraft systems, listening to a preflightbriefing, reviewing meteorological reports, or tak-ing part in computer-based training. The highesteducational objective level in this domain mayalso be illustrated by learning to correctly evaluatea flight maneuver, repair an airplane engine, orreview a training syllabus for depth and complete-ness of training.

AFFECTIVE DOMAINThe affective domain may be the least under-stood, and in many ways, the most important ofthe learning domains. A similar system for speci-fying attitudinal objectives has been developed byD.R. Krathwohl. Like the Bloom taxonomy,Krathwohl’s hierarchy attempts to arrange theseobjectives in an order of difficulty. [Figure 1-5]

Since the affective domain is concerned with astudent’s attitudes, personal beliefs, and values,measuring educational objectives in this domainis not easy. For example, how is a positive attitudetoward safety evaluated? Observable safety-relat-ed behavior indicates a positive attitude, but thisis not like a simple pass/fail test that can be usedto evaluate cognitive educational objective levels.Although a number of techniques are available forevaluation of achievement in the affective domain,most rely on indirect inferences.

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAINThere are several taxonomies which deal with thepsychomotor domain (physical skills), but noneare as popularly recognized as the Bloom andKrathwohl taxonomies. However, the taxonomydeveloped by E.J. Simpson also is generallyacceptable. [Figure 1-6]

Psychomotor or physical skills always have beenimportant in aviation. Typical activities involvingthese skills include learning to fly a precisioninstrument approach procedure, programming aGPS receiver, or using sophisticated maintenanceequipment. As physical tasks and equipmentbecome more complex, the requirement for inte-gration of cognitive and physical skills increases.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF LEARNING OBJECTIVESThe additional levels of learning definitely apply toaviation flight and maintenance training. A com-paratively high level of knowledge and skill isrequired. The student also needs to have a well-developed, positive attitude. Thus, all threedomains of learning, cognitive, affective, and psy-chomotor, are pertinent.

These additional levels of learning are the basis ofthe knowledge, attitude, and skill learning objec-tives commonly used in advanced qualificationprograms for airline training. They also can be tiedto the practical test standards to show the level ofknowledge or skill required for a particular task. Alist of action verbs for the three domains showsappropriate behavioral objectives at each level.[Figure 1-7]

Instructors who are familiar with curricula devel-opment will recognize that the action verbs areexamples of performance-based objectives.Expanded coverage of the concept of perform-ance-based objectives is included in Chapter 4of this handbook.

LEARNING PHYSICAL SKILLSEven though the process of learning is profound,the main objective or purpose of most instructiontypically is teaching a concept, a generalization,an attitude, or a skill. The process of learning apsychomotor or physical skill is much the same,in many ways, as cognitive learning. To provide areal illustration of physical skill learning, try thefollowing exercise:

On a separate sheet of paper, write the word

Figure 1-8. Students will more than likely experience a learningplateau at some point in their training.

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-12

“learning” 15 times with your left hand or with yourright hand, if you are left handed. Try to improvethe speed and quality of your writing as you goalong.

PHYSICAL SKILLS INVOLVE MORE THAN MUSCLESThe above exercise contains a practical example ofthe multifaceted character of learning. It should beobvious that, while a muscular sequence was beinglearned, other things were happening as well. Theperception changed as the sequence became easi-er. Concepts of how to perform the skill were devel-oped and attitudes were changed.

DESIRE TO LEARNThinking back over their past experiences in learningto perform certain skills, students might be surprisedat how much more readily they learned those skillsthat appealed to their own needs (principle of readi-ness). Shorter initial learning time and more rapidprogress in improving the skill normally occurred.Conversely, where the desire to learn or improvewas missing, little progress was made. A personmay read dozens of books a year, but the readingrate will not increase unless there is a deliberateintent to increase it. In the preceding learning exer-cise, it is unlikely that any improvement occurredunless there was a clear intention to improve. Toimprove, one must not only recognize mistakes, butalso make an effort to correct them. The person wholacks the desire to improve is not likely to make theeffort and consequently will continue to practiceerrors. The skillful instructor relates the lessonobjective to the student’s intentions and needs and,in so doing, builds on the student’s natural enthusi-asm.

PATTERNS TO FOLLOWLogically, the point has been emphasized that thebest way to prepare the student to perform a taskis to provide a clear, step-by-step example. Havinga model to follow permits students to get a clearpicture of each step in the sequence so theyunderstand what is required and how to do it. Inflight or maintenance training, the instructor pro-vides the demonstration, emphasizing the stepsand techniques. During classroom instruction, anoutside expert may be used, either in person or ina video presentation. In any case, students needto have a clear impression of what they are to do.

PERFORM THE SKILLAfter experiencing writing a word with the wronghand, consider how difficult it would be to tell some-one else how to do it. Even demonstrating how todo it would not result in that person learning the skill.Obviously, practice is necessary. The student needscoordination between muscles and visual and tac-

tile senses. Learning to perform various aircraftmaintenance skills or flight maneuvers requires thissort of practice. There is another benefit of practice.As the student gains proficiency in a skill, verbalinstructions mean more. Whereas a long, detailedexplanation is confusing before the student beginsperforming, specific comments are more meaning-ful and useful after the skill has been partially mas-tered.

KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS

In learning some simple skills, students can dis-cover their own errors quite easily. In other cases,such as learning complex aircraft maintenanceskills, flight maneuvers, or flight crew duties, mis-takes are not always apparent. A student mayknow that something is wrong, but not know howto correct it. In any case, the instructor provides ahelpful and often critical function in making certainthat the students are aware of their progress. It isperhaps as important for students to know whenthey are right as when they are wrong. Theyshould be told as soon after the performance aspossible, and should not be allowed to practicemistakes. It is more difficult to unlearn a mistake,and then learn it correctly, than to learn correctly inthe first place. One way to make students aware oftheir progress is to repeat a demonstration orexample and to show them the standards theirperformance must ultimately meet.

PROGRESS FOLLOWS A PATTERN

The experience of learning to write a word withthe wrong hand probably confirmed what hasbeen consistently demonstrated in laboratoryexperiments on skill learning. The first trials areslow, and coordination is lacking. Mistakes arefrequent, but each trial provides clues forimprovement in subsequent trials. The studentmodifies different aspects of the skill such ashow to hold the pencil, or how to execute fingerand hand movement.

Graphs of the progress of skill learning, such asthe one shown below, usually follow the same pat-tern. There is rapid improvement in the earlystages, then the curve levels off and may staylevel for a significant period of time. Furtherimprovement may seem unlikely. This is a typicallearning plateau. [Figure 1-8]

A learning plateau may signify any number of condi-tions. For example, the student may have reachedcapability limits, may be consolidating levels of skill,interest may have waned, or the student may need amore efficient method for increasing progress. Keep in

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-13

mind that the apparent lack of increasing proficiencydoes not necessarily mean that learning has ceased.The point is that, in learning motor skills, a leveling offprocess, or a plateau, is normal and should be expect-ed after an initial period of rapid improvement. Theinstructor should prepare the student for this situationto avert discouragement. If the student is aware of thislearning plateau, frustration may be minimized.

DURATION AND ORGANIZATION OF LESSON

In planning for student performance, a primaryconsideration is the length of time devoted topractice. A beginning student reaches a pointwhere additional practice is not only unproductive,but may even be harmful. When this point isreached, errors increase, and motivation declines.As a student gains experience, longer periods ofpractice are profitable.

Another consideration is the problem of whetherto divide the practice period. Perhaps even therelated instruction should be broken down intosegments, or it may be advantageous to planone continuous, integrated sequence. Theanswer depends on the nature of the skill. Someskills are composed of closely related steps,each dependent on the preceding one. Learningto pack a parachute is a good example. Otherskills are composed of related subgroups ofskills. Learning to overhaul an aircraft engine isa good example.

EVALUATION VERSUS CRITIQUE

If an instructor were to evaluate the fifteenth writ-ing of the word “learning,” only limited help couldbe given toward further improvement. The instruc-tor could judge whether the written word was leg-ible and evaluate it against some criterion or stan-dard, or perhaps even assign it a grade of somesort. None of these actions would be particularlyuseful to the beginning student. However, the stu-dent could profit by having someone watch theperformance and critique constructively to helpeliminate errors.

In the initial stages, practical suggestions aremore valuable to the student than a grade. Earlyevaluation is usually teacher oriented. It providesa check on teaching effectiveness, can be used topredict eventual student learning proficiency, andcan help the teacher locate special problemareas. The observations on which the evaluationsare based also can identify the student’s strengthsand weaknesses, a prerequisite for making con-structive criticism.

APPLICATION OF SKILL

The final and critical question is, Can the studentuse what has been learned? It is not uncommonto find that students devote weeks and months inschool learning new abilities, and then fail to applythese abilities on the job. To solve this problem,

Figure 1-9. Information processing within the sensory register, working or short-term memory, and long-term memory includes complexcoding, sorting, storing, and recall functions.

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-14

two conditions must be present. First, the studentmust learn the skill so well that it becomes easy,even habitual; and second, the student must rec-ognize the types of situations where it is appropri-ate to use the skill. This second condition involvesthe question of transfer of learning, which is brieflydiscussed later in this chapter.

MEMORYMemory is an integral part of the learning process.Although there are several theories on how thememory works, a widely accepted view is the multi-stage concept which states that memory includesthree parts: sensory, working or short-term, andlong-term systems. As shown in figure 1-9 on thefollowing page, the total system operates some-what like an advanced computer that acceptsinput (stimuli) from an external source, contains aprocessing apparatus, a storage capability, andan output function.

SENSORY REGISTER

The sensory register receives input from the envi-ronment and quickly processes it according to theindividual’s preconceived concept of what isimportant. However, other factors can influencethe reception of information by the sensory sys-tem. For example, if the input is dramatic andimpacts more than one of the five senses, thatinformation is more likely to make an impression.The sensory register processes inputs or stimulifrom the environment within seconds, discardswhat is considered extraneous, and processeswhat is determined by the individual to be rele-vant. This is a selective process where the sen-sory register is set to recognize certain stimuliand immediately transmit them to the workingmemory for action. The process is called pre-coding. An example is sensory precoding to rec-ognize a fire alarm. No matter what is happeningat the time, when the sensory register detects afire alarm, the working memory is immediatlymade aware of the alarm and preset responsesbegin to take place.

WORKING OR SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Within seconds the relevant information ispassed to the working or short-term memorywhere it may temporarily remain or rapidly fade,depending on the individual’s priorities. Severalcommon steps help retention in the short-termmemory. These include rehearsal or repetition ofthe information and sorting or categorization intosystematic chunks. The sorting process is usual-ly called coding or chunking. A key limitation ofthe working memory is that it takes 5–10 sec-onds to properly code information. If the coding

process is interrupted, that information is lostafter about 20 seconds.

The working or short-term memory is not onlytime limited, it also has limited capacity, usuallyabout seven bits or chunks of information. Aseven-digit telephone number is an example. Asindicated, the time limitation may be overcome byrehearsal. This means learning the informationby a rote memorization process. Of course, rotememorization is subject to imperfections in boththe duration of recall and in its accuracy. The cod-ing process is more useful in a learning situation.In addition, the coding process may involverecoding to adjust the information to individualexperiences. This is when actual learning beginsto take place. Therefore, recoding may bedescribed as a process of relating incoming infor-mation to concepts or knowledge already inmemory.

Methods of coding vary with subject matter, buttypically they include some type of association.Use of rhymes or mnemonics is common. Anexample of a useful mnemonic is the memory aidfor one of the magnetic compass errors. The let-ters “ANDS” indicate:

AccelerateNorthDecelerateSouth

Variations of the coding process are practicallyendless. They may consist of the use ofacronyms, the chronology of events, images,semantics, or an individually developed structurebased on past experiences. Developing a logicalstrategy for coding information is a significant stepin the learning process.

In this brief discussion of memory, it may appearthat sensory memory is distinct and separate fromworking or short-term memory. This is not thecase. In fact, all of the memory systems are inti-mately related. Many of the functions of workingor short-term memory are nearly identical to long-term memory functions.

LONG-TERM MEMORYWhat then is distinctive about the long-term mem-ory? This is where information is stored for futureuse. For the stored information to be useful, somespecial effort must have been expended duringthe coding process in working or short-term mem-ory. The coding should have provided meaningand connections between old and new informa-tion. If initial coding is not properly accomplished,

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-15

recall will be distorted and it may be impossible.The more effective the coding process, the easierthe recall. However, it should be noted that thelong-term memory is a reconstruction, not a purerecall of information or events. It also is subject tolimitations, such as time, biases, and, in manycases, personal inaccuracies. This is why two peo-ple who view the same event will often have total-ly different recollections.

Memory also applies to psychomotor skills. Forexample, with practice, a tennis player may beable to serve a tennis ball at a high rate of speedand with accuracy. This may be accomplishedwith very little thought. For a pilot, the ability toinstinctively perform certain maneuvers or othertasks which require manual dexterity and preci-sion provides obvious benefits. For example, itallows the pilot more time to concentrate on otheressential duties such as navigation, communica-tions with air traffic control facilities, and visualscanning for other aircraft.

As implied, one of the major responsibilities of theinstructor is to help students use their memorieseffectively. Strategies designed to aid students inretention and recall of information from the long-term memory are included later in this chapter. Atthe same time, an associated phenomenon, for-getting, cannot be ignored.

THEORIES OF FORGETTINGA consideration of why people forget may pointthe way to help them remember. Several theoriesaccount for forgetting, including disuse, interfer-ence, and repression.

DISUSE

The theory of disuse suggests that a person for-gets those things which are not used. The highschool or college graduate is saddened by thelack of factual data retained several years aftergraduation. Since the things which are remem-bered are those used on the job, a person con-cludes that forgetting is the result of disuse. Butthe explanation is not quite so simple.Experimental studies show, for example, that ahypnotized person can describe specific details ofan event which normally is beyond recall.Apparently the memory is there, locked in therecesses of the mind. The difficulty is summoningit up to consciousness.

INTERFERENCEThe basis of the interference theory is that peopleforget something because a certain experiencehas overshadowed it, or that the learning of simi-lar things has intervened. This theory mightexplain how the range of experiences after gradu-ation from school causes a person to forget or tolose knowledge. In other words, new events dis-place many things that had been learned. Fromexperiments, at least two conclusions about inter-ference may be drawn. First, similar materialseems to interfere with memory more than dis-similar material; and second, material not welllearned suffers most from interference.

REPRESSION

Freudian psychology advances the view that someforgetting is repression due to the submersion ofideas into the subconscious mind. Material that isunpleasant or produces anxiety may be treated thisway by the individual, but not intentionally. It is sub-conscious and protective. The repression theorydoes not appear to account for much forgetfulness ofthe kind discussed in this chapter, but it does tend toexplain some cases.

RETENTION OF LEARNINGEach of the theories implies that when a personforgets something, it is not actually lost. Rather,it is simply unavailable for recall. The instructor’sproblem is how to make certain that the student’slearning is readily available for recall. The fol-lowing suggestions can help.

Teach thoroughly and with meaning. Material thor-oughly learned is highly resistant to forgetting.This is suggested by experimental studies and italso was pointed out in the sections on skill learn-ing. Meaningful learning builds patterns of relation-ship in the student’s consciousness. In contrast,rote learning is superficial and is not easilyretained. Meaningful learning goes deep becauseit involves principles and concepts anchored in thestudent’s own experiences. The following discus-sion emphasizes five principles which are general-ly accepted as having a direct application toremembering.

PRAISE STIMULATES REMEMBERING

Responses which give a pleasurable return tendto be repeated. Absence of praise or recognitiontends to discourage, and any form of negativismin the acceptance of a response tends to make itsrecall less likely.

RECALL IS PROMOTED BY ASSOCIATION

As discussed earlier, each bit of information or

CH 01.qxd 7/15/2003 11:54 AM Page 1-16

As indicated in Chapter 1, learning is a change ofbehavior resulting from experience. To successfullyaccomplish the task of helping to bring about thischange, the instructor must know why people actthe way they do. A knowledge of basic humanneeds and defense mechanisms is essential fororganizing student activities and promoting a pro-ductive learning experience.

CONTROL OF HUMAN BEHAVIORThe relationship between the instructor and thestudents has a profound impact on how much thestudents learn. To students, the instructor usuallyis a symbol of authority. Students expect theinstructor to exercise certain controls, and theytend to recognize and submit to authority as avalid means of control. The instructor’s challengeis to know what controls are best for the existingcircumstances. The instructor should create anatmosphere that enables and encourages stu-dents to help themselves.

Every student works toward a goal of some kind.It may be success itself; it may simply be a gradeor other form of personal recognition. The suc-cessful instructor directs and controls the behav-ior of the students and guides them toward a goal.This is a part of the process of directing the stu-dents’ actions to modify their behavior. Withoutthe instructor’s active intervention, the studentsmay become passive and perhaps resistant tolearning. The controls the instructor exercises—how much, how far, to what degree—should bebased on more than trial and error.

Some interesting generalizations have beenmade about motivation and human nature. Whilethese assumptions are typically applied to indus-trial management, they have implications for theaviation instructor as well.

• The expenditure of physical and mental effort inwork is as natural as play and rest. The averageperson does not inherently dislike work.Depending on conditions, work may be a sourceof satisfaction and, if so, it will be performed vol-untarily. On the other hand, when work is a formof punishment, it will be avoided, if possible.

• Most people will exercise self-direction andselfcontrol in the pursuit of goals to which theyare committed.

• Commitment to goals relates directly to thereward associated with their achievement, themost significant of which is probably the satis-faction of ego.

• Under proper conditions, the average personlearns, not only to accept, but also to seekresponsibility. Shirking responsibility and lackof ambition are not inherent in human nature.They are usually the consequences of experi-ence.

• The capacity to exercise a relatively highdegree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativi-ty in the solution of common problems is wide-ly, not narrowly, distributed in the population.

CH 02.qxd 7/15/2003 11:55 AM Page 2-1

• Under the conditions of modern life, the intel-lectual potentialities of the average personare only partially used.

An instructor who accepts these assumptionsshould recognize the student’s vast, untappedpotential. At the same time, ingenuity must beused in discovering how to realize the potentialitiesof the student. The responsibility rests squarely onthe instructor’s shoulders. If the student is per-ceived as lazy, indifferent, unresponsive, uncoop-erative, and antagonistic, these basic assumptionsimply that the instructor’s methods of control are atfault. The raw material is there, in most cases, andthe shaping and directing of it lie in the hands ofthose who have the responsibility of controlling it.

How to mold a solid, healthy, productive relation-ship with students depends, of course, on theinstructor’s knowledge of students as humanbeings and of the needs, drives, and desires theycontinually try to satisfy in one way or another.Some of their needs and drives are discussed inthe following paragraphs.

HUMAN NEEDSThe instructor should always be aware of the factthat students are human beings. The needs ofstudents, and of all mankind, have been studiedby psychologists and categorized in a number ofways. In 1938, a U.S. psychologist, Henry A.Murray, published a catalog of human motives,which he called needs. These needs weredescribed as being either primary (biological,innate) or secondary (learned, acquired); theywere seen as a force related to behavior andgoals. Among the motives that Murray discussed

were what he identified as needs for achievement,affiliation, power, dependence, and succor (theneed to be taken care of), as well as many others.During the 1950s, Abraham Maslow organizedhuman needs into levels of importance. They orig-inally were called a hierarchy of human motives,but are now commonly referred to as a hierarchyof human needs. [Figure 2-1]

In the intervening years since the 1950s, severalother theories on human needs have been pub-lished, but psychologists have not adopted anyparticular one. Meanwhile, Maslow’s hierarchicalcategorization remains a popular and acceptableconcept.

PHYSICALAt the bottom of the pyramid is the broadest,most basic category, the physical needs. Eachperson is first concerned with a need for food,rest, and protection from the elements. Untilthese needs are satisfied, a person cannot con-centrate fully on learning, self-expression, or anyother tasks. Instructors should monitor their stu-dents to make sure that their basic physicalneeds have been met. A hungry or tired studentmay not be able to perform as expected. Once aneed is satisfied, it no longer provides motiva-tion. Thus, the person strives to satisfy the needsof the next higher level.

SAFETYThe safety needs are protection against danger,threats, deprivation, and are labeled by some asthe security needs. Regardless of the label, how-ever, they are real, and student behavior is influ-enced by them. This is especially true in flighttraining and aviation maintenance where safety isa major concern.

SOCIALWhen individuals are physically comfortable anddo not feel threatened, they seek to satisfy theirsocial needs. These are to belong, to associate,and to give and receive friendship and love. Anexample of the social need might apply to thespouse of a professional pilot. In this case, theneed to be included in conversation and otherpilot-related activities could induce the spouse tolearn how to fly. Since students are usually out oftheir normal surroundings during flight training,their need for association and belonging will bemore pronounced. Instructors should make everyeffort to help new students feel at ease and to

Figure 2-1. Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs is frequentlydepicted as a pyramid with the lower-level needs at the bottomand progressively higher-level needs above each other inascending order.

CH 02.qxd 7/15/2003 11:55 AM Page 2-2

reinforce their decision to pursue aviation.

EGO

The egoistic needs usually have a strong influenceon the instructor-student relationship. These needsconsist of at least two types: those that relate toone’s self-esteem, such as self-confidence, inde-pendence, achievement, competence, and knowl-edge; and the needs that relate to one’s reputa-tion, such as status, recognition, appreciation, andrespect of associates. The egoistic need may bethe main reason for a student’s interest in aviationtraining.

SELF–FULFILLMENTAt the apex of the hierarchy of human needs isselffulfillment. This includes realizing one’s ownpotential for continued development, and forbeing creative in the broadest sense of that term.Maslow included various cognitive and aestheticgoals in this highest level. Self-fulfillment for a stu-dent should offer the greatest challenge to theinstructor. Aiding another in realizing self-fulfill-ment is perhaps the most rewarding accomplish-ment for an instructor.

In summary, instructors should strive to help stu-dents satisfy their human needs in a manner thatwill create a healthy learning environment. In thistype of environment, students experience fewerfrustrations and, therefore, can devote moreattention to their studies. Fulfillment of needs canbe a powerful motivation in complex learning situ-ations.

DEFENSE MECHANISMSThe concept of defense mechanisms was intro-duced by Freud in the 1890s. In general, defensemechanisms are subconscious, almost automatic,ego-protecting reactions to unpleasant situations.People use these defenses to soften feelings offailure, to alleviate feelings of guilt, and to protecttheir sense of personal worth or adequacy.Originally, Freud described a mechanism which isnow commonly called repression. Since then,other defense mechanisms have gradually beenadded. In some cases, more than one name hasbeen attached to a particular type of defensemechanism. In addition, it is not always easy to dif-ferentiate between defenses which are closelyrelated. Thus, some confusion often occurs inidentifying the different types. [Figure 2-2]

COMPENSATIONWith compensation, students often attempt to dis-guise the presence of a weak or undesirable qual-ity by emphasizing a more positive one. They alsomay try to reduce tension by accepting and devel-oping a less preferred but more attainable objec-tive instead of a more preferred but less attainableobjective. Students who regard themselves asunattractive may develop exceptionally winningpersonalities to compensate. Students may saythey would rather spend their evenings studyingaircraft systems than anything else, but, in fact,they would rather be doing almost anythingexcept aircraft systems study.

PROJECTIONWith projection, students relegate the blame fortheir own shortcomings, mistakes, and transgres-sions to others or attribute their motives, desires,characteristics, and impulses to others. The ath-lete who fails to make the team may feel sure thecoach was unfair, or the tennis player who exam-ines the racket after a missed shot is projectingblame. When students say, “Everybody will cheaton an exam if given the chance,” they are project-ing.

RATIONALIZATIONIf students cannot accept the real reasons fortheir behavior, they may rationalize. This devicepermits them to substitute excuses for reasons;moreover, they can make those excuses plausi-ble and acceptable to themselves.Rationalization is a subconscious technique forjustifying actions that otherwise would be unac-ceptable. When true rationalization takes place,

Figure 2-2. Several common defense mechanisms may apply toaviation students.

CH 02.qxd 7/15/2003 11:55 AM Page 2-3

individuals sincerely believe in their excuses.The excuses seem real and justifiable to theindividual.

DENIAL OF REALITYOccasionally students may ignore or refuse toacknowledge disagreeable realities. They mayturn away from unpleasant sights, refuse to dis-cuss unpopular topics, or reject criticism.

REACTION FORMATIONSometimes individuals protect themselves fromdangerous desires by not only repressing them,but actually developing conscious attitudes andbehavior patterns that are just the opposite. A stu-dent may develop a who-cares-how-other-people-feel attitude to cover up feelings of loneliness anda hunger for acceptance.

FLIGHTStudents often escape from frustrating situationsby taking flight, physical or mental. To take flightphysically, students may develop symptoms or ail-ments that give them satisfactory excuses forremoving themselves from frustration. More fre-quent than physical flights are mental flights, ordaydreaming. Mental flight provides a simple andsatisfying escape from problems. If students getsufficient satisfaction from daydreaming, they maystop trying to achieve their goals altogether. Whencarried to extremes, the world of fantasy and theworld of reality can become so confused that thedreamer cannot distinguish one from the other.This mechanism, when carried to the extreme, isreferred to as fantasy.

AGGRESSIONEveryone gets angry occasionally. Anger is a nor-mal, universal human emotion. Angry people mayshout, swear, slam a door, or give in to the heatof emotions in a number of ways. They becomeaggressive against something or somebody. Aftera cooling-off period, they may see their actions aschildish. In a classroom, shop, or airplane, suchextreme behavior is relatively infrequent, partlybecause students are taught to repress theiremotions in the interest of safety. Because ofsafety concerns or social strictures, studentaggressiveness may be expressed in subtleways. They may ask irrelevant questions, refuseto participate in the activities of the class, or dis-rupt activities within their own group. If studentscannot deal directly with the cause of their frus-tration, they may vent their aggressiveness on aneutral object or person not related to the prob-

lem.

RESIGNATIONStudents also may become so frustrated that theylose interest and give up. They may no longerbelieve it profitable or even possible to go on, andas a result, they accept defeat. The most obviousand apparent cause for this form of resignationtakes place when, after completing an early phaseof a course without grasping the fundamentals, astudent becomes bewildered and lost in the moreadvanced phases. From that point on, learning isnegligible although the student may go throughthe motions of participating.

More information on these and other defensemechanisms, such as fantasy, repression, dis-placement, emotional insulation, regression, andintrojection, can be obtained from a good psy-chology text. Instructors should recognize thatmost defense mechanisms fall within the realm ofnormal behavior and serve a useful purpose.However, in some cases, they may be associatedwith a potentially serious mental health problem.Since defense mechanisms involve some degreeof self-deception and distortion of reality, they donot solve problems; they alleviate symptoms, notcauses. Moreover, because defense mechanismsoperate on a subconscious level, they are notsubject to normal conscious checks and controls.Once an individual realizes there is a consciousreliance on one of these devices, behavior ceas-es to be a subconscious adjustment mechanismand becomes, instead, an ineffective way of satis-fying a need.

It may be difficult for an instructor to identify exces-sive reliance on defense mechanisms by a student,but a personal crisis or other stressful event is usu-ally the cause. For example, a death in the family,a divorce, or even a failing grade on an importanttest may trigger harmful defensive reactions.Physical symptoms such as a change in personal-ity, angry outbursts, depression, or a general lack ofinterest may point to a problem. Drug or alcoholabuse also may become apparent. Less obviousindications may include social withdrawal, preoccu-pation with certain ideas, or an inability to concen-trate.

Some people seem to have the proper attitudeand skills necessary to cope with a crisis whileothers do not. An instructor needs to be familiarwith typical defense mechanisms and have someknowledge of related behavioral problems. A per-

CH 02.qxd 7/15/2003 11:55 AM Page 2-4

ceptive instructor can help by using commonsense and talking over the problem with the stu-dent. The main objective should be to restoremotivation and self-confidence. It should be notedthat the human psyche is fragile and could bedamaged by inept measures. Therefore, in severecases involving the possibility of deep psycholog-ical problems, timely and skillful help is needed. Inthis event, the instructor should recommend thatthe student use the services of a professionalcounselor.

THE FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR AS A PRACTICAL PSYCHOLOGISTWhile it is obviously impossible for every flightinstructor to be an accomplished psychologist,there are a number of additional considerationswhich will assist in learning to analyze studentsbefore and during each lesson. As already implied,flight instructors must also be able to evaluate stu-dent personality to effectively develop and usetechniques appropriate for instruction.

ANXIETYAnxiety is probably the most significant psycholog-ical factor affecting flight instruction. This is truebecause flying is a potentially threatening experi-ence for persons who are not accustomed to beingoff the ground. The fear of falling is universal inhuman beings. Anxiety also is a factor in mainte-nance training because lives may depend on con-sistently doing it right the first time. The followingparagraphs are primarily concerned with flightinstruction and student reactions.

Anxiety is described by Webster as “a state ofmental uneasiness arising from fear . . .” It resultsfrom the fear of anything, real or imagined, whichthreatens the person who experiences it, and mayhave a potent effect on actions and the ability tolearn from perceptions.

The responses to anxiety vary extensively. Theyrange from a hesitancy to act to the impulse to dosomething even if it’s wrong. Some people affect-ed by anxiety will react appropriately, adequately,and more rapidly than they would in the absenceof threat. Many, on the other hand, may freezeand be incapable of doing anything to correct thesituation which has caused their anxiety. Othersmay do things without rational thought or reason.

Both normal and abnormal reactions to anxietyare of concern to the flight instructor. The normal

reactions are significant because they indicate aneed for special instruction to relieve the anxiety.The abnormal reactions are even more importantbecause they may signify a deep-seated problem.

Anxiety can be countered by reinforcing students’enjoyment of flying, and by teaching them to copewith their fears. An effective technique is to treatfears as a normal reaction, rather than ignoringthem. Keep in mind that anxiety for student pilotsusually is associated with certain types of flightoperations and maneuvers. Instructors shouldintroduce these maneuvers with care, so that stu-dents know what to expect, and what their reac-tions should be. When introducing stalls, forexample, instructors should first review the aero-dynamic principles and explain how stalls affectflight characteristics. Then, carefully describe thesensations to be expected, as well as the recov-ery procedures.

Student anxieties can be minimized throughouttraining by emphasizing the benefits and pleasur-able experiences which can be derived from fly-ing, rather than by continuously citing the unhap-py consequences of faulty performances. Safe fly-ing practices should be presented as conducive tosatisfying, efficient, uninterrupted operations,rather than as necessary only to prevent catastro-phe.

NORMAL REACTIONS TO STRESSWhen a threat is recognized or imagined, the brainalerts the body. The adrenal gland activates hor-mones which prepare the body to meet the threat,or to retreat from it. This often is called the fight orflight syndrome. The heart rate quickens, certainblood vessels constrict to divert blood to theorgans which will need it, and numerous otherphysiological changes take place.

Normal individuals begin to respond rapidly andexactly, within the limits of their experience andtraining. Many responses are automatic, whichpoints out the need for proper training in emer-gency operations prior to an actual emergency. Theaffected individual thinks rationally, acts rapidly,and is extremely sensitive to all aspects of the sur-roundings.

ABNORMAL REACTIONS TO STRESSReactions to stress may produce abnormalresponses in some people. With them, responseto anxiety or stress may be completely absent or

CH 02.qxd 7/15/2003 11:55 AM Page 2-5

at least inadequate. Their responses may be ran-dom or illogical, or they may do more than iscalled for by the situation.

During flight instruction, instructors normally arethe only ones who can observe students whenthey are under pressure. Instructors, therefore,are in a position to differentiate between safe andunsafe piloting actions. Instructors also may beable to detect potential psychological problems.The following student reactions are indicative ofabnormal reactions to stress. None of them pro-vides an absolute indication, but the presence ofany of them under conditions of stress is reasonfor careful instructor evaluation.

• Inappropriate reactions, such as extremeover-cooperation, painstaking self-control,inappropriate laughter or singing, and veryrapid changes in emotions.

• Marked changes in mood on different lessons,such as excellent morale followed by deepdepression.

• Severe anger directed toward the flightinstructor, service personnel, and others.

In difficult situations, flight instructors must care-fully examine student responses and their ownresponses to the students. These responses maybe the normal products of a complex learning sit-uation, but they also can be indicative of psycho-logical abnormalities which will inhibit learning, orpotentially be very hazardous to future pilotingoperations.

FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR ACTIONS REGARDING SERIOUSLY ABNORMAL STUDENTS

A flight instructor who believes a student maybe suffering from a serious psychologicalabnormality has a responsibility to refrain fromcertifying that student. In addition, a flightinstructor has the personal responsibility ofassuring that such a person does not continueflight training or become certificated as a pilot.To accomplish this, the following steps areavailable:

• If an instructor believes that a student mayhave a disqualifying psychological defect,arrangements should be made for anotherinstructor, who is not acquainted with the stu-dent, to conduct an evaluation flight. After theflight, the two instructors should confer todetermine whether they agree that furtherinvestigation or action is justified.

• An informal discussion should be initiated withthe local Flight Standards District Office(FSDO), suggesting that the student may beable to meet the skill standards, but may beunsafe psychologically. This action should betaken as soon as a question arises regardingthe student’s fitness. It should not be delayeduntil the student feels competent to solo.

• A discussion should be held with a local avia-tion medical examiner (AME), preferably theone who issued the student’s medical certifi-cate, to obtain advice and to decide on the

CH 02.qxd 7/15/2003 11:55 AM Page 2-6

The ability to communicate effectively is essentialfor all aviation instructors. However, communica-tion does not occur automatically even though theinstructor has a high level of technical knowledgein a particular subject area. The beginning instruc-tor must understand the complex processinvolved in communication, and become aware ofthe common barriers to effective communication.Mere awareness of these factors is not enough.The new instructor must also develop a comfort-able style of communication that meets the goal ofconveying information to students.

BASIC ELEMENTSCommunication takes place when one persontransmits ideas or feelings to another person orgroup of people. Its effectiveness is measured bythe similarity between the idea transmitted andthe idea received.

The process of communication is composed of threeelements: the source (sender, speaker, transmitter,or instructor), the symbols used in composing andtransmitting the message (words or signs), and thereceiver (listener, reader, or student). The three ele-ments are dynamically interrelated since each ele-ment is dependent on the others for effective com-munication to take place. The relationship betweeninstructor and student also is dynamic and dependson the two-way flow of symbols between the instruc-tor and student. The instructor depends on feedbackfrom the student to properly tailor the communicationto the situation. The instructor also provides feed-back to the student to reinforce the desired studentresponses.

SOURCE

As indicated, the source in communication is thesender, speaker, transmitter, or instructor. Theinstructor’s effectiveness as a communicator isrelated to at least three basic factors. First, anability to select and use language is essential fortransmitting symbols which are meaningful to lis-teners and readers. Second, an instructor con-sciously or unconsciously reveals his or her atti-tudes toward themselves as a communicator,toward the ideas being communicated, andtoward the students. Third, an instructor is morelikely to communicate effectively if material isaccurate, up-to-date, and stimulating.

An instructor should exercise great care thatideas and feelings are meaningful to the stu-dents. A speaker or a writer may depend on ahighly technical or professional backgroundwith its associated vocabulary that is meaning-ful only to others with a similar background. It isthe responsibility of the instructor, as the sourceof communication, to realize that the effective-ness of the communication is dependent on thestudent’s understanding of the symbols orwords being used. For instance, if an instructorwere to use any of the many aviation acronyms,slang, and abbreviations with a new student,effective communication would be difficult if notimpossible. Terms like SIGMET, taildragger,FBO, IO-540 do not carry the same meaning toa beginning student. Use of technical languagewill always be necessary, but the student mustbe taught the language first.

In addition to using the correct symbols to commu-nicate effectively, the instructor must reveal a posi-tive attitude while delivering a message. The pres-entation should show that the instructor is confident

CH 03.qxd 7/15/2003 11:56 AM Page 3-1

in the information. It should also show that the mes-sage is important and that the student has a need toknow the information.

An instructor must constantly strive to have themost current and interesting information possible. Inthis way, the student’s interest can be held. Out-of-date information causes the instructor to lose credi-bility in the eyes of the student. Use of boring oruninteresting information runs the risk of losing thestudent’s attention.

SYMBOLSAt its basic level, communication is achievedthrough symbols which are simple oral and visu-al codes. The words in the vocabulary constitutea basic code. Common gestures and facialexpressions form another, but words and ges-tures alone do not communicate ideas. Theyshould be combined into units (sentences, para-graphs, lectures, or chapters) that mean some-thing to the student. When symbols are com-bined into these units, each portion becomesimportant to effective communication.

The parts of the total idea should be analyzed todetermine which are most suited to starting or end-ing the communication, and which are best for thepurpose of explaining, clarifying, or emphasizing.All of these functions are required for effectivetransmission of ideas. The process finally culmi-nates in the determination of the medium best suit-ed for their transmission. Most frequently, commu-nicators select the channels of hearing and seeing.For motor skills, the sense of touch, or kinestheticlearning, is added as the student practices the skill.

The instructor will be more successful in gaining

and retaining the student’s attention by using avariety of channels. As an example, instead oftelling students to adjust the trim, the instructorcan move the trim wheel while the student tries tomaintain a given aircraft attitude. The student willexperience, by feel, that the trim wheel affects theamount of control wheel pressure needed tomaintain the attitude. At the same time, theinstructor can explain to the student that what isfelt is forward or back pressure on the controlwheel. After that, the student will begin to under-stand the correct meaning of control pressure andtrim, and when told to adjust the trim to relievecontrol pressure, the student will respond in themanner desired by the instructor.

The feedback an instructor is getting from a stu-dent needs to be constantly monitored in order tomodify the symbols, as required, to optimize com-munication. In figure 3-1, the instructor realizesfrom the response of the student that stall hasbeen interpreted by the student to have some-thing to do with the engine quitting. Recognizingthat the student has misunderstood, the instructoris able to clarify the information and help the stu-dent to obtain the desired outcome.

In addition to feedback received by the instructorfrom the students, students need feedback fromthe instructor on how they are doing. The feedbacknot only informs the students of their performance,but also can serve as a valuable source of motiva-tion. An instructor’s praise builds the student’s egoand reinforces favorable behavior. On the otherhand, negative feedback must be used carefully.To avoid embarrassing a student, use negativefeedback only in private. This information should

Figure 3-1. The instructor must constantly monitor student feedback.

CH 03.qxd 7/15/2003 11:56 AM Page 3-2

be delivered as a description of actual perform-ance and given in a non-judgmental manner. Forexample, it would be appropriate to tell a mainte-nance student that a safety wire installation is notsatisfactory. But to refer to the work as carelesswould not be good and could do harm to the stu-dent’s feeling of self-worth.

RECEIVERRemember, the receiver is the listener, reader, orstudent. Instructors should always keep in mindthat communication succeeds only in relation tothe reaction of their students. When studentsreact with understanding and change their behav-ior according to the intent of the instructor, effec-tive communication has taken place.

In order for an instructor to change the behavior ofstudents, some of the students’ abilities, attitudes,and experiences need to be understood. First, stu-dents come to aviation training with a wide varietyof abilities. Some may be familiar with aviation insome form while others barely know what an air-plane looks like. Some students arrive with highlydeveloped motor skills, and others have not hadopportunities to develop these skills. The instructorneeds to determine the abilities of the students andto understand the students in order to properlycommunicate. The process is complicated by dif-ferences in gender, age, cultural background, andlevel of education. For instance, the instructorwould want to tailor a presentation differently for ateenage student than for an older student.Likewise, a student with a strong technical back-ground would require a different level of communi-cation than one with no such background.

