extragalactic science with decam galaxy evolution at z
TRANSCRIPT
Extragalactic Science with DECamGalaxy Evolution at z<1
Jennifer LotzSTScI
• what do we know about z<1 universe?
• unsolved problems
• DECam advantage
• the low surface brightness universe
What have we learned at z<1?
• blue disks (red spheroids) were more (less) common in past
• most z<1 star-formation occurs in disk galaxies
• galaxy merger rate evolves modestly
• typical AGN are in massive, bulge-dominated galaxies
Morphology
Assembly History
Star-formationHistory
Hogg et al. 2004
disks
spheroids
SAURON, ATLAS3d
Evolution in SFR density
Bouwens et al. 2009
tota
l st
ar-
form
atio
n /
co-m
ovin
g vo
lum
e
redshift
and our results are tabulated in Table 3. Note that we haveused the rest-frame B-band primarily as an accountingdevice here, calculating M=LBh i and using a Schechter fit tothe luminosity function to correct for sample incomplete-ness at the faint end. Our stellar masses are actually derivedusing NICMOS and ground-based near-IR observationsthat reach significantly redder rest-frame wavelengths(0.54–1.44 lm for the Ks-band data) over the entire redshiftrange being considered here.
Regardless of the model adopted for the mass estimates,there is good evidence that the global stellar mass densityincreased with cosmic time. For example, for galaxiesbrighter than present-day L!B , which are abundant in theHDF-N at all redshifts z < 3, the minimum estimate for !!at z " 1 is #7 times larger than that from the maximum-M=Lmodels at z " 2:7.
Figure 7 places the HDF-N mass density estimates into aglobal context, comparing them with other data at
TABLE 3
Stellar Mass Densities (log !!)
Z = 1.0Z$ Z = 0.2Z$
z range!(t) = 1 Component
(h70M$Mpc%3)!(t) = 2 Components
(h70M$Mpc%3)!(t) = 1 Component
(h70M$Mpc%3)!(t) = 2 Components
(h70M$Mpc%3)
0.5–1.4 ....... 8.46 & 0.07 8.61 & 0.07 8.52'0:07%0:08 8:62'0:07
%0:07
1.4–2.0 ....... 8.06'0:17%0:13 8.22'0:16
%0:12 7.97 & 0.17 8:12'0:16%0:13
2.0–2.5 ....... 7.58'0:11%0:07 8.01'0:09
%0:08 7.36'0:11%0:08 7:79'0:10
%0:09
2.5–3.0 ....... 7.52'0:23%0:14 7.89'0:20
%0:15 7.27'0:27%0:18 7:65'0:22
%0:15
Note.—"M ( 0:3,"# ( 0:7, h ( 0:7.
Fig. 7.—Redshift evolution of the comoving stellar mass density,"!. The horizontal axis scaling and error bars are as in Fig. 5. Open symbols show resultsfrom the literature at 0 < z < 1 (circle, Cole et al. 2001; triangles, Brinchmann & Ellis 2000; squares, Cohen 2002). The HDF-N points ( filled squares) showresults for the Z$, one-component ! t) * model fits. The vertical error bars show the 68% random errors for this choice of model, combining the samplingvariance and the mass fitting uncertainties. The vertical extent of the boxes shows the range of systematic uncertainty introduced by varying the metallicityand the star formation histories of the mass-fitting model. The blue curves show the result of integrating the cosmic star formation history, SFR(z), traced byrest-frame UV light, with and without corrections for dust extinction (solid and dotted curves, respectively). The dashed green curve shows the integrated starformation history from Pei et al. (1999), with their 95% confidence range indicated by the shaded region.
No. 1, 2003 EVOLUTION OF GLOBAL STELLAR MASS DENSITY 33
Evolution in stellar mass density
Dickinson et al. 2003
tota
l st
ell
ar
mas
s /
co-m
ovin
g vo
lum
e
redshift
Evolution in the Galaxy Merger Rate
(1+z)2.1± 0.2(1+z)0.1± 0.4
Major Mergers
Major+Minor Mergers
merger rate evolves modestly
0.5-1 major merger per L* galaxy since z~1
1-3 minor mergers per L* galaxy since z~1
Lotz et al. 2011
How Do Galaxies Assemble?
Ceverino et al. 2009Lacey & Cole 1993
galaxy mergers vs. gas accretion
time
theory: mergers v. gas accretion
Keres et al. 2009redshift
mas
s ac
cre
tio
n r
ate
p
er
co-m
ovin
g vo
lum
e
gas accretion
Unsolved problems in galaxy evolution
• inside-out growth of disks and spheroids: gas accretion and minor mergers
• quenching + spheroid formation
• assembly of the most massive galaxies
• survival of the smallest galaxies
LSST Science Book
Deep/Wide Extragalactic Surveys
Chapter 9: Galaxies
will also undoubtedly be progress in smaller-area deep surveys following on from the Hubble DeepFields, GOODS, COSMOS, and the Subaru Deep Fields.
LSST will be a unique tool to study the universe of galaxies. The database will provide photometryfor 1010 galaxies, from the local group to redshifts z > 6. It will provide useful shape measurementsand six-band photometry for about 4 × 109 galaxies (§ 3.7.2). Figure 9.1 and Figure 9.2 provideindications of the grasp of LSST relative to other existing or planned surveys.
Figure 9.1: Comparison of survey depth and solid angle coverage. The height of the bar shows the solid anglecovered by the survey. The color of the bar is set to indicate a combination of resolution, area, and depth withrgb values set to r = V/V (HUDF), g = (mlim − 15/)/16, and b = θ/2��, where V is the volume within which thesurvey can detect a typical L∗ galaxy with a Lyman-break spectrum in the r band, mlim is the limiting magnitude,and θ is the resolution in arcseconds. The surveys compared in the figure are as follows: SDSS: Sloan Digital SkySurvey; MGC: Millennium Galaxy Catalog (Isaac Newton Telescope); PS1: PanSTARRS-1 wide survey, starting in2009 in Hawaii; DES: Dark Energy Survey (Cerro-Tololo Blanco telescope starting 2009); EIS: ESO Imaging survey(complete); CADIS: Calar Alto Deep Imaging Survey; CFHTLS: Canada France Hawaii Telescope Legacy Survey;NOAODWS: NOAO Deep Wide Survey; COSMOS: HST 2 deg2 survey with support from many other facilities;PS1MD: PanSTARRS-1 Medium-Deep Survey covering 84 deg2; GOODS: Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey(HST, Spitzer, Chandra, and many other facilities); WHTDF: William Herschel Telescope Deep Field; HDF, HUDF:Hubble Deep Field and Ultra Deep Field.
A key to testing our understanding of galaxy formation and evolution will be to examine the fullmulti-dimensional distributions of galaxy properties. Tools in use today include the luminosityfunction of galaxies, the color-luminosity relation, size-luminosity relation, quantitative morphol-ogy, and the variation of these distributions with environment (local density or halo mass). Asdata sets and techniques evolve, models will be tested not just by their ability to reproduce themean trends but by their ability to reproduce the full distribution in multiple dimensions. Studiesof the tails of these distributions – e.g., galaxies of unusual surface brightness or morphology – giveus the leverage to understand short-lived phases of galaxy evolution and to probe star formationin a wide range of environments.
310
LSST Science Book
Deep/Wide Extragalactic Surveys
Chapter 9: Galaxies
will also undoubtedly be progress in smaller-area deep surveys following on from the Hubble DeepFields, GOODS, COSMOS, and the Subaru Deep Fields.
LSST will be a unique tool to study the universe of galaxies. The database will provide photometryfor 1010 galaxies, from the local group to redshifts z > 6. It will provide useful shape measurementsand six-band photometry for about 4 × 109 galaxies (§ 3.7.2). Figure 9.1 and Figure 9.2 provideindications of the grasp of LSST relative to other existing or planned surveys.
