Extraversion and introversionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The trait of extraversion–introversion is a central dimension of human personality theories. The termsintroversion and extraversion were first popularized by Carl Jung,[1] although both the popular understandingand psychological usage differ from his original intent. Extraversion tends to be manifested in outgoing, talkative,energetic behavior, whereas introversion is manifested in more reserved, quiet, shy behavior.[2] Virtually allcomprehensive models of personality include these concepts in various forms. Examples include the Big Fivemodel, Jung's analytical psychology, Hans Eysenck's three-factor model, Raymond Cattell's 16 personalityfactors, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, and the Myers Briggs Type Indicator.

Extraversion and introversion are typically viewed as a single continuum. Thus, to be high on one it is necessaryto be low on the other. Carl Jung and the authors of the Myers–Briggs provide a different perspective andsuggest that everyone has both an extraverted side and an introverted side, with one being more dominant thanthe other. Rather than focusing on interpersonal behavior, however, Jung defined introversion as an"attitude-type characterised by orientation in life through subjective psychic contents" (focus on one's innerpsychic activity); and extraversion as "an attitude type characterised by concentration of interest on the externalobject", (the outside world).[3]

In any case, people fluctuate in their behavior all the time, and even extreme introverts and extraverts do notalways act according to their type.

Contents

1 Varieties1.1 Extraversion1.2 Introversion1.3 Ambiversion

2 Measurement2.1 Eysenck's theory2.2 Biological factors

3 Behavior4 Implications5 Regional variation6 Extraversion, introversion, and happiness

6.1 Possible reasons6.1.1 Instrumental view

6.2 Temperamental view7 See also8 References9 External links

Varieties

Extraversion

Extraversion is "the act, state, or habit of being predominantly concerned with and obtaining gratification fromwhat is outside the self".[4] Extraverts tend to enjoy human interactions and to be enthusiastic, talkative,assertive, and gregarious. They take pleasure in activities that involve large social gatherings, such as parties,community activities, public demonstrations, and business or political groups. Politics, teaching, sales, managingand brokering are fields that favor extraversion. An extraverted person is likely to enjoy time spent with peopleand find less reward in time spent alone. They tend to be energized when around other people, and they aremore prone to boredom when they are by themselves.

Introversion

Introversion is "the state of or tendency toward being wholly or predominantly concerned with and interested inone's own mental life".[4] Some popular writers have characterized introverts as people whose energy tends toexpand through reflection and dwindle during interaction.[5] This is similar to Jung's view, although he focusedon psychic energy rather than physical energy. Few modern conceptions make this distinction.

The common modern perception is that introverts tend to be more reserved and less outspoken in groups. Theyoften take pleasure in solitary activities such as reading, writing, using computers, hiking and fishing. Thearchetypal artist, writer, sculptor, engineer, composer and inventor are all highly introverted. An introvert islikely to enjoy time spent alone and find less reward in time spent with large groups of people, though he or shemay enjoy interactions with close friends. Trust is usually an issue of significance: a virtue of utmostimportance to an introvert is choosing a worthy companion. They prefer to concentrate on a single activity at atime and like to observe situations before they participate, especially observed in developing children andadolescents.[6] They are more analytical before speaking.[7] Introverts are easily overwhelmed by too muchstimulation from social gatherings and engagement, introversion having even been defined by some in terms of apreference for a quiet, more minimally stimulating environment.[8]

Introversion is not seen as being identical to shy or to being a social outcast. Introverts prefer solitary activitiesover social ones, whereas shy people (who may be extroverts at heart) avoid social encounters out of fear,[9] andthe social outcast has little choice in the matter of his or her solitude.

Ambiversion

Although many people view being introverted or extroverted as a question with only two possible answers,most contemporary trait theories measure levels of extraversion-introversion as part of a single, continuousdimension of personality, with some scores near one end, and others near the half-way mark.[10] Ambiversion isfalling more or less directly in the middle and exhibiting tendencies of both groups.[4][11] An ambivert isnormally comfortable with groups and enjoys social interaction, but also relishes time alone and away from thecrowd.