The instructor also must understand that the view-point and background of people may differ signifi-cantly because of cultural differences. However,this consciousness of the differences betweenpeople should not be overdone. The instructorshould be aware of possible differences, but notoverreact or assume certain values because ofthese differences. For example, just because astudent is a college graduate does not guaranteerapid advancement in aviation training. A stu-dent’s education will certainly affect the instruc-tor’s style of presentation, but that style should bebased on the evaluation of the student’s knowl-edge of the aviation subject being taught.

Second, the attitudes students exhibit may indicateresistance, willingness, or passive neutrality. Togain and hold the students’ attention, attitudesshould be molded into forms that promote recep-tion of information. A varied communicativeapproach will succeed best in reaching most stu-dents since they all have different attitudes.

Third, the student’s experience, background, andeducational level will determine the approach an

instructor will take. What the student knows, alongwith the student’s abilities and attitudes, will guide theinstructor in communicating. It is essential to under-stand the dynamics of communication, but theinstructor also needs to be aware of several barriersto communication that can inhibit learning.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATIONThe nature of language and the way it is usedoften lead to misunderstandings. An examplemight be a maintenance instructor telling a stu-dent to time the magnetos. A student new to themaintenance field might think a stopwatch orclock would be necessary to do the requestedtask. Instruction would be necessary for the stu-dent to understand that the procedure has nothingto do with the usual concept of time. This is anexample of a lack of common experience, one offour barriers to effective communication. [Figure3-2]

LACK OF COMMON EXPERIENCELack of common experience between instructorand student is probably the greatest single barrierto effective communication. Many people seem tobelieve that words transport meanings from speak-er to listener in the same way that a truck carriesbricks from one location to another. Words, howev-er, rarely carry precisely the same meaning fromthe mind of the instructor to the mind of the student.In fact, words, in themselves, do not transfer mean-ings at all. Whether spoken or written, they aremerely stimuli used to arouse a response in thestudent. The student’s past experience with thewords and the things to which they refer deter-

Figure 3-2. Misunderstandings stem primarily from four barriers toeffective communication.

CH 03.qxd 7/15/2003 11:56 AM Page 3-3

mines how the student responds to what theinstructor says. A communicator’s words cannotcommunicate the desired meaning to another per-son unless the listener or reader has had someexperience with the objects or concepts to whichthese words refer. Since it is the students’ experi-ence that forms vocabulary, it is also essential thatinstructors speak the same language as the stu-dents. If the instructor’s terminology is necessary toconvey the idea, some time needs to be spentmaking certain the students understand that termi-nology.

The English language abounds in words that meandifferent things to different people. To a farmer, theword tractor means the machine that pulls theimplements to cultivate the soil; to a trucker, it is thevehicle used to pull a semitrailer; in aviation, a trac-tor propeller is the opposite of a pusher propeller.Each technical field has its own vocabulary.Technical words might mean something entirely dif-ferent to a person outside that field, or perhaps,mean nothing at all. In order for communication tobe effective, the students’ understanding of themeaning of the words needs to be the same as theinstructor’s understanding.

CONFUSION BETWEEN THE SYMBOL AND THE SYMBOLIZED OBJECTLanguages abound with words that mean differentthings to different people. Confusion between thesymbol and the symbolized object results when aword is confused with what it is meant to repre-

sent.

Although it is obvious that words and the connota-tions they carry can be different, people sometimesfail to make the distinction. An aviation maintenancetechnician (AMT) might be introduced as a mechan-ic. To many people, the term mechanic conjures upimages of a person laboring over an automobile.Being referred to as an aircraft mechanic might bean improvement in some people’s minds, but nei-ther really portrays the training and skill of thetrained AMT. Words and symbols do not alwaysrepresent the same thing to every person. To com-municate effectively, speakers and writers shouldbe aware of these differences. Words and symbolscan then be carefully chosen to represent exactlywhat the speaker or writer intends.

OVERUSE OF ABSTRACTIONSAbstractions are words that are general ratherthan specific. Concrete words or terms refer toobjects that people can relate directly to theirexperiences. They specify an idea that can beperceived or a thing that can be visualized.Abstract words, on the other hand, stand forideas that cannot be directly experienced, thingsthat do not call forth mental images in the mindsof the students. The word aircraft is an abstractword. It does not call to mind a specific aircraft inthe imaginations of various students. One stu-dent may visualize an airplane, another studentmight visualize a helicopter, and still another stu-dent might visualize an airship. Although the

Figure 3-3. Overuse of abstract terms can interfere with effective communication.

CH 03.qxd 7/15/2003 11:56 AM Page 3-4

word airplane is more specific, various studentsmight envision anything from a Boeing 777 to aPiper Cub. [Figure 3-3]

Another example of abstractions would be if aninstructor referred to aircraft engines. Some stu-dents might think of jet engines, while otherswould think of reciprocating engines. Even recip-rocating engine is too abstract since it could be aradial engine, an inline engine, a V-type engine, oran opposed type engine. Use of the technical lan-guage of engines, as in Lycoming IO-360, wouldnarrow the engine type, but would only be under-stood by students who have learned the terminol-ogy particular to aircraft engines.

Abstractions should be avoided in most cases, butthere are times when abstractions are necessaryand useful. Aerodynamics is applicable to all air-craft and is an example of an abstraction that canlead to understanding aircraft flight characteris-tics. The danger of abstractions is that they willnot evoke the same specific items of experiencein the minds of the students that the instructorintends. When such terms are used, they shouldbe linked with specific experiences through exam-ples and illustrations. For instance, when anapproach to landing is going badly, telling a stu-dent to take appropriate measures might notresult in the desired action. It would be better totell the student to conduct a go-around since thisis an action that has the same meaning to bothstudent and instructor. When maintenance stu-dents are being taught to torque the bolts on anengine, it would be better to tell them to torque thebolts in accordance with the maintenance manualfor that engine rather than simply to torque thebolts to the proper values. Whenever possible, thelevel of abstraction should be reduced by usingconcrete, specific terms. This better defines andgains control of images produced in the minds ofthe students.

INTERFERENCEBarriers to effective communication are usuallyunder the direct control of the instructor. However,interference is made up of factors that are outsidethe direct control of the instructor: physiological,environmental, and psychological interference. Tocommunicate effectively, the instructor shouldconsider the effects of these factors.

Physiological interference is any biological prob-lem that may inhibit symbol reception, such ashearing loss, injury, or physical illness. These, andother physiological factors, can inhibit communi-cation because the student is not comfortable.The instructor must adapt the presentation to

allow the student to feel better about the situationand be more receptive to new ideas. Adaptationcould be as simple as putting off a lesson until thestudent is over an illness. Another accommoda-tion could be the use of a seat cushion to allow astudent to sit properly in the airplane.

Environmental interference is caused by externalphysical conditions. One example of this is thenoise level found in many light aircraft. Noise notonly impairs the communication process, but alsocan result in long-term damage to hearing. Onesolution to this problem is the use of headphonesand an intercom system. If an intercom system isnot available, a good solution is the use ofearplugs. It has been shown that in addition toprotecting hearing, use of earplugs actually clari-fies speaker output.

Psychological interference is a product of how theinstructor and student feel at the time the commu-nication process is occurring. If either instructor orstudent is not committed to the communicationprocess, communication is impaired. Fear of thesituation or mistrust between the instructor andstudent could severely inhibit the flow of informa-tion.

DEVELOPING COMMUNICATION SKILLSCommunication skills must be developed; they donot occur automatically. The ability to effectivelycommunicate stems from experience. The experi-ence of instructional communication begins withrole playing during the training to be an instructor,continues during the actual instruction, and isenhanced by additional training.

ROLE PLAYINGExperience in instructional communication comesfrom actually doing it. This is learned in the begin-ning by way of role playing during the instructor’sinitial training. A new instructor can try out differ-ent instructional techniques with an assignedinstructor in the case of a flight instructor appli-cant, or with a mentor or supervisor in the case ofa maintenance instructor. A new instructor is morelikely to find a comfortable style of communicationin an environment that is not threatening. For aprospective flight instructor, this might take theform of conducting a practice ground training ses-sion. The new instructor is naturally most con-cerned about developing flight instruction skills.But it also is essential that he or she develop goodground instructional skills to prepare students forwhat is to transpire in the air. Likewise, the main-tenance instructor must develop skills in the class-room to prepare the maintenance student for the

CH 03.qxd 7/15/2003 11:56 AM Page 3-5

practical, hands-on tasks. In both cases, effectivecommunication will be necessary to reinforce theskills that have been attempted and to assess orcritique the results. This development continuesas an instructor progresses; nothing remains stat-ic. What worked early on might be refined orreplaced by some other technique as the instruc-tor gains more experience.

INSTRUCTIONAL COMMUNICATIONInstruction has taken place when the instructorhas explained a particular procedure and subse-quently determined that the desired studentresponse has occurred. The instructor canimprove communication by adhering to severaltechniques of good communication. One of thebasic principles used in public speaking coursesis to encourage students to talk about somethingthey understand. It would not be good if aninstructor without a maintenance background triedto teach a course for aviation maintenance.Instructors will perform better when speaking ofsomething that they know very well and for whichthey have a high level of confidence.

The instructor should not be afraid to use exam-ples of past experiences to illustrate particularpoints. When teaching the procedures to be usedfor transitioning from instrument meteorologicalconditions to visual cues during an approach, itwould be helpful to be able to tell the studentabout encountering these same conditions. Aninstructor’s personal experiences make instruc-tion more valuable than reading the same infor-mation in a textbook.

Communication has not occurred unless desiredresults of the communication have taken place. Theinstructor needs some way of determining results,and the method used should be related to theexpected outcome. In the case of flight training, theinstructor can judge the actual performance of amaneuver. For a maintenance student, the instruc-tor can judge the level of accomplishment of a main-tenance procedure. In both cases, the instructormust determine whether the student has actuallyreceived and retained the knowledge or if accept-able performance was a one-time event.

The aviation student should know how and whysomething should be done. For example, a main-tenance student may know how to tighten a par-

Figure 3-4. Instructors can use a number of tools to become better at listening.

Figure 3-5. Students can improve their listening skills by applyingthe steps to effective listening.

CH 03.qxd 7/15/2003 11:56 AM Page 3-6

ticular fastener to a specified torque, but it is moreimportant for the student to know that the securityand integrity of any fastener depends on propertorque. In this way, the student would be morelikely to torque all fasteners properly in the future.For a flight student, simply knowing the differentairspeeds for takeoffs and landings is not enough.It is essential to know the reasons for different air-speeds in specific situations to fully understandthe importance of proper airspeed control.Normally, the instructor must determine the levelof understanding by use of some sort of evalua-tion.

Written examinations are sometimes appropriate.Well constructed written exams can indicatewhether the student has absorbed the desiredinformation or not. Since written examinationsalso provide a permanent record, training pro-grams usually require them. Another testing tech-nique is to have the student explain a procedure.This works well because it allows the student toput the information in his or her own words. Theinstructor can then judge whether or not the infor-mation received by the student matches with whatthe instructor intended.

LISTENING

Instructors must know something about their stu-dents in order to communicate effectively. As dis-cussed earlier, an instructor needs to determinethe abilities of the students and understand thestudents to properly communicate. One way ofbecoming better acquainted with students is to bea good listener. Instructors can use a number oftechniques to become better at listening. It isimportant to realize that in order to master the artof listening, an attitude of wanting to listen mustbe developed. [Figure 3-4]

Just as it is important for instructors to want to listenin order to be effective listeners, it is necessary forstudents to want to listen. Wanting to listen is justone of several techniques which allow a student tolisten effectively. Instructors can improve the per-centage of information transfer by teaching studentshow to listen. [Figure 3-5]

Listening is more than hearing. As mentionedearlier, it is important for students to be able tohear the radio and the instructor. But simplyhearing is not enough. An example of hearingthat is not listening would be a pilot acknowl-edging instructions from the tower, but then hav-ing no idea what the tower operator said. Whencalling back to the tower to get the information,the pilot will want to hear what is being said andwill be more inclined to do a better job of listen-

ing. This time the pilot must be ready to listenand be responsible for listening. Otherwise,communication will fail again.

Students also need to be reminded that emotionsplay a large part in determining how much infor-mation is retained. One emotional area to concen-trate on is listening to understand rather thanrefute. An example is the instrument student pilotwho anticipates drastic changes in requested rout-ing and is already upset. With this frame of mind, itwill be very difficult for the student to listen to therouting instructions and then retain very much. Inaddition, instructors must ensure that students areaware of their emotions concerning certain sub-jects. If certain areas arouse emotion in a student,the student should be aware of this and take extrameasures to listen carefully. For example, if a stu-dent who is terrified of the prospect of spins is lis-tening to a lesson on spins, the emotions felt by thestudent might overwhelm the attempt to listen. Ifthe student, aware of this possibility, made a con-scious effort to put that fear aside, listening wouldprobably be more successful.

Another listening technique that can be taught tostudents is that of listening for the main ideas. Thisis primarily a technique for listening to a lecture orformal lesson presentation, but is sometimes appli-cable to hands-on situations as well. People whoconcentrate on remembering or recording factsmight very well miss the message because theyhave not picked up on the big picture. A listenermust always ask, what is the purpose of what I amlistening to? By doing this, the listener can relatethe words to the overall concept.

The instructor must ensure that the student isaware of the danger of daydreaming. Most peoplecan listen much faster than even the fastest talkercan speak. This leaves room for the mind to getoff onto some other subject. The listener who isaware of this problem can concentrate on repeat-ing, paraphrasing, or summarizing the speaker’swords. Doing so will use the extra time to rein-force the speaker’s words, allowing the student toretain more of the information.

Nobody can remember everything. Teaching a stu-dent to take notes allows the student to use anorganized system to reconstruct what was said dur-ing the lesson. Every student will have a slightly dif-ferent system, but no attempt to record the lectureverbatim should be made. In most cases a short-hand or abbreviated system of the student’s choos-ing should be encouraged. Note taking is merely amethod of allowing the student to recreate the lec-ture so that it can be studied. The same note taking

CH 03.qxd 7/15/2003 11:56 AM Page 3-7

skills can be used outside the classroom any timeinformation needs to be retained. An example ofthis would be copying an instrument clearance. It isvery difficult to copy an instrument clearance wordfor word. By knowing the format of a typical clear-ance, student instrument pilots can develop theirown system of abbreviations. This allows them tocopy the clearance in a useful form for readbackand for flying of the clearance. By incorporating allor some of these techniques, students will retainmore information. Instructors can vastly improvetheir students’ retention of information by makingcertain their students have the best possible listen-ing skills.

QUESTIONING

Good questioning can determine how well the stu-dent understands. It also shows the student thatthe instructor is paying attention. And it shows thatthe instructor is interested in the student’sresponse. An instructor should ask both open-ended and focused questions. Open-ended ques-tions allow the student to explain more fully.Focused questions allow the instructor to concen-trate on desired areas. An instructor may ask foradditional details, examples, and impressions fromthe student. This allows the instructor to ask fur-ther questions if necessary. The presentation canthen be modified to fit the understanding of the stu-dent.

Two ways of confirming that the student andinstructor understand things in the same way are

CH 03.qxd 7/15/2003 11:56 AM Page 3-8

Effective teaching is based on principles of learn-ing which have been discussed in some detail inChapter 1. The learning process is not easily sep-arated into a definite number of steps.Sometimes, learning occurs almost instanta-neously, and other times it is acquired onlythrough long, patient study and diligent practice.The teaching process, on the other hand, can bedivided into steps. Although there is disagreementas to the number of steps, examination of the var-ious lists of steps in the teaching process revealsthat different authors are saying essentially thesame thing: the teaching of new material can bereduced to preparation, presentation, application,and review and evaluation. Discussions in this

handbook focus on these four basic steps. [Figure4-1]

PREPARATION

For each lesson or instructional period, the instruc-tor must prepare a lesson plan. Traditionally, thisplan includes a statement of lesson objectives, theprocedures and facilities to be used during the les-son, the specific goals to be attained, and themeans to be used for review and evaluation. Thelesson plan should also include home study orother special preparation to be done by the student.The instructor should make certain that all neces-sary supplies, materials, and equipment needed forthe lesson are readily available and that the equip-ment is operating properly. Preparation of the les-son plan may be accomplished after reference tothe syllabus or practical test standards (PTS), or itmay be in pre-printed form as prepared by a pub-lisher of training materials. These documents willlist general objectives that are to be accomplished.Objectives are needed to bring the unit of instruc-tion into focus. The instructor can organize theoverall instructional plan by writing down the objec-tives and making certain that they flow in a logicalsequence from beginning to end. The objectivesallow the instructor to structure the training andpermit the student to clearly see what is requiredalong the way. It also allows persons outside theprocess to see and evaluate what is supposed totake place.

PERFORMANCE-BASED OBJECTIVESOne good way to write lesson plans is to begin byformulating performance-based objectives. Theinstructor uses the objectives as listed in the syl-labus or the appropriate PTS as the beginningpoint for establishing performance-based objec-tives. These objectives are very helpful in delin-

Figure 4-1. The teaching process consists of four basic steps.

CH 04.qxd 7/15/2003 11:56 AM Page 4-1

eating exactly what needs to be done and how itwill be done during each lesson. Once the per-formance-based objectives are written, most ofthe work of writing a final lesson plan is complet-ed. Chapter 10 discusses lesson plans in depthand provides examples of a variety of acceptableformats.

Performance-based objectives are used to setmeasurable, reasonable standards that describethe desired performance of the student. This usu-ally involves the term behavioral objective,although it may be referred to as a performance,instructional, or educational objective. All refer tothe same thing, the behavior of the student.

These objectives provide a way of stating whatperformance level is desired of a student beforethe student is allowed to progress to the nextstage of instruction. Again, objectives must beclear, measurable, and repeatable. In otherwords, they must mean the same thing to anyknowledgeable reader. The objectives must bewritten. If they are not written, they become sub-ject to the fallibility of recall, interpretation, or loss

of specificity with time.

Performance-based objectives consist of threeparts: description of the skill or behavior, condi-tions, and criteria. Each part is required and mustbe stated in a way that will leave every reader withthe same picture of the objective, how it will be per-formed, and to what level of performance. [Figure4-2]

DESCRIPTION OF THE SKILL OR BEHAVIOR

The description of the skill or behavior explainsthe desired outcome of the instruction. It actuallyis a learned capability, which may be defined asknowledge, a skill, or an attitude. The descriptionshould be in concrete terms that can be meas-ured. Terms such as “knowledge of...” and“awareness of...” cannot be measured very welland are examples of the types of verbiage whichshould be avoided. Phrases like “able to selectfrom a list of...” or “able to repeat the steps to...”are better because they can be measured.Furthermore, the skill or behavior describedshould be logical and within the overall instruc-tional plan.

CONDITIONS

Conditions are necessary to specifically explainthe rules under which the skill or behavior isdemonstrated. If a desired capability is to navigatefrom point A to point B, the objective as stated isnot specific enough for all students to do it in thesame way. Information such as equipment, tools,reference material, and limiting parametersshould be included. For example, inserting condi-tions narrows the objective as follows: “Using sec-tional charts, a flight computer, and a Cessna 172,navigate from point A to point B while maintainingstandard hemispheric altitudes.” Sometimes, inthe process of writing the objective, a difficulty isencountered. This might be someone saying,“But, what if...?” This is a good indication that theoriginal version was confusing to that person. If itis confusing to one person, it will be confusing toothers and should be corrected.

CRITERIA

Criteria is a list of standards which measure theaccomplishment of the objective. The criteriashould be stated so that there is no questionwhether the objective has been met. In the previ-ous example, the criteria may include that naviga-tion from A to B be accomplished within five min-utes of the preplanned flight time and that enroute altitude be maintained within 200 feet. Therevised performance-based objective may nowread, “Using a sectional chart and a flight com-puter, plan a flight and fly from point A to point Bin a Cessna 172. Arrival at point B should be with-in five minutes of planned arrival time and cruisealtitude should be maintained within 200 feet dur-ing the en route phase of the flight.” The alertreader has already noted that the conditions andcriteria have changed slightly during the develop-ment of these objectives, and that is exactly theway it will occur. Conditions and criteria should berefined as necessary.

Figure 4-2. Performance-based objectives are made up of adescription of the skill or behavior, conditions, and criteria.

CH 04.qxd 7/15/2003 11:56 AM Page 4-2

As noted earlier, the practical test standardsalready have many of the elements needed to for-mulate performance-based objectives. In mostcases, the objective is listed along with sufficientconditions to describe the scope of the objective.The PTS also has specific criteria or standardsupon which to grade performance; however, thecriteria may not always be specific enough for aparticular lesson. The instructor should feel free towrite performance-based objectives to fit thedesired outcome of the lesson. The objective for-mulated in the last few paragraphs, for instance, isa well-defined lesson objective from the task,Pilotage and Dead Reckoning, in the Private PilotPractical Test Standards.

OTHER USES OF PERFORMANCE-BASED OBJECTIVES

The use of performance-based objectivesexpands the conventional idea of an objective toinclude conditions and criteria. This expansionopens the way for the performance-based objec-tive to be used to fill in many of the blanks on thelesson plan. For example, having formulated theconditions under which the student will accom-plish the objective, the instructor has already donemost of the work toward determining the elementsof the lesson and the schedule of events. Theequipment necessary, and the instructor and stu-dent actions anticipated during the lesson havealso been specified. By listing the criteria for theperformance-based objectives, the instructor hasalready established the completion standards nor-mally included as part of the lesson plan.

Use of performance-based objectives also pro-vides the student with a better understanding ofthe big picture, as well as knowledge of exactlywhat is expected. This overview can alleviate asignificant source of frustration on the part of thestudent.

As indicated in Chapter 1, performance-basedobjectives apply to all three domains of learning —cognitive (knowledge), affective (attitudes, beliefs,values), and psychomotor (physical skills). In addi-tion, since each domain includes several educa-tional or skill levels, performance-based objectivesmay easily be adapted to a specific performancelevel of knowledge or skill.

PRESENTATIONInstructors have several methods of presentationfrom which to choose. In this handbook, the dis-cussion is limited to the lecture method, thedemonstration-performance method, and theguided discussion. The nature of the subject mat-

ter and the objective in teaching it normally deter-mine the method of presentation. The lecturemethod is suitable for presenting new material, forsummarizing ideas, and for showing relationshipsbetween theory and practice. For example, it issuitable for the presentation of a ground schoollesson on aircraft weight and balance. Thismethod is most effective when accompanied byinstructional aids and training devices. In the caseof a lecture on weight and balance, a chalkboard,a marker board, or flip chart could be used effec-tively.

The demonstration-performance method is desir-able for teaching a skill, such as a ground schoollesson on the flight computer, or during instruc-tion on most flight maneuvers. Showing a studentpilot how to recognize stalls, for example, wouldbe appropriate for this method. The instructorwould first demonstrate the common indicationsof a stall, and then have the student attempt toidentify the same stall indications.

Combining the lecture and the demonstration-per-formance methods would be useful for teachingstudents to overhaul an engine. The initial informa-tion on overhaul procedures would be taught in theclassroom using the lecture method, and the actu-al hands on portion in the shop would use thedemonstration-performance method.

In the shop, the instructor would first demonstratea procedure and then the student would have anopportunity to perform the same procedure. In thedemonstration-performance method, the stepsmust be sequenced in the proper order so the stu-dents get a correct picture of each separateprocess or operation, as well as the overall pro-cedure.

Another form of presentation is the guided discus-sion which is used in a classroom situation. It is agood method for encouraging active participationof the students. It is especially helpful in teachingsubjects such as safety and emergency proce-dures where students can use initiative and imag-ination in addressing problem areas. All threeforms of presentation will be addressed in greaterdepth in Chapter 5.

APPLICATIONApplication is where the student uses what theinstructor has presented. After a classroompresentation, the student may be asked toexplain the new material. The student also maybe asked to perform a procedure or operationthat has just been demonstrated. For example,

CH 04.qxd 7/15/2003 11:56 AM Page 4-3

after an instructor has demonstrated andexplained the use of the flight computer, the stu-dent may be asked to use the flight computer tocompute groundspeed, drift correction, or timeen route. In most instructional situations, theinstructor’s explanation and demonstrationactivities are alternated with student perform-ance efforts. The instructor makes a presenta-tion and then asks the student to try the sameprocedure or operation.

Usually the instructor will have to interrupt thestudent’s efforts for corrections and furtherdemonstrations. This is necessary, because it isvery important that each student perform themaneuver or operation the right way the first fewtimes. This is when habits are established.Faulty habits are difficult to correct and must beaddressed as soon as possible. Flight instructorsin particular must be aware of this problem sincestudents do a lot of their practice without an

instructor. Only after reasonable competencehas been demonstrated should the student beallowed to practice certain maneuvers on soloflights. Then, the student can practice themaneuver again and again until correct perform-ance becomes almost automatic. Periodicreview and evaluation by the instructor is neces-sary to ensure that the student has not acquiredany bad habits.

REVIEW AND EVALUATIONBefore the end of the instructional period, theinstructor should review what has been coveredduring the lesson and require the students todemonstrate how well the lesson objectives havebeen met. Evaluation is an integral part of eachclassroom, shop, or flight lesson. The instructor’sevaluation may be informal and recorded only forthe instructor’s own use in planning the next les-son for the students, or it may be formal. Morelikely, the evaluation will be formal and resultsrecorded to certify the student’s progress in thecourse. In Chapter 5, methods of integrating train-ing syllabi and record keeping will be introduced.

In either case, students should be made aware oftheir progress. Any advances and deficienciesshould be noted at the conclusion of the lesson.Failure to make students aware of their progress,or lack of it, may create a barrier that couldimpede further instruction. [Figure 4-3]

In aviation training programs, the instructor shouldremember that it often is difficult for students to geta clear picture of their progress. Students in flighttraining seldom have a chance to compare theirperformance with other students. However, theyare in a competitive situation with an unseen com-petitor—competency—and they are normally ableto compare their performance only with that of theirinstructor. The instructor’s feedback must ade-quately compare the students’ performance to thecompletion standards of the lesson plan so the stu-dents really know how they are doing. Otherwise,the students may become discouraged whentheir only visible competition, their instructor, is

Figure 4-3. If students understand that performance is measuredagainst task standards, they will be less likely to become discour-aged with their progress.

CH 04.qxd 7/15/2003 11:56 AM Page 4-4

The information presented in previous chaptershas been largely theoretical, emphasizing con-cepts and principles pertinent to the learningprocess, human behavior, and effective communi-cation in education and training programs. Thisknowledge, if properly used, will enable instruc-tors to be more confident, efficient, and success-ful. The discussion which follows departs from thetheoretical with some specific recommendationsfor the actual conduct of the teaching process.Included are methods and procedures which havebeen tested and found to be effective.

Teaching methods in common use, such as the lec-ture method, the guided discussion method, andthe demonstration-performance method are cov-ered in this chapter. A discussion on cooperative orgroup learning also is included since this type oflearning may be useful in conjunction with eitherthe lecture or guided discussion methods. Ateaching method is seldom used by itself. In a typ-ical lesson, an effective instructor normally usesmore than one method. For example, a demon-stration is usually accompanied by a thoroughexplanation, which is essentially a lecture.

Personal computers are a part of every segmentof our society today. Since a number of computer-based programs are currently available from pub-lishers of aviation training materials, a brief

description of new technologies and how to usethem effectively is provided near the end of thechapter.

ORGANIZING MATERIALRegardless of the teaching method used, aninstructor must properly organize the material.The lessons do not stand alone within a courseof training. There must be a plan of action to leadinstructors and their students through the coursein a logical manner toward the desired goal.Usually the goal for students is a certificate orrating. It could be a private pilot certificate, an instrument rating, or an aviation maintenance technician certificate or rating. Inall cases, a systematic plan of action requiresthe use of an appropriate training syllabus. Generally,t h esyllabus must contain a description of each les-son, including objectives and completion stan-dards. Refer to Chapter 10, PlanningInstructional Activity, for detailed information onrequirements for an aviation training syllabus,and the building-block concept for curriculumdevelopment.

Although some schools and independent instruc-tors may develop their own syllabus, in practice,

CH 05.qxd 7/15/2003 11:58 AM Page 5-1

many instructors use a commercially developeds y l l a b u sthat already has been selected by a school foruse in their aviation training program. Thus, them a i nconcern of the instructor usually is the more man-ageable task of organizing a block of training with integrated lesson plans. The traditional way oforganizing a lesson plan is—introduction, devel-o p m e n t ,and conclusion.

INTRODUCTIONThe introduction sets the stage for everything tocome. Efforts in this area pay great dividends interms of quality of instruction. In brief, the intro-duction is made up of three elements—attention,motivation, and an overview of what is to be cov-ered. [Figure 5-1]

ATTENTIONThe purpose of the attention element is to focuse a c hstudent’s attention on the lesson. The instructormay begin by telling a story, making an unex-pected or surprising statement, asking a ques-tion, or telling a joke. Any of these may beappropriate at one time or another. Regardlessof which is used, it should relate to the subjectand establish a background for developing thelearning outcomes. Telling a story or a joke thatis not related in some way to the subject can only distract from the lesson. The main concernis to gain the attention of everyone and concen-trate on the subject. [Figure 5-2]

MOTIVATIONThe purpose of the motivation element is to offerthe students specific reasons why the lesson con-tent is important to know, understand, apply, orperform. For example, the instructor may talk aboutan occurrence where the knowledge in the lessonwas applied. Or the instructor may remind the stu-dents of an upcoming test on the material. Thismotivation should appeal to each student person-ally and engender a desire to learn the material.

OVERVIEW

Every lesson introduction should contain anoverview that tells the group what is to be coveredduring the period. A clear, concise presentation ofthe objective and the key ideas gives the studentsa road map of the route to be followed. A goodvisual aid can help the instructor show the stu-dents the path that they are to travel. The intro-duction should be free of stories, jokes, or inci-dents that do not help the students focus theirattention on the lesson objective. Also, the instruc-tor should avoid a long apologetic introduction,because it only serves to dampen the students’interest in the lesson.

DEVELOPMENTDevelopment is the main part of the lesson. Here,the instructor develops the subject matter in am a n n e rthat helps the students achieve the desired learn-i n goutcomes. The instructor must logically organizethe material to show the relationships of the mainpoints. The instructor usually shows these primaryrelationships by developing the main points in oneof the following ways: from past to present, simple to complex, known to unknown, and most frequentlyused to least frequently used.

Figure 5-1. The introduction prepares the students to receive theinformation in the lesson.

Figure 5-2. The attention element causes students to focus on theupcoming lesson.

CH 05.qxd 7/15/2003 11:58 AM Page 5-2

PAST TO PRESENT

In this pattern of development, the subject mat-ter is arranged chronologically, from the presentto the past or from the past to the present. Timerelationships are most suitable when history isan important consideration, as in tracing thedevelopment of radio navigation systems.

SIMPLE TO COMPLEX

The simple-to-complex pattern helps the instruc-tor lead the student from simple facts or ideas toan understanding of involved phenomena or con-cepts. In studying jet propulsion, for example, thestudent might begin by considering the actioninvolved in releasing air from a toy balloon and fin-ish by taking part in a discussion of a complex gasturbine engine.

KNOWN TO UNKNOWN

By using something the student already knows asthe point of departure, the instructor can lead intonew ideas and concepts. For example, in devel-oping a lesson on heading indicators, the instructor couldbegin with a discussion of the vacuum-drivenh e a d i n gindicator before proceeding to a description of theradio magnetic indicator (RMI).

MOST FREQUENTLY USED TO LEAST FREQUENTLY USED

In some subjects, certain information or conceptsare common to all who use the material. Thisfourth organizational pattern starts with commonusage before progressing to the rarer ones. Whenlearning navigation, students should study fre-quently used pilotage, dead reckoning, and basicVOR/NDB radio navigation procedures beforegoing on to area navigation procedures such asglobal positioning system (GPS) or inertial navi-gation system (INS).

Under each main point in a lesson, the subordi-nate points should lead naturally from one to theother. With this arrangement, each point leadslogically into, and serves as a reminder of, thenext. Meaningful transitions from one main pointto another keep the students oriented, aware of where they have been, andwhere they are going. This permits effective sort-ing or categorizing chunks of information in the working or short-term memory. Organizing a lesson so the students will grasp the logical relationships ofideas is not an easy task, but it is necessary if thestudents are to learn and remember what they

have learned. Poorly organized information is oflittle or no value to the student because it cannot be readily understoodor remembered.

CONCLUSIONAn effective conclusion retraces the important elements of the lesson and relates them to theobjective. This review and wrap-up of ideas rein-forces student learning and improves the retentionof what has been learned. New ideas should notbe introduced in the conclusion because at thispoint they are likely to confuse the students.

By organizing the lesson material into a logicalformat, the instructor has maximized the opportu-nity for students to retain the desired information.However, each teaching situation is unique. Thesetting and purpose of the lesson will determine which teach-ing method—lecture, guided discussion, demon-stration-performance, cooperative or group learn-ing, computer-based training, or a combination—will be used.

LECTURE METHODThe lecture method is the most widely used formof presentation. Every instructor should know howto develop and present a lecture. They alsos h o u l dunderstand the advantages and limitations of thismethod. Lectures are used for introduction of new subjects, summarizing ideas, showing relation-ships between theory and practice, and reempha-sizing main points. The lecture method isadaptable to many different settings, includingeither small or large groups. Lectures also may be used to introducea unit of instruction or a complete training program.Finally, lectures may be combined with otherteaching methods to give added meaning anddirection.

The lecture method of teaching needs to be veryflexible since it may be used in different ways. Forexample, there are several types of lectures suchas the illustrated talk where the speaker reliesheavily on visual aids to convey ideas to the lis-teners. With a briefing, the speaker presents aconcise array of facts to the listeners who normal-ly do not expect elaboration of supporting materi-al. During a formal lecture, the speaker’s purpose is to inform, to persuade, or to entertain

CH 05.qxd 7/15/2003 11:58 AM Page 5-3

w i t hlittle or no verbal participation by the students.When using a teaching lecture, the instructorplans and delivers an oral presentation in a man-ner that allows some participation by the studentsand helps direct them toward the desired learningoutcomes.

TEACHING LECTUREThe teaching lecture is favored by aviationinstructors because it allows some active partici-pation by the students. The instructor must deter-mine the method to be used in developing thesubject matter. The instructor also should careful-ly consider the class size and the depth of thepresentation. As mentioned in Chapter 3, coveringa subject in too much detail is as bad or worsethan sketchy coverage. Regardless of the methodof development or depth of coverage, the successof the teaching lecture depends upon the instruc-tor’s ability to communicate effectively with theclass.

In other methods of teaching such as demon-stration-performance or guided discussion, theinstructor receives direct reaction from the stu-dents, either verbally or by some form of bodylanguage. However, in the teaching lecture, thefeedback is not nearly as obvious and is muchharder to interpret. In the teaching lecture, theinstructor must develop a keen perception forsubtle responses from the class—facialexpressions, manner of taking notes, and

apparent interest or disinterest in the lesson.The successful instructor will be able to inter-pret the meaning of these reactions and adjustthe lesson accordingly.

PREPARING THE TEACHING LECTURE

The competent instructor knows that carefulpreparation is one key to successful perform-ance as a classroom lecturer. This preparationshould start well in advance of the presentation.The following four steps should be followed inthe planning phase of preparation:

• Establishing the objective and desired outcomes;

• Researching the subject;• Organizing the material; and• Planning productive classroom activities.

In all stages of preparing for the teaching lec-ture, the instructor should support any point tobe covered with meaningful examples, compar-isons, statistics, or testimony.The instructorshould consider that the student may neitherbelieve nor understand any point without the useof testimony from subject area experts or withoutmeaningful examples, statistics, or comparisons.While developing the lesson, the instructor alsoshould strongly consider the use of examples andpersonal experiences related to the subject of thelesson.

After completing the preliminary planning andwriting of the lesson plan, the instructor shouldrehearse the lecture to build self-confidence.Rehearsals, or dry runs, help smooth out themechanics of using notes, visual aids, andother instructional devices. If possible, theinstructor should have another knowledgeableperson, preferably another instructor, observethe practice sessions and act as a critic. Thiscritique will help the instructor judge the ade-quacy of supporting materials and visual aids,as well as the presentation. [Figure 5-3]

SUITABLE LANGUAGE

In the teaching lecture, simple rather than com-plex words should be used whenever possible.Good newspapers offer examples of the effec-tive use of simple words. Picturesque slang andfree-and-easy colloquialisms, if they suit thesubject, can add variety and vividness to ateaching lecture. The instructor should not,however, use substandard English. Errors ingrammar and vulgarisms detract from aninstructor’s dignity and reflect upon the intelli-gence of the students.

If the subject matter includes technical terms, the

Figure 5-3. Instructors should try a dry run with another instructorto get a feel for the lecture presentation.

CH 05.qxd 7/15/2003 11:58 AM Page 5-4

instructor should clearly define each one so that nostudent is in doubt about its meaning. Wheneverpossible, the instructor should use specific ratherthan general words. For example, the specificwords, a leak in the fuel line, tell more than thegeneral term, mechanical defect.

Another way the instructor can add life to the lec-ture is to vary his or her tone of voice and pace ofspeaking. In addition, using sentences of differ-ent length helps, since consistent use of shortsentences results in a choppy style. Unless longsentences are carefully constructed, they are dif-ficult to follow and can easily become tangled. Toensure clarity and variety, the instructor shouldnormally use sentences of short and mediumlength.

TYPES OF DELIVERY

Lectures may include several different types ofdelivery. However, depending on the require-ments of any particular circumstances, a lectureis usually delivered in one of four ways:

• Reading from a typed or written manu-script.

• Reciting memorized material without theaid of a manuscript.

• Speaking extemporaneously from an out-line.

• Speaking impromptu without preparation.

The teaching lecture is probably best delivered inan extemporaneous manner. The instructorspeaks from a mental or written outline, but doesnot read or memorize the material to be present-ed. Because the exact words to express an idea

are spontaneous, the lecture is more personalized than one that is read or spo-ken from memory.

Since the instructor talks directly to the stu-dents, their reactions can be readily observed,and adjustments can be made based on theirresponses. The instructor has better control ofthe situation, can change the approach to meetany contingency, and can tailor each idea to suitthe responses of the students. For example, if the instructor realizesfrom puzzled expressions that a number of stu-dents fail to grasp an idea, that point can beelaborated on until the reactions of the students indicate theyunderstand. The extemporaneous presentationreflects the instructor’s personal enthusiasmand is more flexible than other methods. Forthese reasons, it is likely to hold the interest ofthe students.

USE OF NOTESAn instructor who is thoroughly prepared or whohas made the presentation before can usuallyspeak effectively without notes. If the lecture hasbeen carefully prepared, and the instructor iscompletely familiar with the outline, there shouldbe no real difficulty.

Notes used wisely can ensure accuracy, jog thememory, and dispel the fear of forgetting. Theyare essential for reporting complicated informa-tion. For an instructor who tends to ramble, notesare a must because they help keep the lectureon track. The instructor who requires notesshould use them sparingly and unobtrusively, but at the same timeshould make no effort to hide them from the stu-dents. Notes may be written legibly or typed, andthey should be placed where they can be con-sulted easily, or held, if the instructor walksabout the room. [Figure 5-4]

FORMAL VERSUS INFORMAL LECTURESThe lecture may be conducted in either a for-mal or an informal manner. The informal lec-ture includes active student participation. Theprimary consideration in the lecture method,as in all other teaching methods, is the achievement ofdesired learning outcomes. Learning is bestachieved if students participate actively in afriendly, relaxed atmosphere. Therefore, theuse of the informal lecture is encouraged. Atthe same time, it must be realized that a for -mal lecture is still to be preferred on some

Figure 5-4. Notes allow the accurate dissemination of complicated information.