Figure 9.1: Comparison of survey depth and solid angle coverage. The height of the bar shows the solid anglecovered by the survey. The color of the bar is set to indicate a combination of resolution, area, and depth withrgb values set to r = V/V (HUDF), g = (mlim − 15/)/16, and b = θ/2��, where V is the volume within which thesurvey can detect a typical L∗ galaxy with a Lyman-break spectrum in the r band, mlim is the limiting magnitude,and θ is the resolution in arcseconds. The surveys compared in the figure are as follows: SDSS: Sloan Digital SkySurvey; MGC: Millennium Galaxy Catalog (Isaac Newton Telescope); PS1: PanSTARRS-1 wide survey, starting in2009 in Hawaii; DES: Dark Energy Survey (Cerro-Tololo Blanco telescope starting 2009); EIS: ESO Imaging survey(complete); CADIS: Calar Alto Deep Imaging Survey; CFHTLS: Canada France Hawaii Telescope Legacy Survey;NOAODWS: NOAO Deep Wide Survey; COSMOS: HST 2 deg2 survey with support from many other facilities;PS1MD: PanSTARRS-1 Medium-Deep Survey covering 84 deg2; GOODS: Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey(HST, Spitzer, Chandra, and many other facilities); WHTDF: William Herschel Telescope Deep Field; HDF, HUDF:Hubble Deep Field and Ultra Deep Field.
A key to testing our understanding of galaxy formation and evolution will be to examine the fullmulti-dimensional distributions of galaxy properties. Tools in use today include the luminosityfunction of galaxies, the color-luminosity relation, size-luminosity relation, quantitative morphol-ogy, and the variation of these distributions with environment (local density or halo mass). Asdata sets and techniques evolve, models will be tested not just by their ability to reproduce themean trends but by their ability to reproduce the full distribution in multiple dimensions. Studiesof the tails of these distributions – e.g., galaxies of unusual surface brightness or morphology – giveus the leverage to understand short-lived phases of galaxy evolution and to probe star formationin a wide range of environments.
310
DES SNe
DECam advantages
field of view: statistics, large objects
depth: distant objects, low-surface brightness
y-band: better photz, stellar masses
what DES will not do:
• very deep fields (except for SNe fields but no y)
• special places (local galaxies, nearby clusters)
• special filters (u, narrow-band)
Unsolved problems in galaxy evolution
• inside-out growth of disks and spheroids: gas accretion and minor mergers
• quenching + spheroid formation
• assembly of the most massive galaxies
• formation + survival of the smallest galaxies
⇒ low-surface brightness universe
μ ~ 27-29 mag per sq arcsec
Steidel et al. 2011
Ly-alpha halos: scattering or accretion?
μg ~ 27.1
The Astrophysical Journal, 736:160 (18pp), 2011 August 1 Steidel et al.
Figure 4. Left: scaled far-UV continuum image produced (as described in the text) from the average of 92 continuum-selected LBGs, drawn from three independentfields. The regions shown are 20!! ("160 physical kpc at z = 2.65) on a side, with a grid spacing of 2!!. Right: the continuum-subtracted, stacked Ly! image for the samesample of galaxies. In both panels, the contours are logarithmically spaced in surface brightness with the lowest contour shown at "2.5#10$19 erg s$1 cm$2 arcsec$2.(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal.)
Figure 5. Observed average surface brightness profile for the 1220 Å continuumlight (blue) and the Ly! line (red) for the full sample of 92 continuum-selectedgalaxies, evaluated over the same rest-frame bandwidth sampled by the Ly!image (24.3 Å). Note that these profiles are simply the azimuthal averages of thestacked images shown in Figure 4. The light-shaded region indicates the rangeof typical Ly! surface brightness threshold reached by deep Ly! surveys for thedetection of individual objects. The dashed lines show the surface brightnessprofile assuming that S(b) = Clexp($b/bl) with parameters given in Table 2.The corresponding angular scale at %z& = 2.65 is given along the top axis.For the purpose of comparison, we also show the Ly! profile expected forthe same sources under the assumption of the “Case B” Ly! to CB ratio, nodestruction of Ly! by dust, and no spatial diffusion of Ly! photons due toresonant scattering (i.e., the Ly! and CB profiles would be identical in shape,and since W0(Ly!) = 100 Å, the Ly! line image would be a factor of "4.1brighter than the continuum in the effective rest-frame bandwidth of 24.3 Å).(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal.)
(i.e., Case B), and Ly! and CB light had the same spatialdistribution on average.
The surface brightness profiles for both the continuum andthe Ly! line images are reasonably well-fit by an exponential
of the form S(b) = Ciexp($b/bi) for projected radii beyondthe central arcsec; the parameters of the best-fit values for thenormalization Ci and scale length bi are given in Table 2 for eachsub-sample as well. In the full image stack, the effective surfacebrightness detection thresholds are a factor of '10 lower thanfor individual galaxies; it is clear that the distribution of Ly!emission is very different from that of the continuum for everysub-sample, with best-fit Ly! scale lengths of bl " 20–30 kpc,compared with the corresponding continuum emission whichhas bc " 3–4 kpc. It is important to note that the true differ-ence in scale length is larger, since we have made no attemptto deconvolve the profiles from the seeing disk, which wasFWHM " 0.!!86, 1.!!20, and 0.!!80 for HS1549, HS1700, andSSA22a, respectively. The continuum profiles of the stackedcomposite CB images have FWHM " 1.!!2–1.!!4, indicating aver-age (seeing deconvolved) galaxy continuum sizes of FWHM "0.!!80 (" " 0.!!35). These deconvolved angular sizes are also con-sistent with measurements of similar galaxies in deep HubbleSpace Telescope/Advanced Camera for Surveys images (e.g.,Peter et al. 2007; Law et al. 2007).
The stacked Ly! and CB images as in Figures 5 and 6represent unweighted averages of all galaxies in the sample (withmasking as described above). This choice was motivated by thedesire to preserve the photometric integrity of the stacks so thatfluxes could be measured directly using aperture photometry, butalso because any scaling or weighting would require decidingwhat the relevant figure of merit should be. Medians are oftenused to suppress outliers in stacked data sets, but they havethe disadvantage for the present application of not preservingflux in two-dimensional images, of working best when scalinghas been applied to individual images going into the stack,and of suppressing real signal as it approaches the noise level.Nevertheless, in Figure 7 we show a comparison of the surfacebrightness profiles for median-combined stacks as compared tomean-combined for both line and continuum.
We have argued that our sample of galaxies with %z& = 2.65has emission line and continuum properties characteristic ofthose in the full LBG spectroscopic surveys at these redshifts.Figure 8 shows that the diffuse Ly! emission is also consistentamong the three survey fields taken individually. This is im-portant, since each field samples galaxies at a different redshift
7
The Astrophysical Journal, 736:160 (18pp), 2011 August 1 Steidel et al.
Figure 4. Left: scaled far-UV continuum image produced (as described in the text) from the average of 92 continuum-selected LBGs, drawn from three independentfields. The regions shown are 20!! ("160 physical kpc at z = 2.65) on a side, with a grid spacing of 2!!. Right: the continuum-subtracted, stacked Ly! image for the samesample of galaxies. In both panels, the contours are logarithmically spaced in surface brightness with the lowest contour shown at "2.5#10$19 erg s$1 cm$2 arcsec$2.(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal.)