Measurement

Extent of extraversion and introversion is most commonly assessed through self-report measures, althoughpeer-reports and third-party observation can also be used. Self-report measures are either lexical [2] or based onstatements [12]. Which measure of either type is used is determined by an assessment of psychometricproperties and the time and space constraints of the research being undertaken.

Lexical measures use individual adjectives that reflect extravert and introvert traits, such as outgoing, talkative,reserved and quiet. Words representing introversion are reverse coded to create composite measures ofextraversion/introversion running on a continuum. Goldberg (1992)[13] developed a 20-word measure as part ofhis 100-word Big Five markers. Saucier (1994)[14] developed a briefer 8-word measure as part of his 40-wordmini-markers. However, the psychometric properties of Saucier’s original mini-markers have been foundsuboptimal with samples outside of North America [2]. As a result, a systematically revised measure wasdeveloped to have superior psychometric properties, the International English Mini-Markers [2]. TheInternational English Mini-Markers has good internal consistency reliabilities and other validity for assessingextraversion/introversion and other five factor personality dimensions, both within and, especially, withoutAmerican populations. Internal consistency reliability of the Extraversion measure for native English-speakers isreported as .92, that for non-native English-speakers is .85.

Statement measures tend to comprise more words, and hence consume more research instrument space, thanlexical measures. Respondents are asked the extent to which they, for example, Talk to a lot of different people atparties or Often feel uncomfortable around others [12]. While some statement-based measures ofextraversion/introversion have similarly acceptable psychometric properties in North American populations tolexical measures, their generally emic development makes them less suited to use in other populations [15]. Forexample, statements asking about talkativeness in parties are hard to answer meaningfully by those who do notattend parties, as Americans are assumed to do. Moreover, the sometimes colloquial North American language ofstatements makes them less suited to use outside America. For instance, statements like Keep in the backgroundand Know how to captivate people are sometimes hard for non-native English-speakers to understand except in aliteral sense.

Eysenck's theory

Hans Eysenck described extraversion-introversion as the degree to which a person is outgoing and interactivewith other people. These behavioral differences are presumed to be the result of underlying differences in brainphysiology.[16] Extroverts seek excitement and social activity in an effort to heighten their arousal level, whereasintroverts tend to avoid social situations in an effort to keep such arousal to a minimum. Eysenck designatedextraversion as one of three major traits in his P-E-N model of personality, which also includes psychoticismand neuroticism.

Eysenck originally suggested that extraversion was a combination of two major tendencies, impulsiveness andsociability. He later added several other more specific traits, namely liveliness, activity level, and excitability.These traits are further linked in his personality hierarchy to even more specific habitual responses, such aspartying on the weekend.

Eysenck compared this trait to the four temperaments of ancient medicine, with choleric and sanguinetemperaments equating to extraversion, and melancholic and phlegmatic temperaments equating tointroversion.[17]

Biological factors

The relative importance of nature versus environment in determining the level of extraversion is controversialand the focus of many studies. Twin studies find a genetic component of 39% to 58%. In terms of theenvironmental component, the shared family environment appears to be far less important than individualenvironmental factors that are not shared between siblings.[18]

Twin studies find thatextraversion/introversion has agenetic component.

Eysenck proposed that extraversion was caused by variability in corticalarousal. He hypothesized that introverts are characterized by higherlevels of activity than extraverts and so are chronically more corticallyaroused than extraverts. The fact that extraverts require more externalstimulation than introverts has been interpreted as evidence for thishypothesis. Other evidence of the "stimulation" hypothesis is thatintroverts salivate more than extraverts in response to a drop of lemonjuice.[19]

Extraversion has been linked to higher sensitivity of the mesolimbicdopamine system to potentially rewarding stimuli.[20] This in partexplains the high levels of positive affect found in extraverts, since theywill more intensely feel the excitement of a potential reward. Oneconsequence of this is that extraverts can more easily learn thecontingencies for positive reinforcement, since the reward itself is experienced as greater.