CH 05.qxd 7/15/2003 11:58 AM Page 5-5

subjects and occasions, such as lecturesintroducing new subject matter.

The instructor can achieve active student partici-pation in the informal lecture through the use ofquestions. In this way, the students are encour-aged to make contributions that supplement thelecture. The instructor can use questions to deter-mine the experience and background of the students in order to tailor the lecture to their needs, and/or to add variety, stim-ulate interest, and check student understanding.However, it is the instructor’s responsibility toplan, organize, develop, and present the majorportion of a lesson.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE LECTUREThere are a number of advantages to lectures.For example, a lecture is a convenient way toinstruct large groups. If necessary, a publicaddress system can be used to amplify thespeaker’s voice. Lectures can be used to pres-ent information that would be difficult for thestudent to get in other ways, particularly if thestudents do not have the time required forresearch, or if they do not have access to ref-erence material. Lectures also can usefully andsuccessfully supplement other teachingdevices and methods. A brief introductory lec-ture can give direction and purpose to ademonstration or prepare students for a dis-cussion by telling them something about thesubject matter to be covered.

In a lecture, the instructor can present manyideas in a relatively short time. Facts and ideasthat have been logically organized can be con-cisely presented in rapid sequence. Lecturingis unquestionably the most economical of allteaching methods in terms of the time requiredto present a given amount of material.

The lecture is particularly suitable for introducinga new subject and for explaining the necessarybackground information. By using a lecture in thisw a y ,the instructor can offer students with varied back-grounds a common understanding of essentialprinciples and facts.

Although the lecture method can help the instructormeet special challenges, it does have severaldrawbacks. Too often the lecture inhibits studentparticipation and, as a consequence, many stu-

dents willingly let the instructor do all the work.Learning is an active process, and the lecturemethod tends to foster passiveness and teacher-dependence on the part of the students. As ateaching method, the lecture does not bring aboutmaximum attainment of certain types of learningoutcomes. Motor skills, for example, can seldom belearned by listening to a lecture. The only effectiveway students can perfect such skills is throughhands-on practice.

The lecture does not easily allow the instructor to estimate the students’ understanding as the mate-rial is covered. Within a single period, the instruc-tor may unwittingly present more information thanstudents can absorb, and the lecture method pro-vides no accurate means of checking studentprogress.

Many instructors find it difficult to hold the atten-tion of all students in a lecture throughout theclass period. To achieve desired learning out-comes through the lecture method, an instructorneeds considerable skill in speaking. As indicatedin Chapter 1, a student’s rate of retention drops offsignificantly after the first 10-15 minutes of a lec-ture and picks back up at the end. In addition, theretention rate for a lecture is about five percentafter 24 hours. In comparison, the rate of retentionfor active learning goes up dramatically. Aninstructor who can introduce some form of activestudent participation in the middle of a lecture willgreatly increase retention. One form of activelearning that has been successfully used is coop-erative or group learning.

COOPERATIVE OR GROUP LEARNING METHODCooperative or group learning is an instructionalstrategy which organizes students into smallgroups so that they can work together to maxi-mize their own and each other’s learning.Numerous research studies in diverse school set-tings, and across a wide range of subject areas, indicate promising possibilities for academic achievement with this strategy. Forexample, advocates have noted that studentscompleting cooperative learning group tasks tendto have higher test scores, higher self-esteem,improved social skills, and greater comprehension of the subjects theyare studying. Numerous other benefits for stu-dents have been attributed to these programs.Perhaps the most significant characteristic ofgroup learning is that it continually requires active

CH 05.qxd 7/15/2003 11:58 AM Page 5-6

participation of the student in the learningprocess.

CONDITIONS AND CONTROLS

In spite of its many advantages, cooperative orgroup learning is not a panacea for education ortraining. Virtually all studies and literature careful-ly mention that success depends on conditionsthat must be met and certain controls that must bein place. First of all, instructors need to beginplanning early to determine what the studentgroup is expected to learn and be able to do ontheir own. The end result of a curriculum unit orgroup task may emphasize academic achieve-ment, cognitive abilities, or physical skills, but theinstructor must describe in very unambiguous lan-guage the specific knowledge and/or abilities the studentsare to acquire and then demonstrate on their own.In addition to clear and specific learning outcomesor objectives, some of the other conditions andcontrols that may apply are discussed in the fol-lowing paragraphs.

HETEROGENEOUS GROUPS

Instructors should organize small groups ofapproximately 3 to 6 members so that studentsare mixed heterogeneously, considering academ-ic abilities, ethnic backgrounds, race, and gender.Students should not be allowed to form their owngroups based on friendship or cliques. The mainadvantages with heterogeneous groups are thatstudents tend to interact and achieve in ways andat levels that are rarely found with other instruc-tional strategies. They also tend to become toler-ant of diverse viewpoints, to consider thethoughts and feelings of others, and to seek moresupport and clarification of various opinions.

CLEAR, COMPLETE DIRECTIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS

Instructors need to provide directions and instruc-tions that contain in clear, precise terms exactlywhat students are to do, in what order, with whatmaterials, and when appropriate, what studentsare to generate as evidence of their mastery oftargeted content and skills. These directions needto be given to the students before they engage intheir group learning efforts.

ALL STUDENTS IN THE GROUP MUST BUY INTO THE TARGETED OBJECTIVES

Students must perceive these objectives as theirown. They must understand and believe that

everyone in the group needs to master the essential informa-tion and/or skills. In cases where groups selecttheir own objectives, all members of the groupmust accept the objectives as ones they haveagreed to achieve.

POSITIVE INTERDEPENDENCE

Instructors must structure learning tasks so stu-dents will believe that they sink or swim togeth-er. Thus, access to rewards is through member-ship in the group where all members receive areward or no member does. This means tasksare structured so that students must dependupon one another for their group’s success incompleting and mastering the targeted objec-tives.

OPPORTUNITY FOR SUCCESS

Every student must believe that he or she has anequal chance of learning the content and/or abili-ties, and earning the group rewards for success,regardless of the group he or she is in. In otherwords, the student must not feel penalized bybeing placed in a particular group.

ACCESS TO MUST-LEARN INFORMATION

Instructors must structure the tasks so that stu-dents have access to and comprehend the specif-ic information that they must learn. The focus oflearning tasks must be aligned with the specificobjectives, as well as any test items that will beused to measure their achievement.

SUFFICIENT TIME FOR LEARNING

Each student and group should be provided theamount of time needed to learn the targeted infor-mation and/or abilities. If students do not spendsufficient time learning, the benefits will be limited.Research suggests that many of the positive val-ues, social skills, and academic advantages ofcooperative learning tend to emerge and beretained only after students have spent severalweeks together in the same heterogeneousgroup.

POSITIVE SOCIAL INTERACTION BEHAVIORS AND ATTITUDES

Students should be positioned and postured toface each other for direct eye-to-eye contact andface-to-face conversations. Just because stu-dents are placed in groups and expected to useappropriate social and group skills does not meanthey will automatically use these skills. To work

CH 05.qxd 7/15/2003 11:58 AM Page 5-7

together as a group, students need to engage insuch interactive abilities as leadership, trust-build-ing, conflict management, constructive criticism,encouragement, compromise, negotiation, andclarification. Instructors may need to describe theexpected social interaction behaviors and atti-tudes of students, and to assign particular stu-dents specific roles to ensure that they con-sciously work on these behaviors in their groups.

INDIVIDUAL ACCOUNTABILITY

The main reason that students are put in cooper-ative learning groups is so they can individuallyachieve greater success than if they were to studyalone. Thus, each student must be held individu-ally responsible and accountable for doing his orher own share of the work and for learning whatneeds to be learned. As a result, each studentmust be formally and individually tested to deter-mine mastery and retention of the targeted learn-ing outcomes or training objectives.

RECOGNITION AND REWARDS FOR GROUP SUCCESS

Only members of groups who meet establishedlevels for achievement receive the rewards orpublic recognition. The specific awards must besomething valued by the students.

DEBRIEF ON GROUP EFFORTS

Students should spend time after the group taskshave been completed to systematically reflectupon how they worked together as a team—

specifically how well they achieved their groupobjectives; how they helped each other compre-hend the content, resources, and task proce-dures; how they used positive behaviors and atti-tudes to enable each individual and the entire

group to be successful; and what they need to doin the future to be even more successful.

All of the preceding conditions and controls do nothave to be used every time an instructor assigns students to work in groups. In practice, coopera-t i v eor group learning in aviation training is normally modified to adapt to school policy or for other validreasons. For example, collaborative, student-led,instructor-led, or working group strategies arealternatives to a pure form of group learning. Inthese examples, the student leader or the instruc-tor serves as a coach or facilitator who interactswith the group, as necessary, to keep it on track orto encourage everyone in the group to participate.

GUIDED DISCUSSION METHODIn the guided discussion method, as is true withany group learning effort, the instructor typicallyrelies on the students to provide ideas, experi-ences, opinions, and information. An instructormay use this method during classroom periods,and preflight and postflight briefings, after the stu-dents have gained some knowledge and experi-ence. Fundamentally, the guided discussionmethod is almost the opposite of the lecturemethod. The instructor’s goal is to draw out whatthe students know, rather than to spend the classperiod telling them. The instructor should remem-ber that the more intense the discussion and thegreater the participation, the more effective thelearning. All members of the group should followthe discussion. The instructor should treat every-one impartially, encourage questions, exercisepatience and tact, and comment on all responses.Sarcasm or ridicule should never be used, since itinhibits the spontaneity of the participants. In aguided discussion, the instructor acts as a facilita-tor to encourage discussion between students.

USE OF QUESTIONS IN A GUIDED DISCUSSIONIn the guided discussion, learning is achievedthrough the skillful use of questions. Questionscan be categorized by function and by character-istics. Understanding these distinctions helps theinstructor become a more skilled user of ques-tions.

The instructor often uses a question to open up anarea for discussion. This is the lead-off questionand its function is indicated by its name. The pur-pose is to get the discussion started. After the dis-cussion develops, the instructor may ask a follow-up question to guide the discussion. The reasonsfor using a follow-up question may vary. The

Figure 5-5. If the objectives of a lesson are clearly established inadvance, instructors will find it much easier to ask appropriatequestions that keep the discussion moving in the planned direc-tion.

CH 05.qxd 7/15/2003 11:58 AM Page 5-8

instructor may want a student to explain somethingmore thoroughly, or may need to bring the discus-sion back to a point from which it has strayed.

In terms of characteristics, questions can be iden-tified as overhead, rhetorical, direct, reverse, andrelay. The overhead question is directed to theentire group to stimulate the thought andresponse from each group member. The instruc-tor may use an overhead question to pose thelead-off question. The rhetorical question is simi-lar in nature, because it also spurs group thought.However, the instructor provides the answer to therhetorical question. Consequently, it is more com-monly used in lecturing than in guided discussion.

The instructor who wants to phrase a question forfollow-up purposes may choose the overhead type.If, however, a response is desired from a specificindividual, a direct question may be asked of thatstudent. A reverse question is used in response toa student’s question. Rather than give a directanswer to the student’s query, the instructor canredirect the question to another student to providethe answer. A relay question is redirected to thegroup instead of the individual.

Questions are so much a part of teaching thatthey are often taken for granted. Effective use ofquestions may result in more student learningthan any other single technique used by instruc-tors. In general, instructors should ask open-ended questions that are thought provoking andrequire more mental activity than simply remem-bering facts. Since most aviation training is at theunderstanding level of learning, or higher, ques-tions should require students to grasp concepts,explain similarities and differences, and to infercause-and-effect relationships. [Figure 5-5]

PLANNING A GUIDED DISCUSSIONPlanning a guided discussion is basically thesame as planning a lecture. The instructor will findthe following suggestions helpful in planning a dis-cussion lesson. Note that these same sugges-tions include many that are appropriate for plan-ning cooperative learning.

• Select a topic the students can profitably dis-cuss. Unless the students have some knowl-edge to exchange with each other, they cannotreach the desired learning outcomes by the dis-cussion method. If necessary, make assign-ments that will give the students an adequatebackground for discussing the lesson topic.

• Establish a specific lesson objective withdesired learning outcomes. Through discus-

sion, the students develop an understanding ofthe subject by sharing knowledge, experiences,and backgrounds. Consequently, the objectivenormally is stated at the understanding level oflearning. The desired learning outcomesshould stem from the objective.

• Conduct adequate research to become familiarwith the topic. While researching, the instructorshould always be alert for ideas on the bestway to tailor a lesson for a particular group ofstudents. Similarly, the instructor can preparethe pre-discussion assignment more effectivelywhile conducting research for the classroomperiod. During this research process, theinstructor should also earmark reading materialthat appears to be especially appropriate asbackground material for students. Such materi-al should be well organized and based on fun-damentals.

• Organize the main and subordinate points oft h elesson in a logical sequence. The guided dis-cussion has three main parts—introduction,discussion, and conclusion. The introductionconsists of three elements—attention, motivation, and overview.In the discussion, the instructor should be cer-tain that the main points discussed build logi-cally with the objective. The conclusion con-sists of the summary, remotivation, and clo-sure. By organizing in this manner, the instruc-tor phrases the questions to help the students obtain a firm grasp of the sub-ject matter and to minimize the possibility of arambling discussion.

• Plan at least one lead-off question for eachdesired learning outcome. In preparing ques-tions, the instructor should remember that thepurpose is to stimulate discussion, not merely toget answers. The instructor should avoid ques-tions that require only short categorical answers,such as yes or no. Lead-off questions shouldusually begin with how or why. For example, it isbetter, to ask “Why does an airplane normallyrequire a longer takeoff run at Denver than atNew Orleans?” instead of, “Would you expect anairplane to require a longer takeoff run at Denveror at New Orleans?” Students can answer thesecond question by merely saying “Denver,” butthe first question is likely to start a discussion ofair density, engine efficiency, and the effect oftemperature on performance.

STUDENT PREPARATION FOR A GUIDED DISCUSSION

CH 05.qxd 7/15/2003 11:58 AM Page 5-9

It is the instructor’s responsibility to help students prepare themselves for the discussion. Each stu-dent should be encouraged to accept responsibil-ity for contributing to the discussion and benefiting from it. Throughout the time the instructor prepares the students for their discussion, they should be madeaware of the lesson objective. In certaininstances, the instructor has no opportunity toassign preliminary work and must face the stu-dents cold for the first time. In such cases, it ispractical and advisable to give the students a brief general survey of the topicduring the introduction. Normally students shouldnot be asked to discuss a subject without somebackground in that subject.

GUIDING A DISCUSSION— INSTRUCTOR TECHNIQUE

The techniques used to guide a discussionrequire practice and experience. The instructorneeds to keep up with the discussion and knowwhere to intervene with questions or redirect thegroup’s focus. The following information providesa framework for successfully conducting the guid-ed discussion.

INTRODUCTION

A guided discussion lesson is introduced in thesame manner as the lecture. The introductionshould include an attention element, a motivationelement, and an overview of key points. Toencourage enthusiasm and stimulate discussion,the instructor should create a relaxed, informalatmosphere. Each student should be given theopportunity to discuss the various aspects of thesubject, and feel free to do so. Moreover, the student should feel a personal responsibility to

contribute. The instructor should try to make the students feel that their ideas and active participa-tion are wanted and needed.

DISCUSSION

The instructor opens the discussion by asking oneof the prepared lead-off questions. After asking aquestion, the instructor should be patient. The stu-dents should be given a chance to react. Theinstructor should have the answer in mind beforeasking the question, but the students have to thinkabout the question before answering. Sometimesan instructor finds it difficult to be patient whilestudents figure out answers. Keep in mind that ittakes time to recall data, determine how toanswer, or to think of an example.

The more difficult the question, the more time thestudents will need to produce an answer.Sometimes students do not understand the ques-tion. Whenever the instructor sees puzzledexpressions, the question should be rephrased ina slightly different form. The nature of the ques-tions should be determined by the lesson objec-tive and desired learning outcomes.

Once the discussion is underway, the instructorshould listen attentively to the ideas, experiences,and examples contributed by the students duringthe discussion. Remember that during the prepara-tion, the instructor listed some of the anticipatedresponses that would, if discussed by the students,indicate that they had a firm grasp of the subject. Asthe discussion proceeds, the instructor may find itnecessary to guide the direction, to stimulate thestudents to explore the subject in greater depth, orto encourage them to discuss the topic in moredetail. By using how and why follow-up questions,the instructor should be able to guide the discussiontoward the objective of helping students understandthe subject.

When it appears the students have discussed theideas that support this particular part of the les-son, the instructor should summarize what thestudents have accomplished. In a guided discus-sion lesson, the interim summary is one of themost effective tools available to the instructor. Tobring ideas together and help in transition, aninterim summary can be made immediately afterthe discussion of each learning outcome. This willsummarize the ideas developed by the group andshow how they relate to, and support, the ideadiscussed. The interim summary may be omittedafter discussing the last learning outcome when itis more expedient for the instructor to present the

Figure 5-6. The demonstration-performance method of teachinghas five essential phases.

CH 05.qxd 7/15/2003 11:58 AM Page 5-10

first part of the conclusion. An interim summaryreinforces learning in relation to a specific learningoutcome. In addition to its uses as a summary andtransitional device, the interim summary may alsobe used to keep the group on the subject or todivert the discussion to another member.

CONCLUSION

A guided discussion is closed by summarizing thematerial covered. In the conclusion the instructorshould tie together the various points or topics dis-cussed, and show the relationships between thefacts brought forth and the practical application ofthese facts. For example, in concluding a discus-sion on density altitude, an instructor might give afairly complete description of an accident whichoccurred due to a pilot attempting to take off in anoverloaded airplane from a short runway at a high-altitude airport on a hot day.

The summary should be succinct, but not incom-plete. If the discussion has revealed that certainareas are not understood by one or more mem-bers of the group, the instructor should clarify orcover this material again.

DEMONSTRATION–PERFORMANCEMETHODThis method of teaching is based on the simple,yet sound principle that we learn by doing.Students learn physical or mental skills by actual-ly performing those skills under supervision. Anindividual learns to write by writing, to weld bywelding, and to fly an aircraft by actually perform-ing flight maneuvers. Students also learn mentalskills, such as speed reading, by this method.Skills requiring the use of tools, machines, andequipment are particularly well suited to thisinstructional method.

Every instructor should recognize the importanceof student performance in the learning process.Early in a lesson that is to include demonstrationand performance, the instructor should identifythe most important learning outcomes. Next,explain and demonstrate the steps involved inperforming the skill being taught. Then, allow stu-dents time to practice each step, so they canincrease their ability to perform the skill.

The demonstration-performance method is widelyused. The science teacher uses it during labora-tory periods, the aircraft maintenance instructoruses it in the shop, and the flight instructor uses itin teaching piloting skills. [Figure 5-6]

EXPLANATION PHASE

Explanations must be clear, pertinent to the objec-tives of the particular lesson to be presented, andbased on the known experience and knowledge ofthe students. In teaching a skill, the instructormust convey to the students the precise actionsthey are to perform. In addition to the necessarysteps, the instructor should describe the endresult of these efforts. Before leaving this phase,the instructor should encourage students to askquestions about any step of the procedure thatthey do not understand.

DEMONSTRATION PHASEThe instructor must show students the actionsnecessary to perform a skill. As little extraneousactivity as possible should be included in thedemonstration if students are to clearly under-stand that the instructor is accurately performingthe actions previously explained. If, due to someunanticipated circumstances the demonstrationdoes not closely conform to the explanation, thisdeviation should be immediately acknowledgedand explained.

STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND INSTRUCTORSUPERVISION PHASESBecause these two phases, which involve sepa-rate actions, are performed concurrently, they arediscussed here under a single heading. The firstof these phases is the student’s performance ofthe physical or mental skills that have beenexplained and demonstrated. The second activityis the instructor’s supervision.

Student performance requires students to act anddo. To learn skills, students must practice. Theinstructor must, therefore, allot enough time formeaningful student activity. Through doing, stu-dents learn to follow correct procedures and toreach established standards. It is important thatstudents be given an opportunity to perform theskill as soon as possible after a demonstration. Inflight training, the instructor may allow the studentto follow along on the controls during the demon-stration of a maneuver. Immediately thereafter,the instructor should have the student attempt toperform the maneuver, coaching as necessary. Inanother example, students have been performinga task, such as a weight and balance computa-tion, as a group. Prior to terminating the perform-ance phase, they should be allowed to independ-ently complete the task at least once, with super-vision and coaching as necessary.

EVALUATION PHASEIn this phase, the instructor judges student per-formance. The student displays whatever compe-

CH 05.qxd 7/15/2003 11:58 AM Page 5-11

tence has been attained, and the instructor dis-covers just how well the skill has been learned. Totest each student’s ability to perform, the instruc-tor requires students to work independentlythroughout this phase and makes some commentas to how each performed the skill relative to theway it was taught. From this measurement of stu-dent achievement, the instructor determines theeffectiveness of the instruction.

COMPUTER–BASED TRAINING METHODMany new and innovative training technologies areavailable today. One of the most significant is com-puter-based training (CBT)—the use of the per-sonal computer as a training device. CBT is some-times called computer-based instruction (CBI).The terms CBT and CBI are synonymous and maybe used interchangeably. The personal computeror PC has revolutionized the way businesses func-tion and promises the same for education andtraining. The new generation is as comfortablewith the PC as they are with the telephone. As a

result, educators today are using personal com-puters as part of educational programs of all types.

For example, major aircraft manufacturers allo-cate considerable resources to developing CBTprograms that are used to teach aircraft systemsand maintenance procedures. As a result, theamount of manpower necessary to train aircrewsand maintenance technicians on the new equip-ment has been significantly reduced. End users ofthe aircraft, such as the major airlines, can pur-chase the package of CBT materials along withthe aircraft in order to accomplish both initial andrecurrent training of their personnel. One of themajor advantages of CBT is that students canprogress at a rate which is comfortable for them.The students also are often able to access theCBT at their own convenience rather than that ofthe instructor.

Computers are now used for training at many dif-ferent levels. One example that is very significantis the high technology flight training devices andflight simulators in use by everyone from flightschools to major airlines, as well as the military.Fixed-base operators (FBOs) who offer instrumenttraining may use personal computer-based avia-tion training devices (PCATDs) or flight trainingdevices (FTDs) for a portion of the instrument timea pilot needs for the instrument rating. Major air-lines have high-level flight simulators that are sorealistic that transitioning captains meet all qualifi-cations in the flight simulator. Likewise, militarypilots use flight training devices or flight simulatorsto prepare for flying aircraft, such as the A-10, forwhich there are no two-seat training versions.

Other common examples of CBT include the com-puter versions of the test prep study guides which

Figure 5-7. The instructor must continually monitor student per-formance when using CBT, as with all instructional aids.

CH 05.qxd 7/15/2003 11:58 AM Page 5-12

The emphasis in previous chapters centered onlearning, communicating, and the teachingprocess. In this chapter, we will discuss theinstructor’s role as a critic, describe several meth-ods of evaluation, and show how to conduct effec-tive evaluations.

Since every student is different and each learningsituation is unique, the actual outcome may not beentirely as expected. The instructor must be ableto appraise student performance and convey thisinformation back to the student. This is an infor-mal critique, which is a part of each lesson. Thecritique should be used by the instructor to sum-marize and close out one lesson, and prepare thestudent for the next lesson. Formal evaluationsare used periodically throughout a course, and atthe end of course, to measure and documentwhether or not the course objectives have beenmet.

THE INSTRUCTOR AS A CRITICAlthough this chapter deals with the critique pri-marily from the standpoint of the instructor in theclassroom, the techniques and methodsdescribed also apply to the aircraft maintenanceinstructor in the shop and to the flight instructor inthe aircraft or in the briefing area. No skill is moreimportant to an instructor than the ability to ana-lyze, appraise, and judge student performance.The student quite naturally looks to the instructorfor guidance, analysis, appraisal, as well as sug-gestions for improvement and encouragement.

This feedback from instructor to student is calleda critique.

A critique may be oral, written, or both. It shouldcome immediately after a student’s performance,while the details of the performance are easy torecall. An instructor may critique any activity whicha student performs or practices to improve skill,proficiency, and learning. A critique may be con-ducted in private or before the entire class. A cri-tique presented before the entire class can bebeneficial to every student in the classroom aswell as to the student who performed the exerciseor assignment. In this case, however, the instruc-tor should be judicious and avoid embarrassingthe student in front of the whole class.

Two common misconceptions about the critiqueshould be corrected at the outset. First, a critiqueis not a step in the grading process. It is a step inthe learning process. Second, a critique is notnecessarily negative in content. It considers thegood along with the bad, the individual parts, rela-tionships of the individual parts, and the overallperformance. A critique can, and usually should,be as varied in content as the performance beingcritiqued.

PURPOSE OF A CRITIQUEA critique should provide the students with some-thing constructive upon which they can work orbuild. It should provide direction and guidance toraise their level of performance. Students mustunderstand the purpose of the critique; otherwise,

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-1

they will be unlikely to accept the criticism offeredand little improvement will result.

A critique also can be used as a tool for reteaching.Although not all critiques lend themselves toreteaching, the instructor should be alert to the pos-sibility and take advantage of the opportunity whenit arises. If, for example, several students falterwhen they reach the same step in a weight-and-balance problem, the instructor might recognize theneed for a more detailed explanation, anotherdemonstration of the step, or special emphasis inthe critiques of subsequent performance.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE CRITIQUEIn order to provide direction and raise the stu-dents’ level of performance, the critique must befactual and be aligned with the completion stan-dards of the lesson. This, of course, is becausethe critique is a part of the learning process. Someof the requirements for an effective critique areshown in figure 6-1.

OBJECTIVE

The effective critique is focused on student per-formance. It should be objective, and not reflectthe personal opinions, likes, dislikes, and biases ofthe instructor. For example, if a student accom-plishes a complicated flight planning problem, itwould hardly be fair for the instructor to criticize thestudent’s personality traits unless they interferedwith the performance itself. Instructors sometimespermit their judgment to be influenced by their gen-

eral impression of the student, favorable or unfa-vorable. Sympathy or over-identification with a stu-dent, to such a degree that it influences objectivity,is known as “halo error.” A conflict of personalitiescan also distort an opinion. If a critique is to beobjective, it must be honest; it must be based onthe performance as it was, not as it could havebeen, or as the instructor and student wished thatit had been.

FLEXIBLE

The instructor needs to examine the entire per-formance of a student and the context in which itis accomplished. Sometimes a good student willturn in a poor performance and a poor student willturn in a good one. A friendly student may sud-denly become hostile, or a hostile student maysuddenly become friendly and cooperative. Theinstructor must fit the tone, technique, and contentof the critique to the occasion, as well as the stu-dent. A critique should be designed and executedso that the instructor can allow for variables. Againand again, the instructor is faced with the problemof what to say, what to omit, what to stress, andwhat to minimize. The challenge of the critique foran instructor is to determine what to say at theproper moment. An effective critique is one that isflexible enough to satisfy the requirements of themoment.

ACCEPTABLE

Before students willingly accept their instructor’scriticism, they must first accept the instructor.Students must have confidence in the instructor’squalifications, teaching ability, sincerity, compe-tence, and authority. Usually, instructors have theopportunity to establish themselves with their stu-dents before the formal critiquing situation arises.If this is not the case, however, the instructor’smanner, attitude, and readily apparent familiaritywith the subject at hand must serve instead.Critiques do not have to be all sweetness andlight, nor do they have to curry favor with stu-dents. If a critique is presented fairly, with author-ity, conviction, sincerity, and from a position of rec-ognizable competence, the student probably willaccept it as such. Instructors should not rely ontheir position to make a critique more acceptableto their students. While such factors usually oper-ate to the instructor’s advantage, acceptabilitydepends on more active and demonstrable quali-ties than on simply being the instructor.

COMPREHENSIVE

A comprehensive critique is not necessarily a longone, nor must it treat every aspect of the perform-ance in detail. The instructor must decide whether

Figure 6-1. Effective critiques share a number of characteris-tics.

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-2

the greater benefit will come from a discussion ofa few major points or a number of minor points.The instructor might critique what most needsimprovement, or only what the student can rea-sonably be expected to improve. An effective cri-tique covers strengths as well as weaknesses.How to balance the two is a decision that only theinstructor can make. To dwell on the excellence ofa performance while neglecting the portion thatshould be improved is a disservice to the student.

CONSTRUCTIVE

A critique is pointless unless the student profitsfrom it. Praise for praise’s sake is of no value,but praise should be included to show how tocapitalize on things that are done well. Thepraise can then be used to inspire the student toimprove in areas of lesser accomplishment. Bythe same token, it is not enough to identify a faultor weakness. The instructor should give positiveguidance for correcting the fault and strengthen-ing the weakness. Negative criticism that doesnot point toward improvement or a higher level ofperformance should be omitted from a critiquealtogether.

ORGANIZED

Unless a critique follows some pattern of organi-zation, a series of otherwise valid comments maylose their impact. Almost any pattern is acceptableas long as it is logical and makes sense to the stu-dent as well as to the instructor. An effective orga-nizational pattern might be the sequence of theperformance itself. Sometimes a critique can prof-itably begin at the point where a demonstrationfailed and work backward through the steps thatled to the failure. A success can be analyzed insimilar fashion. Sometimes a defect is so glaringor the consequences so great that it overshadowsthe rest of the performance and can serve as thecore of a critique. Breaking the whole into parts orbuilding the parts into a whole has strong possi-bilities. Whatever the organization of the critique,the instructor should be flexible enough to changeso the student can follow and understand it.

THOUGHTFUL

An effective critique reflects the instructor’sthoughtfulness toward the student’s need for self-esteem, recognition, and approval from others.The instructor should never minimize the inherentdignity and importance of the individual. Ridicule,anger, or fun at the expense of the student haveno place in a critique. On occasion, an instructormay need to criticize a student in private. In somecases, discretion may rule out any criticism at all.For example, criticism does not help a student

whose performance is impaired by a physiologicaldefect. While being straightforward and honest,the instructor should always respect the student’spersonal feelings.

SPECIFIC

The instructor’s comments and recommendationsshould be specific, rather than general. The stu-dent needs to focus on something concrete. Astatement such as, “Your second weld wasn’t asgood as your first,” has little constructive value.Instead, tell the student why it was not as goodand how to improve the weld. If the instructor hasa clear, well-founded, and supportable idea inmind, it should be expressed with firmness andauthority in terms that cannot be misunderstood.Students cannot act on recommendations unlessthey know specifically what the recommendationsare. At the conclusion of a critique, studentsshould have no doubt what they did well and whatthey did poorly and, most importantly, specificallyhow they can improve.

METHODS OF CRITIQUEThe critique of student performance is always theinstructor’s responsibility, and it can never be del-egated in its entirety. The instructor can add inter-est and variety to the criticism through the use ofimagination and by drawing on the talents, ideas,and opinions of others. There are several usefulmethods of conducting a critique.

INSTRUCTOR/STUDENT CRITIQUE

The instructor leads a group discussion in whichmembers of the class are invited to offer criticism ofa performance. This method should be controlledcarefully and directed with a firm purpose. It shouldbe organized and not allowed to degenerate into arandom free-for-all.

STUDENT-LED CRITIQUE

The instructor asks a student to lead the critique.The instructor can specify the pattern of organiza-tion and the techniques or can leave it to the dis-cretion of the student leader. Because of the inex-perience of the participants in the lesson area,student-led critiques may not be efficient, but theycan generate student interest and learning and,on the whole, be effective.

SMALL GROUP CRITIQUE

For this method, the class is divided into smallgroups and each group is assigned a specific areato analyze. These groups must present their find-ings to the class. Frequently, it is desirable for theinstructor to furnish the criteria and guidelines.The combined reports from the groups can result

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-3

in a comprehensive critique.

INDIVIDUAL STUDENT CRITIQUE BY ANOTHER STUDENT

The instructor also may require another student topresent the entire critique. A variation is for theinstructor to ask a number of students questionsabout the manner and quality of performance.Discussion of the performance, and of the cri-tique, can often allow the group to accept moreownership of the ideas expressed. As with all cri-tiques incorporating student participation, it isimportant that the instructor maintain firm controlover the process.

SELF-CRITIQUE

A student is required to critique personal perform-ance. Like all other methods, a self-critique mustbe controlled and supervised by the instructor.Whatever the methods employed, the instructormust not leave controversial issues unresolved,nor erroneous impressions uncorrected. Theinstructor must make allowances for the student’srelative inexperience. Normally, the instructorshould reserve time at the end of the student cri-tique to cover those areas that might have beenomitted, not emphasized sufficiently, or consid-ered worth repeating.

WRITTEN CRITIQUE

Written critiques have three advantages. First, theinstructor can devote more time and thought to itthan to an oral critique in the classroom. Second,the students can keep written critiques and referto them whenever they wish. Third, when theinstructor requires all the students to write a cri-tique of a performance, the student-performer hasthe permanent record of the suggestions, recom-mendations, and opinions of all the other stu-dents. The disadvantage of a written critique isthat other members of the class do not benefit.

GROUND RULES FOR CRITIQUINGThere are a number of rules and techniques tokeep in mind when conducting a critique. The fol-lowing list can be applied, regardless of the typeof critiquing activity.

• Except in rare and unusual instances, do notextend the critique beyond its scheduled timeand into the time allotted for other activities. Apoint of diminishing returns can be reachedquickly.

• Avoid trying to cover too much. A few well-made points will usually be more beneficialthan a large number of points that are not

developed adequately.

• Allow time for a summary of the critique toreemphasize the most important things a stu-dent should remember.

• Avoid dogmatic or absolute statements,remembering that most rules have exceptions.

• Avoid controversies with the class, and do notget into the delicate position of taking sides withgroup factions.

• Never allow yourself to be maneuvered into theunpleasant position of defending criticism. Ifthe criticism is honest, objective, constructive,

and comprehensive, no defense should benecessary.

• If part of the critique is written, make certainthat it is consistent with the oral portion.

Although, at times, a critique may seem like anevaluation, it is not. Both student and instructorshould consider it as an integral part of the lesson.It normally is a wrap-up of the lesson. A good cri-tique closes the chapter on the lesson and setsthe stage for the next lesson. Since the critique isa part of the lesson, it should be limited to whattranspired during that lesson. In contrast, an eval-uation is more far reaching than a critiquebecause it normally covers several lessons.

EVALUATIONWhenever learning takes place, the result is adefinable, observable, measurable change in

Figure 6-2. There are three common types of evaluations thatinstructors may use.

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-4

behavior. The purpose of an evaluation is todetermine how a student is progressing in thecourse. Evaluation is concerned with defining,observing, and measuring or judging this newbehavior. Evaluation normally occurs before, dur-ing, and after instruction; it is an integral part ofthe learning process. During instruction, somesort of evaluation is essential to determine whatthe students are learning and how well they arelearning it. The instructor’s evaluation may be theresult of observations of the students’ overall per-formance, or it may be accomplished as either aspontaneous or planned evaluation, such as anoral quiz, written test, or skill performance test.[Figure 6-2]

ORAL QUIZZESThe most used means of evaluation is the director indirect oral questioning of students by theinstructor. Questions may be loosely classified asfact questions and thought questions. The answerto a fact question is based on memory or recall.This type of question usually concerns who, what,when, and where. Thought questions usuallyinvolve why or how, and require the student tocombine knowledge of facts with an ability to ana-lyze situations, solve problems, and arrive at con-clusions. Proper quizzing by the instructor canhave a number of desirable results.

• Reveals the effectiveness of the instructor’straining procedures.

• Checks the student’s retention of what hasbeen learned.

• Reviews material already covered by the stu-dent.

• Can be used to retain the student’s interest andstimulate thinking.

• Emphasizes the important points of training.

• Identifies points that need more emphasis.

• Checks the student’s comprehension of whathas been learned.

• Promotes active student participation, which isimportant to effective learning.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE QUESTIONS

An effective oral quiz requires some preparation.

The instructor should devise and write pertinentquestions in advance. One method is to placethem in the lesson plan. Prepared questionsmerely serve as a framework, and as the lessonprogresses, should be supplemented by suchimpromptu questions as the instructor considersappropriate. Usually an effective question hasonly one correct answer. This is always true ofgood questions of the objective type and general-ly will be true of all good questions, although theone correct answer to a thought question maysometimes be expressed in a variety of ways. Tobe effective, questions must apply to the subjectof instruction. Unless the question pertains strictlyto the particular training being conducted, itserves only to confuse the students and diverttheir thoughts to an unrelated subject. An effectivequestion should be brief and concise, but alsoclear and definite. Enough words must be used toestablish the conditions or significant circum-stances exactly, so that instructor and studentswill have the same mental picture.

To be effective, questions must be adapted to theability, experience, and stage of training of the stu-dents. Effective questions center on only one idea.A single question should be limited to who, what,when, where, how, or why, not a combination.Effective questions must present a challenge to thestudents. Questions of suitable difficulty serve tostimulate learning. Effective questions demand anddeserve the use of proper English.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS TO AVOID

Asking, “Do you understand?” or “Do you haveany questions?” has no place in effectivequizzing. Assurance by the students that they dounderstand or that they have no questions pro-vides no evidence of their comprehension, or thatthey even know the subject under discussion.Other typical types of questions that must beavoided are provided in the following list.

• Puzzle— “What is the first action you shouldtake if a conventional gear airplane with a weakright brake is swerving left in a right crosswindduring a full-flap, power-on wheel landing?”

• Oversize— “What do you do before beginningan engine overhaul?”

• Toss-up— “In an emergency, should yousquawk 7700 or pick a landing spot?”

• Bewilderment— “In reading the altimeter—youknow you set a sensitive altimeter for the near-est station pressure—if you take temperature

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-5

into account, as when flying from a cold airmass through a warm front, what precautionshould you take when in a mountainous area?”

• Trick questions—These questions will causethe students to develop the feeling that they areengaged in a battle of wits with the instructor,and the whole significance of the subject of theinstruction involved will be lost.

An example of a trick question would be wherethe alternatives are 1, 2, 3, and 4, but they areplaced in the following form.

A. 4B. 3C. 2D. 1

The only reason for reversing the order ofchoices is to trick the student to inadvertentlyanswering incorrectly. Instructors often justifyuse of trick questions as testing for attention todetail. If attention to detail is an objective,detailed construction of alternatives is prefer-able to trick questions.

• Irrelevant questions—The teaching process mustbe an orderly procedure of building one block oflearning upon another in logical progression, untila desired goal is reached. Diversions, which intro-duce unrelated facts and thoughts, will onlyobscure this orderly process and slow the stu-dent’s progress. Answers to unrelated questionsare not helpful in evaluating the student’s knowl-edge of the subject at hand. An example of anirrelevant question would be to ask a questionabout tire inflation during a test on the timing ofmagnetos.

ANSWERING QUESTIONS FROM STUDENTS

Responses to student questions must also con-form with certain considerations if answering is tobe an effective teaching method. The questionmust be clearly understood by the instructor beforean answer is attempted. The instructor should dis-play interest in the student’s question and framean answer that is as direct and accurate as possi-ble. After the instructor completes a response, itshould be determined whether or not the student’srequest for information has been completelyanswered, and if the student is satisfied with theanswer.