Figure 5. Observed average surface brightness profile for the 1220 Å continuumlight (blue) and the Ly! line (red) for the full sample of 92 continuum-selectedgalaxies, evaluated over the same rest-frame bandwidth sampled by the Ly!image (24.3 Å). Note that these profiles are simply the azimuthal averages of thestacked images shown in Figure 4. The light-shaded region indicates the rangeof typical Ly! surface brightness threshold reached by deep Ly! surveys for thedetection of individual objects. The dashed lines show the surface brightnessprofile assuming that S(b) = Clexp($b/bl) with parameters given in Table 2.The corresponding angular scale at %z& = 2.65 is given along the top axis.For the purpose of comparison, we also show the Ly! profile expected forthe same sources under the assumption of the “Case B” Ly! to CB ratio, nodestruction of Ly! by dust, and no spatial diffusion of Ly! photons due toresonant scattering (i.e., the Ly! and CB profiles would be identical in shape,and since W0(Ly!) = 100 Å, the Ly! line image would be a factor of "4.1brighter than the continuum in the effective rest-frame bandwidth of 24.3 Å).(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal.)
(i.e., Case B), and Ly! and CB light had the same spatialdistribution on average.
The surface brightness profiles for both the continuum andthe Ly! line images are reasonably well-fit by an exponential
of the form S(b) = Ciexp($b/bi) for projected radii beyondthe central arcsec; the parameters of the best-fit values for thenormalization Ci and scale length bi are given in Table 2 for eachsub-sample as well. In the full image stack, the effective surfacebrightness detection thresholds are a factor of '10 lower thanfor individual galaxies; it is clear that the distribution of Ly!emission is very different from that of the continuum for everysub-sample, with best-fit Ly! scale lengths of bl " 20–30 kpc,compared with the corresponding continuum emission whichhas bc " 3–4 kpc. It is important to note that the true differ-ence in scale length is larger, since we have made no attemptto deconvolve the profiles from the seeing disk, which wasFWHM " 0.!!86, 1.!!20, and 0.!!80 for HS1549, HS1700, andSSA22a, respectively. The continuum profiles of the stackedcomposite CB images have FWHM " 1.!!2–1.!!4, indicating aver-age (seeing deconvolved) galaxy continuum sizes of FWHM "0.!!80 (" " 0.!!35). These deconvolved angular sizes are also con-sistent with measurements of similar galaxies in deep HubbleSpace Telescope/Advanced Camera for Surveys images (e.g.,Peter et al. 2007; Law et al. 2007).
The stacked Ly! and CB images as in Figures 5 and 6represent unweighted averages of all galaxies in the sample (withmasking as described above). This choice was motivated by thedesire to preserve the photometric integrity of the stacks so thatfluxes could be measured directly using aperture photometry, butalso because any scaling or weighting would require decidingwhat the relevant figure of merit should be. Medians are oftenused to suppress outliers in stacked data sets, but they havethe disadvantage for the present application of not preservingflux in two-dimensional images, of working best when scalinghas been applied to individual images going into the stack,and of suppressing real signal as it approaches the noise level.Nevertheless, in Figure 7 we show a comparison of the surfacebrightness profiles for median-combined stacks as compared tomean-combined for both line and continuum.
We have argued that our sample of galaxies with %z& = 2.65has emission line and continuum properties characteristic ofthose in the full LBG spectroscopic surveys at these redshifts.Figure 8 shows that the diffuse Ly! emission is also consistentamong the three survey fields taken individually. This is im-portant, since each field samples galaxies at a different redshift
7
stack of 92 z~3 LBGs LRIS NB over 0.04 sq degrees
~3 fields x 10 hr exptime on Keckneed to go 10x deeper to see
fluorescence?
DECam (+u, NB) for 4 sq degrees, 100x more objects in stack?
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μg ~ 27.1
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the
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bed
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pers
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ect
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etal
.200
8,20
09).
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sure
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Rel
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jian
etal
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9).
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deriv
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band
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No.
4,20
10ST
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LA
RT
IDA
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TH
EL
OC
AL
VO
LU
ME
967
–22
–
Fig
ure
2.Il
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mpa
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nof
som
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sde
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ble
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Sect
ion
4).T
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pers
pect
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real
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rom
left
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mod
els
num
bere
d9,
10,a
nd11
from
John
ston
etal
.200
8)w
ithin
the
hier
arch
ical
fram
ewor
kan
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owlu
min
ous
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ams
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ilart
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rdat
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x,po
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).(A
colo
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ure
isav
aila
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inth
eon
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jour
nal.)
and
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itatio
nalp
oten
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fth
em
assi
veda
rkm
atte
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los
inw
hich
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resi
de.T
his
will
ther
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ra
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port
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tost
udy
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rent
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amat
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stst
ages
ofga
lact
icas
sem
bly
inth
eL
ocal
Uni
vers
e.In
this
rega
rd,t
hesu
rvey
will
beco
mpl
emen
tary
to(a
nddi
rect
lyin
form
the
inte
rpre
tatio
nof
)lo
calg
alac
tic“a
rcha
eolo
gica
l”da
tafr
omre
solv
edga
laxi
essu
chas
M31
and
the
Milk
yW
ay.
We
than
kK
.V
.Jo
hnst
onfo
rpr
ovid
ing
the
mod
els
used
inth
ispa
per
and
for
usef
uldi
scus
sion
.W
eal
soth
ank
G.
van
deV
enn,
Dav
idV
alls
-Gab
aud,
And
rew
Coo
per,
and
M.
A.
Gom
ez-F
lech
oso
foru
sefu
ldis
cuss
ions
.D.M
.-D.a
ckno
wle
dges
fund
ing
from
the
Span
ish
Min
istr
yof
Edu
catio
n(R
amon
yC
ajal
fello
wsh
ipan
dre
sear
chpr
ojec
tA
YA
2007
-650
90)
and
the
Inst
ituto
deA
stro
fisic
ade
Can
aria
s(p
roye
ct3I
).S.
R.M
.ap
prec
iate
ssu
ppor
tfro
mN
SFgr
antA
ST-0
8079
45.
RE
FER
EN
CE
S
Aba
zajia
n,K
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etal
.200
9,A
pJS,
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543
Bel
l,E
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008,
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Bel
okur
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7B
elok
urov
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7a,A
pJ,6
57,8
9B
elok
urov
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7b,A
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58,3
37B
ullo
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ienc
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6,A
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win
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rgus
on,A
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ir,N
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1,N
atur
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John
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8,A
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36Ju
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64K
auff
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n,G
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rdon
i,B
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3,M
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in,D
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B.1
997,
PASA
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52M
ajew
ski,
S.R
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unn,
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Haw
ley,
S.L
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pJ,4
59,L
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ajew
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ruts
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nber
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tınez
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rrub
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aban
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ajew
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en,M
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pJ,6
89,1
84M
artın
ez-D
elga
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ez-D
elga
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a,C
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hcin
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senh
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Martinez-Delgado et al. 2010
Outer halos of local disk galaxies
μg ~ 27.1
Quenching - environment, mass, AGN
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slope 0:06 ! 0:09 dex per unit redshift ( jB rising with time).Taking the 1 ! minimum slope of "0.03 dex per unit redshift(falling with time) and assuming a minimum change in mass-to-light ratio M #/LB of 1.0 mag gives a rise in total red stellarmass of a factor of 2.3. The geometric mean of these two num-bers gives a minimum increase of a factor of 2 in the numberof red L# galaxies from z $ 1 to now, the same as claimed byB04.
To obtain the maximum rise, we take the formal differencein "# estimated in x 4.2 between z $ 0 and 1 using method 1 andall data (0:56 ! 0:09 dex) and add the 1 ! error bar. This yieldsa maximum rise of 0.65 dex, or a factor of 4.5. However, thismaximum still does not contain a correction for the likely grow-ing contamination by dusty galaxies at z % 1, which could addanother 30% or more, for a factor of about 6.