One study found that introverts have more blood flow in the frontal lobes of their brain and the anterior orfrontal thalamus, which are areas dealing with internal processing, such as planning and problem solving.Extraverts have more blood flow in the anterior cingulate gyrus, temporal lobes, and posterior thalamus, whichare involved in sensory and emotional experience.[21] This study and other research indicates that introversion-extraversion is related to individual differences in brain function.

Extraversion has also been linked to physiological factors such as respiration, through its association withsurgency.[22]

Behavior

Extraverts and introverts have a variety of behavioral differences. According to one study, extraverts tend towear more decorative clothing, whereas introverts prefer practical, comfortable clothes.[23] Extraverts are likelyto prefer more upbeat, conventional, and energetic music than introverts.[24] Personality also influences howpeople arrange their work areas. In general, extraverts decorate their offices more, keep their doors open, keepextra chairs nearby, and are more likely to put dishes of candy on their desks. These are attempts to inviteco-workers and encourage interaction. Introverts, in contrast, decorate less and tend to arrange their workspaceto discourage social interaction.[25]

Although extraverts and introverts have real personality and behavior differences, it is important to avoidpigeonholing or stereotyping by personality. Humans are complex and unique, and because extraversion variesalong a continuum, they may have a mixture of both orientations. A person who acts introverted in one scenariomay act extraverted in another, and people can learn to act "against type" in certain situations. Jung's theorystates that when someone's primary function is extraverted, his secondary function is always introverted (andvice versa).[1]

Implications

Acknowledging that introversion and extraversion are normal variants of behavior can help in self-acceptance andunderstanding of others. For example, an extravert can accept her introverted partner's need for space, while anintrovert can acknowledge his extraverted partner's need for social interaction.

Researchers have found a correlation between extraversion and happiness. That is, more extraverted people tendto report higher levels of happiness than introverts.[26][27] Other research has shown that being instructed to actin an extraverted manner leads to increases in positive affect, even for people who are trait-level introverts.[28]

This does not mean that introverts are unhappy. Extroverts simply report experiencing more positive emotions,whereas introverts tend to be closer to neutral. This may be due to the fact that extraversion is sociallypreferable in Western culture and thus introverts feel less desirable. In addition to the research on happiness,other studies have found that extroverts tend to report higher levels of self-esteem than introverts.[29][30] Otherssuggest that such results reflect socio-cultural bias in the survey itself.[7][31] Dr. David Meyers has claimed thathappiness is a matter of possessing three traits: self-esteem, optimism and extraversion. Meyers bases hisconclusions on studies that report extraverts to be happier; these findings have been questioned in light of thefact that the "happiness" prompts given to the studies' subjects, such as "I like to be with others" and "I'm funto be with," only measure happiness among extroverts.[7] Also, according to Carl Jung, introverts acknowledgemore readily their psychological needs and problems, whereas extroverts tend to be oblivious to them becausethey focus more on the outer world.[1]

Extraversion is perceived as socially desirable in Western culture, but it is not always an advantage. For example,extroverted youths are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior.[32] Conversely, while introversion isperceived as less socially desirable, it is strongly associated with positive traits such as intelligence[33] and"giftedness."[34][35] For many years, researchers have found that introverts tend to be more successful inacademic environments, which extroverts may find boring.[36] Career counselors often use personality traits,along with other factors such as skill and interest, to advise their clients.[37] Some careers such as computerprogramming may be more satisfying for an introverted temperament, while other areas such as sales may bemore agreeable to the extroverted type.

Although neither introversion nor extraversion is pathological, psychotherapists can take temperament intoaccount when treating clients. Clients may respond better to different types of treatment depending on wherethey fall on the introversion/extraversion spectrum. Teachers can also consider temperament when dealing withtheir pupils, for example acknowledging that introverted children need more encouragement to speak in classwhile extroverted children may grow restless during long periods of quiet study.