Sometimes it may be unwise to introduce themore complicated or advanced considerationsnecessary to completely answer a student’s

question at the current point in training. In thiscase, the instructor should carefully explain tothe student that the question was good and per-tinent, but that a detailed answer would, at thistime, unnecessarily complicate the learningtasks. The instructor should advise the studentto reintroduce the question later at the appropri-ate point in training, if it does not becomeresolved in the normal course of instruction.

Occasionally, a student asks a question that theinstructor cannot answer. In such cases, theinstructor should freely admit not knowing theanswer, but should promise to get the answer or,if practicable, offer to help the student look it up inavailable references.

In all quizzing conducted as a portion of theinstruction process, “yes” and “no” answersshould be avoided. Questions should be framedso that the desired answers are specific and fac-tual. Questions should also be constructed toavoid one-word answers, since such answersmight be the product of a good guess and not betruly representative of student learning or ability. Ifa one-word answer is received, the instructorshould follow up with additional questions to get abetter idea of the student’s comprehension of thematerial.

WRITTEN TESTSAs evaluation devices, written tests are only asgood as the knowledge and proficiency of the testwriter. This section is intended to provide the avi-ation instructor with only the basic concepts ofwritten test design. There are many excellent pub-lications available to the aviation instructor on testadministration, test scoring, grade assignment,whole test analysis, and test item analysis. Referto the reference section at the end of this hand-book for testing and test writing publications.

Figure 6-3. Effective tests have six primary characteristics.

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-6

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST

A test is a set of questions, problems, or exercis-es for determining whether a person has a partic-ular knowledge or skill. A test can consist of justone test item, but it usually consists of a numberof test items. A test item measures a single objec-tive and calls for a single response. The test couldbe as simple as the correct answer to an essayquestion or as complex as completing a knowl-edge or practical test. Regardless of the underly-ing purpose, effective tests share certain charac-teristics. [Figure 6-3]

Reliability is the degree to which test results areconsistent with repeated measurements. If identi-cal measurements are obtained every time a cer-tain instrument is applied to a certain dimension,the instrument is considered reliable. An unreli-able instrument cannot be depended upon to yieldconsistent results. An altimeter that has wornmoving parts, a steel tape that expands and con-tracts with temperature changes, or cloth tapesthat are affected by humidity cannot be expectedto yield reliable measurements. While no instru-ment is perfectly reliable, it is obvious that someinstruments are more reliable than others. Forexample, a laboratory balance is more reliablethan a bathroom scale for measuring weight.

The reliability of an instrument can be estimatedby numerous measurements of the same object.For example, a rough measure of the reliability ofa thermometer can be obtained by taking several,consecutive readings of the temperature of a fluidheld at a constant temperature. Except for theerrors made by the person taking the readings,the difference between the highest and lowestreadings can be considered a range of unreliabil-ity in the thermometer.

Reliability has the same meaning whether appliedto written tests or to balances, thermometers, andaltimeters. The reliability of a written test is judgedby whether it gives consistent measurement to aparticular individual or group. Measuring the relia-bility of a written test is, however, not as straight-forward as it is for the measuring devices we havediscussed. In an educational setting, knowledge,skills, and understanding do not remain constant.Students can be expected to improve their scoresbetween attempts at taking the same testbecause the first test serves as a learning device.The student gains new knowledge and under-standing. If a written test consistently rates themembers of a group in a certain rank order, thereliability is probably acceptable, even though thescores of the students have increased overall.

Validity is the extent to which a test measureswhat it is supposed to measure. If a maintenancetechnician intends to measure the diameter of abearing with a micrometer, it must be determinedthat the contacting surfaces of the bearing and themicrometer are free of grease and dirt. Otherwise,the measurement will include the diameter of thebearing and the thickness of the extraneous mat-ter, and it will be invalid.

A test used in educational evaluation follows thesame principles of validity. Evaluations used in theclassroom are valid only to the extent that theymeasure achievement of the objectives of instruc-tion.

A rough estimate of the content validity of a class-room test may be obtained from the judgments ofseveral competent instructors. To estimate validi-ty, they should read the test critically and consid-er its content relative to the stated objectives ofthe instruction. Items that do not pertain directly tothe objectives of the course should be modified oreliminated. Validity is the most important consid-eration in test evaluation. The instructor mustcarefully consider whether the test actually meas-ures what it is supposed to measure.

Usability refers to the functionality of tests. Ausable written test is easy to give if it is printed ina type size large enough for the students to readeasily. The wording of both the directions for tak-ing the test and of the test items themselvesneeds to be clear and concise. Graphics, charts,and illustrations, which are appropriate to the testitems, must be clearly drawn, and the test shouldbe easily graded.

Objectivity describes singleness of scoring of atest; it does not reflect the biases of the persongrading the test. Later in the discussion, you willfind that supply-type test items are very difficultto grade with complete objectivity. An example ofthis is essay questions. It is nearly impossible toprevent an instructor’s own knowledge andexperience in the subject area, writing style, orgrammar from affecting the grade awarded.Selection-type test items, such as true-false ormultiple-choice, are much easier to grade objec-tively.

Comprehensiveness is the degree to which a testmeasures the overall objectives. Suppose, forexample, an aircraft maintenance technicianwants to measure the compression of an aircraftengine. Measuring the compression on a singlecylinder would not provide an indication of the

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-7

entire engine. Only by measuring the compres-sion of every cylinder would the test be compre-hensive enough to indicate the compression con-dition of the engine.

In classroom evaluation, a test must sample anappropriate cross-section of the objectives ofinstruction. The comprehensiveness of a test isthe degree to which the scope of the courseobjectives is tested. Sometimes it will not be pos-sible to have test questions measuring all objec-tives of the course. At these times, the evaluationis but a sample of the entire course. Just as theowner of the wheat has to select samples of

wheat from scattered positions in the car, theinstructor has to make certain that the evaluationincludes a representative and comprehensivesampling of the objectives of the course. In bothinstances, the evaluators must deliberately takecomprehensive samples in order to realisticallymeasure the overall achievement of the courseobjectives.

Discrimination is the degree to which a test distin-guishes the difference between students. Forexample, a machinist wishes to measure six bear-ings that are slightly graduated in size. If a ruler isused to measure the diameters of the bearings,little difference will be found between the smallestbearing and the second smallest one. If themachinist compares the third bearing with the firstbearing, slight differences in size might be detect-ed, but the ruler could not be depended on foraccurately assorting the six bearings. However, ifthe machinist measures with a micrometer, whichcan measure very fine graduations, the diameters

of the first and second bearing, the second andthird bearing, and so on, can be easily differenti-ated.

In classroom evaluation, a test must be able tomeasure small differences in achievement in rela-tion to the objectives of the course. When a test isconstructed to identify the difference in theachievement of students, it has three features.

• There is a wide range of scores.

• All levels of difficulty are included.

• Each item distinguishes between the studentswho are low and those who are high inachievement of the course objectives.

TEST DEVELOPMENTWhen testing aviation students, the instructor isusually concerned more with criterion-referencedtesting than norm-referenced testing. Norm-refer-enced testing measures a student’s performanceagainst the performance of other students.Criterion-referenced testing evaluates each stu-dent’s performance against a carefully written,measurable, standard or criterion. There is little orno concern about the student’s performance inrelation to the performance of other students. TheFAA knowledge and practical tests for pilots andaircraft maintenance technicians are all criterionreferenced because in aviation training, it is nec-essary to measure student performance against ahigh standard of proficiency consistent with safety.

The aviation instructor constructs tests to measureprogress toward the standards that will eventuallybe measured at the conclusion of the training. Forexample, during an early stage of flight training, theflight instructor must administer a presolo writtenexam to student pilots. Since tests are an integralpart of the instructional process, it is important forthe aviation instructor to be well informed aboutrecommended testing procedures.

Aviation instructors can follow a four-step processwhen developing a test. This process is useful fortests that apply to the cognitive and affectivedomains of learning, and also can be used for skilltesting in the psychomotor domain. The develop-ment process for criterion-referenced tests followsa general-to-specific pattern.[Figure 6-4]DETERMINE LEVEL-OF-LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The first step in developing a test is to state theindividual objectives as general, level-of-learningobjectives. The objectives should measure one ofthe learning levels of the cognitive, affective, or

Figure 6-4. There are four steps to test development.

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-8

psychomotor domains described in Chapter 1.The levels of cognitive learning include knowl-edge, comprehension, application, analysis, syn-thesis, and evaluation. For the comprehension orunderstanding level, an objective could be statedas, “Describe how to perform a compression teston an aircraft reciprocating engine.” This objectiverequires a student to explain how to do a com-pression test, but not necessarily perform a com-pression test (application level). Further, the stu-dent would not be expected to compare the resultsof compression tests on different engines (analysislevel), design a compression test for a differenttype of engine (synthesis or correlation level), orinterpret the results of the compression test (eval-uation level). A general level-of-learning objectiveis a good starting point for developing a testbecause it defines the scope of the learning task.

LIST INDICATORS/SAMPLES OF DESIRED BEHAVIOR

The second step is to list the indicators or sam-ples of behavior that will give the best indication ofthe achievement of the objective. Some level-of-learning objectives often cannot be directly meas-ured. As a result, behaviors that can be measuredare selected in order to give the best evidence oflearning. For example, if the instructor is expect-ing the student to display the comprehensionlevel-of-learning on compression testing, some ofthe specific test question answers shoulddescribe appropriate tools and equipment, theproper equipment setup, appropriate safety pro-cedures, and the steps used to obtain compres-sion readings. The overall test must be compre-hensive enough to give a true representation ofthe learning to be measured. It is not usually fea-sible to measure every aspect of a level-of-learn-ing objective, but by carefully choosing samples ofbehavior, the instructor can obtain adequate evi-dence of learning.

ESTABLISH CRITERION OBJECTIVES

The next step in the test development process isto define criterion (performance-based) objec-tives. In addition to the behavior expected, criteri-on objectives state the conditions under which thebehavior is to be performed and the criteria thatmust be met. If the instructor developed perform-ance-based objectives during the creation of les-son plans, criterion objectives have already beenformulated. The criterion objective provides theframework for developing the test items used tomeasure the level-of-learning objectives. In thecompression test example, a criterion objective tomeasure the comprehension level of learningmight be stated as, “The student will demonstratecomprehension of compression test procedures

for reciprocating aircraft engines by completing aquiz with a minimum passing score of 70%.”

DEVELOP CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST ITEMS

The last step is to develop criterion-referencedtest items. The actual development of the testquestions is covered in the remainder of thischapter. While developing questions, the instruc-tor should attempt to measure the behaviorsdescribed in the criterion objective(s). The ques-tions in the exam for the compression test exam-ple should cover all of the areas necessary to giveevidence of comprehending the procedure. Theresults of the test (questions missed) identifyareas that were not adequately covered.

Performance-based objectives serve as a refer-ence for the development of test items. If the testis the presolo knowledge test, the objectives arefor the student to comprehend the regulations, thelocal area, the aircraft type, and the procedures tobe used. The test should measure the student’sknowledge in these specific areas. Individualinstructors should develop their own tests tomeasure the progress of their students. If the testis to measure the readiness of a student to take aknowledge test, it should be based on the objec-tives of all the lessons the student has received.

Another source of test items includes FAA knowl-edge test guides for a particular knowledge test.These sample questions are designed to measurethe level-of-learning desired for pilots or aviationmaintenance technicians. As a result, they are agood source of example questions to be used inmeasuring a student’s preparedness to take theknowledge test.

However, care must be taken not to teach ques-tions to ensure the student does not merely mem-orize answers or the letter of the answer. Whenusing questions from any source, whether from apublisher or developed by individual instructors,periodically revising the questions used andchanging the letters and positions of the answerswill encourage learning the material rather thanlearning the test.

WRITTEN TEST ITEMSWritten questions include two general categories,the supply-type item and the selection-type item.Supply-type test items require the student to fur-nish a response in the form of a word, sentence,or paragraph. Selection-type test items requirethe student to select from two or more alterna-tives. See Appendix A for sample test items.

SUPPLY TYPE

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-9

The supply-type item may be required where aselection-type cannot be devised to properlymeasure student knowledge. The supply-typerequires the students to organize their knowledge.It demands an ability to express ideas that is notrequired for a selection-type item. This type item isvaluable in measuring the students’ generalizedunderstanding of a subject.

On the other hand, a supply-type item may evaluatethe students’ ability to write rather than their specificknowledge of the subject matter. It places a premiumon neatness and penmanship. The main disadvan-tage of supply-type tests is that they cannot be grad-ed with uniformity. There is no assurance that thegrade assigned is the grade deserved by the student.The same test graded by different instructors wouldprobably be assigned different scores. Even thesame test graded by the same instructor on consec-utive days might be assigned altogether differentscores. Still another disadvantage of a supply-typetest is the time required by the student to complete itand the time required by the instructor to grade it.Everything considered, the disadvantages of the sup-ply-type test appear to exceed the advantages tosuch an extent that instructors prefer to use the selec-tion-type test. It should be noted that although selec-tion-type tests are best in many cases, there aretimes where the supply-type is desirable. This wouldbe when there is a need to thoroughly determine theknowledge of a person in a particular subject area. Anexample of this would be the presolo knowledge examwhere it would be difficult to determine knowledge ofprocedures strictly with selection-type test items.

SELECTION TYPE

Written tests made up of selection-type items arehighly objective. That is, the results of such a testwould be graded the same regardless of the stu-

dent taking the test or the person grading it. Teststhat include only selection-type items make it pos-sible to directly compare student accomplishment.For example, it is possible to compare the per-formance of students within one class to studentsin a different class, or students under one instruc-tor with those under another instructor. By usingselection-type items, the instructor can test onmany more areas of knowledge in a given timethan could be done by requiring the student tosupply written responses. This increase in com-prehensiveness can be expected to increasevalidity and discrimination. Another advantage isthat selection-type tests are well adapted to sta-tistical item analysis.

True-False

The true-false test item consists of a statementfollowed by an opportunity for the student todetermine whether the statement is true or false.This item-type, with all its variations, has a widerange of usage. It is well adapted for testingknowledge of facts and details, especially whenthere are only two possible answers. The chiefdisadvantage is that true-false questions createthe greatest probability of guessing.

True-false test items are probably used and mis-used more than any other selection-type item.Frequently, instructors select sentences more orless at random from textual material and makehalf of them false by inserting negatives. Whentests are constructed in this way, the principalattribute being measured is rote memory ratherthan knowledge of the subject. Such test con-struction has aroused antagonism toward selec-tion tests in general and true-false questions inparticular. It has also decreased the validity ofeducational evaluations. Some of the principlesthat should be followed in the construction of true-false items are contained in the accompanyinglist.

• Include only one idea in each statement.

• Use original statements rather than verbatimtext.

• Statements should be entirely true or entirelyfalse.

• Avoid the unnecessary use of negatives. Theytend to confuse the reader.

• If negatives must be used, underline or other-wise emphasize the negative.

• Avoid involved statements. Keep wording andsentence structure as simple as possible. MakeFigure 6-5. Sample multiple-choice test item.

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-10

statements both definite and clear.

• Avoid the use of ambiguous words and terms(some, any, generally, most times, etc.)

• Whenever possible, use terms which mean thesame thing to all students.

• Avoid absolutes (all, every, only, no, never, etc.)These words are known as determiners andprovide clues to the correct answer. Sinceunequivocally true or false statements are rare,statements containing absolutes are usuallyfalse.

• Avoid patterns in the sequence of correctresponses because students can often identifythe patterns. Instructors sometimes deliberate-ly use patterns to make hand scoring easier.This is a poor practice.

• Make statements brief and about the samelength. Some instructors unconsciously maketrue statements longer than false ones.Students are quick to take advantage of thistendency.

• If a statement is controversial (sources havediffering information), the source of the state-ment should be listed.

Multiple-Choice

A multiple-choice test item consists of two parts;the stem which includes the question, statement,or problem, and a list of alternatives or responses.Incorrect answers are called distractors. Whenproperly devised and constructed, multiple-choiceitems offer several advantages that make thistype more widely used and versatile than eitherthe matching or the true-false items. [Figure 6-5]

Multiple-choice test questions may be used todetermine student achievement, ranging fromacquisition of facts to understanding, reasoning,and ability to apply what has been learned. It isappropriate to use when the question, statement,or problem has the following characteristics.

• Has a built-in and unique solution such as aspecific application of laws or principles.

• May be clearly limited by the wording of theitem so that the student must choose the bestof several offered solutions rather than a uni-versal solution.

• Is such that several options are plausible, oreven scientifically accurate, but the student

may be asked to identify the one most perti-nent.

• Has several pertinent solutions, and the stu-dent may be asked to identify the most appro-priate solution.

Three major difficulties are common in the con-struction of multiple-choice test items. One is thedevelopment of a question or an item stem thatmust be expressed clearly and without ambiguity.Another requirement is that the statement of ananswer or correct response cannot be refuted.Finally, the distractors must be written in such away that they will be attractive to those studentswho do not possess the knowledge or under-standing necessary to recognize the keyedresponse.

As mentioned previously, a multiple-choice itemstem may take several basic forms.

• It may be a direct question followed by severalpossible answers.

• It may be an incomplete sentence followed byseveral possible phrases that complete thesentence.

• It may be a stated problem based on an accom-panying graph, diagram, or other artwork fol-lowed by the correct response and the distrac-tors.

Figure 6-6. This is an example of a multiple-choice question witha poorly written stem.

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-11

The student may be asked to select the onechoice which is the correct answer or completion,the one choice that is an incorrect answer orcompletion, or the one choice which is best of theanswers presented in the test item. Beginningtest writers find it easier to write items in thequestion form. In general, the form with theoptions as answers to a question is preferable tothe form that uses an incomplete statement asthe stem. It is more easily phrased and is morenatural for the student to read. Less likely to con-tain ambiguities, it usually results in more similar-ity between the options and gives fewer clues tothe correct response. Samples of multiple-choicequestions can be found in Appendix A.

When multiple-choice questions are used, threeor four alternatives are generally provided. It isusually difficult to construct more than four con-vincing responses; that is, responses whichappear to be correct to a person who has notmastered the subject matter.

Students are not supposed to guess the correctoption; they should select an alternative only ifthey know it is correct. Therefore it is consideredethical to mislead the unsuccessful student intoselecting an incorrect alternative. An effectiveand valid means of diverting the student fromthe correct response is to use common studenterrors as distractors. For example, if writing aquestion on the conversion of degrees Celsiusto degrees Fahrenheit, providing alternativesderived by using incorrect formulas would belogical, since using the wrong formula is a com-mon student error.

Items intended to measure the knowledge level oflearning should have only one correct alternative;all other alternatives should be clearly incorrect.When items are to measure achievement at ahigher level of learning, some or all of the alterna-tives should be acceptable responses—but oneshould be clearly better than the others. In eithercase, the instructions given should direct the stu-dent to select the best alternative. Some of theprinciples that should be followed in the construc-tion of multiple-choice items are contained in thefollowing list.

• Make each item independent of every other itemin the test. Do not permit one question to reveal,or depend on, the correct answer to anotherquestion. If items are to be interrelated, itbecomes impossible to pinpoint specific deficien-

cies in either students or instructors.

• Design questions that call for essential knowl-edge rather than for abstract backgroundknowledge or unimportant facts.

• State each question in language appropriate tothe students. Failure to do so can result indecreased validity of the test, since the abilityto understand the language will be measuredas well as the subject-matter knowledge orachievement.

• Include sketches, diagrams, or pictures whenthey can present a situation more vividly thanwords. They generally speed the testingprocess, add interest, and help to avoid readingdifficulties and technical language. A commoncriticism of written tests is the reliance placedon the reading ability of the student. The valid-ity of the examination may be decreasedunless reading ability is an objective of thecourse or test.

• When a negative is used, emphasize the nega-tive word or phrase by underlining, bold facing,italicyzing, or printing in a different color. A stu-dent who is pressed for time may identify thewrong response simply because the negativeform is overlooked. To whatever extent thisoccurs, the validity of the test is decreased.

• Questions containing double negatives invariablycause confusion. If a word, such as “not” or “false,”appears in the stem, avoid using another negativeword in the stem or any of the responses.

• Trick questions, unimportant details, ambigui-ties, and leading questions should be avoided,since they do not contribute to effective evalua-tion in any way. Instead, they tend to confuseand antagonize the student. Instructors oftenjustify use of trick questions as testing for atten-tion to detail. If attention to detail is an objec-tive, detailed construction of alternatives ispreferable to trick questions.

Stems

In preparing the stem of a multiple-choice item,the following general principles should be applied.These principles will help to ensure that the testitem is valid. [Figure 6-6]

• The stem of the question should clearly presentthe central problem or idea. The function of thestem is to set the stage for the alternatives that

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-12

follow.

• The stem should contain only material relevantto its solution, unless the selection of what is

relevant is part of the problem.

• The stem should be worded in such a way thatit does not give away the correct response.Avoid the use of determiners such as cluewords or phrases.

• Put everything that pertains to all alternatives inthe stem of the item. This helps to avoid repeti-tious alternatives and saves time.

• Generally avoid using “a” or “an” at the end of thestem. They may give away the correct choice.Every alternative should grammatically fit with thestem of the item.

Alternatives

The alternatives in a multiple-choice test item areas important as the stem. They should be formu-lated with care; simply being incorrect should notbe the only criterion for the distracting alterna-tives. Some distractors which can be used are list-ed below.

• An incorrect response which is related to thesituation and which sounds convincing to the

untutored.

• A common misconception.

• A statement which is true but does not satisfythe requirements of the problem.

• A statement which is either too broad or toonarrow for the requirements of the problem.

Research of instructor-made tests reveals that, ingeneral, correct alternatives are longer than incor-rect ones. When alternatives are numbers, theyshould generally be listed in ascending ordescending order of magnitude or length.

Matching

A matching test item consists of two lists whichmay include a combination of words, terms, illus-trations, phrases, or sentences. The student isasked to match alternatives in one list with relatedalternatives in a second list. In reality, matchingexercises are a collection of related multiple-choice items. In a given period of time, more sam-ples of a student’s knowledge usually can bemeasured with matching rather than multiple-choice items. The matching item is particularlygood for measuring a student’s ability to recog-nize relationships and to make associationsbetween terms, parts, words, phrases, clauses, orsymbols listed in one column with related items inanother column. Matching reduces the probabilityof guessing correct responses, especially if alter-natives may be used more than once. The testingtime can also be used more efficiently. Some ofthe principles that should be followed in the con-struction of matching items are included below.

• Give specific and complete instructions. Do notmake the student guess what is required.

Figure 6-7. A bank of test items makes it easier to construct newtests.

Figure 6-8. The presolo test must include questions on general oper-ating rules, aircraft to be flown, and local area procedures.

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-13

• Test only essential information; never testunimportant details.

• Use closely related materials throughout anitem. If students can divide the alternatives intodistinct groups, the item is reduced to severalmultiple-choice items with few alternatives, andthe possibility of guessing is distinctlyincreased.

• Make all alternatives credible responses toeach element in the first column, wherever pos-sible, to minimize guessing by elimination.

• Use language the student can understand. Byreducing language barriers, both the validityand reliability of the test will be improved.

• Arrange the alternatives in some sensibleorder. An alphabetical arrangement is common.

Matching-type test items are either equal col-umn or unequal column. An equal column testitem has the same number of alternatives ineach column. When using this form, always pro-vide for some items in the response column tobe used more than once, or not at all, to pre-clude guessing by elimination. Unequal columntype test items have more alternatives in thesecond column than in the first and are general-ly preferable to equal columns. Samples of thetwo forms of matching-item questions can befound in Appendix A.

DEVELOPING A TEST ITEM BANK

Developing a test item bank is one of the instruc-tor’s most difficult tasks. Besides requiring consid-erable time and effort, this task demands a mas-tery of the subject, an ability to write clearly, and anability to visualize realistic situations for use indeveloping problems. Because it is so difficult todevelop good test items, a semipermanent recordof items that have been developed is desirable.One way of preserving test items is to record thetest item, along with the analysis of each question,on a set of cards. If questions are maintained on acomputer, provisions could be made to includeappropriate analysis gathered, thus creating auseful database. In either case, a pool of testquestions is created after a large group of ques-tions has been assembled. As long as precautionsare taken to safeguard the security of items in thepool, the existence of the pool lightens the instruc-tor’s burden of continuously preparing new items.[Figure 6-7]PRINCIPLES TO FOLLOW

Regardless of item type or form, the followingprinciples should be followed in writing new items.The list also applies to reviewing and revisingexisting items.

• Each item should test a concept or idea that isimportant for the student to know, understand,or be able to apply.

• Each item must be stated so that everyone whois competent in the subject-matter area wouldagree on the correct response.

• Each item should be stated in language the stu-dent will understand.

• The wording of the item should be simple,direct, and free of ambiguity. The wordingshould be edited for brevity. Unnecessarywords merely delay the student.

• Sketches, diagrams, or pictures should beincluded when they are necessary for the stu-dent to visualize the problem correctly or whenthey will add realism.

• Each item should present a problem thatdemands knowledge of the subject or course.No item that can be responded to solely on thebasis of general knowledge should be includedin an achievement test.

PRESOLO KNOWLEDGE TESTS

Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14

Figure 6-9. Practical test standards are made up of areas of oper-ation and tasks.

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-14

CFR) part 61 requires the satisfactory completionof a presolo knowledge test prior to solo flight. Thepresolo knowledge test is required to beadministered, graded, and all incorrectanswers reviewed by the instructor providingthe training prior to endorsing the studentpilot certificate and logbook for solo flight.The regulation states that the presolo knowl-edge test must include questions applicable to14 CFR parts 61 and 91 and on the flight char-acteristics and operational limitations of themake and model aircraft to be flown. Thisallows the flight instructor the flexibility to developa presolo written test which not only evaluates the

student’s knowledge on general operating rules,but on the specific environment in which the stu-dent will be operating and on the particularmake and model of aircraft to be flown.

The content and number of test questions are to bedetermined by the flight instructor. An adequatesampling of the general operating rules should beincluded. In addition, a sufficient number of specif-ic questions should be asked to ensure the studenthas the knowledge to safely operate the aircraft inthe local environment.

The regulation requires a presolo knowledge test foreach make and model of aircraft to be soloed.Because of the varying complexity of aircraft andoperating environments, the flight instructor willhave to use good judgment in developing the test.For instance, a student who would be operatingfrom a controlled airport located near a terminalcontrol area or airport radar service area shouldhave adequate knowledge to operate safely in theenvironment prior to solo. Likewise, a student oper-ating from a high elevation airport might needemphasis placed on the effects of density altitude.Specific questions should be asked to fit the situa-tion. [Figure 6-8]

The specific procedures for developing test ques-tions have been covered earlier in this chapter, buta review of some items as they apply to the preso-lo knowledge test are in order. Though selection-type test items are easier to grade, it is recom-mended that supply-type test items be used for theportions of the presolo knowledge test where spe-cific knowledge is to be tested. One problem withsupply-type test items is difficulty in assigning theappropriate grade. Since the purpose of this test isto determine if a student pilot is ready to solo, nospecific grade is assigned. The purpose of the testis to determine fitness for solo and not to assign agrade relative to a student’s peers. Since soloflight requires a thorough working knowledge ofthe different conditions likely to be encountered onthe solo flight, it is important that the test properlyevaluate this area. In this way, the instructor cansee any areas that are not adequately understoodand can then cover them in the review of the test.Selection-type test items do not allow the instruc-tor to evaluate the student’s knowledge beyondthe immediate scope of the test items. An exampleof a supply-type test question would be to ask thestudent to, “Explain the procedures for entering thetraffic pattern for Runway 26.” The supply-typetest item measures much more adequately theknowledge of the student, and lends itself very wellto presolo testing.

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-15

Though supply-type test items allow broad ques-tions to be asked, it is probably not possible tocover every conceivable circumstance to beencountered on a solo flight. The instructor mustdevise the test so the general operating rules areadequately sampled to ensure the overall objec-tive of a safe solo flight is measured. The test alsoshould ask a sufficient number of specific ques-tions to determine that the student has the knowl-edge to safely operate the aircraft in the localarea.

The instructor should keep a record of the testresults for at least three (3) years. The recordshould at least include the date, name of the stu-dent, and the results of the test.

PERFORMANCE TESTSThe flight instructor does not administer thepractical test for a pilot certificate, nor does theaviation maintenance instructor administer theoral and practical exam for certification as anaviation maintenance technician. Aviationinstructors do get involved with the same skill orperformance testing that is measured in thesetests. Performance testing is desirable for eval-uating training that involves an operation, a pro-cedure, or a process. The job of the instructor isto prepare the student to take these tests.Therefore, each element of the practical test willhave been evaluated prior to an applicant takingthe practical exam.

Practical tests for maintenance technicians andpilots are criterion-referenced tests. The practicaltests are criterion-referenced because the objec-tive is for all successful applicants to meet thehigh standards of knowledge, skill, and safetyrequired by the Federal Aviation Regulations.

The purpose of the practical test standards (PTS)is to delineate the standards by which FAA inspec-tors and designated pilot examiners conduct testsfor ratings and certificates. The standards are inaccordance with the requirements of 14 CFRparts 61, 91, and other FAA publications includingthe Aeronautical Information Manual and perti-nent advisory circulars and handbooks. Theobjective of the PTS is to ensure the certificationof pilots at a high level of performance and profi-ciency, consistent with safety.

The practical test standards for aeronautical cer-tificates and ratings include AREAS OF OPERA-TION and TASKS that reflect the requirements ofthe FAA publications mentioned above. Areas ofoperation define phases of the practical test

arranged in a logical sequence within each stan-dard. They usually begin with PreflightPreparation and end with Postflight Procedures.Tasks are titles of knowledge areas, flight proce-dures, or maneuvers appropriate to an area ofoperation. Included are references to the applica-ble regulations or publications. Private pilot appli-cants are evaluated in all tasks of each area ofoperation. Flight instructor applicants are evaluat-ed on one or more tasks in each area of opera-tion. In addition, certain tasks are required to becovered and are identified by notes immediatelyfollowing the area of operation titles. [Figure 6-9]

An instructor is responsible for training the appli-cants to acceptable standards in all subject matterareas, procedures, and maneuvers included inthe TASKS within each AREA OF OPERATION inthe appropriate practical test standard. Becauseof the impact of their teaching activities in devel-oping safe, proficient pilots, flight instructorsshould exhibit a high level of knowledge, skill, andthe ability to impart that knowledge and skill to thestudents.

Since every task in the PTS may be covered onthe check ride, the instructor must evaluate all ofthe tasks before certifying the applicant to takethe practical test. While this evaluation will notbe totally formal in nature, it should adhere to cri-terion-referenced testing. Practical test stan-dards are available from several aviation pub-lishers and are a good reference to use whenpreparing a student for the practical test.Although the instructor should always trainthe student to the very highest level possible,the evaluation of the student is only in relation tothe standards listed in the PTS. The instructor,and the examiner, should also keep in mind thatthe standards are set at a level that is alreadyvery high. They are not minimum standards andthey do not represent a floor of acceptability. Inother words, the standards are the acceptablelevel that must be met and there are no require-ments to exceed them.

CH 06.qxd 7/15/2003 11:59 AM Page 6-16

Instructional aids should not be confused withtraining media. Educators generally describetraining media as any physical means that com-municates an instructional message to students.For example, the instructor’s voice, printed text,video cassettes, interactive computer programs,part-task trainers, flight training devices or flightsimulators, and numerous other types of trainingdevices are considered training media.Instructional aids, on the other hand, are devicesthat assist an instructor in the teaching-learningprocess. Instructional aids are not self-supporting;they are supplementary training devices. The keyfactor is that instructional aids support, supple-ment, or reinforce.

In general, the coverage of instructional aids inthe first part of this chapter applies to a class-room setting with one instructor and several stu-dents. The discussion about types of instruction-al aids begins with the most basic aids and pro-gresses to the more complex and expensiveaids. The last segment is about new trainingtechnologies which may apply to a typical class-room environment, as well as other training envi-ronments.

While instructors may become involved in theselection and preparation of instructional aids,usually they are already in place. Instructors sim-ply need to learn how to effectively use them.

INSTRUCTIONAL AID THEORYFor many years, educators have theorized abouthow the human brain and the memory functionduring the communicative process. There is gen-eral agreement about certain theoretical factorsthat seem pertinent to understanding the use ofinstructional aids.

• During the communicative process, the senso-ry register of the memory acts as a filter. Asstimuli are received, the individual’s sensoryregister works to sort out the important bits ofinformation from the routine or less significantbits. Within seconds, what is perceived as themost important information is passed to theworking or short-term memory where it isprocessed for possible storage in the long-termmemory. This complex process is enhanced bythe use of appropriate instructional aids thathighlight and emphasize the main points orconcepts.

• The working or short-term memory functionsare limited by both time and capacity.Therefore, it is essential that the information bearranged in useful bits or chunks for effectivecoding, rehearsal, or recording. The effective-ness of the instructional aid is critical for thisprocess. Carefully selected charts, graphs, pic-tures, or other well-organized visual aids areexamples of items that help the student under-

CH 07.qxd 7/15/2003 12:01 PM Page 7-1

stand, as well as retain, essential information.

• Ideally, instructional aids should be designed tocover the key points and concepts. In addition,the coverage should be straightforward andfactual so it is easy for students to rememberand recall. Generally, instructional aids that arerelatively simple are best suited for this pur-pose.

REASONS FOR USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDSIn addition to helping students remember impor-tant information, instructional aids have otheradvantages. When properly used, they help gainand hold the attention of students. Audio or visualaids can be very useful in supporting a topic, andthe combination of both audio and visual stimuli isparticularly effective since the two most importantsenses are involved. Instructors should keep inmind that they often are salesmen of ideas, andmany of the best sales techniques that attract theattention of potential clients are well worth consid-ering. One caution—the instructional aid shouldkeep student attention on the subject; it should

not be a distracting gimmick.

Clearly, a major goal of all instruction is for thestudent to be able to retain as much knowledge ofthe subject as possible, especially the key points.Numerous studies have attempted to determinehow well instructional aids serve this purpose.Indications from the studies vary greatly—frommodest results, which show a 10 to 15 percentincrease in retention, to more optimistic results inwhich retention is increased by as much as 80percent. [Figure 7-1]

Good instructional aids also can help solve cer-tain language barrier problems. Consider the

continued expansion of technical terminology ineveryday usage. This, coupled with culturallydiverse backgrounds of today’s students, makesit necessary for instructors to be precise in theirchoice of terminology. Words or terms used in aninstructional aid should be carefully selected toconvey the same meaning for the student as theydo for the instructor. They should provide anaccurate visual image and make learning easierfor the student.

Another use for instructional aids is to clarify therelationships between material objects and con-cepts. When relationships are presented visually,they often are much easier to understand. Forexample, the subsystems within a physical unitare relatively easy to relate to each other throughthe use of schematics or diagrams. Symbols,graphs, and diagrams can also show relationshipsof location, size, time, frequency, and value. Bysymbolizing the factors involved, it is even possi-ble to visualize abstract relationships.

Instructors are frequently asked to teach moreand more in a smaller time frame. Instructionalaids can help them do this. For example,instead of using many words to describe asound, object, or function, the instructor playsa recording of the sound, shows a picture ofthe object, or presents a diagram of the func-tion. Consequently, the student learns fasterand more accurately, and the instructor savestime in the process.

GUIDELINES FOR USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDSThe use of any instructional aid must be planned,based on its ability to support a specific point in alesson. A simple process can be used to deter-mine if and where instructional aids are neces-sary.

• Clearly establish the lesson objective. Be cer-tain of what is to be communicated.

• Gather the necessary data by researching forsupport material.

• Organize the material into an outline or a les-son plan. The plan should include all key pointsthat need to be covered. This may includeimportant safety considerations.

• Select the ideas to be supported with instruc-tional aids. The aids should be concentrated on

Figure 7-1. Studies generally agree that measurable improvementin student retention of information occurs when instruction is sup-ported by appropriate instructional aids.

CH 07.qxd 7/15/2003 12:01 PM Page 7-2

the key points. Aids are often appropriate whenlong segments of technical description are nec-essary, when a point is complex and difficult toput into words, when instructors find them-selves forming visual images, or when studentsare puzzled by an explanation or description.

Aids should be simple and compatible with thelearning outcomes to be achieved. Obviously, anexplanation of elaborate equipment may requiredetailed schematics or mockups, but less com-plex equipment may lend itself to only basicshapes or figures. Since aids are normally used inconjunction with a verbal presentation, words onthe aid should be kept to a minimum. In manycases, visual symbols and slogans can replaceextended use of verbiage. The instructor shouldavoid the temptation to use the aids as a crutch.The tendency toward unnecessarily distractingartwork also should be avoided.

Instructional aids should appeal to the studentand be based on sound principles of instructionaldesign. When practical, they should encouragestudent participation. They also should be mean-ingful to the student, lead to the desired behav-ioral or learning objectives, and provide appropri-ate reinforcement. Aids that involve learning aphysical skill should guide students toward mas-tery of the skill or task specified in the lessonobjective.

Instructional aids have no value in the learningprocess if they cannot be heard or seen.Recordings of sounds and speeches should betested for correct volume and quality in the actualenvironment in which they will be used. Visualaids must be visible to the entire class. All letter-ing and illustrations must be large enough to beseen easily by the students farthest from the aids.Colors, when used, should provide clear contrastand easily be visible.

The usefulness of aids can be improved byproper sequencing to build on previous learn-ing. Frequently, good organization and naturalpatterns of logic dictate the sequence.However, use of standardized materials, includ-ing a syllabus, is recommended. Sequencingalso can be enhanced simply by using overlayson transparencies, stripping techniques oncharts and chalk or marker boards, and byimaginative use of magnetic boards.Sequencing can be emphasized and madeclearer by the use of contrasting colors.

The effectiveness of aids and the ease of their

preparation can be increased by initially plan-ning them in rough draft form. Revisions andalterations are easier to make at that time thanafter their completion. The rough draft shouldbe carefully checked for technical accuracy,proper terminology, grammar, spelling, basicbalance, clarity, and simplicity. Instructionalaids should also be reviewed to determinewhether their use is feasible in the trainingenvironment and whether they are appropriatefor the students. [Figure 7-2]

In practice, the choice of instructional aidsdepends on several factors. Availability, feasibility,or cost may impose realistic limitations. The num-ber of students in a class and the existing facilitiesare other considerations. In some school situa-tions, the designers of the curriculum determinethe use of instructional aids. In this case, theinstructor may have little control over their use.On the other hand, an independent instructor mayhave considerable latitude, but limited resources.Often, instructors must improvise and adapt to the

Figure 7-2. The listing shown here summarizes guidelines foreffective instructional aids.

CH 07.qxd 7/15/2003 12:01 PM Page 7-3

existing circumstances in order to incorporatequality instructional aids.

TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDSSome of the most common and economical aidsare chalk or marker boards, and supplementalprint materials, including charts, diagrams, andgraphs. Other aids, which usually are moreexpensive, are projected materials, video, com-puter-based programs, and models, mock-ups, orcut-aways.

CHALK OR MARKER BOARDThe chalk or marker board is one of the mostwidely used tools for instructors. Its versatility andeffectiveness provide several advantages formost types of instruction. First, the material pre-sented can be erased, allowing the surface to beused again and again; and second, the boardsserve as an excellent medium for joint student-instructor activity in the classroom. The followingpractices are fundamental in the use of the chalkor marker board:

• Keep the chalk or marker board clean.