6. DISCUSSION
6.1. A ‘‘Mixed’’ Scenario for the Formationof Spheroidal Galaxies
The most arresting conclusion to emerge so far from thestudy of luminosity functions is the growth in the number of redL# galaxies since z $ 1, as shown in Figure 7. Barring mergersamong a large and undiscovered population, which would haveto be tiny and/or highly obscured to avoid detection in presentsurveys, this rise means that the ancestors of a large fraction oftoday’s red L# galaxies must be visible in existing blue samplesat z $ 1 and later. The implications of this were discussed byB04. We build on their arguments by adding data on the blueluminosity function (measured here by DEEP2 and COMBO-17for the first time) and the properties of local E galaxies, which weargue also have strong implications for formation scenarios. Ourdiscussion focuses on typical field galaxies at high redshift, sinceDEEP2 and COMBO-17 sample all galaxies regardless of loca-tion. The red sequence in distant clusters has also been exten-sively studied, but we do not try to fold these data into the pictureat this time.
It is well established that residence on the red sequence (inthe absence of dust) requires that star formation be quenched orat least strongly reduced. Stellar populations become red enoughto join the red sequence just 1Y2 Gyr after star formation isstopped (e.g., Newberry et al. 1990; Barger et al. 1996; Bower
et al. 1998; Poggianti et al. 1999), but in order for them to staythere, the star formation rate must remain low. Gebhardt et al.(2003) explored a ‘‘frosting model’’ with an early high rate ofstar formation followed by a slowly decaying # component.Based on colors, they found that only 7% of the total stellar masscould be formed in the # component; similar limits on present-day star formation rates are set byGALEX observations (Yi et al.2005; Salim et al. 2005). In short, the large buildup in red stellarmass after z $ 1 could not have arisen from star formation withinred galaxies themselves (see also B04). Rather, the stellar massnear L# on the red sequence must have migrated there via oneof three processes: (1) the quenching of star formation in bluegalaxies, (2) the merging of less luminous already quenched redgalaxies, or (3) some combination of the two. In the followingdiscussion, we focus on galaxies arriving on the red sequencenear L# because the data are complete there and photometricerrors are not as serious as they are for brighter spheroids. Gal-axies may of course also be migrating to the lower end of the redsequence, and the data reviewed in x 5 (point 8) suggest that thisis also happening.
It is helpful to visualize this mass migration as the move-ment of progenitor galaxies through the CMD or, more funda-mentally, the color-mass diagram. Sample tracks are shown inFigure 10. Two parent regions are illustrated, a narrow red locuscorresponding to the red sequence and a broader blue clump,which we call the ‘‘blue cloud.’’ The rather constant morphol-ogy of the CMD since z $ 1 (B04; Weiner et al. 2005; Paper I )suggests that these parent regions are relatively stable in sizeand location. In reality, they are also moving as galaxies evolve,but this will not be too important if individual galaxies movethrough them more rapidly. With that assumption, we show theclumps as fixed and the galaxies as moving through them withtime.
Each final galaxy today is represented by its most massiveprogenitor at any epoch. Stellar mass is migrating toward theupper left corner, where luminous red galaxies reside. For a gal-axy to get there, two things must happen: the mass composingthe final galaxy must be assembled via gravitational collapse,and star formation must be quenched. A key question in theformation of red sequence galaxies therefore is, did quench-ing occur early in the process of mass buildup, midway, or late?If extremely early, the pieces that would become the final galaxy
Fig. 10.—Schematic arrows showing galaxies migrating to the red sequence under different versions of the merging hypothesis. Evolutionary tracks are plotted in thecolor-mass diagram. Here it is assumed that red galaxies arise from blue galaxies when star formation is quenched during amajor merger, causing the galaxy to double inmass, but the exact nature of the quenching mechanism is not crucial. Quenching tracks are shown by the nearly vertical black arrows. The mergers would be gas-rich (or‘‘wet’’) because the progenitor galaxies are blue objects making stars and hence contain gas. Once a galaxy arrives on the red sequence, it may evolve more slowly alongit through a series of gas-poor, or ‘‘dry,’’ mergers. These are shown as the white arrows. They are tilted upward to reflect the aging of the stellar populations during themore gradual dry merging. A major variable is the time of mass assembly vs. the time of quenching. Three possibilities are shown. Track A represents very earlyquenching while the fragments of the galaxy are still small. In that case, most mass assembly occurs in dry mergers along the red sequence. Track B is the other extreme,having maximally late quenching. In that case, galaxies assemble most of their mass while still blue and then merge once to become red with no further dry merging.Track C is intermediate, with contributions from both mechanisms. This ‘‘mixed’’ scenario best matches the properties of both distant and local ellipticals. In addition tothe merging scenario illustrated here, the gas supply of some disks may simply be choked off or stripped out without mergers, to produce disky S0s. Such tracks wouldbe vertical, but aside from this their histories are similar. S0s dominate on the red sequence below L#, ellipticals above (Marinoni et al. 1999).
GALAXY LFs TO z%1 FROM DEEP2 AND COMBO-17 285No. 1, 2007
Faber et al. 2007
– 23 –
Fig. 4.— The distributions of the total volume-weighted [OIII] luminosity in Type 2 AGN
over log M!, log µ!, C, and Dn(4000). The description of the line types is the same as in Fig.1.
Quenching - environment, mass, AGN
!"#$!%&!'()!*)+!,*-./#01!#1!2322!-4!,51./#014!0,!4/)66-*!7-44!-1+!)18#*017)1/9!!!:#/(!/()!8-65)4!!;!/0!!<!$#8)1!#1!'-=6)!>?!@60//)+!-/!#1/)*8-64!0,!A9>!+)B!#1!"!-1+! 9! ! !'()! 4)@-*-/#01! 0,! /()! ),,)./4! 0,! 7-44! -1+! )18#*017)1/! #4! !
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Peng et al. 2010
slope 0:06 ! 0:09 dex per unit redshift ( jB rising with time).Taking the 1 ! minimum slope of "0.03 dex per unit redshift(falling with time) and assuming a minimum change in mass-to-light ratio M #/LB of 1.0 mag gives a rise in total red stellarmass of a factor of 2.3. The geometric mean of these two num-bers gives a minimum increase of a factor of 2 in the numberof red L# galaxies from z $ 1 to now, the same as claimed byB04.
To obtain the maximum rise, we take the formal differencein "# estimated in x 4.2 between z $ 0 and 1 using method 1 andall data (0:56 ! 0:09 dex) and add the 1 ! error bar. This yieldsa maximum rise of 0.65 dex, or a factor of 4.5. However, thismaximum still does not contain a correction for the likely grow-ing contamination by dusty galaxies at z % 1, which could addanother 30% or more, for a factor of about 6.
6. DISCUSSION
6.1. A ‘‘Mixed’’ Scenario for the Formationof Spheroidal Galaxies
The most arresting conclusion to emerge so far from thestudy of luminosity functions is the growth in the number of redL# galaxies since z $ 1, as shown in Figure 7. Barring mergersamong a large and undiscovered population, which would haveto be tiny and/or highly obscured to avoid detection in presentsurveys, this rise means that the ancestors of a large fraction oftoday’s red L# galaxies must be visible in existing blue samplesat z $ 1 and later. The implications of this were discussed byB04. We build on their arguments by adding data on the blueluminosity function (measured here by DEEP2 and COMBO-17for the first time) and the properties of local E galaxies, which weargue also have strong implications for formation scenarios. Ourdiscussion focuses on typical field galaxies at high redshift, sinceDEEP2 and COMBO-17 sample all galaxies regardless of loca-tion. The red sequence in distant clusters has also been exten-sively studied, but we do not try to fold these data into the pictureat this time.