Regional variation

It is asserted that Americans live in an "extraverted society"[38] that rewards extravert behavior and rejectsintroversion.[39] Other cultures, such as Central Europe, Japan or regions where Buddhism, Sufism etc. prevail,prize introversion.[7] These cultural differences predict individuals' happiness such that people who score higherin extraversion are happier, on average, in particularly extroverted cultures and vice versa.[40]

Researchers have found that people who live on islands tend to be less extroverted (more introverted) than thoseliving on the mainland, and that people whose ancestors had inhabited the island for twenty generations tend tobe less extroverted than more recent arrivals. Furthermore, people who emigrate from islands to the mainlandtend to be more extroverted than people that stay on islands, and those that immigrate to islands.[41]

In the United States, researchers have found that people living in the midwestern states of North Dakota, SouthDakota, Nebraska, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Illinois score higher than the U.S. average on extraversion. Utahand the southeastern states of Florida and Georgia also score high on this personality trait. The most introvertedstates in the United States are Maryland, New Hampshire, Alaska, Washington, Oregon and Vermont. People

who live in the northwestern states of Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming are also relatively introverted.[42]

Extraversion, introversion, and happiness

Extraverts are found to have higher levels of happiness and positive affect than introverts.[43][44][45] Aninfluential review article concluded that personality, specifically extraversion and emotional stability, was thebest predictor of subjective well-being.[46] As examples, Argyle and Lu (1990)[47] found that the trait ofextraversion, as measured by Extraversion Scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), waspositively and significantly correlated with happiness, as measured by the Oxford Happiness Inventory. Usingthe same happiness and extraversion scales, Hills and Argyle (2001)[48] found that happiness was againsignificantly correlated with extraversion. Also, the study by Emmons and Diener (1986)[49] showed thatextraversion correlates positively and significantly with positive affect but not with negative affect. Similarresults were found in a large longitudinal study by Diener, Sandvik, Pavot, and Fujita (1992),[50] which assessed14,407 participants from 100 areas of continental United States. Using the abbreviated General Well-BeingSchedule, which tapped positive and negative affects, and Costa and McCrae's (1986)[51] short version of theNE0's Extraversion scale, the authors reported that extraverts experienced greater well-being at two points intime, during which data were collected: first between 1971 and 1975, and later between 1981 and 1984.Furthermore, Larsen (http://randy.larsen.socialpsychology.org/) and Ketelaar (1991)[52] showed that extravertsrespond more to positive affect than to negative affect, since they exhibit more positive-affect reactivity to thepositive-affect induction, yet they do not react more negatively to the negative-affect induction.[53]

Possible reasons

Instrumental view

The instrumental view proposes that personality traits give rise to conditions and actions, which have affectiveconsequences, and thus generate individual differences in emotionality.[53][54]

Personality trait as a cause of higher sociability

According to the instrumental view, one explanation for greater subjective well-being among extraverts could bethe fact that extraversion helps in the creation of life circumstances, which promote high levels of positive affect.Specifically, the personality trait of extraversion is seen as a facilitator of more social interactions,[43][53][55]

since the low cortical arousal among extraverts results in them seeking more social situations in order to increasetheir arousal.[56]

The social participation theory

According to the social participation theory, more frequent participation in social situations creates morefrequent, and higher levels, of positive affect. Therefore, it is believed that since extraverts are characterized asmore sociable than introverts, they also possess higher levels of positive affect brought on by social interactions.[57][58][59] Specifically, the results of Furnham and Brewin's study (1990)[45] suggest that extraverts enjoy andparticipate more in social activities than introverts, and as a result extraverts report higher level of happiness.Also, in the study of Argyle and Lu (1990)[47] extraverts were found to be less likely to avoid participation innoisy social activities, and to be more likely to participate in social activities such as: party games, jokes, orgoing to the cinema. Similar results were reported by Diener, Larsen (http://randy.larsen.socialpsychology.org/) ,and Emmons (1984)[60] who found that extraverts seek social situations more often than introverts, especially

when engaging in recreational activities.