• Erase all irrelevant material.

• Keep chalk, markers, erasers, cleaning cloths,rulers, and related items readily available toavoid interruption of the presentation.

• Organize and practice the chalk or markerboard presentation in advance.

• Write or draw large enough for everyone in thegroup to see.

• Leave a margin around the material and suffi-cient space between lines of copy so the boardis not overcrowded.

• Present material simply and briefly.

• Make only one point at a time. A complete out-line tends to distract students and makes a log-ical presentation difficult. If writing has beenpreviously prepared, it should be covered and

then revealed one step at a time.

• If necessary, use the ruler, compass, or otherdevices in making drawings.

• Use colored chalk or marker for emphasis.

• Underline statements for emphasis.

• Use the upper part of the board. In many class-rooms, students may not be able to see thelower half.

• Stand to one side of the board to avoid hidingthe essential information.

• Use a pointer when appropriate.

• Adjust lighting as necessary to remove glare.

SUPPLEMENTAL PRINT MATERIALPrint media, including photographs, reproduc-tions of pictures, drawings, murals, cartoons,and other print materials are valuable supple-mental aids. Charts, diagrams, and graphs arealso in this category. Many of these items aresuitable for long-term use on bulletin boardsand in briefing areas. Pictures, drawings, andphotographs are especially effective becausethey provide common visual imagery for bothinstructors and students. In addition, they alsoprovide realistic details necessary for visualrecognition of important subject material. Inmany cases, this type of supplemental trainingmedia may be reproduced in a format for pro-jection on a screen or other clear surface.

Charts, diagrams, and graphs include any print-ed material which gives information in tabularform. There are several types of charts whichcan be used in presenting data such as the piechart, the flow chart, and the organizationalchart, among others. The type of chart selectedfor use depends largely on the type of informa-tion the instructor wants to convey. An importantfactor is the chart’s format. Since charts mayconsist of a series of single sheets or be tiedtogether in a flip-chart format with severalpages, the location and handling of them should

CH 07.qxd 7/15/2003 12:01 PM Page 7-4

be planned in advance.

A graph is a symbolic drawing which shows rela-tionships or makes comparisons. The most com-mon types are the line graph and the bar graph.The selection of a graph for use in any given sit-uation depends upon the type of information theinstructor wants to convey.

Charts, diagrams, and graphs can be usedeffectively to show relationships, chronologicalchanges, distributions, components, and flow.They are easy to construct and can be pro-duced in the same manner as pictures. In addi-tion, they can be drawn on a chalk or markerboard and can be duplicated. Care must betaken to display only a small amount of materi-al and to make the material as simple butmeaningful as possible.

Numerous other useful print items may be con-sidered as supplemental training aids. Some ofthese include study guides, exercise books,course outlines, and syllabi. Well-designedcourse outlines are especially useful to stu-dents because they list the key points and helpstudents organize note taking during a lecture.

ENHANCED TRAINING MATERIALSAviation instructors must cover a broad range ofaeronautical knowledge and skill training for pilotsand aviation maintenance technicians. The actualtraining requirements are based in the FederalAviation Regulations and other publications usedby designated pilot and maintenance examinerswhen they conduct practical tests. While aviationinstructors are expected to be familiar with all reg-ulatory training requirements, use of instructor-ori-ented training materials which are enhanced forregulatory compliance can be very beneficial forensuring required training is being accomplished,endorsed, and properly documented. Whetherworking as an individual instructor or employed bya flight or maintenance school, the instructor mustensure that each student accomplishes a numberof important benchmarks. Enhanced trainingmaterials, which include these benchmarks, canhelp aviation instructors to complete, endorse,and document required training.

One example of these types of materialsincludes training syllabi, which have provisions

for instructor endorsements and record keep-ing. Such syllabi not only present the course oftraining in a logical step-by-step, building blocksequence, they contain provisions to remindboth students and instructors of critical regula-tory training benchmarks which are approach-ing. Blocks for instructor endorsements alsomay be included at appropriate points.Provisions for logging training time can beincorporated so the syllabus could also serveas the training record for the student, instructor,or school. When required endorsements andrecord keeping provisions are designed intotraining syllabi, it is much easier, from theinstructors’ standpoint, to conduct requiredtraining, track student progress, and certifyrecords. In case the student transfers to anoth-er school or instructor, the training record canbe reviewed and the student’s training statuseasily assessed.

Another example of enhanced, instructor-orientedmaterial for pilot training is a maneuvers guide orhandbook which includes the practical test stan-dards as an integral part of the description ofmaneuvers and procedures. Students learn fromthe beginning how to perform the maneuver or pro-cedure and also become familiar with the perform-ance criteria. Instructors need not refer to anotherdocument to evaluate the student’s performance.The examiner for the Oral and Practical (O&P) isrequired to ask four questions in each of the sub-ject areas, which are required by the regulations tobe taught. The examiner also is required to assigna practical project from each subject area.Individual maintenance instructors, as well as pub-lishers, have compiled lists of typical questions andprojects. Use of these questions and projects aspart of the syllabus helps an instructor ensure thatall subject areas for a particular class have beencovered.

There are many ways to incorporate design fea-tures in training materials in order to facilitate reg-ulatory compliance, required endorsements, andrecord keeping. Computer-based training alsocan be designed so the progress of the studentcan be tracked and documented. As trainingbecomes more detailed and complex, instructor-oriented materials can be a valuable instructionalaid for all aviation instructors. More informationon enhanced training materials is presented inChapter 10.

PROJECTED MATERIAL

CH 07.qxd 7/15/2003 12:01 PM Page 7-5

Traditional aids in this group include motion pic-tures, filmstrips, slides of various sizes, trans-parencies for overhead projection, and special-ized equipment such as rear screen projection oran opaque projector. However, the use of motionpictures and filmstrips for training has declined,mostly because of availability of more user-friend-ly media such as video. The essential factor gov-erning continued use is that the content must becurrent and support the lesson.

Use of projected materials requires planning andpractice. The instructor should set up and adjustthe equipment and lighting beforehand and thenpreview the presentation. During a classroomsession, the instructor should provide studentswith an overview of the presentation before show-ing it. After the presentation, the instructor shouldallow time for questions and a summary of keypoints.

Aside from a chalk or marker board, the overheadtransparency and projector is still one of the moreconvenient and cost effective instructional aids.With acetate or plastic, instructors can easily cre-ate their own overhead transparencies, or theymay purchase commercially produced ones.

The equipment can be placed at the front of theroom, allowing the instructor to maintain eye contactwith students. The brilliant light source concentratedat a short distance makes it possible to use the pro-

jector in lighted areas. The instructor also can writeon a blank transparency as the lesson progresses,much like a chalk or marker board. Additional trans-parencies can be overlaid onto the original to showdevelopment or buildup of an event or display.Overlays can also be cut into various shapes andmoved about in relation to the base transparency.This is a useful technique for displaying dial indica-tions or fitting several parts of a component togetherso relative motion can be simulated. [Figure 7-3]

As with any projection equipment, instructorsshould ensure that the projector does not obstructthe students’ line of sight. The projector usuallyworks better on a low stand, chair, or table. Theprojection angle should be adjusted to eliminateimage distortion. Finally, although the overheadprojector is simple to operate and requires littlemaintenance, it has disadvantages. Most projec-tors are bulky to handle and store, and the fanused for cooling the projector may be noisy.

Although vastly different from other projectionequipment, the opaque projector reflects lightfrom the surface of the picture or three-dimen-sional object onto a regular projection screen.The height of usable objects is limited to thespace between the top of the lowered projec-tion plate and the body of the projector, usuallyabout two or three inches. The area of the pic-ture or object is limited to approximately 10

Figure 7-3. The overhead projector is self-contained, portable, and adaptable to large or small classrooms.

CH 07.qxd 7/15/2003 12:01 PM Page 7-6

inches by 10 inches.

Items which may be projected are practically lim-itless. A postage stamp, typed material, textbookillustrations, or a defective spark plug are repre-sentative of the items that may be projected. Thisequipment is especially adapted to enlarging dia-grams and small charts for display purposes.Since the material projected requires no specialpreparation, the cost is very low. Many of the lim-itations of the overhead projector are also true ofthe opaque projector.

VIDEOAs indicated previously, video has become one ofthe most popular of all instructional aids. The ini-tial discussion of video, which follows, is limited topassive video. Interactive video is covered sepa-rately.

PASSIVE VIDEO

Passive video cassettes provide motion, color,sound, and in many cases, special effects withadvanced graphic and animation techniques.High-quality, commercially produced video cas-settes are available for almost every subject per-taining to aviation training. Consequently, videohas replaced many of the projection-type instruc-tional aids.

Advantages of video are well documented. Thecurrent generation of students is sometimesreferred to as the video generation. Some educa-tors have theorized that TV has produced a visu-al culture that has actually changed the way peo-ple learn. In any case, it is apparent that most, ifnot all, students are familiar with and receptive tovideo.

For instructors, the convenience of video is cer-tainly an advantage. The capability to easily stop,freeze, rewind, and replay is particularly helpfulfor both instructors and students. The cost of avideo cassette and the associated equipment,although higher than some of the more basicinstructional aid equipment, is fairly economical.In addition, the video cassette recorder and tele-vision can be used for other than instructional pur-poses.

Instructors also should be aware of certain disad-vantages with video. Students are often accus-

tomed to dramatic, action-packed film or videothat is designed as entertainment. At the sametime, they tend to watch film or TV in a passiveway without attempting to absorb what they areseeing and hearing. Instructional video, in com-parison, normally is perceived as much less excit-ing and less stimulating visually. This, coupledwith an inattentive viewing style, can diminish theinstructional value of the video.

As is true with any instructional aid, instructorsneed to follow some basic guidelines when usingvideo. For example, the video presentation is notdesigned to replace the instructor. Prior planningand rehearsal will help determine the importantpoints and concepts that should be stressed,either during the presentation or as part of a sum-mary. Instructors should also try to prepare stu-dents for viewing video programs by telling themwhat to watch carefully, what is important, or pos-sibly, what is incorrect. In addition, instructorsshould be available to summarize the presenta-tion and answer any questions students may haveregarding content.

INTERACTIVE VIDEO

Interactive video refers broadly to software thatresponds quickly to certain choices and com-mands by the user. A typical system consists ofa combination of a compact disk, computer, andvideo technology. A compact disk (CD) is a for-mat for storing information digitally. A majoradvantage of a CD is the capability to store enor -mous amounts of information. As an example, asingle compact disk may contain all pertinentaviation regulations, plus the complete AIM. Withsearch and find features incorporated, a CD is apowerful information source. The software mayinclude additional features such as imagebanks with full color photos and graphics, aswell as questions or directions which are pro-grammed to create interactivity for students asthey progress through the course.

The questions or directions are programmedusing a branching technique, which provides sev-eral possible courses of action for the user tochoose in order to move from one sequence toanother. For example, a program may indicate,“That was incorrect. Go back to . . . and try again.”

Interactive video solves one of the main problemsof passive video in that it increases involvement ofthe student in the learning process. Well-designed

CH 07.qxd 7/15/2003 12:01 PM Page 7-7

interactive video, when properly used, is highlyeffective as an instructional aid. Each studentessentially receives a customized learning experi-ence.

Distance learning, or distance education, is anothertrend applicable to aviation. In general terms, dis-tance learning is the use of print or electronic mediato deliver instruction when the instructor and studentare separated. It also may be defined as a systemand process that connects students with resourcesfor learning. As sources for access to informationexpand, the possibilities for distance learningincreases.

COMPUTER-BASED MULTIMEDIA

Interactive video is one form of computer-basedmultimedia. However, in recent years, the termscomputer-based training (CBT), or multimediatraining, have become very popular. The termmultimedia is not new. Multimedia has been usedfor decades in some form or other. In a basic form,multimedia is a combination of more than oneinstructional media, but it could include severalforms of media—audio, text, graphics, and video(or film). Multimedia in a more current contextgenerally implies a computer-based media that isshown on personal computers (PCs). With com-puter-based multimedia, information access issimplified. Sophisticated databases can organize

vast amounts of information which can be quicklysorted, searched, found, and cross-indexed.

Real interactivity with computer-based trainingmeans the student is fully engaged with theinstruction by doing something meaningful whichmakes the subject of study come alive. Forexample, the student frequently is able to controlthe pace of instruction, review previous material,jump forward, and receive instant feedback. Withadvanced tracking features, computer-basedtraining also can be used to test the student’sachievement, compare the results with past per-formance, and indicate the student’s weak orstrong areas.

Although computers are often used on an indi-vidual basis by students, equipment is avail -able that can project images from a computerscreen. This allows the instructor to use acomputer in conjunction with speciallydesigned software programs to create presen-tations for an entire class. The instructor cantailor the presentation for the class, if neces-sary, and also include graphics at appropriatepoints. [Figure 7-4]

With computer-based training, the role of both thestudent and the instructor changes. Studentsbecome more involved in their own learning, and

Figure 7-4. Software programs are available which allow instructors to use computers to create unique presentations for an entire classthrough on-screen projection.

CH 07.qxd 7/15/2003 12:01 PM Page 7-8

instructors may no longer occupy a center-stageposition in a typical classroom setting. Instead,instructors become supportive facilitators of thecomputer-based multimedia program. As such,they serve as guides or resource experts and cir-culate among students who are working individu-ally or in small groups. This results in consider-able one-on-one instructor/student interaction.Thus, the instructor provides assistance, rein-forcement, and answers questions for those whoneed it most.

In this situation, the computer-based trainingshould still be considered as an add-on instruc-tional aid to improve traditional classroom instruc-tion. The instructor, although no longer the centerof attention, must continue to maintain completecontrol over the learning environment to ensurelearning objectives are being achieved.

A more advanced application of computer-basedtraining may involve less instructor control. Forexample, a laboratory-type environment may beconfigured with separate study areas for each stu-dent. With this setup, the physical facility is usual-ly referred to as a learning center or training cen-ter. Students in these centers are often monitoredby a teacher’s aid, or other trained personnel, whocan provide guidance, answer questions, and actas a conduit to the instructor who is responsible forthe training. In this case, the responsible instructorneeds to establish procedures to make sure therequired training is accomplished, since he or shemust certify student competency at the end of thecourse.

Numerous advantages are attributed to computer-based multimedia training. It is widely used in air-

line training for both pilots and aviation mainte-nance technicians. Due to the active nature of CBT,the overall learning process is enhanced in severalways. Well-designed programs allow students tofeel like they are in control of what they are learn-ing and how fast they learn it. They can exploreareas that interest them and discover more about asubject on their own. In addition, learning oftenseems more enjoyable than learning from a regularclassroom lecture. The main advantages are lesstime spent on instruction compared to traditionalclassroom training, and higher levels of masteryand retention.

Disadvantages include the lack of peer interac-tion and personal feedback. For the instructor,maintaining control of the learning situation maybe difficult. It also may be difficult to find goodCBT programs for certain subject areas, and theexpense associated with the equipment, soft-ware, and facilities must be considered. In addi-tion, instructors and students may lack sufficientexperience with personal computers to take fulladvantage of the CBT programs that are avail-able.

MODELS, MOCK-UPS, AND CUT-AWAYSModels, mock-ups, and cut-aways are additionalinstructional aids. A model is a copy of a realobject. It can be an enlargement, a reduction, orthe same size as the original. The scale modelrepresents an exact reproduction of the original,while simplified models do not represent reality inall details. Some models are solid and show onlythe outline of the object they portray, while otherscan be manipulated or operated. Still others,called cut-aways, are built in sections and can betaken apart to reveal the internal structure.Whenever possible, the various parts should belabeled or colored to clarify relationships.

Although a model may not be a realistic copy ofan actual piece of equipment, it can be usedeffectively in explaining operating principles ofvarious types of equipment. Models are espe-cially adaptable to small group discussions inwhich students are encouraged to ask questions.A model is even more effective if it works like theoriginal, and if it can be taken apart andreassembled. With the display of an operatingmodel, the students can observe how each partworks in relation to the other parts. When theinstructor points to each part of the model whileexplaining these relationships, the students canbetter understand the mechanical principlesinvolved. As instructional aids, models are usual-ly more practical than originals because they arelightweight and easy to manipulate.

Figure 7-5. This mock-up, which includes moveable pointers, arotatable compass card, and other moveable indicators, isdesigned to teach instrument navigation procedures.

CH 07.qxd 7/15/2003 12:01 PM Page 7-9

A mock-up is a three-dimensional or specializedtype of working model made from real or syn-thetic materials. It is used for study, training, ortesting in place of the real object, which is toocostly or too dangerous, or which is impossibleto obtain. The mock-up may emphasize or high-light elements or components for learning andeliminate nonessential elements. [Figure 7-5]

Production and equipment costs are limiting fac-tors to consider in developing and using models,mock-ups, and cut-aways. Depending on thenature of the representation, costs can vary from low to high.For instance, scale replicas are often veryexpensive. In general, if a two-dimensional rep-resentation will satisfy the instructor’s requirement, it should beused.

TEST PREPARATION MATERIALTest preparation material applies to an array ofpaperbased, video, and computer-based prod-ucts that are designed by commercial publishersto help student applicants prepare for FAA tests.While test preparation materials may be effective inpreparing students for FAA tests, the danger is thatstudents may learn to pass a given test, but fail tolearn other critical information essential to safepiloting and maintenance practices. In addition,FAA inspectors and designated examiners havefound that student applicants often exhibit a lack ofknowledge during oral questioning, even thoughmany have easily passed the FAA knowledge test.A major shortcoming of test preparation materials isthat the emphasis is on rote learning, which is thelowest of all levels of learning.

Test preparation materials, as well as instructors,that dwell on teaching the test are shortchangingstudent applicants. All instructors who use testpreparation publications should stress that thesematerials are not designed as stand-alone learn-ing tools. They should be considered as a supple-ment to instructor-led training.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTSWhile no one person can accurately predict thefuture, most will agree that new technologicaladvances will affect practically everyone. In avia-tion training, the increased use of computer tech-nology, such as CBT, simulation, and virtual real-ity will continue to expand. The proliferation ofsources for information has prompted writers torefer to the current era as the information age.Electronic communications, including use ofcomputer databases, voice mail, e-mail, theInternet, the World Wide Web, and satellite-based, wireless communications, have becomeroutine. This explosion of information access hasalready affected aviation training, and it will beeven more significant in the future.

Emerging computer technology includes improvedvoice-recognition software and miniature electro-optical devices. Voice-recognition technology, whichlets computers accept spoken rather than keyedinput, is expected to be highly effective for technicaltraining. Miniature electro-optical devices have alsoadvanced beyond the science fiction stage. Withthese devices, computer-aided information is pro-jected electronically on sunglass-style eyewearwhich is connected to a lightweight, belt-mountedcomputer. The computer-aided information wouldbe particularly useful for aviation maintenanceactivities. For example, it would be possible for atechnician’s eyes to easily move back and forthfrom computer-generated technical data to theactual hardware while diagnosing and correctinga maintenance problem.

Trends in training indicate a shift from the typicalclassroom to more extensive use of a lab-typeenvironment with computer work or study sta-tions. This is part of the learning or training centerconcept in which students become more activelyinvolved and responsible for their own training. Inthese centers, students will have access to simu-lation devices, computer networks, and multime-dia programs. As a related part of this concept,training system designers advocate more use ofgroup or collaborative learning techniques, cable orclosed circuit TV, interactive multimedia, and elec-

CH 07.qxd 7/15/2003 12:01 PM Page 7-10

Students look to aviation instructors as authoritiesin their respective areas. It is important that avia-tion instructors not only know how to teach, butthey also need to project a knowledgeable andprofessional image. In addition, aviation instruc-tors are on the front lines of efforts to improve thesafety record of the industry. This chapteraddresses the scope of responsibilities for avia-tion instructors and enumerates methods they canuse to enhance their professional image and con-duct.

AVIATION INSTRUCTOR RESPONSIBILITIESThe job of an aviation instructor, or any instructor,is to teach. Previous chapters have discussedhow people learn, the teaching process, andteaching methods. As indicated, the learningprocess can be made easier by helping studentslearn, providing adequate instruction, demanding

adequate standards of performance, and empha-sizing the positive. [Figure 8-1]

HELPING STUDENTS LEARNLearning should be an enjoyable experience. Bymaking each lesson a pleasurable experience forthe student, the instructor can maintain a highlevel of student motivation. This does not meanthe instructor must make things easy for the stu-dent or sacrifice standards of performance toplease the student. The student will experiencesatisfaction from doing a good job or from suc-cessfully meeting the challenge of a difficult task.

The idea that people must be led to learning bymaking it easy is a fallacy. People are not alwaysattracted to something simply because it is pleas-ant and effortless. Though they might initially bedrawn to less difficult tasks, they ultimatelydevote more effort to activities that bring rewards,such as self-enhancement and personal satisfac-tion. People want to feel capable; they are proudof the successful achievement of difficult goals.

Learning should be interesting. Knowing theobjective of each period of instruction gives mean-ing and interest to the student as well as theinstructor. Not knowing the objective of the lessonoften leads to confusion, disinterest, and uneasi-ness on the part of the student.

Learning to fly should provide students with anopportunity for exploration and experimentation.As part of this, students should be allowed time toexplore and evaluate the various elements of

Figure 8-1. There are four main responsibilities for aviationinstructors.

CH 08.qxd 7/15/2003 12:00 PM Page 8-1

each lesson. This encourages them to discovertheir own capabilities and it helps build self-confi-dence. Since students learn at different rates andin different ways, it usually is necessary to adjustpresentations for some students.

Learning to fly should be a habit-building periodduring which students devote their attention, mem-ory, and judgment to the development of correcthabit patterns. Any objective other than to learn theright way is likely to make students impatient. Theinstructor should keep the students focused ongood habits both by example and by a logicalpresentation of learning tasks.

Because aviation instructors have full responsibil-ity for all phases of required training, they must beclear regarding the objectives. For ground andflight training, the objectives reflect the knowledgeand skill required to train safe pilots who can com-plete the knowledge and practical tests for theappropriate certificate or rating. In the case of theflight student studying for the practical test, theobjectives will come from the practical test stan-dards (PTS) for the desired certificate or rating.Maintenance students will likewise be facingobjectives aligned with the knowledge tests andthe Oral and Practical. After the objectives havebeen established, the sequence of training, teach-ing methods, and related activities must be organ-ized to best achieve them.

To accomplish these objectives, instructors needto take specific actions. The following measuresshould result in a positive and efficient learningexperience.

• Devise a plan of action.

• Create a positive student-instructor relation-ship.

• Present information and guidance effectively.

• Transfer responsibility to the student as learn-ing occurs.

• Evaluate student learning and thereby measureteaching effectiveness.

As noted in the list, the instructor must devise aplan of action, and present information and guid-ance effectively. Knowing the objectives is one partof accomplishing these tasks and knowing the stu-dent is the other. For example, the plan of actionfor a lesson on reciprocating engines for mainte-nance students would be different for a studenttransitioning from automotive maintenance than it

would for a student with no maintenance back-ground. In theory, the transitioning student wouldhave less need for basic information. The best wayto confirm this is with a pretest. Until the studentsare tested, the instructor does not know for surewhere each student stands in relation to the objec-tives. A pretest is a criterion-referenced test con-structed to measure the knowledge and skills thatare necessary to begin the course. Pretests alsomay be used to determine the student’s currentlevel of knowledge and skill in relation to the mate-rial that will be presented in the course.

The pretest measures whether or not the studenthas the prerequisite knowledge and skills neces-sary to proceed with the course of instruction.Examples of skills that might be required of a stu-dent pilot would be knowledge of basic math,understanding the English language, and havingcertain spatial skills to understand maps and therelationship of maps to the earth. A pretest canexpose deficiencies in these and other areas. Theinstructor could then base the plan of actionaccordingly. In the extreme, it might be necessaryfor the prospective student to get more training oreducation before beginning flight training.

The second part of a pretest is measuring the levelof knowledge or skill the student has in relation tothe material that is going to be taught. Typically,one or two questions for each of the key knowl-edge areas or skills in the course are included. Theinstructor will then be able to identify how muchthe student knows and tailor the instructionaccordingly. Knowing where a student is at thebeginning helps the instructor present the informa-tion and offer guidance more effectively.

Helping the student learn does not mean that theinstructor has the responsibility for performinglearning tasks which students need to do forthemselves. This is not effective instruction. Thebest instructors provide information, guidance,and opportunity for student learning, and supportthe student’s motivation while they are in a learn-ing situation.

PROVIDING ADEQUATE INSTRUCTIONThe flight instructor should attempt to carefullyand correctly analyze the student’s personality,thinking, and ability. No two students are alike,and the same methods of instruction cannot beequally effective for each student. The instructormust talk with a student at some length to learnabout the student’s background, interests, tem-perament, and way of thinking. The instructor’smethods also may change as the studentadvances through successive stages of training.

CH 08.qxd 7/15/2003 12:00 PM Page 8-2

An instructor who has not correctly analyzed astudent may soon find that the instruction is notproducing the desired results. For example, thiscould mean that the instructor has analyzed astudent as a slow thinker, who is actually a quickthinker but is hesitant to act. Such a studentmay fail to act at the proper time due to lack ofself-confidence, even though the situation iscorrectly understood. In this case, instructionwould obviously be directed toward developingstudent self-confidence, rather than drill on flightfundamentals. In another case, too much criti-cism may completely subdue a timid person,whereas brisk instruction may force a more dili-gent application to the learning task. A slow stu-dent requires instructional methods that com-bine tact, keen perception, and delicate han-dling. If such a student receives too much helpand encouragement, a feeling of incompetencemay develop.

A student whose slow progress is due to discour-agement and a lack of confidence should beassigned subgoals that can be attained more eas-ily than the normal learning goals. For this pur-pose, complex lessons can be separated into ele-ments, and each element practiced until anacceptable performance is achieved before thewhole maneuver or operation is attempted. As anexample, instruction in S-turns may begin withconsideration for headings only. Elements of alti-tude control, drift correction, and coordination canbe introduced one at a time. As the student gainsconfidence and ability, goals should be increasedin difficulty until progress is normal.

Students who are fast learners can also createproblems for the instructor. Because they makefew mistakes, they may assume that the correc-tion of errors is unimportant. Such overconfidencemay soon result in faulty performance. For suchstudents, the instructor should constantly raisethe standard of performance for each lesson,demanding greater effort. Individuals learn whenthey are aware of their errors. Students who arepermitted to complete every flight lesson withoutcorrections and guidance will not retain what theyhave practiced as well as those students whohave their attention constantly directed to ananalysis of their performance. On the other hand,deficiencies should not be invented solely for thestudents’ benefit because unfair criticism immedi-ately destroys their confidence in the instructor.

The demands on an instructor to serve as a prac-tical psychologist are much greater than is gener-ally realized. As discussed in Chapters 1 and 2,

an instructor can meet this responsibility througha careful analysis of the students and through acontinuing deep interest in them.

STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCEFlight instructors must continuously evaluatetheir own effectiveness and the standard of learn-ing and performance achieved by their students.The desire to maintain pleasant personal rela-tionships with the students must not cause theacceptance of a slow rate of learning or substan-dard flight performance. It is a fallacy to believethat accepting lower standards to please a stu-dent will produce a genuine improvement in thestudent-instructor relationship. An earnest student

does not resent reasonable standards that are fair-ly and consistently applied.

Instructors fail to provide competent instructionwhen they permit their students to get by with asubstandard performance, or without learningthoroughly some item of knowledge pertinent tosafe piloting. More importantly, such deficienciesmay in themselves allow hazardous inadequaciesin student performance later on.

EMPHASIZING THE POSITIVEAviation instructors have a tremendous influenceon their students’ perception of aviation. The wayinstructors conduct themselves, the attitudes theydisplay, and the manner in which they developtheir instruction all contribute to the formation ofeither positive or negative impressions by theirstudents. The success of an aviation instructordepends, in large measure, on the ability to pres-ent instruction so that students develop a positiveimage of aviation. [Figure 8-2]

Figure 8-2. Students learn more when instruction is presented ina positive manner.

CH 08.qxd 7/15/2003 12:00 PM Page 8-3

Chapter 1 emphasized that a negative self-con-cept inhibits the perceptual process, that fearadversely affects the students’ perceptions, thatthe feeling of being threatened limits the ability toperceive, and that negative motivation is not aseffective as positive motivation. Merely knowingabout these factors is not enough. Instructorsmust be able to detect these factors in their stu-dents and strive to prevent negative feelings frombecoming part of the instructional process.

Consider how the following scenario for the firstlesson might impress a new student pilot withoutprevious experience in aviation:

• An exhaustive indoctrination in preflight proce-dures with emphasis on the extreme precautionswhich must be taken before every flight because “. . . mechanical failures in flight are often disas-trous.”

• Instruction in the extreme care which must betaken in taxiing an airplane, because “. . . if yougo too fast, it’s likely to get away from you.”

• A series of stalls, because “. . . this is how somany people lose their lives in airplanes.”

• A series of simulated forced landings, because “. . . one should always be prepared to copewith an engine failure.”

These are a series of new experiences that mightmake the new student wonder whether or notlearning to fly is a good idea. The stall series mayeven cause the student to become airsick. In con-trast, consider a first flight lesson in which the pre-flight inspection is presented to familiarize the stu-dent with the airplane and its components, andthe flight consists of a perfectly normal flight to anearby airport and return. Following the flight, theinstructor can call the student’s attention to theease with which the trip was made in comparisonwith other modes of transportation, and the factthat no critical incidents were encountered orexpected.

This by no means proposes that preflight inspec-tions, stalls, and emergency procedures shouldbe omitted from training. It only illustrates the pos-itive approach in which the student is not over-whelmed with the critical possibilities of aviationbefore having an opportunity to see its potentialand pleasurable features. The introduction ofemergency procedures after the student hasdeveloped an acquaintance with normal opera-

tions is not so likely to be discouraging and fright-ening, or to inhibit learning by the imposition offear.

There is nothing in aviation that demands that stu-dents must suffer as part of their instruction. Thishas often been the case because of overempha-sis on negative motivation and explanations.Every reasonable effort should be made to ensurethat instruction is given under the most favorableconditions.

Although most student pilots have been exposedto air travel in one form or another, they may nothave flown in light, training aircraft. Consequently,students may experience unfamiliar noises, vibra-tions, eerie sensations due to G-forces, or awoozy feeling in the stomach. To be effective,instructors cannot ignore the existence of thesenegative factors, nor should they ridicule studentswho are adversely affected by them. These nega-tive sensations can usually be overcome byunderstanding and positive instruction.

When emphasizing to a student that a particularprocedure must be accomplished in a certainmanner, an instructor might be tempted to pointout the consequences of doing it differently. Theinstructor may even tell the student that to do itotherwise is to flirt with disaster or to suffer seri-

ous consequences. Justifications such as thesemay be very convenient, and the instructor mayconsider the negative approach necessary toensure that the point is committed to memory.However, the final test must be whether thestated reasons contribute to the learning situa-tion.

Figure 8-3. The flight instructor has many additional responsibili-ties.

CH 08.qxd 7/15/2003 12:00 PM Page 8-4

Most new instructors tend to adopt those teachingmethods used by their own instructors. Thesemethods may or may not have been good. Thefact that one has learned under one system ofinstruction does not mean that this is necessarilythe best way it can be done, regardless of therespect one retains for the ability of their originalinstructor. Some students learn in spite of theirinstruction, rather than because of it. Emphasizethe positive because positive instruction results inpositive learning.

FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR RESPONSIBILITIESAll aviation instructors shoulder an enormousresponsibility because their students will ulti-mately be flying and servicing or repairing air-craft. Flight instructors have some additionalresponsibilities including the responsibility ofevaluating student pilots and making a determi-nation of when they are ready to solo. Otherflight instructor responsibilities are based onTitle 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14CFR) part 61, and advisory circulars (ACs).[Figure 8-3]

EVALUATION OF STUDENT PILOTING ABILITYEvaluation is one of the most important ele-ments of instruction. In flight instruction, theinstructor initially determines that the studentunderstands the procedure or maneuver.Then the instructor demonstrates the maneu-ver, allows the student to practice the maneu-ver under direction, and finally evaluates stu-dent accomplishment by observing the per-formance.

Evaluation of demonstrated ability during flightinstruction must be based upon establishedstandards of performance, suitably modified toapply to the student’s experience and stage ofdevelopment as a pilot. The evaluation mustconsider the student’s mastery of the elementsinvolved in the maneuver, rather than merely theoverall performance.

Demonstrations of performance directly apply tothe qualification of student pilots for solo and solocross-country privileges. Also associated withpilot skill evaluations during flight training are thestage checks conducted in FAA-approved schoolcourses and the practical tests for pilot certificatesand ratings.

In evaluating student demonstrations of pilotingability, it is important for the flight instructor to

keep the student informed of progress. This maybe done as each procedure or maneuver is com-pleted or summarized during postflight critiques.When explaining errors in performance, instruc-tors should point out the elements in which thedeficiencies are believed to have originated and, ifpossible, suggest appropriate corrective meas-ures.

Correction of student errors should not includethe practice of taking the controls away from stu-dents immediately when a mistake is made.Safety permitting, it is frequently better to let stu-dents progress part of the way into the mistakeand find their own way out. It is difficult for stu-dents to learn to do a maneuver properly if theyseldom have the opportunity to correct an error.On the other hand, students may perform a pro-cedure or maneuver correctly and not fullyunderstand the principles and objectivesinvolved. When the instructor suspects this, stu-dents should be required to vary the perform-ance of the maneuver slightly, combine it withother operations, or apply the same elements tothe performance of other maneuvers. Studentswho do not understand the principles involvedwill probably not be able to do this successfully.

PILOT SUPERVISIONFlight instructors have the responsibility to pro-vide guidance and restraint with respect to thesolo operations of their students. This is by farthe most important flight instructor responsibilitybecause the instructor is the only person in aposition to make the determination that a stu-dent is ready for solo operations. Before endors-ing a student for solo flight, the instructor shouldrequire the student to demonstrate consistentability to perform all of the fundamental maneu-vers. The student should also be capable ofhandling ordinary problems that might occur,such as traffic pattern congestion, change inactive runway, or unexpected crosswinds. Theinstructor must remain in control of the situation.By requiring the first solo flight to consist oflandings to a full stop, the instructor has theopportunity to stop the flight if unexpected con-ditions or poor performance warrant suchaction.

PRACTICAL TEST RECOMMENDATIONSProvision is made on the airman certificate orrating application form for the written recom-mendation of the flight instructor who has pre-pared the applicant for the practical testinvolved. Signing this recommendation imposesa serious responsibility on the flight instructor. A

CH 08.qxd 7/15/2003 12:00 PM Page 8-5

flight instructor who makes a practical test rec-ommendation for an applicant seeking a certifi-cate or rating should require the applicant tothoroughly demonstrate the knowledge and skilllevel required for that certificate or rating. Thisdemonstration should in no instance be lessthan the complete procedure prescribed in theapplicable practical test standards (PTS).

A practical test recommendation based on any-thing less risks the presentation of an applicantwho may be unprepared for some part of theactual practical test. In such an event, the flightinstructor is logically held accountable for a defi-cient instructional performance. This risk isespecially great in signing recommendations forapplicants who have not been trained by theinstructor involved. 14 CFR parts 61 and 141require a minimum of three hours of flight train-ing preparation within 60 days preceding thedate of the test for a recreational, private, orcommercial certificate. The same trainingrequirement applies to the instrument rating.The instructor signing the endorsement isrequired to have conducted the training in theapplicable areas of operation stated in the regu-lations and the PTS, and certify that the personis prepared for the required practical test. Inmost cases, the conscientious instructor willhave little doubt concerning the applicant’sreadiness for the practical test.

FAA inspectors and designated pilot examinersrely on flight instructor recommendations as evi-dence of qualification for certification, and proofthat a review has been given of the subject areasfound to be deficient on the appropriate knowledgetest. Recommendations also provide assurancethat the applicant has had a thorough briefing on

the practical test standards and the associatedknowledge areas, maneuvers, and procedures. Ifthe flight instructor has trained and prepared theapplicant competently, the applicant should have

no problem passing the practical test.

FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR ENDORSEMENTSThe authority and responsibility for endorsingstudent pilot certificates and logbooks for soloand solo cross-country flight privileges aregranted in 14 CFR part 61. These endorsementsare further explained in AC 61-65, Certification:Pilots and Flight Instructors. Failure to ensurethat a student pilot meets the requirements of reg-ulations prior to making endorsements allowingsolo flight is a serious deficiency in performancefor which an instructor is held accountable.Providing a solo endorsement for a student pilotwho is not fully prepared to accept the responsi-bility for solo flight operations also is a breach offaith with the student.

Flight instructors also have the responsibility tomake logbook endorsements for pilots who arealready certificated. Included are additionalendorsements for recreational, private, commer-cial, and instrument-rated pilots as well as flightinstructors. Typical examples include endorse-ments for flight reviews, instrument proficiencychecks, and the additional training required forhigh performance, high altitude, and tailwheel air-craft. Completion of prerequisites for a practicaltest is another instructor task that must be docu-mented properly. Examples of all commonendorsements can be found in the current issue ofAC 61-65, Appendix 1. This appendix alsoincludes references to 14 CFR part 61 for moredetails concerning the requirements that must bemet to qualify for each respective endorsement.The examples shown contain the essential ele-ments of each endorsement, but it is not neces-sary for all endorsements to be worded exactly asthose in the AC. For example, changes to regula-tory requirements may affect the wording, or theinstructor may customize the endorsement for anyspecial circumstances of the student. Any time aflight instructor gives ground or flight training, alogbook entry is required. [Figure 8-4]

14 CFR part 61 also requires that the instructormaintain a record in a logbook or some separatedocument that includes information on the type ofendorsement, the name of the person receivingthe endorsement, and the date of the endorse-ment. For a knowledge or practical test endorse-ment, the record must include the kind of test, thedate, and the results. Records of endorsementsmust be maintained for at least three years.

FAA FORM 8710-1

After ensuring that an applicant for a certificate is

Figure 8-4. This is a sample logbook endorsement for presoloaeronautical knowledge.

CH 08.qxd 7/15/2003 12:00 PM Page 8-6

Figure 8-5. This sample FAA Form 8710-1 (front page) has been completed for a private pilot applicant.

Type or print in ink whenfilling out 8710-1.

Must include city or county andstate within the U.S. Include cityand country outside the U.S.

Middlename mustbe spelledout; if nomiddlename, theletters“NMN” mustbe indicat-ed. DO NOTUSE MIDDLEINITIAL.

Do not useP.O.Box orRural Route,UNLESS astatementof physicallocation isprovided.

Enter classshown onmedical cer-tificate (i.e.1st, 2nd,3rd),if required.

Check thatflight time issufficient forcertificate orrating.

Make sureapplicantsigns form.

Items U. and V. DO NOTapply to alcohol relatedoffenses (DWI or DUI).

Spell outcolor.

Date signed by applicant shouldbe within 60 days prior to date ofpractical test.

CH 08.qxd 7/15/2003 12:00 PM Page 8-7

Practical test date must be within 60days after date of recommendation.

Full printed name should beincluded with signature.

Instructor’s certificate must be current ondate of recommendation.

Figure 8-5. This sample FAA Form 8710-1 (back page) has been completed for a private pilot applicant.