It is well established that residence on the red sequence (inthe absence of dust) requires that star formation be quenched orat least strongly reduced. Stellar populations become red enoughto join the red sequence just 1Y2 Gyr after star formation isstopped (e.g., Newberry et al. 1990; Barger et al. 1996; Bower
et al. 1998; Poggianti et al. 1999), but in order for them to staythere, the star formation rate must remain low. Gebhardt et al.(2003) explored a ‘‘frosting model’’ with an early high rate ofstar formation followed by a slowly decaying # component.Based on colors, they found that only 7% of the total stellar masscould be formed in the # component; similar limits on present-day star formation rates are set byGALEX observations (Yi et al.2005; Salim et al. 2005). In short, the large buildup in red stellarmass after z $ 1 could not have arisen from star formation withinred galaxies themselves (see also B04). Rather, the stellar massnear L# on the red sequence must have migrated there via oneof three processes: (1) the quenching of star formation in bluegalaxies, (2) the merging of less luminous already quenched redgalaxies, or (3) some combination of the two. In the followingdiscussion, we focus on galaxies arriving on the red sequencenear L# because the data are complete there and photometricerrors are not as serious as they are for brighter spheroids. Gal-axies may of course also be migrating to the lower end of the redsequence, and the data reviewed in x 5 (point 8) suggest that thisis also happening.
It is helpful to visualize this mass migration as the move-ment of progenitor galaxies through the CMD or, more funda-mentally, the color-mass diagram. Sample tracks are shown inFigure 10. Two parent regions are illustrated, a narrow red locuscorresponding to the red sequence and a broader blue clump,which we call the ‘‘blue cloud.’’ The rather constant morphol-ogy of the CMD since z $ 1 (B04; Weiner et al. 2005; Paper I )suggests that these parent regions are relatively stable in sizeand location. In reality, they are also moving as galaxies evolve,but this will not be too important if individual galaxies movethrough them more rapidly. With that assumption, we show theclumps as fixed and the galaxies as moving through them withtime.
Each final galaxy today is represented by its most massiveprogenitor at any epoch. Stellar mass is migrating toward theupper left corner, where luminous red galaxies reside. For a gal-axy to get there, two things must happen: the mass composingthe final galaxy must be assembled via gravitational collapse,and star formation must be quenched. A key question in theformation of red sequence galaxies therefore is, did quench-ing occur early in the process of mass buildup, midway, or late?If extremely early, the pieces that would become the final galaxy
Fig. 10.—Schematic arrows showing galaxies migrating to the red sequence under different versions of the merging hypothesis. Evolutionary tracks are plotted in thecolor-mass diagram. Here it is assumed that red galaxies arise from blue galaxies when star formation is quenched during amajor merger, causing the galaxy to double inmass, but the exact nature of the quenching mechanism is not crucial. Quenching tracks are shown by the nearly vertical black arrows. The mergers would be gas-rich (or‘‘wet’’) because the progenitor galaxies are blue objects making stars and hence contain gas. Once a galaxy arrives on the red sequence, it may evolve more slowly alongit through a series of gas-poor, or ‘‘dry,’’ mergers. These are shown as the white arrows. They are tilted upward to reflect the aging of the stellar populations during themore gradual dry merging. A major variable is the time of mass assembly vs. the time of quenching. Three possibilities are shown. Track A represents very earlyquenching while the fragments of the galaxy are still small. In that case, most mass assembly occurs in dry mergers along the red sequence. Track B is the other extreme,having maximally late quenching. In that case, galaxies assemble most of their mass while still blue and then merge once to become red with no further dry merging.Track C is intermediate, with contributions from both mechanisms. This ‘‘mixed’’ scenario best matches the properties of both distant and local ellipticals. In addition tothe merging scenario illustrated here, the gas supply of some disks may simply be choked off or stripped out without mergers, to produce disky S0s. Such tracks wouldbe vertical, but aside from this their histories are similar. S0s dominate on the red sequence below L#, ellipticals above (Marinoni et al. 1999).
GALAXY LFs TO z%1 FROM DEEP2 AND COMBO-17 285No. 1, 2007
Faber et al. 2007
– 23 –
Fig. 4.— The distributions of the total volume-weighted [OIII] luminosity in Type 2 AGN
over log M!, log µ!, C, and Dn(4000). The description of the line types is the same as in Fig.1.
Heckman et al. 2004
SDSS Type2-AGN
Quenching - environment, mass, AGN
– 23 –
Fig. 4.— The distributions of the total volume-weighted [OIII] luminosity in Type 2 AGN
over log M!, log µ!, C, and Dn(4000). The description of the line types is the same as in Fig.1.
Chapter 10: Active Galactic Nuclei
Figure 10.2: The probability of detecting an AGN as variable as a function of redshift and absolute magnitude. Left:two epochs separated by 30 days. Right: 12 epochs spanning a total of 360 days. Nearly all of the AGN between thelimiting apparent magnitudes would be detected as variable after one year.
all of the AGN to a limiting apparent magnitude of 24 will be detected as variable. The detectionfraction will increase as the number of epochs increases, and the use of all six bands will improvethe detection fraction even further. Ultimately, LSST will provide ∼ 200 epochs for each AGNcandidate in each band, thus increasing the detection fraction as well as increasing the limitingmagnitude.
The LSST temporal information will be especially useful for selecting low-luminosity AGN whichwould otherwise be swamped by their hosts, as well as radio-loud AGN, which have larger variabilityamplitudes and shorter variability timescales (e.g., Giveon et al. 1999). Variability will also allowselection of AGN which are confused with stars of similar color, particularly at z ∼ 2.7 where SDSSis highly incomplete. Variability timescales, coupled with LSST’s 6-band photometry will allowclean separation of AGNs from variable stars. For example, RR Lyrae stars have similar colors toAGNs but have very different variability timescales (Ivezic et al. 2003), and can thus efficiently beidentified as contaminants.
Selection by Combination with Multiwavelength Surveys
Cross-correlation of LSST imaging with multi-mission, multiwavelength surveys will also contributeto the AGN census by allowing selection of sources, such as optically obscured quasars, that cannoteasily be identified as AGN by color selection, lack of proper motion, or variability. LSST’s “deep-wide” nature will allow it to be combined both with shallower all-sky surveys at other wavelengthsin addition to having both the areal coverage and depth to be paired with the growing numberof multi-wavelength pencil beam surveys. For example, cross-correlations of LSST images withChandra or XMM-Newton observations can reveal obscured AGN that are not easily identifiablevia standard optical techniques; X-ray sources that have no LSST counterparts in any band may be
350
LSST Science Book
AGN variability is detectablefor i < 24 objects in 2-epoch, dt =30 days
what is correlation of AGN with stellar mass,
environment, color?
van Dokkum 2005, 2010; LSST Science Book
Spheroid galaxy assembly
Chap
ter
9:G
alax
ies
Fig
ure
9.14
:Lef
t:M
USY
CU
VR
imag
eof
az
=0.
1ga
laxy
with
red
low
surf
ace
bri
ghtn
ess
feat
ure
sre
veal
ing
are
cent
inte
ract
ion
withou
tac
tive
star
form
atio
n(v
anD
okkum
2005
).T
his
imag
ere
aches
a1σ
surf
ace
bri
ghtn
ess
lim
itof
mag
29.5
arcs
ec−
2,a
good
mat
chto
the
expec
ted
LSST
dep
th.
Rig
ht:
SD
SS
gri
imag
eof
the
sam
e3�×
2�
pie
ceof
sky,
show
ing
that
thes
efe
ature
sar
enot
acce
ssib
leto
the
curr
ent
gener
atio
nof
full-s
ky
surv
eys
bey
ond
the
very
loca
lU
niv
erse
.
num
bers
ofgr
oups
afte
rm
aski
ngth
ega
laxi
esw
illen
able
the
mea
nha
lolig
htpr
ofile
tobe
trac
edto
very
low
surf
ace
brig
htne
ss.