However, a variety of findings contradict the claims of the social participation theory. Firstly, it was found thatextraverts were happier than introverts even when alone. Specifically, extraverts tend to be happier regardless ofwhether they live alone or with others, or whether they live in a vibrant city or quiet rural environment.[44]

Similarly, a study by Diener, Sandvik, Pavot, and Fujita (1992)[50] showed that although extraverts chose socialjobs relatively more frequently (51%) than nonsocial jobs compared to introverts (38%), they were happier thanintroverts regardless of whether their occupations had social or nonsocial character. Secondly, it was found thatextraverts only sometimes reported greater amounts of social activity than introverts,[60] but in generalextraverts and introverts do not differ in the quantity of their socialization.[44] Similar finding was reported bySrivastava, Angelo, and Vallereux (2008),[61] who found that extraverts and introverts both enjoy participating insocial interactions, but extraverts participate socially more. Thirdly, studies have shown that both extraverts andintroverts participate in social relations, but that the quality of this participation differs. The more frequentsocial participation among extraverts could be explained by the fact that extraverts know more people, but thosepeople are not necessarily their close friends, while introverts, when participating in social interactions, are moreselective and have only few close friends with whom they have special relationships.[48]

The social attention theory

Yet another explanation of the high correlation between extraversion and happiness comes from the study byAshton (http://brocku.ca/psychology/people/ashton.htm) , Lee, and Paunonen (2002).[62] They suggested thatthe core element of extraversion is a tendency to behave in ways that attract, hold, and enjoy social attention,and not reward sensitivity. They claimed that one of the fundamental qualities of social attention is its potentialof being rewarding. Therefore, if a person shows positive emotions of enthusiasm, energy, and excitement, thatperson is seen favorably by others and he or she gains others' attention. This favorable reaction from otherslikely encourages extraverts to engage in further extraverted behavior.[62] Ashton (http://brocku.ca/psychology/people/ashton.htm) , Lee, and Paunonen's (2002)[62] study showed that their measure of social attention, theSocial Attention Scale, was much more highly correlated with extraversion than were measures of rewardsensitivity.

Temperamental view

Temperamental view is based on the notion that there is a direct link between people's personality traits andtheir sensitivity to positive and negative affects.[43][52][53]

The affective reactivity model

The affective reactivity model states that the strength of a person's reactions to affect-relevant events are causedby people's differences in affect.[52][63] This model is based on the reinforcement sensitivity theory by JeffreyAlan Gray, which states that people with stronger behavioral activation system (BAS) are high in rewardresponsiveness and are predisposed to the personality trait of extraversion, while people with a strongerbehavioral inhibition system (BIS) are lower in reward responsiveness and are more predisposed to personalitytrait of neuroticism and introversion.[64] Therefore, extraverts are seen as having a temperamental predispositionto positive affect since positive mood induction has a greater effect on them than on introverts, thus extravertsare more prone to react to pleasant effects.[52][63][65][66][67] For example, Gable, Reis, and Elliot (2000).[68]

found in two consecutive studies that people with more sensitive BIS reported higher levels of average negativeaffect, while people with more sensitive BAS reported higher levels of positive affect. Also Zelenski(http://www2.carleton.ca/psychology/people/john-m-zelenski) and Larsen

(http://randy.larsen.socialpsychology.org/) (1999)[53] found that people with more sensitive BAS reported morepositive emotions during the positive mood induction, while people with more sensitive BIS reported morenegative emotions during the negative mood induction.