CH 08.qxd 7/15/2003 12:00 PM Page 8-8

prepared for the test and has met all the knowl-edge, proficiency, and experience requirements, itis advisable for the flight instructor to assist theapplicant in filling out FAA Form 8710-1, AirmanCertificate and/or Rating Application. The instruc-tor’s certification that the applicant is ready to takethe test is on the reverse of the form, but the appli-cant will likely need the assistance of the instructorin filling out the front.

FAA Form 8710-1 comes with instructionsattached for completing it. The example shown isfor a private pilot applicant who received trainingunder 14 CFR part 61. This is only an example,since the form is periodically revised to reflectchanges in the applicable rules and regulations. Ifthe current form is a later edition than shown here,

the instructions must be read very carefully toensure all areas of the form are filled out correctly.The example shown is annotated with additionalguidance to clarify or reinforce certain areas thatare frequently found incomplete by the FAA duringthe certification process. [Figure 8-5]

ADDITIONAL TRAINING AND ENDORSEMENTSFlight instructors often provide required trainingand endorsements for certificated pilots. AC 61-98, Currency and Additional QualificationRequirements for Certificated Pilots, containsinformation to assist the instructor in providingtraining/endorsements for flight reviews, instru-ment proficiency checks, and transitions to othermakes and models of aircraft. Included in the ACis general guidance in each of these areas, ref-erences to other related documents, and sampletraining plans that are pertinent to this type oftraining.

FLIGHT REVIEWS

The conduct of flight reviews for certificated pilotsis not only a responsibility of the flight instructor,but it can also be an excellent opportunity toexpand on the instructor’s professional services.The flight review is intended to be an industry-managed, FAA-monitored currency program. Theflight instructor must remember that the flightreview is not a test or a check ride, but an instruc-

tional service designed to assess a pilot’s knowl-edge and skills. As stated in 14 CFR part 61, noperson may act as pilot in command of an aircraftunless a flight review has been accomplishedwithin the preceding 24 calendar months.

Effective pilot refresher training must be based onspecific objectives and standards. The objectivesshould include a thorough checkout appropriate tothe pilot certificate and aircraft ratings held, andthe standards should be at least those required forthe issuance of that pilot certificate. Before begin-ning any training, the pilot and the instructorshould agree fully on these objectives and stan-dards, and, as training progresses, the pilotshould be kept appraised of progress towardachieving those goals.

AC 61-98, Chapter 1, provides guidance for con-ducting the flight review. Appendix 1 is a sampleflight review plan and checklist. Appendix 2 is asample list of flight review knowledge, maneu-vers, and procedures. It contains recommendedprocedures and standards for general pilotrefresher courses. At the conclusion of a success-ful flight review, the logbook of the pilot should beendorsed. [Figure 8-6]

INSTRUMENT PROFICIENCY CHECKS

Instrument rated pilots who have not met instru-ment currency requirements in the preceding sixmonths or for six months thereafter are requiredby 14 CFR part 61 to pass an instrument profi-ciency check in order to regain their instrumentflying privileges.

AC 61-98 contains guidance for the conduct of aninstrument proficiency check, including a sampleplan of action and checklist. When conducting aninstrument proficiency check, the flight instructorshould use the Instrument Rating Practical TestStandards as the primary reference for specificmaneuvers and any associated tolerances. A pilottaking an instrument proficiency check should beexpected to meet the criteria of the specific tasksselected in the Instrument Rating Practical TestStandards.

The flight instructor must hold aircraft and instru-ment ratings on his or her instructor certificateappropriate to the aircraft being flown. Part or allof the check may be conducted in a flight trainingdevice or flight simulator that meets 14 CFR sec-tion 141.41 requirements. The FAA FSDO havingjurisdiction over the area where the device is usedmust specifically approve each flight trainingdevice or flight simulator. If planning to use a flight

Figure 8-6. This sample logbook endorsement is for completion of aflight review.

CH 08.qxd 7/15/2003 12:00 PM Page 8-9

training device or flight simulator to conduct all orpart of an instrument proficiency check, instruc-tors should contact the local FSDO to verify theapproval status of the device.

AIRCRAFT CHECKOUTS/TRANSITIONS

Certificated pilots look to flight instructors foraircraft checkouts and transition trainingincluding high performance airplanes, tail -wheel airplanes, and aircraft capable of flight athigh altitudes. The flight instructor who checks outand certifies the competency of a pilot in an aircraftfor which a type rating is not required by regula-tions is accepting a major responsibility for thesafety of future passengers. Many newer light air-planes are comparable in performance and com-plexity to transport airplanes. For these, the flightinstructor’s checkout should be at least as thor-ough as an official type rating practical test.

AC 61-98 provides a list of requirements for tran-sitioning to other makes and models of aircraftalong with a sample training plan. This AC alsolists other publications that can be helpful in con-ducting checkouts. All checkouts should be con-ducted to the performance standards required bythe appropriate practical test standards for thepilot certificate.

For the conduct of an aircraft checkout, it isessential that the flight instructor be fully qualifiedin the aircraft to be used and be thoroughly famil-iar with its operating procedures, approved flightmanual, and operating limitations. An instructorwho does not meet the recent flight experienceprescribed by regulations for the aircraft con-cerned should not attempt to check out anotherpilot.

For the benefit of the pilot concerned, and for theinstructor’s protection in the case of later ques-tions, the flight instructor should record in thepilot’s logbook the exact extent of any checkout

conducted. This can be done most easily by ref-erence to the appropriate PTS.

In the event the instructor finds a pilot’s perform-ance to be insufficient to allow sign off, the pilotshould be thoroughly debriefed on all problemareas, and further instruction scheduled. In somecases, a referral to another instructor may beappropriate.

PILOT PROFICIENCYProfessional flight instructors know the importanceof maintaining knowledge and skill both as instruc-tors and as pilots. Only by keeping themselves attop proficiency can they be true professionals. Theflight instructor is at the leading edge of the avia-tion industry’s efforts to improve aviation safetythrough additional training. One of the ways theFAA attempts to improve proficiency is through therequirement for having a flight review within thepast 24 months. Another method of encouragingpilot proficiency is through provisions of AC 61-91,Pilot Proficiency Award Program.

The objective of the program is to provide pilotswith the opportunity to establish and participate in apersonal recurrent training program. It is open toall pilots holding a recreational pilot certificateor higher and a current medical certificatewhen required. Pilots of qualified ultralightvehicles are also eligible. For airplanes, the pro-gram requires three hours of flight training whichincludes one hour directed toward basic airplanecontrol and mastery of the airplane; one hourdevoted to patterns, approaches, and landings;and one hour of instrument training either in anairplane, approved flight training device, or flightsimulator. The program also requires attending atleast one sanctioned aviation safety seminar, orindustry-conducted recurrent training program.AC 61-91 contains requirements for other cate-gories/classes of aircraft, as well as additionaldetailed requirements for all aircraft.

Incentives to participate include distinctive pinsand certificates of completion for Phases I throughX. A certificate is awarded for Phases XI throughXX. Work toward another phase can begin assoon as one phase is completed, but 12 monthsmust pass between completion of one phase andapplication for the award of the next phase.Another incentive to participate is that the com-pletion of a phase substitutes for the flight reviewand restarts the 24-month clock.

Flight instructors may also participate in the pro-gram. By giving instruction leading to phase com-pletion for three pilots (nine hours of instruction)

Figure 8-7. This is an example of an instructor’s logbook endorse-ment for a pilot who has completed a phase of training according torequirements of the Pilot Proficiency Award Program.

CH 08.qxd 7/15/2003 12:00 PM Page 8-10

and attendance at a safety seminar or clinic, aninstructor can earn Phases I through III. PhasesIV through XX are each earned by completion ofan evaluation or proficiency flight with a designat-ed examiner or FAA inspector and attendance ata safety seminar or clinic.

Flight instructors can substantially improve theirown proficiency and that of their students andother pilots by participating and encouraging par-ticipation in the Pilot Proficiency Award Program.When an instructor has conducted the appropriatetraining toward the completion of a phase, a log-book endorsement is required. [Figure 8-7]

PROFESSIONALISMThe aviation instructor is the central figure in avia-tion training and is responsible for all phases ofrequired training. The instructor must be fully qual-ified as an aviation professional, either as a pilot oraircraft maintenance technician; however, theinstructor’s ability must go far beyond this if therequirements of professionalism are to be met.Although the word “professionalism” is widely used,it is rarely defined. In fact, no single definition canencompass all of the qualifications and considera-tions that must be present before true professional-ism can exist.

Though not all inclusive, the following list givessome major considerations and qualifications thatshould be included in the definition of profession-alism.

• Professionalism exists only when a service isperformed for someone, or for the commongood.

• Professionalism is achieved only after extend-ed training and preparation.

• True performance as a professional is basedon study and research.

• Professionals must be able to reason logicallyand accurately.

• Professionalism requires the ability to makegood judgmental decisions. Professionals can-not limit their actions and decisions to standardpatterns and practices.

• Professionalism demands a code of ethics.Professionals must be true to themselves andto those they service. Anything less than a sin-cere performance is quickly detected, andimmediately destroys their effectiveness.

Aviaton instructors should carefully consider thislist. Failing to meet these qualities may result inpoor performance by the instructor and students.Preparation and performance as an instructor withthese qualities constantly in mind will commandrecognition as a professional in aviation instruc-tion. Professionalism includes an instructor’s pub-lic image.

SINCERITYThe professional instructor should be straightfor-ward and honest. Attempting to hide some inade-quacy behind a smokescreen of unrelated instruc-tion will make it impossible for the instructor tocommand the respect and full attention of a stu-dent. Teaching an aviation student is based uponacceptance of the instructor as a competent, qual-ified teacher and an expert pilot or aircraft mainte-nance technician. Any facade of instructor preten-tiousness, whether it is real or mistakenlyassumed by the student, will immediately causethe student to lose confidence in the instructorand learning will be adversely affected.

ACCEPTANCE OF THE STUDENTWith regard to students, the instructor mustaccept them as they are, including all their faultsand problems. The student is a person who wantsto learn, and the instructor is a person who isavailable to help in the learning process.Beginning with this understanding, the profession-al relationship of the instructor with the studentshould be based on a mutual acknowledgementthat the student and the instructor are important toeach other, and that both are working toward thesame objective.

Under no circumstance should the instructor doanything which implies degrading the student.

Figure 8-8. The aviation instructor should always present a pro-fessional appearance.

CH 08.qxd 7/15/2003 12:00 PM Page 8-11

Acceptance, rather than ridicule, and supportrather than reproof will encourage learning.Students must be treated with respect, regardlessof whether the student is quick to learn or is slowand apprehensive. Criticizing a student who doesnot learn rapidly is similar to a doctor reprimand-ing a patient who does not get well as rapidly aspredicted.

PERSONAL APPEARANCE AND HABITSPersonal appearance has an important effect onthe professional image of the instructor. Today’saviation customers expect their instructors to beneat, clean, and appropriately dressed. Sincethe instructor is engaged in a learning situation,the attire worn should be appropriate to a pro-fessional status. [Figure 8-8]

Personal habits have a significant effect on the pro-fessional image. The exercise of common courtesyis perhaps the most important of these. An instruc-tor who is rude, thoughtless, and inattentive cannothold the respect of students, regardless of ability asa pilot or aviation maintenance technician.Personal cleanliness is important to aviationinstruction. Frequently, an instructor and a studentwork in close proximity, and even little annoyancessuch as body odor or bad breath can cause seriousdistractions from learning the tasks at hand.

DEMEANORThe attitude and behavior of the instructor cancontribute much to a professional image. Theinstructor should avoid erratic movements, dis-tracting speech habits, and capricious changes inmood. The professional image requires develop-ment of a calm, thoughtful, and disciplined, but notsomber, demeanor.

The instructor should avoid any tendency towardfrequently countermanding directions, reacting dif-ferently to similar or identical errors at differenttimes, demanding unreasonable performance orprogress, or criticizing a student unfairly. A forbid-ding or overbearing manner is as much to beavoided as is an air of flippancy. Effective instruc-tion is best conducted in a calm, pleasant,thoughtful approach that puts the student at ease.The instructor must constantly portray compe-tence in the subject matter and genuine interest inthe student’s well being.

SAFETY PRACTICES AND ACCIDENT PREVENTIONThe safety practices emphasized by instructorshave a long lasting effect on students. Generally,

students consider their instructor to be a model ofperfection whose habits they attempt to imitate,whether consciously or unconsciously. Theinstructor’s advocacy and description of safetypractices mean little to a student if the instructordoes not demonstrate them consistently.

For this reason, instructors must meticulouslyobserve the safety practices being taught to stu-dents. A good example is the use of a checklistbefore takeoff. If a student pilot sees the flightinstructor start an airplane and take off without refer-ring to a checklist, no amount of instruction in the useof a checklist will convince that student to faithfullyuse one when solo flight operations begin.

To maintain a professional image, a flight instruc-tor must carefully observe all regulations and rec-ognized safety practices during all flight opera-tions. An instructor who is observed to fly withapparent disregard for loading limitations orweather minimums creates an image of irrespon-sibility that many hours of scrupulous flightinstruction can never correct. Habitual obser-vance of regulations, safety precautions, and theprecepts of courtesy will enhance the instructor’simage of professionalism. Moreover, such habitsmake the instructor more effective by encouragingstudents to develop similar habits.

The flight instructor must go beyond the require-ments of developing technically proficient stu-dents who are knowledgeable in the areas of theirequipment, flight procedures, and maneuvers.The flight instructor must not only teach studentsto know their own and their equipment’s limita-tions, but must also teach them to be guided bythose limitations. The flight instructor must make astrenuous effort to develop good judgment on the

Figure 8-9. These are practical ways to minimize student frus-tration.

CH 08.qxd 7/15/2003 12:00 PM Page 8-12

part of the students.

The aircraft maintenance instructor must similarlymake the maintenance technician student awareof the consequences of safety in the work place.If a maintenance student observes the instructorviolating safety practices such as not wearingsafety glasses around hazardous equipment, thestudent will likely not be conscientious aboutusing safety equipment when the instructor is notaround.

PROPER LANGUAGEIn aviation instruction, as in other professionalactivities, the use of profanity and obscene lan-guage leads to distrust or, at best, to a lack ofcomplete confidence in the instructor. To manypeople, such language is actually objectionable tothe point of being painful. The professionalinstructor must speak normally, without inhibi-tions, and develop the ability to speak positivelyand descriptively without excesses of language.

The beginning aviation student is being intro-duced to new concepts and experiences andencountering new terms and phrases that areoften confusing. Words such as “traffic,” “stall,”“elevator,” and “lift” are familiar, but are givenentirely new meanings. Coined words, such asVORTAC, UNICOM, and PIREP cause furtherdifficulty. Phrases such as “clear the area,”“monitor ATIS,” or “lower the pitch attitude” arecompletely incomprehensible. The language isnew and strange, but the words are a part ofaviation and beginning students need to learnthe common terms. Normally, they are eager tolearn and will quickly adopt the terminology aspart of their vocabulary. At the beginning of thestudent’s training, and before each lesson dur-ing early instruction, the instructor should care-fully define the terms and phrases that will beused during the lesson. The instructor shouldthen be careful to limit instruction to thoseterms and phrases, unless the exact meaningand intent of any new expression are explainedimmediately.

Student errors and confusion can also result fromusing many of the colloquial expressions of avia-tion. These expressions are the result of the glam-orous past of aviation and often are not under-stood even by long time aviators. Jargon such as“. . . throw the cobs to it,” or “. . . firewall it,” should be avoided. A phrase suchas “. . . advance the power,” would be preferable,since it has wider acceptance and understanding.In all cases, terminology should be explained tothe student before it is used during instruction.

SELF-IMPROVEMENTProfessional aviation instructors must neverbecome complacent or satisfied with their ownqualifications and abilities. They should be con-stantly alert for ways to improve their qualifica-tions, effectiveness, and the services they provideto students. Flight instructors are consideredauthorities on aeronautical matters and are theexperts to whom many pilots refer questions con-cerning regulations, requirements, and new oper-ating techniques. Likewise, aviation maintenanceinstructors are considered by maintenance stu-dents and other maintenance technicians to be asource of up-to-date information. They have theopportunity and responsibility of introducing newprocedures and techniques to their students andother aviation professionals with whom they comein contact. Specific suggestions for self-improve-ment are discussed in Chapter 11.

MINIMIZING STUDENT FRUSTRATIONSMinimizing student frustrations in the classroom,shop, or during flight training, is a basic instructorresponsibility. By following some basic rules,instructors can reduce student frustrations andcreate a learning environment that will encouragerather than discourage learning. [Figure 8-9]

Motivate Students—More can be gained fromwanting to learn than from being forced to learn.All too often students do not realize how a partic-ular lesson or course can help them reach animportant goal. When they can see the benefits orpurpose of a lesson or course, their enjoymentand their efforts will increase.

Keep Students Informed—Students feel insecurewhen they do not know what is expected of themor what is going to happen to them. Instructorscan minimize feelings of insecurity by telling stu-dents what is expected of them and what they canexpect in return. Instructors should keep studentsinformed in various ways, including giving theman overview of the course, keeping them postedon their progress, and giving them adequatenotice of examinations, assignments, or other

CH 08.qxd 7/15/2003 12:00 PM Page 8-13

requirements.

Approach Students As Individuals—When instruc-tors limit their thinking to the whole group withoutconsidering the individuals who make up thatgroup, their efforts are directed at an average per-sonality which really fits no one. Each group hasits own personality that stems from the character-istics and interactions of its members. However,each individual within the group has a personalitythat is unique and that should be constantly con-sidered.

Give Credit When Due—When students do some-thing extremely well, they normally expect theirabilities and efforts to be noticed. Otherwise, theymay become frustrated. Praise or credit from theinstructor is usually ample reward and provides anincentive to do even better. Praise pays dividendsin student effort and achievement when deserved,but when given too freely, it becomes valueless.

Criticize Constructively—Although it is importantto give praise and credit when deserved, it isequally important to identify mistakes and failures.It does not help to tell students that they havemade errors and not provide explanations. If astudent has made an earnest effort but is told thatthe work is unsatisfactory, with no other explana-tion, frustration occurs. Errors cannot be correct-ed if they are not identified, and if they are notidentified, they will probably be perpetuatedthrough faulty practice. On the other hand, if thestudent is briefed on the errors and is told how tocorrect them, progress can be made.

Be Consistent—Students want to please theirinstructor. This is the same desire that influ-ences much of the behavior of subordinatestoward their superiors in industry and business.

Naturally, students have a keen interest inknowing what is required to please the instruc-tor. If the same thing is acceptable one day andunacceptable the next, the student becomesconfused. The instructor’s philosophy andactions must be consistent.

Admit Errors—No one, including the students,expects an instructor to be perfect. The instructorcan win the respect of students by honestlyacknowledging mistakes. If the instructor tries tocover up or bluff, the students will be quick tosense it. Such behavior tends to destroy studentconfidence. If in doubt about some point, theinstructor should admit it to the students.

ADDITIONAL RESPONSIBILITIESThis chapter has identified a number of areasnecessary to maintain a professional appearance,demeanor, and attitude. In addition, the instructorhas a number of responsibilities to the student,the public, and the FAA. Other areas aviationinstructors should be deeply involved with includeaccident prevention and judgment training.Experience has shown that most accidents arethe result of a chain of events. These events canbe a mistake, but can also be a simple oversight,lack of awareness, or lack of a sense of urgency.The study of human factors in accidents is beingtaught throughout the aviation industry in an effortto understand why accidents occur and how train-ing can prevent them. Concentration of this effortis in the area of how people make mistakes as aresult of fatigue, stress, complacency, personalconflict, fear, or confusion. Human factors trainingalso addresses the development of good judg-ment through the study of how and why peoplereact to internal and external influences.

Flight instructors must incorporate aeronauticaldecision making (ADM) and judgment training intotheir instruction. This is a systematic approach torisk assessment and stress management in avia-tion. It shows how personal attitudes can influ-ence decision making and how those attitudescan be modified to enhance safety in the cockpit.A number of FAA and industry references areavailable which provide instructors with methodsfor teaching ADM techniques and skills as a partof flight instruction. Aeronautical decision makingand judgment training will be discussed more fullyin Chapter 9.

CH 08.qxd 7/15/2003 12:00 PM Page 8-14

In this chapter, the demonstration-performancemethod is applied to the telling-and-doing tech-nique of flight instruction, as well as the integratedtechnique of flight instruction. This chapter also dis-cusses positive exchange of flight controls, use ofdistractions, obstacles to learning encountered dur-ing flight training, and provides an overall orienta-tion for teaching aeronautical decision making(ADM) and judgment.

THE TELLING-AND-DOING TECHNIQUEThis technique has been in use for a long timeand is very effective in teaching physical skills.Flight instructors find it valuable in teaching pro-cedures and maneuvers. The telling-and-doingtechnique is actually a variation of the demonstra-tion-performance method. It follows the four stepsof demonstration performance discussed inChapter 5, except for the first step. In the telling-and-doing technique, the first step is preparation.This is particularly important in flight instructionbecause of the introduction of new maneuvers orprocedures.

The flight instructor needs to be well preparedand highly organized if complex maneuvers andprocedures are to be taught effectively. The stu-dent must be intellectually and psychologicallyready for the learning activity. The preparationstep is accomplished prior to the flight lessonwith a discussion of lesson objectives and com-pletion standards, as well as a thorough pre-flight briefing. Students need to know not onlywhat they will learn, but also how they will learnit—that is, how the lesson will proceed and how

they will be evaluated. The preparation phasealso should include coverage of appropriatesafety procedures.

INSTRUCTOR TELLS—INSTRUCTOR DOESPresentation is the second step in the teachingprocess. It is a continuation of preparing thestudent, which began in the detailed preflightdiscussion, and now continues by a carefullyplanned demonstration and accompanying ver-bal explanation of the procedure or maneuver.While demonstrating inflight maneuvers, theinstructor should explain the required powersettings, aircraft attitudes, and describe anyother pertinent factors that may apply. This isthe only step in which the student plays a pas-sive role. It is important that the demonstrationconforms to the explanation as closely as pos-sible. In addition, it should be demonstrated inthe same sequence in which it was explainedso as to avoid confusion and provide reinforce-ment. Since students generally imitate theinstructor’s performance, the instructor mustdemonstrate the skill exactly the way the stu-dents are expected to practice it, including allsafety procedures that the students must follow.If a deviation does occur, the instructor shouldpoint it out and discuss any differences from theinitial explanation.

Most physical skills lend themselves to a sequen-tial pattern where the skill is explained in the samestep-by-step order normally used to perform it.When the skill being taught is related to previous-ly learned procedures or maneuvers, the known to

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-1

unknown strategy may be used effectively. Whenteaching more than one skill at the same time, thesimple-to-complex strategy works well. By startingwith the simplest skill, a student gains confidenceand is less likely to become frustrated when facedwith building skills that are more complex.

Another consideration in this phase is the lan-guage used. Instructors should attempt to avoidunnecessary jargon and technical terms that areover the heads of their students. Instructorsshould also take care to clearly describe theactions that students are expected to perform.Communication is the key. It is neither appropriatenor effective for instructors to try to impress stu-dents with their expertise by using language thatis unnecessarily complicated.

As an example, a level turn might be demonstrat-ed and described by the instructor in the followingway:

• Use outside visual references and monitor theflight instruments.

• After clearing the airspace around the airplane,add power slightly, turn the airplane in thedesired direction, and apply a slight amount ofback pressure on the yoke to maintain altitude.Maintain coordinated flight by applying rudderin the direction of the turn.

• Remember, the ailerons control the roll rate, aswell as the angle of bank. The rate at which theairplane rolls depends on how much ailerondeflection you use. How far the airplane rolls(steepness of the bank) depends on how longyou deflect the ailerons, since the airplane con-tinues to roll as long as the ailerons are deflect-ed. When you reach the desired angle of bank,neutralize the ailerons and trim, as appropriate.

• Lead the roll-out by approximately one-half thenumber of degrees of your angle of bank. Usecoordinated aileron and rudder control pres-sures as you roll out. Simultaneously, beginreleasing the back pressure so aileron, rudder,and elevator pressures are neutralized whenthe airplane reaches the wings-level position.

• Leading the roll-out heading by one-half yourbank angle is a good rule of thumb for initialtraining. However, keep in mind that therequired amount of lead really depends on thetype of turn, turn rate, and roll-out rate. As yougain experience, you will develop a consistent

roll-in and roll-out technique for various types ofturns. Upon reaching a wings-level attitude,reduce power and trim to remove control pres-sures.

STUDENT TELLS—INSTRUCTOR DOESThis is a transition between the second and thirdsteps in the teaching process. It is the most obvi-ous departure from the demonstration-perform-ance technique, and may provide the most signif-icant advantages. In this step, the student actual-ly plays the role of instructor, telling the instructorwhat to do and how to do it. Two benefits accruefrom this step. First, being freed from the need toconcentrate on performance of the maneuver andfrom concern about its outcome, the studentshould be able to organize his or her thoughtsregarding the steps involved and the techniquesto be used. In the process of explaining themaneuver as the instructor performs it, percep-tions begin to develop into insights. Mental habitsbegin to form with repetition of the instructionspreviously received. Second, with the studentdoing the talking, the instructor is able to evaluatethe student’s understanding of the factorsinvolved in performance of the maneuver.

According to the principle of primacy, it is impor-tant for the instructor to make sure the studentgets it right the first time. The student should alsounderstand the correct sequence and be aware ofsafety precautions for each procedure or maneu-ver. If a misunderstanding exists, it can be cor-rected before the student becomes absorbed incontrolling the airplane.

STUDENT TELLS—STUDENT DOESApplication is the third step in the teachingprocess. This is where learning takes place andwhere performance habits are formed. If the stu-dent has been adequately prepared (first step)and the procedure or maneuver fully explainedand demonstrated (second step), meaningfullearning will occur. The instructor should be alertduring the student’s practice to detect any errorsin technique and to prevent the formation of faultyhabits.

At the same time, the student should be encour-aged to think about what to do during the per-formance of a maneuver, until it becomes habitu-al. In this step, the thinking is done verbally. Thisfocuses concentration on the task to be accom-plished, so that total involvement in the maneuveris fostered. All of the student’s physical and men-tal faculties are brought into play. The instructor

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-2

should be aware of the student’s thoughtprocesses. It is easy to determine whether anerror is induced by a misconception or by a sim-ple lack of motor skills. Therefore, in addition toforcing total concentration on the part of the stu-dent, this method provides a means for keepingthe instructor aware of what the student is think-ing. The student is not only learning to do some-thing, but he or she is learning a self-teachingprocess that is highly desirable in development ofa skill.

The exact procedures that the instructor shoulduse during student practice depends on factorssuch as the student’s proficiency level, the typeof maneuver, and the stage of training. Theinstructor must exercise good judgment todecide how much control to use. With potentiallyhazardous or difficult maneuvers, the instructorshould be alert and ready to take control at anytime. This is especially true during a student’sfirst attempt at a particular maneuver. On theother hand, if a student is progressing normally,the instructor should avoid unnecessary interrup-tions or too much assistance.

A typical test of how much control is needed oftenoccurs during a student’s first few attempts to landan aircraft. The instructor must quickly evaluatethe student’s need for help, and not hesitate totake control, if required. At the same time, the stu-dent should be allowed to practice the entiremaneuver often enough to achieve the level ofproficiency established in the lesson objectives.Since this is a learning phase rather than an eval-uation phase of the training, errors or unsafe prac-tices should be identified and corrected in a posi-tive and timely way. In some cases, the studentwill not be able to meet the proficiency level spec-ified in the lesson objectives within the allottedtime. When this occurs, the instructor should beprepared to schedule additional training.

STUDENT DOES—INSTRUCTOR EVALUATESThe fourth step of the teaching process isreview and evaluation. In this step, the instruc-tor reviews what has been covered during theinstructional flight and determines to whatextent the student has met the objectives out-lined during the preflight discussion. Since thestudent no longer is required to talk through themaneuver during this step, the instructor shouldbe satisfied that the student is well prepared andunderstands the task before starting. This laststep is identical to the final step used in thedemonstration-performance method. The

instructor observes as the student performs,then makes appropriate comments.

At the conclusion of the evaluation phase, recordthe student’s performance and verbally adviseeach student of the progress made toward theobjectives. Regardless of how well a skill istaught, there may still be failures. Since successis a motivating factor, instructors should be posi-tive in revealing results. When pointing out areasthat need improvement, offer concrete sugges-tions that will help. If possible, avoid ending theevaluation on a negative note.

In summary, the telling and doing technique offlight instruction follows the four basic steps of theteaching process and the demonstration-perform-ance method. However, the telling-and-doingtechnique includes specific variations for flightinstruction. [Figure 9-1]

INTEGRATED FLIGHT INSTRUCTIONIntegrated flight instruction is flight instruction dur-ing which students are taught to perform flightmaneuvers both by outside visual references andby reference to flight instruments. For this type ofinstruction to be fully effective, the use of instru-ment references should begin the first time eachnew maneuver is introduced. No distinction in thepilot’s operation of the flight controls is permitted,regardless of whether outside references or instru-ment indications are used for the performance of

Figure 9-1. This comparison of steps in the teaching process, thedemonstration-performance method, and the telling-and-doing tech-nique shows the similarities as well as some differences. The main dif-ference in the telling-and-doing technique is the important transition,student tells—instructor does, which occurs between the second andthird step.

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-3

the maneuver. When this training technique isused, instruction in the control of an airplane byoutside visual references is integrated with instruc-tion in the use of flight instrument indications for thesame operations.

DEVELOPMENT OF HABIT PATTERNSThe continuing observance and reliance uponflight instruments is essential for efficient, safeoperations. The habit of monitoring instruments isdifficult to develop after one has become accus-tomed to relying almost exclusively on outsidereferences.

General aviation accident reports provide amplesupport for the belief that reference to flight instru-ments is important to safety. The safety record ofpilots who hold instrument ratings is significantlybetter than that of pilots with comparable flighttime who have never received formal flight train-ing for an instrument rating. Student pilots whohave been required to perform all normal flightmaneuvers by reference to instruments, as wellas by outside references, will develop from thestart the habit of continuously monitoring theirown and the airplane’s performance.

The early establishment of proper habits of instru-ment cross-check, instrument interpretation, andaircraft control will be highly useful to the studentpilot. The habits formed at this time also will givethe student a firm foundation for later training foran instrument rating.

ACCURACY OF FLIGHT CONTROLDuring early experiments with the integrated tech-nique of flight instruction, it was soon recognizedthat students trained in this manner are muchmore precise in their flight maneuvers and opera-tions. This applies to all flight operations, not justwhen flight by reference to instruments isrequired.

Notable among student achievements are bettermonitoring of power settings and more accuratecontrol of headings, altitudes, and airspeeds. Asthe habit of monitoring their own performance byreference to instruments is developed, studentswill begin to make corrections without prompting.

The habitual attention to instrument indicationsleads to improved landings because of more pre-cise airspeed control. Effective use of instrumentsalso results in superior cross-country navigation,better coordination, and generally, a better overallpilot competency level.

OPERATING EFFICIENCYAs student pilots become more proficient in mon-itoring and correcting their own flight technique byreference to flight instruments, the performanceobtained from an airplane increases noticeably.This is particularly true of modern, complex, orhigh-performance airplanes, which are respon-sive to the use of correct operating airspeeds.

The use of correct power settings and climbspeeds and the accurate control of headings dur-ing climbs result in a measurable increase inclimb performance. Holding precise headings andaltitudes in cruising flight will definitely increaseaverage cruising performance.

The use of integrated flight instruction providesthe student with the ability to control an airplane inflight for limited periods if outside references arelost. This ability could save the pilot’s life andthose of the passengers in an actual emergency.

During the conduct of integrated flight training, theflight instructor must emphasize to the studentsthat the introduction to the use of flight instru-ments does not prepare them for operations inmarginal weather or instrument meteorologicalconditions. The possible consequences, both tothemselves and to others, of experiments withflight operations in weather conditions below VFRminimums before they are instrument rated,should be constantly impressed on the students.

PROCEDURESThe conduct of integrated flight instruction is sim-ple. The student’s first briefing on the function ofthe flight controls should include the instrumentindications to be expected, as well as the outsidereferences which should be used to control theattitude of the airplane.

Each new flight maneuver should be introducedusing both outside references and instrument ref-erences. Students should develop the ability tomaneuver an aircraft equally as well by instrumentor outside references. They naturally accept the factthat the manipulation of the flight controls is identi-cal, regardless of which references are used todetermine the attitude of the airplane. This practiceshould continue throughout the student’s flightinstruction for all maneuvers. To fully achieve thedemonstrated benefits of this type of training, theuse of visual and instrument references must beconstantly integrated throughout the training.Failure to do so will lengthen the flight instructionnecessary for the student to achieve the compe-tency required for a private pilot certificate.

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-4

PRECAUTIONSThe instructor must be sure that the students devel-op, from the start of their training, the habit of look-ing for other air traffic at all times. If students areallowed to believe that the instructor assumes allresponsibility for scanning and collision avoidanceprocedures, they will not develop the habit of main-taining a constant vigilance, which is essential tosafety. Any observed tendency of a student to enterflight maneuvers without first making a carefulcheck for other air traffic must be corrected imme-diately.

In earlier stages of training, students may find iteasier to perform flight maneuvers by instrumentsthan by outside references. The fact that studentscan perform better by reference to instrumentsmay cause them to concentrate most of theirattention on the instruments, when they should beusing outside references. This must not beallowed to continue, since it will cause consider-able difficulty later in training while maneuveringby reference to ground objects. This tendency willalso limit vigilance for other air traffic. The instruc-tor should carefully observe the student’s per-formance of maneuvers during the early stages ofintegrated flight instruction to ensure that thishabit does not develop.

During the conduct of integrated flight instruction,the instructor should make it clear that the use ofinstruments is being taught to prepare students toaccurately monitor their own and their aircraft’sperformance. The instructor must avoid any indi-cation, by word or action that the proficiencysought is intended solely for use in difficult weath-er situations.

FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR QUALIFICATIONSAs a prerequisite, a flight instructor must be thor-oughly familiar with the functions, characteristics,

and proper use of all standard flight instruments. Itis the personal responsibility of each flight instruc-tor to maintain familiarity with current pilot trainingtechniques and certification requirements. Thismay be done by frequent review of new periodi-cals and technical publications, personal contactswith FAA inspectors and designated pilot examin-ers, and by participation in pilot and flight instruc-tor clinics. The application of outmoded instruc-tional procedures, or the preparation of studentpilots using obsolete certification requirements isinexcusable.

OBSTACLES TO LEARNING DURING FLIGHT INSTRUCTIONCertain obstacles are common to flight instructionand may apply directly to the student’s attitude,physical condition, and psychological make-up.These are included in the following list:

• Feeling of unfair treatment;

• Impatience to proceed to more interesting oper-ations;

• Worry or lack of interest;

• Physical discomfort, illness, and fatigue;

• Apathy due to inadequate instruction; and

• Anxiety.

UNFAIR TREATMENTStudents who believe that their instruction is inad-equate, or that their efforts are not conscientiouslyconsidered and evaluated, will not learn well. Inaddition, their motivation will suffer no matter howintent they are on learning to fly. Motivation willalso decline when a student believes the instructoris making unreasonable demands for performanceand progress. [Figure 9-2]

Assignment of goals that the student considersdifficult, but possible, usually provides a chal-lenge, and promotes learning. In a typical flightlesson, reasonable goals are listed in the lessonobjectives and the desired levels of proficiency forthe goals are included in statements that containcompletion standards.

IMPATIENCEImpatience is a greater deterrent to learning pilotskills than is generally recognized. With a flightstudent, this may take the form of a desire tomake an early solo flight, or to set out on cross-country flights before the basic elements of flighthave been learned.

Figure 9-2. The assignment of impossible or unreasonable goalsdiscourages the student, diminishes effort, and retards the learningprocess.

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-5

The impatient student fails to understand the needfor preliminary training and seeks only the ulti-mate objective without considering the meansnecessary to reach it. With every complex humanendeavor, it is necessary to master the basics ifthe whole task is to be performed competentlyand safely. The instructor can correct studentimpatience by presenting the necessary prelimi-nary training one step at a time, with clearly stat-ed goals for each step. The procedures and ele-ments mastered in each step should be clearlyidentified in explaining or demonstrating the per-formance of the subsequent step.

Impatience can result from instruction keyed tothe pace of a slow learner when it is applied to amotivated, fast learner. It is just as important thata student be advanced to the subsequent step assoon as one goal has been attained, as it is tocomplete each step before the next one is under-taken. Disinterest grows rapidly when unneces-sary repetition and drill are required on operationsthat have already been adequately learned.

WORRY OR LACK OF INTERESTWorry or lack of interest has a detrimental effect onlearning. Students who are worried or emotionallyupset are not ready to learn and derive little bene-fit from instruction. Worry or distraction may bedue to student concerns about progress in thetraining course, or may stem from circumstancescompletely unrelated to their instruction.Significant emotional upsets may be due to per-sonal problems, psychiatric disturbances, or a dis-like of the training program or the instructor.

The experiences of students outside their trainingactivities affect their behavior and performance intraining; the two cannot be separated. When stu-dents begin flight training, they bring with themtheir interests, enthusiasms, fears, and troubles.The instructor cannot be responsible for theseoutside diversions, but cannot ignore thembecause they have a critical effect on the learningprocess. Instruction must be keyed to the utiliza-tion of the interests and enthusiasm studentsbring with them, and to diverting their attentionfrom their worries and troubles to the learningtasks at hand. This is admittedly difficult, but mustbe accomplished if learning is to proceed at anormal rate.

Worries and emotional upsets that result from aflight training course can be identified andaddressed. These problems are often due toinadequacies of the course or of the instructor.The most effective cure is prevention. The

instructor must be alert to see that the studentsunderstand the objectives of each step of theirtraining, and that they know at the completionof each lesson exactly how well they have pro-gressed and what deficiencies are apparent.Discouragement and emotional upsets are rarewhen students feel that nothing is being with-held from them or is being neglected in theirtraining.

PHYSICAL DISCOMFORT, ILLNESS, ANDFATIGUEPhysical discomfort, illness, and fatigue will material-ly slow the rate of learning during both classroominstruction and flight training. Students who are notcompletely at ease, and whose attention is divert-ed by discomforts such as the extremes of tem-perature, poor ventilation, inadequate lighting, ornoise and confusion, cannot learn at a normalrate. This is true no matter how diligently theyattempt to apply themselves to the learning task.

A minor illness, such as a cold, or a major illnessor injury will interfere with the normal rate of learn-ing. This is especially important for flight instruc-tion. Most illnesses adversely affect the acute-ness of vision, hearing, and feeling, all of whichare essential to correct performance.

Airsickness can be a great deterrent to flightinstruction. A student who is airsick, or botheredwith incipient airsickness, is incapable of learningat a normal rate. There is no sure cure for airsick-ness, but resistance or immunity can be devel-oped in a relatively short period of time. An

instructional flight should be terminated as soonas incipient sickness is experienced. As the stu-dent develops immunity, flights can be increasedin length until normal flight periods are practica-

Figure 9-3. Poor preparation leads to spotty coverage, misplacedemphasis, unnecessary repetition, and a lack of confidence onthe part of the student. The instructor should always have a plan.

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-6

ble.

Keeping students interested and occupied duringflight is a deterrent to airsickness. They are muchless apt to become airsick while operating thecontrols themselves. Rough air and unexpectedabrupt maneuvers tend to increase the chances ofairsickness. Tension and apprehension apparent-ly contribute to airsickness and should be avoid-ed.