Nov
aew
illpr
ovid
ea
uniq
uew
ayto
prob
edi
ffuse
light
.Sh
ara
(200
6)es
tim
ates
that
LSST
will
obta
ingo
odlig
htcu
rves
and
henc
edi
stan
cees
tim
ates
for∼
50tram
pno
vae
per
year
wit
hin
40M
pcif
the
diffu
sest
ella
rm
ass
is10
%of
the
stel
lar
mas
sin
gala
xies
.W
em
ight
cons
ider
putt
ing
one
ofth
eLS
STde
epdr
illin
gfie
lds
(§2.
1)on
ane
arby
clus
ter
ofga
laxi
essu
chas
Forn
ax.
If10
%of
the
tota
lst
ella
rm
ass
ofFo
rnax
(∼2.
3×
1011
M⊙)
inin
trac
lust
erlig
ht,
and
we
obse
rved
it9
mon
ths
ofev
ery
year
,we
wou
lddi
scov
erro
ughl
y17
0in
tra-
clus
ter
nova
e.
9.7
Wid
eA
rea,M
ult
iband
Searches
for
Hig
h-R
edshift
Gala
xie
s
Dee
p,na
rrow
surv
eys
wit
hsp
ace-
born
ete
lesc
opes
have
iden
tifie
dne
wpo
pula
tion
sof
high
-red
shift
gala
xies
atre
dshi
fts
z>
5th
roug
hph
otom
etri
cdr
opou
tte
chni
ques
.W
hile
thes
eob
serv
atio
nal
effor
tsha
vere
volu
tion
ized
our
view
ofth
ehi
gh-r
edsh
iftU
nive
rse,
the
smal
lfiel
dsof
such
surv
eys
seve
rely
limit
thei
rco
nstr
aini
ngpo
wer
for
unde
rsta
ndin
gth
ebr
ight
end
ofth
ehi
gh-r
edsh
iftga
laxy
lum
inos
ityfu
ncti
onan
dfo
rid
enti
fyin
got
her
rare
obje
cts,
incl
udin
gth
em
ost
mas
sive
,old
est,
and
dust
iest
gala
xies
atea
chep
och.
By
com
bini
ngth
epo
wer
ofm
ulti
-ban
dph
otom
etry
for
drop
out
sele
ctio
nan
dth
eun
prec
eden
ted
com
bina
tion
ofw
ide
area
and
deep
imag
ing,
LSST
will
unco
verth
era
rest
high
-red
shift
gala
xies
(Fig
ure
9.5)
.T
hedi
scov
ery
and
char
acte
riza
tion
ofth
em
ost
mas
sive
gala
xies
athi
ghre
dshi
ftw
illpr
ovid
ene
wco
nstr
aint
son
earl
yhi
erar
chic
alst
ruct
ure
form
atio
nan
dw
illre
veal
the
gala
xyfo
rmat
ion
proc
ess
asso
ciat
edw
ith
high
-red
shift
quas
ars
(§10
.1.1
).
Obs
erva
tion
sof
i-dr
opou
tan
dz-
drop
out
gala
xies
inth
eH
ubbl
eU
ltra
Dee
pan
dG
OO
DS
field
sha
veen
able
da
dete
rmin
atio
nof
the
rest
-UV
lum
inos
ityfu
ncti
onof
z∼
6ga
laxi
es(e
.g.,
Dic
kins
onet
al.
2004
;B
unke
ret
al.
2004
;Y
an&
Win
dhor
st20
04;
Mal
hotr
aet
al.
2005
;Y
anet
al.
2006
;B
ouw
ens
etal
.200
4,20
06).
The
reis
asc
atte
rof
1-2
orde
rsof
mag
nitu
dein
dete
rmin
atio
nsof
the
brig
hten
dof
the
LF.F
igur
e9.
15sh
ows
the
gala
xyso
urce
coun
tsu
rfac
ede
nsit
ies
for
5.5
�z
�7
gala
xies
inth
ez-
band
calc
ulat
edfr
oma
rang
eof
z∼
6re
st-fr
ame
UV
lum
inos
ityfu
ncti
ons
take
nfr
omth
elit
erat
ure.
LSST
will
incr
ease
the
coun
tsof
gala
xyca
ndid
ates
atz
>5.
5by∼
5or
ders
ofm
agni
tude
.T
heLS
STsu
rvey
will
prob
eal
mos
tth
een
tire
lum
inos
ityra
nge
inth
isfig
ure
and
334
No. 2, 2010 THE GROWTH OF MASSIVE GALAXIES SINCE z = 2 1023
Figure 5. Top panels: stacked images of galaxies with constant number density in four redshift bins. Each image is 24!! " 24!!. The images reach surface brightnesslevels of #28.5 AB mag arcsec$2, and correspond to #3000 hr of total exposure time on a 4 m class telescope. Middle panels: deconvolved stacks, highlighting thefact that the radial extent of the low surface brightness emission decreases with redshift. Broken (solid) contours show the radii where the flux is 5% (0.5%) of thepeak flux. The 5% contour is similar at all redshifts, but the 0.5% contour evolves rapidly. Bottom panels: radial surface brightness profiles, normalized to the peakflux in the original stacks. Observed profiles are shown in blue, deconvolved profiles in red. The black curve is for stacked images of stars. The galaxies are resolvedat all redshifts, and are progressively smaller at higher redshifts.(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal.)
tens of effective radii for high-redshift galaxies. In practice, theaverage value of pixels with r > 75 kpc is subtracted from eachof the stacks. This procedure is very robust; bootstrapping thestacks (see Section 3.3) shows that the uncertainty in the back-ground correction is only a few percent. Finally, the images aredivided by the total flux in the image. The final stacks thereforehave a total flux of 1 within a 75 kpc radius aperture and a meanflux of zero outside of this aperture.
3.2. Surface Brightness Profiles
The observed stacks are shown in the top panels of Figure 5.There are no obvious residuals in the background, thanks tothe aggressive masking. The images are very deep: the surfacebrightness profiles can be traced to levels of #28.5 AB magarcsec$2 in the observed frame. For the z = 0.6 stack, theselevels are reached at radii of #70 kpc (#10!!); as we show laterthis corresponds to #10 effective radii. The depth is slightlylarger for the z = 0.6 and z = 1.1 stacks than for the higherredshift stacks: the Jx-band images are deeper than the Hx- andK-band data when expressed in AB magnitudes, and the ellipsefitting routine averages over more pixels for the low-redshiftgalaxies as they are more extended (as we show later).
The stellar PSF is fairly broad in this study, with a full widthat half-maximum (FWHM) of %1.!!1, and we first investigatewhether the observed stacks are resolved at this resolution.Radial surface brightness profiles of the stacked images areshown in blue in the bottom panels of Figure 5. Black curvesshow the profiles of stacked images of stars, derived from thesame data. The stars were identified based on their colors (seeK. Whitaker et al. 2010, in preparation) in a narrow magnituderange similar to the galaxies in the sample. They were shifted,masked, visually inspected, averaged, and normalized in thesame way as the galaxy images. The galaxy profiles and thestellar profiles were normalized to a peak flux of 1. Theblue curves are broader than the black curves at all redshifts,demonstrating that the galaxies are resolved.