The social reactivity theory

The social reactivity theory alleges that all humans, whether they like it or not, are required to participate insocial situations. Since extraverts prefer engaging in social interactions more than introverts, they also derivemore positive affect from such situations than introverts do.[44][47][60] The support for this theory comes fromwork of Brian R. Little, who popularized concept of "restorative niches". Little claimed that life often requirespeople to participate in social situations, and since acting social is out of character for introverts, it was shownto harm their well-being. Therefore, one way to preserve introverts' well-being is for them to recharge as often aspossible in places where they can return to their true selves - places Little calls "restorative niches".[69]

However, it was also found that extraverts did not respond stronger to social situations than introverts, nor didthey report bigger boosts of positive affect during such interactions.[55][61]

Affective regulation

Another possible explanation for more happiness among extraverts comes from the fact that extraverts are ableto better regulate their affective states. This means that in ambiguous situations (situations where positive andnegative moods are introduced and mixed in similar proportions) extraverts show a slower decrease of positiveaffect, and, as a result, they maintained a more positive affect balance than introverts.[70] Extraverts may alsochoose activities that facilitate happiness (e.g., recalling pleasant vs. unpleasant memories) more than introvertswhen anticipating difficult tasks.[71]

The set-point model aka affect-level model

According to the set-point model, levels of positive and negative affects are more or less fixed within eachindividual, hence, after a positive or negative event, people's moods tend to go back to the pre-set level.According to the set-point model, extraverts' experience more happiness because their pre-set level of positiveaffect is set higher than the pre-set point of positive affect in introverts, therefore extraverts require less positivereinforcement in order to feel happy.[67]

Pleasure-arousal relation

A study by Kuppens (http://ppw.kuleuven.be/okp/people/Peter_Kuppens/) (2008)[72] showed that extravertsand introverts engage in different behaviors when feeling pleasant, which could be a potential explanation forunderestimating the frequency and intensity of happiness exhibited by introverts. Specifically, Kuppens(2008)[72] found that arousal and pleasantness are positively correlated for extraverts, which means thatpleasant feelings are more likely to be accompanied by high arousal for extraverts. On the other hand, arousaland pleasantness are negatively correlated for introverts, resulting in introverts exhibiting low arousal whenfeeling pleasant. In other words, if everything is going well in an extravert's life, which is a source of pleasantfeelings, extraverts see such situation as an opportunity to engage in active behavior and goal pursuit, whichbrings about an active, aroused pleasant state. Yet, when everything is going good for introverts, they see it as anopportunity to let down their guards, resulting in them feeling relaxed and content.[72]

See also

Analytical PsychologyAlternative five model of personalityBig Five personality traitsMyers-Briggs Type IndicatorPersonalityReinforcement sensitivity theoryTrait theory

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External links

Secrets of a super successful introvert (http://www.cnn.com/2012/02/06/living/successful-introverts-o/index.html) Susan Cain article from CNN Living (http://www.cnn.com/LIVING/)TED talks – Susan Cain: The power of introverts (http://www.ted.com/talks

/susan_cain_the_power_of_introverts.html) talk by Susan Cain, author of Quiet: The Power of Introvertsin a World That Can't Stop Talking (January 2012), talks about reasons we should celebrate and encourageintroversionRevenge of the Introvert (http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/201008/revenge-the-introvert) LaurieHelgoe's article about introversion published in Psychology Today (2010)General description of the types (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Jung/types.htm) Jung's original article(1921)BBC – The Human Mind – Personality (http://www.open.edu/openlearn/body-mind/psychology/personality-user-guide) Description of introversion and extraversion, focusing on reward-seeking behaviorChanging Minds (http://changingminds.org/explanations/preferences/extravert_introvert.htm) Anotherdescription of introversion and extraversion, taking a Jungian viewExtraversion (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2602/is_0002/ai_2602000236) Gale Encyclopedia ofChildhood & Adolescence. Gale Research, 1998.Introversion (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2602/is_0003/ai_2602000328) Gale Encyclopedia ofChildhood & Adolescence. Gale Research, 1998.USA Today article about CEO introverts/extroverts (http://www.usatoday.com/money/companies/management/2006-06-06-shy-ceo-usat_x.htm)Caring for Your Introvert (http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200303/rauch) Article in the Atlantic, March2003Ten Myths About Introverts (http://www.carlkingdom.com/10-myths-about-introverts) Article by CarlKing, 2009.J. Wilt and W. Revelle review chapter on extraversion (http://personality-project.org/revelle/publications/wr.ext.rev2.pdf)

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