The detection of student fatigue is important toefficient flight instruction. This is important both inassessing a student’s substandard performanceearly in a lesson, and also in recognizing the dete-rioration of performance. Once fatigue occurs asa result of application to a learning task, the stu-dent should be given a break in instruction andpractice. Fatigue can be delayed by introducing anumber of maneuvers, which involve different ele-ments and objectives.

Fatigue is the primary consideration in determin-ing the length and frequency of flight instructionperiods. The amount of training, which can beabsorbed by one student without incurring debili-tating fatigue, does not necessarily indicate thecapacity of another student. Fatigue which resultsfrom training operations may be either physical ormental, or both. It is not necessarily a function ofphysical robustness or mental acuity. Generallyspeaking, complex operations tend to inducefatigue more rapidly than simpler procedures do,regardless of the physical effort involved. Flightinstruction should be continued only as long asthe student is alert, receptive to instruction, and isperforming at a level consistent with experience.

APATHY DUE TO INADEQUATE INSTRUCTIONStudents quickly become apathetic when theyrecognize that the instructor has made inade-quate preparations for the instruction being given,or when the instruction appears to be deficient,contradictory, or insincere. To hold the student’sinterest and to maintain the motivation necessaryfor efficient learning, well-planned, appropriate,and accurate instruction must be provided.Nothing destroys a student’s interest so quickly asa poorly organized period of instruction. Even aninexperienced student realizes immediately whenthe instructor has failed to prepare a lesson.[Figure 9-3]

Instruction may be overly explicit and so elemen-tary it fails to hold student interest, or it may be sogeneral or complicated that it fails to evoke theinterest necessary for effective learning. To beeffective, the instructor must teach for the level of

the student. The presentation must be adjustedto be meaningful to the person for whom it isintended. For example, instruction in the preflightinspection of an aircraft should be presentedquite differently for a student who is a skilled air-craft maintenance technician compared to theinstruction on the same operation for a studentwith no previous aeronautical experience. Theinspection desired in each case is the same, buta presentation meaningful to one of these stu-dents would be inappropriate for the other.

Poor instructional presentations may result notonly from poor preparation, but also from distract-ing mannerisms, personal untidiness, or theappearance of irritation with the student. Creatingthe impression of talking down to the student isone of the surest ways for an instructor to lose thestudent’s confidence and attention. Once theinstructor loses this confidence, it is difficult toregain, and the learning rate is unnecessarilydiminished.

ANXIETYAnxiety may place additional burdens on theinstructor. This frequently limits the student’s per-ceptive ability and retards the development ofinsights. The student must be comfortable, confi-dent in the instructor and the aircraft, and at ease,if effective learning is to occur. Providing thisatmosphere for learning is one of the first andmost important tasks of the instructor. Althoughdoing so may be difficult at first, successiveaccomplishments of recognizable goals and the

Figure 9-4. During this procedure, a visual check is recommend-ed to see that the other person actually has the flight controls.When returning the controls to the instructor, the student shouldfollow the same procedure the instructor used when giving controlto the student. The student should stay on the controls and keepflying the aircraft until the instructor says, “I have the flight con-trols.” There should never be any doubt as to who is flying the air-craft.

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-7

avoidance of alarming occurrences or situationswill rapidly ease the student’s mind. This is true ofall flight students, but special handling by theinstructor may be required for students who areobviously anxious or uncomfortable.

POSITIVE EXCHANGE OF FLIGHT CONTROLSPositive exchange of flight controls is an integralpart of flight training. It is especially critical duringthe telling-and-doing technique of flight instruc-tion. Due to the importance of this subject, the fol-lowing discussion provides guidance for all pilots,especially student pilots, flight instructors, andpilot examiners, on the recommended procedureto use for the positive exchange of flight controlsbetween pilots when operating an aircraft.

BACKGROUNDIncident/accident statistics indicate a need toplace additional emphasis on the exchange ofcontrol of an aircraft by pilots. Numerous acci-dents have occurred due to a lack of communi-cation or misunderstanding as to who actuallyhad control of the aircraft, particularly betweenstudents and flight instructors. Establishing thefollowing procedure during the initial training ofstudents will ensure the formation of a habit pat-tern that should stay with them throughout theirflying careers. They will be more likely to relin-quish control willingly and promptly wheninstructed to do so during flight training.

PROCEDURESDuring flight training, there must always be aclear understanding between students andflight instructors of who has control of the air-craft. Prior to flight, a briefing should be con-ducted that includes the procedure for theexchange of flight controls. A positive three-step process in the exchange of flight controlsbetween pilots is a proven procedure and onethat is strongly recommended. When aninstructor is teaching a maneuver to a student,the instructor will normally demonstrate themaneuver first, then have the student followalong on the controls during a demonstrationand, finally, the student will perform themaneuver with the instructor following along onthe controls. [Figure 9-4]

Flight instructors should always guard the controlsand be prepared to take control of the aircraft.When necessary, the instructor should take thecontrols and calmly announce, “I have the flightcontrols.” If an instructor allows a student toremain on the controls, the instructor may not

have full and effective control of the aircraft.Anxious students can be incredibly strong andusually exhibit reactions inappropriate to the situ-ation. If a recovery is necessary, there is absolute-ly nothing to be gained by having the student onthe controls and having to fight for control of theaircraft.

Students should never be allowed to exceed theflight instructor’s limits. Flight instructors shouldnot exceed their own ability to perceive a problem,decide upon a course of action, and physicallyreact within their ability to fly the aircraft.

USE OF DISTRACTIONSNational Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) sta-tistics reveal that most stall/spin accidentsoccured when the pilot’s attention was divertedfrom the primary task of flying the aircraft. Sixtypercent of stall/spin accidents occured duringtakeoff and landing, and twenty percent were pre-ceded by engine failure. Preoccupation inside oroutside the cockpit while changing aircraft config-uration or trim, maneuvering to avoid other trafficor clearing hazardous obstacles during takeoffand climb could create a potential stall/spin situa-tion.

The intentional practice of stalls and spins seldomresulted in an accident. The real danger was inad-vertent stalls induced by distractions during rou-tine flight situations.

Pilots at all skill levels should be aware of theincreased risk of entering into an inadvertent stallor spin while performing tasks that are secondaryto controlling the aircraft. The FAA has also estab-lished a policy for use of certain distractions onpractical tests for pilot certification. The purpose isto determine that applicants possess the skillsrequired to cope with distractions while maintain-ing the degree of aircraft control required for safeflight. The most effective training is the simulationof scenarios that can lead to inadvertent stalls bycreating distractions while the student is practic-ing certain maneuvers.

The instructor should tell the student to dividehis/her attention between the distracting task andmaintaining control of the aircraft. The following areexamples of distractions that can be used for thistraining:

• Drop a pencil. Ask the student to pick it up.

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-8

• Ask the student to determine a heading to anairport using a chart.

• Ask the student to reset the clock.

• Ask the student to get something from the backseat.

• Ask the student to read the outside air temper-ature.

• Ask the student to call the Flight Service Station(FSS) for weather information.

• Ask the student to compute true airspeed witha flight computer.

• Ask the student to identify terrain or objects onthe ground.

• Ask the student to identify a field suitable for aforced landing.

• Have the student climb 200 feet and maintainaltitude, then descend 200 feet and maintainaltitude.

• Have the student reverse course after a series ofS-turns.

AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKINGAeronautical decision making (ADM) is a sys-tematic approach to the mental process used byaircraft pilots to consistently determine the bestcourse of action in response to a given set of cir-cumstances. The importance of teaching studentseffective ADM skills can not be overemphasized.The flight instructor can make a difference! Whileprogress is continually being made in the advance-ment of pilot training methods, aircraft equipmentand systems, and services for pilots, accidents stilloccur. Despite all the changes in technology toimprove flight safety, one factor remains thesame—the human factor. It is estimated thatapproximately 75% of all aviation accidents arehuman factors related.

Historically, the term pilot error has been usedto describe the causes of these accidents. Piloterror means that an action or decision made bythe pilot was the cause of, or contributing factorwhich lead to, the accident. This definition alsoincludes the pilot’s failure to make a decision or

take action. From a broader perspective, thephrase “human factors related” more aptlydescribes these accidents since it is usually nota single decision that leads to an accident, buta chain of events triggered by a number of fac-tors.

The poor judgment chain, sometimes referredto as the error chain, is a term used to describethis concept of contributing factors in a humanfactors related accident. Breaking one link in thechain normally is all that is necessary to changethe outcome of the sequence of events. Thebest way to illustrate this concept to students isto discuss specific situations which lead to air-craft accidents or incidents. The following is anexample of the type of scenario which can bepresented to students to illustrate the poorjudgment chain.

A private pilot, who had logged 100 hours offlight time, made a precautionary landing on anarrow dirt runway at a private airport. The pilotlost directional control during landing andswerved off the runway into the grass. A witnessrecalled later that the airplane appeared to betoo high and fast on final approach, and specu-lated the pilot was having difficulty controllingthe airplane in high winds. The weather at thetime of the incident was reported as marginalVFR due to rain showers and thunderstorms.When the airplane was fueled the followingmorning, 60 gallons of fuel were required to fillthe 62-gallon capacity tanks.

By discussing the events that led to this incident,instructors can help students understand how aseries of judgmental errors contributed to thefinal outcome of this flight. For example, one ofthe first elements that affected the pilot’s flightwas a decision regarding the weather. On themorning of the flight, the pilot was running late,and having acquired a computer printout of theforecast the night before, he did not bother toobtain a briefing from flight service before hisdeparture.

A flight planning decision also played a part inthis poor judgment chain. The pilot calculatedtotal fuel requirements for the trip based on arule-of-thumb figure he had used previously foranother airplane. He did not use the fuel tablesprinted in the pilot’s operating handbook for the

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-9

airplane he was flying on this trip. After reachinghis destination, the pilot did not request refuel-ing. Based on his original calculations, hebelieved sufficient fuel remained for the flighthome.

Failing to recognize his own limitations wasanother factor that led the pilot one step closerto the unfortunate conclusion of his journey. Inthe presence of deteriorating weather, hedeparted for the flight home at 5:00 in the after-noon. He did not consider how fatigue and lackof extensive night flying experience could affectthe flight. As the flight continued, the weather

along the route grew increasingly hazardous.Since the airplane’s fuel supply was almostexhausted, the pilot no longer had the option ofdiverting to avoid rapidly developing thunder-storms. With few alternatives left, he was forcedto land at the nearest airfield available, a smallprivate airport with one narrow dirt runway. Dueto the gusty wind conditions and the pilot’s lim-ited experience, the approach and landing weredifficult. After touchdown, the pilot lost direc-tional control and the airplane finally came to astop in the grass several yards to the side of therunway.

On numerous occasions during the flight, the pilot

Figure 9-5. These terms are used in AC 60-22 to explain concepts used in ADM training.

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-10

could have made effective decisions which mayhave prevented this incident. However, as thechain of events unfolded, each poor decision lefthim with fewer and fewer options. Teaching pilotsto make sound decisions is the key to preventingaccidents. Traditional pilot instruction has empha-sized flying skills, knowledge of the aircraft, andfamiliarity with regulations. ADM training focuseson the decision-making process and the factorsthat affect a pilot’s ability to make effective choic-es.

ORIGINS OF ADM TRAINING

The airlines developed some of the first trainingprograms that focused on improving aeronauti-cal decision making. Human factors-relatedaccidents motivated the airline industry to imple-ment crew resource management (CRM)training for flight crews. The focus of CRM pro-grams is the effective use of all availableresources; human resources, hardware, andinformation. Human resources include allgroups routinely working with the cockpit crew(or pilot) who are involved in decisions whichare required to operate a flight safely. Thesegroups include, but are not limited to: dispatch-ers, cabin crewmembers, maintenance person-nel, and air traffic controllers. Although the CRMconcept originated as airlines developed waysof facilitating crew cooperation to improve deci-sion making in the cockpit, CRM principles, suchas workload management, situational aware-ness, communication, the leadership role of thecaptain, and crewmember coordination havedirect application to the general aviation cockpit.This also includes single pilots since pilots ofsmall aircraft, as well as crews of larger aircraft,must make effective use of all availableresources—human resources, hardware, andinformation.

Crew resource management training has provenextremely successful in reducing accidents, andairlines typically introduce CRM concepts duringinitial indoctrination of new hires. Instructors in thegeneral aviation environment can learn from thisexample when conducting ADM training. In thepast, some students were introduced to ADM con-cepts toward the completion of their training or notat all. It is important that these concepts be incor-porated throughout the entire training course for alllevels of students; private, instrument, commercial,multi-engine, and ATP. Instructors, as well as stu-dents, also can refer to AC 60-22, Aeronautical

Decision Making, which provides background ref-erences, definitions, and other pertinent informa-tion about ADM training in the general aviationenvironment. [Figure 9-5]

THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESSAn understanding of the decision-making processprovides students with a foundation for develop-ing ADM skills. Some situations, such as enginefailures, require a pilot to respond immediatelyusing established procedures with little time fordetailed analysis. Traditionally, pilots have beenwell trained to react to emergencies, but are notas well prepared to make decisions which requirea more reflective response. Typically during aflight, the pilot has time to examine any changeswhich occur, gather information, and assess riskbefore reaching a decision. The steps leading tothis conclusion constitute the decision-makingprocess. When the decision-making process ispresented to students, it is essential to discusshow the process applies to an actual flight situa-tion. To explain the decision-making process, theinstructor can introduce the following steps withthe accompanying scenario that places the stu-dent in the position of making a decision about atypical flight situation.

DEFINING THE PROBLEM

Problem definition is the first step in the decision-making process. Defining the problem begins withrecognizing that a change has occurred or that anexpected change did not occur. A problem is per-

ceived first by the senses, then is distinguishedthrough insight and experience. These same abil-ities, as well as an objective analysis of all avail-able information, are used to determine the exactnature and severity of the problem.

Figure 9-6. During initial training, the DECIDE model can providea framework for effective decision making.

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-11

One critical error that can be made during thedecision-making process is incorrectly definingthe problem. For example, failure of a landing-gear-extended light to illuminate could indicatethat the gear is not down and locked into place orit could mean the bulb is burned out. The actionsto be taken in each of these circumstances wouldbe significantly different. Fixating on a problemthat does not exist can divert the pilot’s attentionfrom important tasks. The pilot’s failure to main-tain an awareness of the circumstances regardingthe flight now becomes the problem. This is whyonce an initial assumption is made regarding theproblem, other sources must be used to verify thatthe pilot’s conclusion is correct.

While on a cross-country flight, you discover thatyour time en route between two checkpoints issignificantly longer than the time you had origi-nally calculated. By noticing this discrepancy, youhave recognized a change. Based on your insight,cross-country flying experience, and your knowl-edge of weather systems, you consider the pos-sibility that you have an increased headwind. Youverify that your original calculations are correct

and consider factors which may have lengthenedthe time between checkpoints, such as a climb ordeviation off course. To determine if there is achange in the winds aloft forecast and to checkrecent pilot reports, you contact Flight Watch.After weighing each information source, you con-clude that your headwind has increased. Todetermine the severity of the problem, you calcu-late your new groundspeed, and reassess fuelrequirements.

CHOOSING A COURSE OF ACTION

After the problem has been identified, the pilotmust evaluate the need to react to it and deter-mine the actions which may be taken to resolvethe situation in the time available. The expectedoutcome of each possible action should be con-sidered and the risks assessed before the pilotdecides on a response to the situation.

You determine your fuel burn if you continue toyour destination, and consider other options, suchas turning around and landing at a nearby airportthat you have passed, diverting off course, or

Figure 9-7. One of the most important decisions that the pilot in command must make is the go/no-go decision. Evaluating each of theserisk elements can help the pilot decide whether a flight should be conducted or continued.

Figure 9-8. Workload is highest during takeoff and landing, which increases the chance of error.

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-12

landing prior to your destination at an airport onyour route. You must now consider the expectedoutcome of each possible action and assess therisks involved. After studying the chart, you con-clude that there is an airport which has fuelingservices within a reasonable distance aheadalong your route. You can refuel there and contin-ue to your destination without a significant loss oftime.

IMPLEMENTING THE DECISIONAND EVALUATING THE OUTCOME

Although a decision may be reached and a courseof action implemented, the decision-makingprocess is not complete. It is important to thinkahead and determine how the decision couldaffect other phases of the flight. As the flight pro-gresses, the pilot must continue to evaluate theoutcome of the decision to ensure that it is pro-ducing the desired result.

To implement your decision, you plot the coursechanges and calculate a new estimated time ofarrival, as well as contact the nearest flight serv-ice station to amend your flight plan and checkweather conditions at your new destination. Asyou proceed to the airport, you continue to moni-tor your groundspeed, aircraft performance, andthe weather conditions to ensure that no addition-al steps need to be taken to guarantee the safetyof the flight.

To assist teaching pilots the elements of the deci-sion-making process, a six-step model has beendeveloped using the acronym “DECIDE.” TheDECIDE model has been used to instruct pilots ofvarying experience levels, as well as analyzeaccidents. [Figure 9-6]

RISK MANAGEMENT

During each flight, decisions must be maderegarding events which involve interactionsbetween the four risk elements—the pilot in com-mand, the aircraft, the environment, and the oper-ation. The decision-making process involves anevaluation of each of these risk elements toachieve an accurate perception of the flight situa-tion. [Figure 9-7]

To reinforce the risk elements and their signifi-cance to effective decision making, the instructorcan ask the student to identify the risk elements fora flight. The student should also be able to deter-

mine whether the risks have been appropriatelyevaluated in the situation.

A pilot schedules to fly to a business appointmentwith a client in a nearby city. She is a noninstru-ment-rated private pilot with no experience inmarginal weather conditions, although she didgain some attitude instrument flying experienceduring her private pilot flight training. She intendsto fly in a small four-seat, single-engine airplanewith standard communication and navigationequipment. However, the VOR receiver is inoper-ative. The pilot plans to leave in the morning andreturn early in the afternoon. When she receivesher weather briefing, she is informed that margin-al VFR conditions with possible icing in the cloudsare forecast for late afternoon. Having beendelayed at the office, the pilot departs later thanplanned. While en route, the pilot encounters lowceilings and restricted visibility and she becomesspatially disoriented due to continued flight byground reference.

In this case, the pilot did not effectively evaluate thefour risk elements when making decisions regarding

this flight. When assessing her fitness as a pilot, sheoverestimated her flying abilities by attempting to flyin marginal VFR conditions. The capability of herairplane was not properly evaluated. The inopera-tive VOR receiver limits her options if she becomeslost, or is required to navigate with limited visual ref-erence to the ground. In addition, her airplane didnot contain sophisticated navigation equipment

Figure 9-9. Prior to flight, pilots should assess their fitness, just asthey evaluate the aircraft’s airworthiness.

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-13

which may have helped her locate an airport in anemergency situation. The flying environment wasless than optimal when she decided to departdespite the threat of marginal conditions. Whenfaced with deteriorating weather, she did not enlistthe assistance of air traffic control (ATC) or use herinstruments as references to turn around. Since shewas trying to reach her destination for a businessappointment, the operation affected her decision toundertake and continue the flight.

ASSESSING RISK

Examining NTSB reports and other accidentresearch can help students learn to assess riskmore effectively. Instructors can point out thephases of flight when accidents are most likely tooccur and when risk is the greatest. For example,the majority of accidents occur when approachingor departing airports. [Figure 9-8]

Studies also indicate the types of flight activitiesthat are most likely to result in the most seriousaccidents. The majority of fatal general aviationaccident causes fall under the categories ofmaneuvering flight, approaches, takeoff/initialclimb, and weather. Delving deeper into accidentstatistics can provide some important details thatcan help students understand the risks involvedwith specific flying situations. For example,maneuvering flight is one of the largest singleproducers of fatal accidents and many of theseaccidents are attributed to maneuvering duringlow, slow flight, often during buzzing or unautho-rized aerobatics. Fatal accidents which occurduring approach often happen at night or in IFRconditions. Takeoff/initial climb accidents fre-

Figure 9-10. Pilots should examine their decisions carefully to ensure that their choices have not been influenced by a hazardous attitude.

Figure 9-11. Students can be asked to identify hazardous attitudesand the corresponding antidotes when presented with flight sce-narios.

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-14

quently are due to the pilot’s lack of awarenessof the effects of density altitude on aircraft per-formance or other improper takeoff planningresulting in loss of control or stalls during, orshortly after takeoff. The majority of weather-related accidents occur after attempted VFRflight into IFR conditions.

In addition to discussing these facts, instructorscan increase student awareness of these risks bysetting positive examples. For instance, ensuringthat students obtain weather briefings beforeevery flight develops good habits and emphasizesthe importance of the weather check. Instructorsshould take the time to discuss the conditions,and require the student to arrive at a go/no-godecision. Ignoring a marginal forecast or continu-ing a flight in poor weather may be sending themessage that checking the weather serves nopractical purpose. During the flight planningphase, the flight instructor can introduce situa-tions that are different from those planned. Thestudent should be asked to explain the possibleconsequences of each situation. Even if a flightlesson is canceled based on forecast conditionsthat never materialize, a lesson in judgment hasbeen accomplished.

FACTORS AFFECTING DECISION MAKINGIt is important to point out to students that beingfamiliar with the decision-making process does notensure that they will have the good judgment to besafe pilots. The ability to make effective decisions aspilot in command depends on a number of factors.Some circumstances, such as the time available tomake a decision, may be beyond the pilot’s control.However, a pilot can learn to recognize those fac-tors that can be managed, and learn skills toimprove decision-making ability and judgment.

PILOT SELF-ASSESSMENTThe pilot in command of an aircraft is directlyresponsible for, and is the final authority as to, theoperation of that aircraft. In order to effectivelyexercise that responsibility and make effectivedecisions regarding the outcome of a flight, pilotsmust have an understanding of their limitations. Apilot’s performance during a flight is affected bymany factors, such as health, recency of experi-ence, knowledge, skill level, and attitude.

Students must be taught that exercising goodjudgment begins prior to taking the controls of anaircraft. Often, pilots thoroughly check their air-craft to determine airworthiness, yet do not eval-uate their own fitness for flight. Just as a check-list is used when preflighting an aircraft, a per-sonal checklist based on such factors as experi-ence, currency, and comfort level can help deter-mine if a pilot is prepared for a particular flight.Specifying when refresher training should beaccomplished, designating weather minimumswhich may be higher than those listed in Title 14of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part91, and setting limitations regarding the amountof crosswind for takeoffs and landings are exam-ples of elements which may be included on apersonal checklist. Instructors set an example byhaving their own personal checklists and canhelp students create their own checklists. In addi-tion to a review of personal limitations, pilotsshould use the I’M SAFE Checklist to furtherevaluate their fitness for flight. [Figure 9-9]

RECOGNIZING HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES

Being fit to fly depends on more than just a pilot’sphysical condition and recency of experience.For example, attitude will affect the quality ofdecisions. Attitude can be defined as a personalmotivational predisposition to respond to per-sons, situations, or events in a given manner.

Figure 9-12. The three types of stressors can affect a pilot’s performance.

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-15

Studies have identified five hazardous attitudeswhich can interfere with a pilot’s ability to makesound decisions and exercise authority properly.[Figure 9-10]

Hazardous attitudes can lead to poor decisionmaking and actions which involve unnecessaryrisk. Students must be taught to examine theirdecisions carefully to ensure that their choiceshave not been influenced by hazardous attitudesand they must be familiar with positive alterna-tives to counteract the hazardous attitudes. Thesesubstitute attitudes are referred to as antidotes.During a flight operation, it is important to be ableto recognize a hazardous attitude, correctly labelthe thought, and then recall its antidote. [Figure 9-11]

STRESS MANAGEMENT

Everyone is stressed to some degree all the time.A certain amount of stress is good since it keeps aperson alert and prevents complacency. However,effects of stress are cumulative and, if not copedwith adequately, they eventually add up to an intol-erable burden. Performance generally increaseswith the onset of stress, peaks, and then begins tofall off rapidly as stress levels exceed a person’sability to cope. The ability to make effective deci-sions during flight can be impaired by stress.Factors, referred to as stressors, can increase apilot’s risk of error in the cockpit. [Figure 9-12]

One way of exploring the subject of stress with astudent is to recognize when stress is affectingperformance. If a student seems distracted, orhas a particularly difficult time accomplishing thetasks of the lesson, the instructor can query thestudent. Was the student uncomfortable or tiredduring the flight? Is there some stress in anotheraspect of the student’s life that may be causing adistraction? This may prompt the student to eval-uate how these factors affect performance andjudgment. The instructor should also try to deter-mine if there are aspects of pilot training that arecausing excessive amounts of stress for the stu-dent. For example, if the student consistentlymakes a decision not to fly, even though weatherbriefings indicate favorable conditions, it may bedue to apprehension regarding the lesson con-tent. Stalls, landings, or an impending solo flightmay cause concern for the student. By explaininga specific maneuver in greater detail or offeringsome additional encouragement, the instructormay be able to alleviate some of the student’sstress.

To help students manage the accumulation of life

stresses and prevent stress overload, instructorscan recommend several techniques. For exam-ple, including relaxation time in a busy scheduleand maintaining a program of physical fitness canhelp reduce stress levels. Learning to managetime more effectively can help pilots avoid heavypressures imposed by getting behind scheduleand not meeting deadlines. While these pressuresmay exist in the workplace, students may alsoexperience the same type of stress regarding theirflight training schedule. Instructors can advise stu-dents to take assessments of themselves todetermine their capabilities and limitations andthen set realistic goals. In addition, avoidingstressful situations and encounters can help pilotscope with stress.

USE OF RESOURCESTo make informed decisions during flight opera-tions, students must be made aware of theresources found both inside and outside the cock-pit. Since useful tools and sources of informationmay not always be readily apparent, learning torecognize these resources is an essential part ofADM training. Resources must not only be identi-fied, but students must develop the skills to eval-uate whether they have the time to use a particu-lar resource and the impact that its use will haveupon the safety of flight. For example, the assis-tance of ATC may be very useful if a pilot is lost.However, in an emergency situation when actionneeds be taken quickly, time may not be availableto contact ATC immediately. During training,instructors can routinely point out resources tostudents.

INTERNAL RESOURCES

Internal resources are found in the cockpit duringflight. Since some of the most valuable internalresources are ingenuity, knowledge, and skill,pilots can expand cockpit resources immenselyby improving their capabilities. This can beaccomplished by frequently reviewing flight infor-mation publications, such as the CFRs and theAIM, as well as by pursuing additional training.

A thorough understanding of all the equipmentand systems in the aircraft is necessary to fullyutilize all resources. For example, advancednavigation and autopilot systems are valuableresources. However, if pilots do not fully under-stand how to use this equipment, or they rely onit so much that they become complacent, it canbecome a detriment to safe flight. To ensure thatstudents understand the operation of variousequipment, instructors must first be familiar withthe components of each aircraft in which they

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-16

instruct.

Checklists are essential cockpit resources for ver-ifying that the aircraft instruments and systemsare checked, set, and operating properly, as wellas ensuring that the proper procedures are per-formed if there is a system malfunction or in-flightemergency. Students reluctant to use checklistscan be reminded that pilots at all levels of experi-ence refer to checklists, and that the moreadvanced the aircraft is, the more crucial check-lists become. In addition, the POH, which isrequired to be carried on board the aircraft, isessential for accurate flight planning and forresolving in-flight equipment malfunctions. Othervaluable cockpit resources include current aero-nautical charts, and publications, such as theAirport/Facility Directory.

It should be pointed out to students that passen-gers can also be a valuable resource. Passengerscan help watch for traffic and may be able to pro-vide information in an irregular situation, especial-ly if they are familiar with flying. A strange smell orsound may alert a passenger to a potential prob-lem. The pilot in command should brief passen-gers before the flight to make sure that they arecomfortable voicing any concerns.

EXTERNAL RESOURCES

Possibly the greatest external resources duringflight are air traffic controllers and flight servicespecialists. ATC can help decrease pilot workloadby providing traffic advisories, radar vectors, andassistance in emergency situations. Flight servicestations can provide updates on weather, answerquestions about airport conditions, and may offer

direction-finding assistance. The services providedby ATC can be invaluable in enabling pilots tomake informed in-flight decisions. Instructors canhelp students feel comfortable with ATC byencouraging them to take advantage of services,such as flight following and Flight Watch. If stu-dents are exposed to ATC as much as possibleduring training, they will feel confident asking con-trollers to clarify instructions and be betterequipped to use ATC as a resource for assistancein unusual circumstances or emergencies.

Throughout training, students can be asked toidentify internal and external resources which canbe used in a variety of flight situations. For exam-ple, if a discrepancy is found during preflight, whatresources can be used to determine its signifi-cance? In this case, the student’s knowledge ofthe airplane, the POH, an instructor or anotherexperienced pilot, or an aviation maintenancetechnician are resources which may help definethe problem.

During cross-country training, students may beasked to consider the following situation. On across-country flight, you become disoriented.Although you are familiar with the area, you donot recognize any landmarks, and fuel is runninglow. What resources do you have to assist you?Students should be able to identify their ownskills and knowledge, aeronautical charts, ATC,flight service, and navigation equipment assome of the resources that can be used in thissituation.

WORKLOAD MANAGEMENTEffective workload management ensures thatessential operations are accomplished by plan-ning, prioritizing, and sequencing tasks to avoidwork overload. As experience is gained, a pilotlearns to recognize future workload require-ments and can prepare for high workload peri-ods during times of low workload. Instructorscan teach this skill by prompting their studentsto prepare for a high workload. For example,when en route, the student can be asked toexplain the actions that will need to be takenduring the approach to the airport. The studentshould be able to describe the procedures fortraffic pattern entry and landing preparation.Reviewing the appropriate chart and settingradio frequencies well in advance of when theywill be needed helps reduce workload as theflight nears the airport. In addition, the studentshould listen to ATIS, ASOS, or AWOS, if avail-able, and then monitor the tower frequency orCTAF to get a good idea of what traffic condi-

Figure 9-13. Accidents often occur when flying task requirementsexceed pilot capabilities. The difference between these two fac-tors is called the margin of safety. Note that in this idealizedexample, the margin of safety is minimal during the approach andlanding. At this point, an emergency or distraction could overtaxpilot capabilities, causing an accident.

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-17

tions to expect. Checklists should be performedwell in advance so there is time to focus on traf-fic and ATC instructions. These procedures areespecially important prior to entering a high-density traffic area, such as Class B airspace.

To manage workload, items should be priori-tized. This concept should be emphasized tostudents and reinforced when training proce-dures are performed. For example, during a go-around, adding power, gaining airspeed, andproperly configuring the airplane are priorities.Informing the tower of the balked landing shouldbe accomplished only after these tasks are com-pleted. Students must understand that prioritieschange as the situation changes. If fuel quantity

is lower than expected on a cross-country flight,the priority can shift from making a scheduledarrival time at the destination, to locating a near-by airport to refuel. In an emergency situation,the first priority is to fly the aircraft and maintaina safe airspeed.

Another important part of managing workload isrecognizing a work overload situation. The firsteffect of high workload is that the pilot begins towork faster. As workload increases, attention can-not be devoted to several tasks at one time, andthe pilot may begin to focus on one item. Whenthe pilot becomes task saturated, there is noawareness of inputs from various sources so deci-sions may be made on incomplete information,

Figure 9-14. All experienced pilots have fallen prey to, or have been tempted by, one or more of these tendencies in their flyingcareers.

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-18

and the possibility of error increases. [Figure 9-13]

During a lesson, workload can be graduallyincreased as the instructor monitors the stu-dent’s management of tasks. The instructorshould ensure that the student has the ability torecognize a work overload situation. Whenbecoming overloaded, the student should stop,think, slow down, and prioritize. It is importantthat the student understand options that may beavailable to decrease workload. For example,

tasks, such as locating an item on a chart or set-ting a radio frequency, may be delegated toanother pilot or passenger, an autopilot (if avail-able) may be used, or ATC may be enlisted toprovide assistance.

SITUATIONAL AWARENESSSituational awareness is the accurate percep-tion of the operational and environmental factorsthat affect the aircraft, pilot, and passengers dur -ing a specific period of time. Maintaining situa-tional awareness requires an understanding ofthe relative significance of these factors andtheir future impact on the flight. When situation-ally aware, the pilot has an overview of the totaloperation and is not fixated on one perceivedsignificant factor. Some of the elements insidethe aircraft to be considered are the status of air-craft systems, pilot, and passengers. In addition,an awareness of the environmental conditions ofthe flight, such as spatial orientation of the air-craft, and its relationship to terrain, traffic, weath-er, and airspace must be maintained.

To maintain situational awareness, all of the skillsinvolved in aeronautical decision making areused. For example, an accurate perception of thepilot’s fitness can be achieved through self-assessment and recognition of hazardous atti-tudes. A clear assessment of the status of naviga-tion equipment can be obtained through workloadmanagement, and establishing a productive rela-tionship with ATC can be accomplished by effec-tive resource use.

OBSTACLES TO MAINTAINING SITUATIONAL AWARE-NESS

Fatigue, stress, and work overload can cause thepilot to fixate on a single perceived important itemrather than maintaining an overall awareness ofthe flight situation. A contributing factor in manyaccidents is a distraction which diverts the pilot’sattention from monitoring the instruments orscanning outside the aircraft. Many cockpit dis-tractions begin as a minor problem, such as agauge that is not reading correctly, but result inaccidents as the pilot diverts attention to the per-ceived problem and neglects to properly controlthe aircraft.

Complacency presents another obstacle tomaintaining situational awareness. When activi-ties become routine, the pilot may have a ten-dency to relax and not put as much effort intoperformance. Like fatigue, complacency

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-19

reduces the pilot’s effectiveness in the cockpit.However, complacency is harder to recognizethan fatigue, since everything is perceived to beprogressing smoothly. For example, cockpitautomation can lead to complacency if the pilotassumes that the autopilot is doing its job, anddoes not crosscheck the instruments or the air-craft’s position frequently. If the autopilot fails,the pilot may not be mentally prepared to fly theaircraft manually. Instructors should be especial-ly alert to complacency in students with signifi-cant flight experience. For example, a pilotreceiving a flight review in a familiar aircraft maybe prone to complacency.

By asking about positions of other aircraft in thetraffic pattern, engine instrument indications,and the aircraft’s location in relationship to ref-erences on a chart, the instructor can determineif the student is maintaining situational aware-ness. The instructor can also attempt to focusthe student’s attention on an imaginary problemwith the communication or navigation equip-ment. The instructor should point out that situa-tional awareness is not being maintained if thestudent diverts too much attention away fromother tasks, such as controlling the aircraft orscanning for traffic. These are simple exercisesthat can be done throughout flight training whichwill help emphasize the importance of maintain-ing situational awareness.

OPERATIONAL PITFALLSThere are a number of classic behavioral trapsinto which pilots have been known to fall. Pilots,particularly those with considerable experience,as a rule always try to complete a flight asplanned, please passengers, meet schedules,and generally demonstrate that they have theright stuff. The basic drive to demonstrate theright stuff can have an adverse effect on safety,and can impose an unrealistic assessment ofpiloting skills under stressful conditions. Thesetendencies ultimately may bring about practicesthat are dangerous and often illegal, and maylead to a mishap. Students will develop aware-ness and learn to avoid many of these opera-tional pitfalls through effective ADM training.The scenarios and examples provided byinstructors during ADM instruction shouldinvolve these pitfalls. [Figure 9-14]

EVALUATING STUDENT DECISION MAKINGA student’s performance is often evaluated onlyon a technical level. The instructor determines

whether maneuvers are technically accurate andthat procedures are performed in the right order.Instructors must learn to evaluate students on adifferent level. How did the student arrive at a par-ticular decision? What resources were used? Wasrisk assessed accurately when a go/no-go deci-sion was made? Did the student maintain situa-tional awareness in the traffic pattern? Was work-load managed effectively during a cross-country?How does the student handle stress and fatigue?

Instructors should continually evaluate studentdecision-making ability and offer suggestions forimprovement. It is not always necessary to pres-ent complex situations which require detailedanalysis. By allowing students to make decisionsabout typical issues that arise throughout thecourse of training, such as their fitness to fly,weather conditions, and equipment problems,instructors can address effective decision makingand allow students to develop judgment skills. Forexample, when a discrepancy is found during pre-flight inspection, the student should be allowed toinitially determine the action to be taken. Then theeffectiveness of the student’s choice and otheroptions that may be available can be discussed.Opportunities for improving decision-making abili-ties occur often during training. If the tower offersthe student a runway that requires landing with atailwind in order to expedite traffic, the student canbe directed to assess the risks involved andasked to present alternative actions to be taken.Perhaps the most frequent choice that has to bemade during flight training is the go/no-go deci-sion based on weather. While the final choice tofly lies with the instructor, students can berequired to assess the weather prior to each flightand make a go/no-go determination.

In addition, instructors can create lessons that arespecifically designed to test whether students areapplying ADM skills. Planning a flight lesson inwhich the student is presented with simulatedemergencies, a heavy workload, or other opera-tional problems can be valuable in assessing thestudent’s judgment and decision-making skills.During the flight, performance can be evaluatedon how effectively the student managed workload,or handled stress. While debriefing the studentafter the flight, the instructor can suggest waysthat problems may have been solved more effec-tively, how tasks might have been prioritized dif-ferently, or other resources that could have beenused to improve the situation.

CH 09.qxd 7/15/2003 12:02 PM Page 9-20

APPENDIX A—SAMPLE TEST ITEMSThere are four types of test items in common use today. They are multiple-choice, matching, true-false, andsupply-type. The most used type is the multiple-choice test item in one of several forms. Listed below areexamples of some of the more widely used forms.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST ITEMSMultiple-choice test items consist of a stem or question and three or more alternative answers with thecorrect answer sometimes called the keyed response and the incorrect answers called distractors.Detailed information on the writing of stems and alternatives can be found in Chapter 6.

Stem Presented as a Question. This form is generally better than the incomplete stem because it issimpler and more natural.

Who is primarily responsible for maintaining an aircraft in an airworthy condition?

A. Pilot in command or operator.B. Owner or operator of the aircraft.C. The lead mechanic responsible for that aircraft.

Stem as an Incomplete Statement. When using this form, care must be exercised to avoid ambiguity,giving clues, and using unnecessarily complex or unrelated alternatives.

VFR cruising altitudes are required to be maintained when flying

A. at 3,000 feet or more AGL, based on true course.B. more than 3,000 feet AGL, based on magnetic course.C. at 3,000 feet or more above MSL, based on magnetic heading.

Stem Supplemented by an Illustration. This form is useful for measuring the ability to read instru-ments, or identify objects.

(Refer to figure 1.) The acute angle A is the angle of

A. attack.B. dihedral.C. incidence.

Multiple Response is Required. This form is a variation of the previous forms in that it contains morethan one correct answer, and students are instructed to select all correct answers.

Which of the following statements is/are generally true regarding the charging of several aircraft batteriestogether?

1. Batteries of different voltage (but similar capacities) can be connected in series witheach other across the charger, and charged using the constant current method.

2. Batteries of different ampere-hour capacity and same voltage can be connected in par-allel with each other across the charger, and charged using the constant voltagemethod.

3. Batteries of the same voltage and same ampere-hour capacity must be connected inseries with each other across the charger, and charged using the constant currentmethod.

FIGURE 1.—Lift Vector.