To investigate the behavior of the galaxy profiles with red-shift the stacks were deconvolved using carefully constructedPSFs. The PSFs were created by averaging images of brightunsaturated stars, masking companion objects. The COSMOSand AEGIS fields have slightly different PSFs; for each stack aseparate PSF was constructed using the appropriate filters andappropriately weighting the PSFs of the two fields. As a test, werepeated the analysis using the stacked stellar images describedabove. Differences were small and not systematic; the differ-
No. 2, 2010 THE GROWTH OF MASSIVE GALAXIES SINCE z = 2 1023
Figure 5. Top panels: stacked images of galaxies with constant number density in four redshift bins. Each image is 24!! " 24!!. The images reach surface brightnesslevels of #28.5 AB mag arcsec$2, and correspond to #3000 hr of total exposure time on a 4 m class telescope. Middle panels: deconvolved stacks, highlighting thefact that the radial extent of the low surface brightness emission decreases with redshift. Broken (solid) contours show the radii where the flux is 5% (0.5%) of thepeak flux. The 5% contour is similar at all redshifts, but the 0.5% contour evolves rapidly. Bottom panels: radial surface brightness profiles, normalized to the peakflux in the original stacks. Observed profiles are shown in blue, deconvolved profiles in red. The black curve is for stacked images of stars. The galaxies are resolvedat all redshifts, and are progressively smaller at higher redshifts.(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal.)
tens of effective radii for high-redshift galaxies. In practice, theaverage value of pixels with r > 75 kpc is subtracted from eachof the stacks. This procedure is very robust; bootstrapping thestacks (see Section 3.3) shows that the uncertainty in the back-ground correction is only a few percent. Finally, the images aredivided by the total flux in the image. The final stacks thereforehave a total flux of 1 within a 75 kpc radius aperture and a meanflux of zero outside of this aperture.
3.2. Surface Brightness Profiles
The observed stacks are shown in the top panels of Figure 5.There are no obvious residuals in the background, thanks tothe aggressive masking. The images are very deep: the surfacebrightness profiles can be traced to levels of #28.5 AB magarcsec$2 in the observed frame. For the z = 0.6 stack, theselevels are reached at radii of #70 kpc (#10!!); as we show laterthis corresponds to #10 effective radii. The depth is slightlylarger for the z = 0.6 and z = 1.1 stacks than for the higherredshift stacks: the Jx-band images are deeper than the Hx- andK-band data when expressed in AB magnitudes, and the ellipsefitting routine averages over more pixels for the low-redshiftgalaxies as they are more extended (as we show later).
The stellar PSF is fairly broad in this study, with a full widthat half-maximum (FWHM) of %1.!!1, and we first investigatewhether the observed stacks are resolved at this resolution.Radial surface brightness profiles of the stacked images areshown in blue in the bottom panels of Figure 5. Black curvesshow the profiles of stacked images of stars, derived from thesame data. The stars were identified based on their colors (seeK. Whitaker et al. 2010, in preparation) in a narrow magnituderange similar to the galaxies in the sample. They were shifted,masked, visually inspected, averaged, and normalized in thesame way as the galaxy images. The galaxy profiles and thestellar profiles were normalized to a peak flux of 1. Theblue curves are broader than the black curves at all redshifts,demonstrating that the galaxies are resolved.
To investigate the behavior of the galaxy profiles with red-shift the stacks were deconvolved using carefully constructedPSFs. The PSFs were created by averaging images of brightunsaturated stars, masking companion objects. The COSMOSand AEGIS fields have slightly different PSFs; for each stack aseparate PSF was constructed using the appropriate filters andappropriately weighting the PSFs of the two fields. As a test, werepeated the analysis using the stacked stellar images describedabove. Differences were small and not systematic; the differ-
z=0.1 μB+V+I ~ 29
MUYSC
SDSS
spheroidal galaxies grow outer envelopes from z~2via ‘dry’ or minor mergers?
CFHTLS Deep i-band exptime ~ 30 hours
μi ~ 29 mag/sq arcsec
~1500 interactions to z~1found in 2 sq degrees
Bridge et al. 2010
Distant major mergers
No. 2, 2010 CFHTLS-DEEP: GALAXY INTERACTION FRACTION AT z < 1.2 1071
Figure 1. Examples of galaxies classified to have tidal tails or bridges from the CFHTLS-Deep Catalog of Interacting Galaxies. The i!-band images (left) and colorcomposites (g!, r !, i!) range in class from galaxies with tidal tails (various lengths), close pairs with tidal bridges to double nuclei with tidal tails. Each stamp is 100 h"1
kpc on a side. The white circle marks the galaxy that has been classified. The XY axes are in arcseconds.
sensitivities of our survey. The results that follow are thereforesecure lower limits.
As an additional test, C.B. re-classified a set of 500 galaxies(350 interacting, 150 non-interacting) randomly selected. Thisblind self-test addresses the reproducibility of the authors own
classifications. The classifications remained the same 97% ofthe time. The 3% variation was primarily a result of galaxiesbeing classed into morphologically similar types, for example,an intermediate tidal tailed galaxy being classed as having ashort tidal tail, and not into grossly different types.
No. 2, 2010 CFHTLS-DEEP: GALAXY INTERACTION FRACTION AT z < 1.2 1071
Figure 1. Examples of galaxies classified to have tidal tails or bridges from the CFHTLS-Deep Catalog of Interacting Galaxies. The i!-band images (left) and colorcomposites (g!, r !, i!) range in class from galaxies with tidal tails (various lengths), close pairs with tidal bridges to double nuclei with tidal tails. Each stamp is 100 h"1
kpc on a side. The white circle marks the galaxy that has been classified. The XY axes are in arcseconds.
sensitivities of our survey. The results that follow are thereforesecure lower limits.
As an additional test, C.B. re-classified a set of 500 galaxies(350 interacting, 150 non-interacting) randomly selected. Thisblind self-test addresses the reproducibility of the authors own
classifications. The classifications remained the same 97% ofthe time. The 3% variation was primarily a result of galaxiesbeing classed into morphologically similar types, for example,an intermediate tidal tailed galaxy being classed as having ashort tidal tail, and not into grossly different types.
Brightest Cluster Galaxy Formation
de Lucia & Blaziot 2007 Brown et al. 2007
why don’t very massive galaxies grow at z<0.7 ?
No. 1, 2005 DIFFUSE LIGHT IN VIRGO CLUSTER L43
Fig. 2.—Diffuse light in the Virgo Cluster, color-coded by surface bright-ness: blue, ; yellow, ; green, ; and red,m p 25–26 m p 26–27 m p 27–28V V V
. North is up; east is to the left.m p 28–29V
Fig. 3.—Schematic diagram showing location of diffuse features discussedin the text.
tends beyond, toward a group of galaxies to the north. Thereis a surface brightness gradient along its length; near M87 ithas a surface brightness of , dropping tom p 27 m p 27.8V V
near the pair. From the point at which it emerges from M87’sstellar halo to where it fades into the background, the streamerhas total length of 38! (178 kpc), a characteristic width of 3!.5(16 kpc), and a total luminosity of !109 L,. Because NGC4458 and NGC 4461 have a very high velocity relative to oneanother ( km s!1), it is unlikely the streamer comesDv p 1296from any strong interaction between the pair; instead, strippingfrom one of the galaxies is more likely.The second streamer (B) is perhaps even more remarkable.