Appendix A & B.qxd 7/15/2003 12:04 PM Page A-1

A. 3.B. 1 and 2.C. 2 and 3.

Negative Variety Type. This form is not suggested but, if used, always emphasize the negative word.

Which of the following is NOT considered a method of heat transfer?

A. Diffusion.B. Conduction.C. Convection.

Association Type. This form is useful if a limited number of associations are to be made.

Which aircraft has the right-of-way over the other aircraft listed?

A. Airship.B. Gyroplane.C. Aircraft towing other aircraft.

Definition Type. This form is used to determine knowledge of a specific definition.

Aspect ratio of a wing is defined as the ratio of the

A. wingspan to the wing root.B. wingspan to the mean chord.C. square of the chord to the wingspan.

MATCHING TEST ITEMSMatching test items are used to test a student’s ability to recognize relationships and to make associa-tions between terms, parts, words, phrases, clauses, or symbols in one column with related alternativesin another column. When using this form of test item, it is a good practice to provide alternatives in theresponse column that are used more than once, or not at all, to preclude guessing by elimination.Matching test items may have either an equal or unequal number of selections in each column.

Matching-Equal Columns. When using this form, providing for some items in the response column to beused more than once, or not at all, can preclude guessing by elimina-tion.

Directions: In the blank before each electrical term in the left-handcolumn, write the letter corresponding to the unit of measurementwhich is most closely associated with that term. Each unit of meas-urement may be used more than once and some units may not beused at all.

1. ____ Electromotive force2. ____ Electrical power, apparent3. ____ Electrical power, true4. ____ Resistance5. ____ Capacitance6. ____ Inductance7. ____ Current8. ____ Impedance

Matching-Unequal Columns. Generally preferable to equal columns.

Directions: In the blank before each phrase in the left-hand column,write the letter(s) corresponding to the type(s) of drag which is/are mostclosely associated with that phrase. Each type of drag may be used

a. Wattb. Voltc. Ampered. Coulombe. Ohmf. VARg. Faradh. Henry

a. Form dragb. Induced dragc. Skin friction dragd. Static drage. Interference

dragf. Rolling drag

Appendix A & B.qxd 7/15/2003 12:04 PM Page A-2

more than once, and some types may not be used at all.

1. ____ Occurs when varied currents over an airplane meet and inter-act.2. ____ Results from the turbulent wake caused by the separation of airflow fromthe surface of a structure.3. ____ Caused by the roughness of the airplane’s surfaces.4. ____ Generated by the airflow circulation around the airfoil as

it creates lift.

TRUE-FALSE TEST ITEMS

A True-False test item requires the student to determine whether a statement is true or false. The chiefdisadvantage of this type is the opportunity for successful guessing.

Directions: Circle the correct response to the following statements.

1. True or False. To operate within Class B airspace, the aircraft must have two-way radio com-munica- tion capability and a Mode C transponder.

2. True or False. An aviation maintenance technician must hold an Inspection Authorizationto legally conduct annual inspections on small aircraft.

SUPPLY-TYPE TEST ITEMSThe aviation instructor is able to determine the students’ level of generalized knowledge of a subjectthrough the use of supply-type questions. Short-answer essay test items are the most common.

1. Describe the position of the elevator and ailerons when taxiing a tricycle-gear airplane into aright quartering headwind.

2. What conditions are used in determining the published value of VMC?

Appendix A & B.qxd 7/15/2003 12:04 PM Page A-3

Appendix A & B.qxd 7/15/2003 12:04 PM Page A-4

APPENDIX B—INSTRUCTOR ENDORSEMENTS14 CFR section 61.189 requires that instructors sign the logbook of each person they have given groundor flight training. AC 61-65 contains suggested endorsements, and this appendix reprints several of themore commonly used endorsements. All of these examples contain the essential elements, but it is notnecessary for endorsements to be worded exactly as those in the AC. For example, changes to regula-tory requirements may affect the wording or the instructor may customize the endorsement for any spe-cial circumstances of the student.

STUDENT PILOT ENDORSEMENTSPre-solo aeronautical knowledge: §61.87(b)I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has satisfactorily completed the pre-solo knowledge exam of§61.87(b) for the (make and model aircraft). S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321 CFI Exp. 12-31-00

Pre-solo flight training at night: §61.87(c) and (m)I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required pre-solo training in a (make andmodel aircraft). I have determined that he/she has demonstrated the proficiency of §61.87(m), and is pro-ficient to make solo flights at night in a (make and model aircraft). S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321 CFIExp. 12-31-00

Solo flight (each additional 90-day period): §61.87(n)I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training to qualify for solo flying. Ihave determined he/she meets the applicable requirements of §61.87(n), and is proficient to make soloflights in a (make and model aircraft). S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321 CFI Exp. 12-31-00

Initial solo cross-country flight: §61.93(c)(1)I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required solo cross-country training. I findhe/she has met the applicable requirements of §61.93, and is proficient to make solo cross-countryflights in a (make and model aircraft). S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321 CFI Exp. 12-31-00

Solo cross-country flight: §61.93(c)(2)I have reviewed the cross-country planning of (First name, MI, Last name), I find the planning and prepa-ration to be correct to make the solo flight from (location) to (destination) via (route of flight) with land-ings at (name the airports) in a (make and model aircraft) on (date). May list any appropriate conditionsor limitations. S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321 CFI Exp. 12-31-00

Solo flight in Class B airspace: §61.95(a)I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of §61.95(a). I have deter-mined he/she is proficient to conduct solo flights in (name of Class B) airspace. May list any applicableconditions or limitations. S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321 CFI Exp. 12-31-00

Solo flight to, from, or at an airport located in Class B airspace: §§61.95(b) and91.131(b)(1)I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of §61.95(b)(1). I have deter-mined that he/she is proficient to conduct solo flight operations at (name of airport). May list any appli-cable conditions or limitations. S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321 CFI Exp. 12-31-00

PRIVATE PILOT ENDORSEMENTSAeronautical knowledge test: §§61.35(a)(1), 61.103(d), and 61.105I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of §61.105. I have determinedhe/she is prepared for the (name the knowledge test). S/S [date] JJ Jones 987654321 CFI Exp. 12-31-00

Appendix A & B.qxd 7/15/2003 12:04 PM Page B-1

Flight proficiency/practical test: §§61.103(f), 61.107(b), and 61.109I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of §§61.107 and 61.109. Idetermined he/she is prepared for the (name the practical test). S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321 CFIExp. 12-31-00

FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR ENDORSEMENTSSpin training: §61.183(i)(1)I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of §61.183(i). I have deter-mined that he/she is competent and proficient on instructional skills for training stall awareness, spinentry, spins, and spin recovery procedures. S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321 CFI Exp. 12-31-00

ADDITIONAL ENDORSEMENTSCompletion of a flight review: §61.56(a) and (c)I certify that (First name, MI, Last name), (pilot certificate) (certificate number) has satisfactorily com-pleted a flight review of §61.56(a) on (date). S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321 CFI Exp. 12-31-00

Completion of an instrument proficiency check: §61.57(d)I certify that (First name, MI, Last name), (pilot certificate) (certificate number) has satisfactorily com-pleted the instrument proficiency check of §61.57(d) in a (list make and model of aircraft) on (date). S/S[date] J.J. Jones 987654321 CFI Exp. 12-31-00

Re-testing after failure of a knowledge or practical test (pilot): §61.49I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the additional (flight and/or ground) training asrequired by §61.49. I have determined that he/she is prepared for the (name the knowledge/practicaltest). S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321 CFI Exp. 12-31-00

Re-testing after failure of a knowledge or oral and practical test (mechanic): §65.19I have given Mr./Ms. (First name, MI, Last name) additional instruction in each subject area shown to bedeficient and consider the applicant competent to pass the test.

Last name First nameCert. No. Type/Rating(s)Signature Date

Completion of a phase of an FAA-sponsored pilot proficiency award program (WINGS):§61.56(e)I certify that (First name, MI, Last name), (pilot certificate) (certificate number) has satisfactorily com-pleted Phase No.___of a WINGS program on (date). S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321 CFI Exp. 12-31-00

Appendix A & B.qxd 7/15/2003 12:04 PM Page B-2

ABSTRACTIONS—Words that aregeneral rather than specific.Aircraft is an abstraction; airplaneis less abstract; jet is more specif-ic; and jet airliner is still more spe-cific.

AERONAUTICAL DECISIONMAKING (ADM)—A systematicapproach to the mental processused by aircraft pilots to consistent-ly determine the best course ofaction in response to a given set ofcircumstances.

AFFECTIVE DOMAIN—A group-ing of levels of learning associatedwith a person’s attitudes, personalbeliefs, and values which rangefrom receiving through responding,valuing, and organization to char-acterization.

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC)—A service provided by the FAAto promote the safe, orderly, andexpeditious flow of air traffic.

AIRCRAFT CHECKOUTS—Aninstructional program designed tofamiliarize and qualify a pilot to actas pilot in command of a particularaircraft type.

ANXIETY—Mental discomfort thatarises from the fear of anything,real or imagined. May have apotent effect on actions and theability to learn from perceptions.

APPLICATION—A basic level oflearning where the student putssomething to use that has beenlearned and understood.

APPLICATION STEP—The thirdstep of the teaching process,where the student performs theprocedure or demonstrates theknowledge required in the lesson.In the telling-and-doing techniqueof flight instruction, this step con-sists of the student doing the pro-cedure while explaining it.

AREAS OF OPERATION—Phases of the practical testarranged in a logical sequencewithin the PTS.

ATTITUDE—A personal motiva-tional predisposition to respond topersons, situations, or events in agiven manner that can, neverthe-less, be changed or modifiedthrough training as a sort of men-tal shortcut to decision making.

ATTITUDE MANAGEMENT—Theability to recognize ones own haz-ardous attitudes in oneself and thewillingness to modify them as nec-essary through the application ofan appropriate antidote thought.

AVIATION SAFETY COUNSELORS—Volunteers within the aviationcommunity who share their techni-cal expertise and professionalknowledge as a part of the FAAAviation Safety Program.

BASIC NEED—A perception fac-tor that describes a person’s abili-ty to maintain and enhance theorganized self.

BEHAVIORISM—Theory of learn-ing that stresses the importance ofhaving a particular form of behav-ior reinforced by someone, otherthan the student, to shape or con-trol what is learned.

BOOKMARK—A means of savingaddresses on the World WideWeb (WWW) for easy futureaccess. Usually done by selectinga button on the web browserscreen, it saves the current webaddress so it does not have to beinput again in a lengthy series ofcharacters.

BRANCHING—A programmingtechnique which allows users ofinteractive video, multimediacourseware, or online training tochoose from several courses of

action in moving from onesequence to another.

BRIEFING—An oral presentationwhere the speaker presents aconcise array of facts withoutinclusion of extensive supportingmaterial.

BUILDING BLOCK CONCEPT—Concept of learning that newknowledge and skills are bestbased on a solid foundation ofprevious experience and/or oldlearning. As knowledge and skillsincrease, the base expands sup-porting further learning.

COGNITIVE DOMAIN—A group-ing of levels of learning associat-ed with mental activity whichrange from knowledge throughcomprehension, application,analysis, and synthesis to evalua-tion.

COMPACT DISK (CD)—A smallplastic optical disk which containsrecorded music or computer data.Also, a popular foremat for storinginformation digitally. The majoradvantage of a CD is its capability tostore enormous amounts of infor-mation.

COMPREHENSIVENESS—Is thedegree to which a test measuresthe overall objective.

COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUC-TION—Synonymous with comput-er-based training or instructionemphasizing the point that theinstructor is responsible for theclass and uses the computer toassist in the instruction.

COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING(CBT)—The use of the computeras a training device. CBT is some-times called computer-basedinstruction (CBI); the terms andacronyms are synonymous andmay be used interchangeably.

GLOSSARY

Glossery.qxd 7/15/2003 12:05 PM Page G-1

CONDITIONS—The second partof a performance-based objectivewhich describes the frameworkunder which the skill or behaviorwill be demonstrated.

CONFUSION BETWEEN THESYMBOL AND THE SYMBOL-IZED OBJECT—Results when aword is confused with what it ismeant to represent. Words andsymbols create confusion whenthey mean different things to differ-ent people.

COOPERATIVE OR GROUPLEARNING—An instructionalstrategy which organizes studentsinto small groups so that they canwork together to maximize theirown and each other’s learning.

CORRELATION—A basic level oflearning where the student canassociate what has been learned,understood, and applied with pre-vious or subsequent learning.

COURSE OF TRAINING—A com-plete series of studies leading toattainment of a specific goal, suchas a certificate of completion,graduation, or an academicdegree.

CREW RESOURCE MANAGE-MENT (CRM)—The application ofteam management concepts in theflight deck environment. It was ini-tially known as cockpit resourcemanagement, but as CRM pro-grams evolved to include cabincrews, maintenance personnel andothers, the phrase crew resourcemanagement has been adopted.This includes single pilots, as in mostgeneral aviation aircaft. Pilots ofsmall aircraft, as well as crews oflarger aircraft, must make effectiveuse of all available resources; humanresources, hardware, and informa-tion. A current definition includes allgroups routinely working with thecockpit crew who are involved indecisions required to operate a flightsafely. These groups include, but arenot limited to: pilots, dispatchers,

cabin crewmembers, maintenancepersonnel, and air traffic controllers.CRM is one way of addressing thechallenge of optimizing thehuman/machine interface andaccompanying interpersonal activi-ties.

CRITERIA—The third part of aperformance-based objectivewhich describes the standardswhich will be used to measure theaccomplishment of the objective.

CRITERION-REFERENCEDTESTING—System of testingwhere students are gradedagainst a carefully written, meas-urable standard or criterion ratherthan against each other.

CURRICULUM—May be definedas a set of courses in an area ofspecialization offered by an educa-tional institution. A curriculum for apilot school usually includes cours-es for the various pilot certificatesand ratings.

CUT-AWAY—Model of an objectthat is built in sections so it can betaken apart to reveal the innerstructure.

DEFENSE MECHANISMS—Subconscious ego-protectingreactions to unpleasant situations.

DEMONSTRATION-PERFOR-MANCE METHOD—An educa-tional presentation where aninstructor first shows the studentthe correct way to perform anactivity and then has the studentattempt the same activity.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SKILLOR BEHAVIOR—The first part ofa performance-based objectivewhich explains the desired out-come of instruction in concreteterms that can be measured.

DETERMINERS—In test items,words which give a clue to theanswer. Words such as “always”and “never” are determiners intrue-false questions. Since

absolutes are rare, such wordsusually make the statement false.

DIRECT QUESTION—A questionused for follow-up purposes, butdirected at a specific individual.

DISCRIMINATION—Is the degreeto which a test distinguishes thedifferences between students.

D ISTRACTORS — I n c o r r e c tresponses to a multiple-choice testitem.

DISUSE—A theory of forgettingthat suggests a person forgetsthose things which are not used.

EFFECT—A principle of learningthat learning is strengthenedwhen accompanied by a pleasantor satisfying feeling, and thatlearning is weakened when asso-ciated with an unpleasant feeling.

ELEMENT OF THREAT—A per-ception factor that describes howa person is unlikely to easily com-prehend an event if that person isfeeling threatened since most of aperson’s effort is focused on what-ever is threatening them.

EXERCISE—A principle of learn-ing that those things most oftenrepeated are best remembered.

FLIGHT REVIEW—An industry-managed, FAA monitored curren-cy program designed to assessand update a pilot’s knowledgeand skills.

FLIGHT TRAINING DEVICES(FTD)—A full-size replica of theinstruments, equipment, panels,and controls of an aircraft, or setof aircraft, in an open flight deckarea or in an enclosed cockpit. Aforce (motion) cueing system orvisual system is not required.

FOLLOW-UP QUESTION—In theguided discussion method, aquestion used by an instructor toget the discussion back on trackor to get the students to explain

Glossery.qxd 7/15/2003 12:05 PM Page G-2

something more thoroughly.

FORMAL LECTURE—An oralpresentation where the purpose isto inform, persuade, or entertainwith little or no verbal participationby the listeners.

GOALS AND VALUES—A percep-tion factor that describes how aperson’s perception of an eventdepends on beliefs. Motivationtoward learning is affected by howmuch value a person puts on edu-cation. Instructors who have someidea of the goals and values oftheir students will be more suc-cessful in teaching them.

GUIDED DISCUSSION METHOD—An educational presentationtypically used in the classroomwhere the topic to be covered by agroup is introduced and theinstructor participates only as nec-essary to keep the group focusedon the subject.

HEADWORK—Is required toaccomplish a conscious, rationalthought process when makingdecisions. Good decision makinginvolves risk identification andassessment, information process-ing, and problem solving.

HIERARCHY OF HUMAN NEEDS—A listing by Abraham Maslow ofneeds from the most basic to themost fulfilling. These range fromphysical through safety, social,and ego to self-fulfillment.

HUMAN FACTORS—A multidisci-plinary field devoted to optimizinghuman performance and reducinghuman error. It incorporates themethods and principles of thebehavioral and social sciences,engineering, and physiology. Itmay be described as the appliedscience which studies peopleworking together in concert withmachines. Human factors involvevariables that influence individualperformance, as well as team orcrew performance.

ILLUSTRATED TALK—An oralpresentation where the speakerrelies heavily on visual aids toconvey ideas to the listeners.

INSIGHT—The grouping of per-ceptions into meaningful wholes.Creating insight is one of theinstructor’s major responsibilities.

INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS—Devicesthat assist an instructor in theteaching-learning process. Theyare supplementary trainingdevices and are not self-support-ing.

INSTRUMENT PROFICIENCYCHECK—An evaluation ridebased on the instrument ratingpractical test standard which isrequired to regain instrument fly-ing privileges when the privilegeshave expired due to lack of cur-rency.

INTEGRATED FLIGHT INSTRUC-TION—A technique of flightinstruction where students aretaught to perform flight maneu-vers by reference to both theflight instruments and to outsidevisual references from the timethe maneuver is first introduced.Handling of the controls is thesame regardless of whether flightinstruments or outside referencesare being used.

INTENSITY—A principle of learn-ing where a dramatic or excitinglearning experience is likely to beremembered longer than a boringexperience. Students experiencingthe real thing will learn more thanwhen they are merely told aboutthe real thing.

INTERACTIVE VIDEO—Softwarethat responds quickly to certainchoices and commands by theuser. A typical system consists ofa compact disk, computer, andvideo technology.

INTERFERENCE—(1) A theory offorgetting where a person forgetssomething because a certain

experience overshadows it, or thelearning of similar things has inter-vened. (2) Barriers to effectivecommunication that are caused byphysiological, environmental, andpsychological factors outside thedirect control of the instructor. Theinstructor must take these factorsinto account in order to communi-cate effectively.

INTERNET—An electronic net-work which connects computersaround the world.

JUDGMENT—The mental processof recognizing and analyzing allpertinent information in a particularsituation, a rational evaluation ofalternative actions in response to it,and a timely decision on whichaction to take.

LACK OF COMMON EXPERI-ENCE—In communication, a diffi-culty which arises because wordshave different meanings for thesource and the receiver of infor-mation due to their differing back-grounds.

LEAD-OFF QUESTION—In theguided discussion method, aquestion used by an instructor toopen up an area for discussionand get the discussion started.

LEARNING—A change in behav-ior as a result of experience.

LEARNING PLATEAU—A learn-ing phenomenon where progressappears to cease or slow down fora significant period of time beforeonce again increasing.

LEARNING STYLE—The conceptthat how a person learns isdependent on that person’s back-ground and personality, as well asthe instructional methods used.

LECTURE METHOD—An educa-tional presentation usually deliv-ered by an instructor to a group ofstudents with the use of instruc-tional aids and training devices.Lectures are useful for the presen-

Glossery.qxd 7/15/2003 12:05 PM Page G-3

tation of new material, summariz-ing ideas, and showing relation-ships between theory and prac-tice.

LESSON PLAN—An organizedoutline for a single instructionalperiod. It is a necessary guide forthe instructor in that it tells what todo, in what order to do it, andwhat procedure to use in teachingthe material of a lesson.

LINK—On the Internet, a particu-lar site may have additional loca-tions which can be accessed bymerely clicking on words identify-ing the new site. They are usual-ly identified by a different colortype, underlining, or a button(picture or icon) indicatingaccess to a new site.

LONG-TERM MEMORY—Theportion of the brain that storesinformation which has been deter-mined to be of sufficient value tobe retained. In order for it to beretained in long-term memory, itmust have been processed orcoded in the working memory.

MATCHING—A test item consist-ing of two lists where the studentis asked to match alternatives onone list to related alternatives onthe second list. The lists mayinclude a combination of words,terms, illustrations, phrases, orsentences.

MOCK-UP—Three-dimensionalworking model used where theactual object is either unavail-able or too expensive to use.Mock-ups may emphasize someelements while eliminatingnonessential elements.

MODEL—A copy of a real objectwhich can be life-size, smaller, orlarger than the original.

MOTIVATION—A need or desirethat causes a person to act.Motivation can be positive or neg-ative, tangible or intangible, subtle

or obvious.

MULTIMEDIA—A combination ofmore than one instructional medi-um. This format can include audio,text, graphics, animations, andvideo. Recently, multimediaimplies a computer-based presen-tation.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE—A test itemconsisting of a question or state-ment followed by a list of alterna-tive answers or responses.

NAVIGATE—With respect to theInternet, to move between sites onthe Internet. Navigation is oftenaccomplished by means of links orconnections between sites.

NORM-REFERENCED TESTING—System of testing where stu-dents are ranked against the per-formance of other students.

OBJECTIVITY—Describes single-ness of scoring of a test; it doesnot reflect the biases of the persongrading the test.

OVERHEAD QUESTION—In theguided discussion method, aquestion directed to the entiregroup in order to stimulate thoughtand discussion from the entiregroup. An overhead question maybe used by an instructor as thelead-off question.

PERCEPTIONS—The basis of alllearning. Perceptions result whena person gives meaning to exter-nal stimuli or sensations.Meanings which are derived fromperceptions are influenced by anindividual’s experience and manyother factors.

PERFORMANCE-BASED OBJEC-TIVES—A statement of purposefor a lesson or instructional periodthat includes three elements: adescription of the skill or behaviordesired of the student, a set ofconditions under which the meas-urement will be taken, and a set ofcriteria describing the standard

used to measure accomplishmentof the objective.

PERSONAL COMPUTER-BASEDAVIATION TRAINING DEVICES(PCATD)—A device which usessoftware which can be displayedon a personal computer to replicatethe instrument panel of an airplane.A PCATD must replicate a type ofairplane or family of airplanes andmeet the virtual control require-ments specified in AC 61-126.

PERSONALITY—The embodi-ment of personal traits and char-acteristics of an individual that areset at a very early age and areextremely resistant to change.

PHYSICAL ORGANISM—A per-ception factor that describes aperson’s ability to sense the worldaround them.

PILOT ERROR—Means that anaction or decision made by thepilot was the cause of, or con-tributing factor which led to anaccident or incident. This defini-tion also includes failure of thepilot to make a decision or takeaction.

POOR JUDGMENT CHAIN—Aseries of mistakes that may leadto an accident or incident. Twobasic principles generally associ-ated with the creation of a poorjudgement chain are: (1) one baddecision often leads to another;and (2) as a string of bad deci-sions grows, it reduces the num-ber of subsequent alternativesfor continued safe flight.Aeronautical decision making isintended to break the poor judge-ment chain before it can causean accident or incident.

PRACTICAL TEST STANDARDS(PTS)—An FAA published list ofstandards which must be met forthe issuance of a particular pilotcertificate or rating. FAA inspec-tors and designated pilot examin-ers use these standards whenconducting pilot practical tests

Glossery.qxd 7/15/2003 12:05 PM Page G-4

and flight instructors should usethe PTS while preparing appli-cants for practical tests.

PREPARATION—The first step ofthe teaching process, which con-sists of determining the scope ofthe lesson, the objectives, and thegoals to be attained. This portionalso includes making certain allnecessary supplies are on hand.When using the telling-and-doingtechnique of flight instruction, thisstep is accomplished prior to theflight lesson.

PRESENTATION—The secondstep of the teaching process,which consists of delivering infor-mation or demonstrating the skillswhich make up the lesson. Thedelivery could be by either the lec-ture method or demonstration-performance method. In thetelling-and-doing technique offlight instruction, this is where theinstructor both talks about andperforms the procedure.

PRETEST—A test used to deter-mine whether a student has thenecessary qualifications to begina course of study. Also used todetermine the level of knowledgea student has in relation to thematerial that will be presented inthe course.

PRIMACY—A principle of learningwhere the first experience ofsomething often creates a strong,almost unshakable impression.The importance to an instructor isthat the first time something isdemonstrated, it must be showncorrectly since that experience isthe one most likely to be remem-bered by the student.

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN—Agrouping of levels of learningassociated with physical skill lev-els which range from perceptionthrough set, guided response,mechanism, complex overtresponse, and adaptation to origi-nation.

READINESS—A principle oflearning where the eagerness andsingle-mindedness of a persontoward learning affect the out-come of the learning experience.

RECEIVER—In communication,the listener, reader, or studentwho takes in a message contain-ing information from a source,processes it, reacts with under-standing, and changes behavior inaccordance with the message.

RECENCY—A principle of learn-ing that things learned today areremembered better than things thatwere learned some time ago. Thelonger time passes, the less will beremembered. Instructors use thisprinciple when summarizing theimportant points at the end of a lec-ture in order for students to betterremember them.

RELAY QUESTION—Used inresponse to a student’s question,the question is redirected to thegroup in order to stimulate discus-sion.

RELIABILITY—Is the degree towhich test results are consistentwith repeated measurements.

REPRESSION—Theory of forget-ting where a person is more likelyto forget information which isunpleasant or produces anxiety.

RESPONSES—Possible answersto a multiple-choice test item. Thecorrect response is often calledthe keyed response, and incorrectresponses are called distractors.

REVERSE QUESTION—Used inresponse to a student’s question.Rather than give a direct answerto the student’s query, the instruc-tor can redirect the question toanother student to provide theanswer.

REVIEW AND EVALUATION—The fourth and last step in theteaching process, which consistsof a review of all material and an

evaluation of the students. In thetelling-and-doing technique offlight instruction, this step consistsof the instructor evaluating thestudent’s performance while thestudent performs the required pro-cedure.

RHETORICAL QUESTION—Aquestion asked to stimulate groupthought. Normally answered bythe instructor, it is more common-ly used in lecturing rather than inguided discussions.

RISK ELEMENTS IN ADM—Takeinto consideration the four funda-mental risk elements: the pilot, theaircraft, the environment, and thetype of operation that compriseany given aviation situation.

RISK MANAGEMENT—The partof the decision making processwhich relies on situational aware-ness, problem recognition, andgood judgment to reduce risksassociated with each flight.

ROTE LEARNING—A basic levelof learning where the student hasthe ability to repeat back some-thing learned, with no understand-ing or ability to apply what waslearned.

SAFETY PROGRAM MANAGER—Designs, implements, and eval-uates the Aviation Safety Programwithin the FAA Flight StandardsDistrict Office (FSDO) area ofresponsibility.

SELECTION-TYPE TEST ITEMS—Questions where the studentchooses from two or more alterna-tives provided. True-false, matching,and multiple-choice type questionsare examples of selection-type testitems.

SELF-CONCEPT—A perceptionfactor that ties together how peo-ple feel about themselves withhow well they will receive furtherexperiences.

SENSORY REGISTER—That

Glossery.qxd 7/15/2003 12:05 PM Page G-5

portion of the brain which receivesinput from the five senses. Theindividual’s preconceived conceptof what is important will determinehow much priority the register willgive in passing the information onto the rest of the brain for action.

SITES—Internet addresses whichprovide information and often arelinked to other similar sites.

SITUATIONAL AWARENESS—The accurate perception andunderstanding of all the factorsand conditions within the four fun-damental risk elements that affectsafety before, during, and after theflight.

SKILLS AND PROCEDURES—The procedural, psychomotor, andperceptual skills used to control aspecific aircraft or its systems.They are the stick and rudder orairmanship abilities that aregained through conventional train-ing, are perfected, and becomealmost automatic through experi-ence.

SOURCE—In communication, thesender, speaker, transmitter, orinstructor who composes andtransmits a message made up ofsymbols which are meaningful tolisteners and readers.

STEM—The part of a multiple-

choice test item consisting of thequestion, statement, or problem.

STRESS MANAGEMENT—Thepersonal analysis of the kinds ofstress experienced while flying,the application of appropriatestress assessment tools, andother coping mechanisms.

SUPPLY-TYPE TEST ITEMS—Questions where the student sup-plies answers as opposed toselecting from choices provided.Essay or fill-in-the-blank typequestions are examples of supply-type test items.

SYMBOLS—In communication,simple oral and visual codes suchas words, gestures, and facialexpressions which are formed intosentences, paragraphs, lectures,or chapters to compose and trans-mit a message that means some-thing to the receiver of the infor-mation.

TASKS—Knowledge areas, flightprocedures, or maneuvers within anarea of operation in a practical teststandard.

TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONALOBJECTIVES—A systematic clas-sification scheme for sorting learn-ing outcomes into three broad cat-egories (cognitive, affective, andpsychomotor) and ranking the

desired outcomes in a develop-mental hierarchy from least com-plex to most complex.

TEACHING LECTURE—An oralpresentation that is directedtoward desired learning out-comes. Some student participa-tion is allowed.

TELLING-AND-DOING TECH-NIQUE—A technique of flightinstruction that consists of theinstructor first telling the studentabout a new procedure and thendemonstrating it. This is followedby the student telling and theinstructor doing. Third, the studentexplains the new procedure whiledoing it. Last, the instructor evalu-ates while the student performsthe procedure.

TEST—A set of questions, prob-lems, or exercises for determiningwhether a person has a particularknowledge or skill.

TEST ITEM—A question, prob-lem, or exercise that measures asingle objective and calls for a sin-gle response.

TIME AND OPPORTUNITY—Aperception factor where learningsomething is dependent on thestudent having the time to senseand relate current experiences incontext with previous events.

TRAINING COURSE OUTLINE—Within a curriculum, describes thecontent of a particular course bystatement of objectives, descrip-tions of teaching aids, definition ofevaluation criteria, and indicationof desired outcome.

TRAINING MEDIA—Any physicalmeans that communicates aninstructional message to students.

TRAINING SYLLABUS—A step-by-step, building block progres-sion of learning with provisions forregular review and evaluations atprescribed stages of learning. The

Glossery.qxd 7/15/2003 12:05 PM Page G-6

ACCIDENT PREVENTION, 8-11ADVISORY CIRCULAR CHECKLIST (AC 00-2),

11-3AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING (ADM), 8-13, 9-8

ADM definitions, 9-10DECIDE Model, 9-11decision-making process, 9-10evaluating student decision making, 9-18factors affecting decision making, 9-13hazardous attitudes, 9-13I’M SAFE Checklist, 9-13operational pitfalls, 9-17origins of ADM, 9-9risk elements, 9-12stressors, 9-15

AIRPLANE CHECKOUTS/TRANSITIONS, 8-9ANALYZING THE STUDENT, 8-2AVIATION MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN AWARDS

PROGRAM, 11-2AVIATION SAFETY COUNSELORS, 11-1AVIATION SAFETY PROGRAM, 11-1

BLOCKS OF LEARNING, 10-2presolo training, 10-2

BUILDING BLOCK CONCEPT, 1-16, 10-2

CHALK OR MARKER BOARDS, 7-3COMMUNICATION BARRIERS, 3-3COMMUNICATION—BASIC ELEMENTS, 3-1

receiver, 3-2source, 3-1symbols, 3-2

COMMUNICATION SKILL DEVELOPMENT, 3-5role playing, 3-5instructional communication, 3-5

COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION, 5-11COMPUTER-BASED MULTIMEDIA, 7-7

advantages, 7-8CD, 7-7disadvantages, 7-8virtual reality, 7-10

COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING (CBT), 5-10CONTINUING EDUCATION, 11-2COURSE OF TRAINING, 10-1CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM), 9-9CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING, 6-7CRITIQUE, 6-1

characteristics, 6-2ground rules, 6-4

methods, 6-3purpose, 6-1

CUT-AWAYS, 7-9

DEFENSE MECHANISMS, 2-3aggression, 2-4compensation, 2-3denial of reality, 2-3flight, 2-3projection, 2-3rationalization, 2-3reaction formation, 2-3resignation, 2-4

DISTRACTIONS, 9-8

EMPHASIZING THE POSITIVE, 8-3ENHANCED TRAINING MATERIALS, 7-5

computer-based training, 7-5maneuvers guides and handbooks, 7-5syllabi, 7-5

EVALUATION, 6-4, 8-4

FAA FORM 8710-1, 8-6FACTORS AFFECTING DECISION MAKING, 9-13

pilot self-assessment, 9-13situational awareness, 9-17use of resources, 9-15workload management, 9-16

FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR ENDORSEMENTS, 8-6sample endorsements, Appendix B, B-1

FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER CLINIC (FIRC),11-2FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR RESPONSIBILITIES, 8-4FLIGHT REVIEWS, 8-6FLIGHT TRAINING DEVICE (FTD), 5-11

FORGETTING, 1-15GOLD SEAL FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR CERTIFICATE, 11-2

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE (GPO), 11-3

HABIT FORMATION, 1-16HIERARCHY OF HUMAN NEEDS, 2-2

INDEX

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

Index.qxd 7/15/2003 12:05 PM Page I-1

HUMAN BEHAVIOR, 2-1HUMAN FACTORS, 9-8HUMAN NEEDS, 2-2

ego, 2-2physical, 2-2safety, 2-2self-fulfillment, 2-3

social, 2-2

INSIGHT, 1-7INSPECTION AUTHORIZATION (IA) SEMINARS, 11-2INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS, 7-1

guidelines for use, 7-2reasons to use, 7-2theory, 7-1types, 7-3

INSTRUCTIONAL ENHANCEMENT, 3-7INSTRUCTOR AS A CRITIC, 6-1INSTRUCTOR RESPONSIBILITIES, 8-4INSTRUMENT PROFICIENCY CHECKS, 8-9INTEGRATED FLIGHT INSTRUCTION, 9-3

flight instructor qualifications, 9-5precautions, 9-4procedures, 9-4

INTERNET, 11-4

JUDGMENT, 9-10

KNOWLEDGE TESTS, 6-13

LANGUAGE, 8-12LEARNING, 1-1

characteristics, 1-2definitions, 1-2how people learn, 1-5learning styles, 1-3physical skills, 1-11transfer, 1-16

LEARNING DOMAINS, 1-10affective, 1-10cognitive, 1-10psychomotor, 1-10

LEARNING LEVELS, 1-9application, 1-9correlation, 1-9rote, 1-9understanding, 1-9

LEARNING PLATEAU, 1-12LEARNING PRINCIPLES, 1-5

effect, 1-5exercise, 1-5intensity, 1-5primacy, 1-5readiness, 1-5recency, 1-5

LEARNING THEORY, 1-1behaviorism, 1-1cognitive, 1-1combined approach, 1-2

LECTURE, 5-3advantages and disadvantages, 5-5formal versus informal, 5-5teaching lecture, 5-3

LEGAL RESPONSIBILITY OF FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR, 2-6LESSON PLANS, 10-5

characteristics, 10-6formats, 10-7how to use, 10-6objectives, 10-1purpose, 10-5standards, 10-1

LEVELS OF LEARNING, 1-9

LISTENING, 3-6instructor, 3-6student, 3-7

MATCHING TEST ITEM, 6-12MEMORY, 1-13

long-term, 1-14sensory register, 1-13short-term, 1-13

MOCK-UPS, 7-9MODELS, 7-9MOTIVATION, 1-8

negative, 1-8positive, 1-8

MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST ITEM, 6-10sample test items, Appendix A, A-1

NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (NTIS), 11-4

NORM-REFERENCED TESTING, 6-7

OBSTACLES TO LEARNING DURING FLIGHT INSTRUCTION, 9-5

anxiety, 9-7apathy due to inadequate instruction, 9-6fatigue, 9-6illness, 9-6impatience, 9-5

I

K

L

M

N

O

J

Index.qxd 7/15/2003 12:05 PM Page I-2

physical discomfort, 9-6unfair treatment, 9-5worry or lack of interest, 9-5

ORAL AND PRACTICAL, 8-2ORAL QUIZZES, 6-4ORGANIZING MATERIAL, 5-1

conclusion, 5-3development, 5-2introduction, 5-2

OVERHEAD TRANSPARENCIES, 7-5

PERCEPTIONS, 1-6PERCEPTION FACTORS, 1-6

basic needs, 1-6element of threat, 1-7goals and values, 1-6physical organism, 1-6self-concept, 1-6time and opportunity, 1-7

PERFORMANCE-BASED OBJECTIVES, 4-1description of the skill or behavior, 4-2conditions, 4-2criteria, 4-2

PERFORMANCE TEST, 6-14PERSONAL COMPUTER-BASED AVIATION TRAINING

DEVICE (PCATD), 5-11PILOT PROFICIENCY, 8-9PILOT PROFICIENCY AWARD PROGRAM, 8-9, 11-2PILOT SUPERVISION, 8-5PLANNING INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITY, 10-1POSITIVE EXCHANGE OF FLIGHT CONTROLS, 9-7PRACTICAL TEST RECOMMENDATIONS, 8-5PRACTICAL TEST STANDARD (PTS), 4-2, 6-14, 8-2PRESOLO KNOWLEDGE TEST, 6-13PRETEST, 8-2PROFESSIONAL APPEARANCE, 8-11PROFESSIONAL BEHAVIOR, 8-11PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT, 11-1PROFESSIONALISM, 8-10

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS, 2-4

abnormal reactions to stress, 2-5

anxiety, 2-4normal reactions to stress, 2-5

QUESTIONING, 3-7, 6-5

RETENTION, 1-15

SAFETY PRACTICES, 8-11SAFETY PROGRAM MANAGER (SPM), 11-1

SAMPLE LESSON PLANS, 10-8SELF-IMPROVEMENT, 8-12SOURCES OF MATERIAL, 11-3STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE, 8-3STUDENT FRUSTRATIONS—MINIMIZING, 8-12STUDENT MOTIVATION, 8-12

TAXONOMY, 1-10TEACHING METHODS, 5-1

cooperative or group learning method, 5-6computer-based training method, 5-10demonstration-performance method, 5-10guided discussion method, 5-7lecture method, 5-3

TEACHING PROCESS, 4-1application, 4-3preparation, 4-1presentation, 4-3review and evaluation, 4-4

TECHNIQUES OF FLIGHT INSTRUCTION, 9-1TELLING-AND-DOING TECHNIQUE, 9-1

instructor tells—instructor does, 9-1student does—instructor evaluates, 9-3student tells—instructor does, 9-2student tells—student does, 9-2

TEST DEVELOPMENT, 6-7criterion-referenced testing, 6-7norm-referenced testing, 6-7

TEST PREPARATION MATERIAL, 7-9TEST WRITING, 6-13TRAINING AND ENDORSEMENTS, 8-6TRAINING COURSE OUTLINE, 10-1

TRAINING SYLLABUS, 10-1, 10-3content, 10-3format, 10-3how to use, 10-4

TRUE-FALSE TEST ITEM, 6-9

VIDEO, 7-6interactive, 7-7passive, 7-6

P

Q

R

S

T

V

W

Index.qxd 7/15/2003 12:05 PM Page I-3

Index.qxd 7/15/2003 12:05 PM Page I-4