Also appearing to emanate from M87 to the northwest, it mea-sures approximately 28! (130 kpc) long and only 1!.2 (6 kpc)wide, with a peak surface brightness of . The lowm p 27.0V
surface brightness dwarf VCC 1149 is projected along thestream, just before the position at which the stream blends intoM87’s halo; we may well be seeing the destruction of thisdwarf in the tidal field of the cluster—a process that may con-tribute to the variation in the faint-end slope of the luminosityfunction in clusters. The thinness of the stream supports thisconjecture, as the low velocity dispersion of dwarf galaxiesensures that stripped tidal streams will be dynamically cold andnot diffuse significantly in the tangential direction. The thinnessand linearity of the streamer also argue that the dwarf must beon a highly radial orbit or one that is seen projected along itsorbital plane.Not all detected streams are linear, however. A broad, curved
stream (C) can be seen surrounding a low surface brightnessdwarf; the curvature of this stream, arcing away from M87,suggests that the galaxy is orbiting within or around the M86group (or perhaps the NGC 4435/4438 pair) rather than aroundM87 itself.Aside from long ICL streams, many galaxies show tidal
features on smaller scales. Perhaps the most obvious is the tidaltail to the north of the interacting pair NGC 4435/4438 (D).Originally identified by Malin (1994) in photographic imaging,our imaging traces it to fainter surface brightnesses ( ),m 1 28V
where it takes a sudden 90! bend to the west. This kind of tidal“dogleg” is expected during close and slow encounters in agalaxy cluster, where the tidal forces of both the individualgalaxies and the cluster itself conspire to create rather complex
tidal morphologies (J. C. Mihos 2005, in preparation). Othernotable features include NGC 4388’s tidal plumes to the westand northeast (E), a southern tail in NGC 4425 (F; both notedby Malin [1994]) that connects to VCC 987, another tail ex-tending from IC 3349 (G) and passing through VCC 942, anda loop to the east of IC 3475 (H).At low surface brightness, the giant elliptical M87 shows a
very extended and irregular stellar envelope. From photo-graphic images, Weil et al. (1997) and Katsiyannis et al. (1998)show M87’s luminous halo extending to !100 kpc scales; onour image it can be traced further out to 175 kpc (I). Here theouter isophotes are not simply the radial extension of M87’sinner regular luminosity profile; traced to the northwest, theisophotes become boxier and show irregular loops and shellsthat may be remnants from earlier stripping from, or canni-balization of, smaller galaxies. The lopsidedness and irregu-larity of M87’s halo is again indicative of a diffuse envelopethat is not fully relaxed.Because of the close proximity of M86, M84, and a number
of smaller galaxies, uniquely tracing out any individual haloin that complex of galaxies proves difficult. The isophotes ofboth M86 and M84 appear fairly regular out to a surface bright-ness of (J), as noted by Malin (1994). At fainterm ! 26.5V
surface brightnesses, the isophotes blend together and becomequite irregular, and we see a “crown” of diffuse light (at
) to the north of the M84/M86 system (K), and am p 27–28V
diffuse extension to the south of the pair, blending into thenetwork of galaxies to the south. Whether this extended en-velope is truly physical or simply a projection effect remainsunclear. Several low surface brightness filaments (L1–L3) arealso visible around M86: one to the northeast ( ), onem ! 25.5V
to the west ( ), and one to the north ( ).m ! 26.5 m ! 27.5V V
We also see a common envelope of light (M) surroundingthe complex of galaxies to the south of M86, including NGC4413, IC 3363, and IC 3349, along with a tidal bridge con-necting NGC 4413 and IC 3363, and perhaps extending to NGC4388 to the east. This envelope has fairly irregular isophotes,arguing it is more than just simply the extended profiles ofgalaxies overlapping in projection. This group of galaxies maybe a physically coherent subgroup within the Virgo Cluster.Finally, Oosterloo & van Gorkom (2005) have recently iden-
tified an extended ( kpc) H i cloud streaming110 kpc# 25from NGC 4388, which they attribute to ram pressure stripping,
IntraCluster Light in Virgo
Mihos et al. 2005
~2 degreesμV ~ 25–26 μV ~ 26–27μV ~ 27–28 μV ~ 28-29
Tollerud et al. 2008 / Willman et al 2009/ LSST Science Book
Ultra-faint dwarf galaxy detectionChapter 7: Milky Way and Local Volume Structure
Figure 7.10: Far left: Map of all stars with r < 21.5 in the field around the Ursa Major I dwarf satellite, MV = −5.5,d =100 kpc. Middle: Map of stars passing a color-magnitude filter projected m −M = 20.0 Far right: Spatiallysmoothed number density map of the stars in the middle panel. The galaxy has a central V -band surface brightnessof only 27.5 mag arcsec−2 (Martin et al. 2008). Figure and caption from Willman (2009) with permission. Datafrom SDSS Data Release 7.
7.10 Stellar Tracers of Low-Surface Brightness Structure in theLocal Volume
Beth Willman, Jay Strader, Roelof de Jong, Rok Roskar
The unprecedented sensitivity to point sources and large sky coverage of LSST will for the first
time enable the use of resolved stellar populations to uniformly trace structure in and around a
complete sample of galaxies within the Local Volume. This section focuses on the science that can
be done by using resolved stars observed by LSST to discover and study low-surface brightness
stellar structures beyond the virial radius of the Milky Way. Chapter 6 of this Science Book
focuses on the science that can be done by using resolved stars observed by LSST to study stellar
populations. § 9.3 and § 9.6 of this Science Book focus on the study of low surface brightness
structures using diffuse light.
7.10.1 The Landscape of the Local Volume
The groups, galaxies, and voids that compose the Local Volume are the landscape that resolved
stars in LSST will be used to map. In this subsection, we provide an overview of this landscape.
We then detail specific studies in the remainder of this Section.
Karachentsev et al. (2004) (KK04) cataloged 451 galaxies within the Local Volume (d�10 Mpc),
hereafter referred to as the KK04 catalog. In a conference proceeding, Karachentsev et al. (2007)
report that the KK04 catalog has been updated to include 550 galaxies, half of which have been
imaged with HST and thus have distances measured with an accuracy of ∼ 8%. The searchable
volume reachable by LSST is expected to include over an order of magnitude more galaxies than
currently known in that volume (see also § 7.9 and § 9.6).
228
Ursa Major I dwarf satellite, MV!= −5.5, d =100 kpc
μV ~ 27.5
Tollerud et al. 2008 / Willman et al 2009/ LSST Science Book
Ultra-faint dwarf galaxy detectionChapter 7: Milky Way and Local Volume Structure
Figure 7.10: Far left: Map of all stars with r < 21.5 in the field around the Ursa Major I dwarf satellite, MV = −5.5,d =100 kpc. Middle: Map of stars passing a color-magnitude filter projected m −M = 20.0 Far right: Spatiallysmoothed number density map of the stars in the middle panel. The galaxy has a central V -band surface brightnessof only 27.5 mag arcsec−2 (Martin et al. 2008). Figure and caption from Willman (2009) with permission. Datafrom SDSS Data Release 7.
7.10 Stellar Tracers of Low-Surface Brightness Structure in theLocal Volume
Beth Willman, Jay Strader, Roelof de Jong, Rok Roskar
The unprecedented sensitivity to point sources and large sky coverage of LSST will for the first
time enable the use of resolved stellar populations to uniformly trace structure in and around a
complete sample of galaxies within the Local Volume. This section focuses on the science that can
be done by using resolved stars observed by LSST to discover and study low-surface brightness
stellar structures beyond the virial radius of the Milky Way. Chapter 6 of this Science Book
focuses on the science that can be done by using resolved stars observed by LSST to study stellar
populations. § 9.3 and § 9.6 of this Science Book focus on the study of low surface brightness
structures using diffuse light.
7.10.1 The Landscape of the Local Volume
The groups, galaxies, and voids that compose the Local Volume are the landscape that resolved
stars in LSST will be used to map. In this subsection, we provide an overview of this landscape.
We then detail specific studies in the remainder of this Section.
Karachentsev et al. (2004) (KK04) cataloged 451 galaxies within the Local Volume (d�10 Mpc),
hereafter referred to as the KK04 catalog. In a conference proceeding, Karachentsev et al. (2007)
report that the KK04 catalog has been updated to include 550 galaxies, half of which have been
imaged with HST and thus have distances measured with an accuracy of ∼ 8%. The searchable
volume reachable by LSST is expected to include over an order of magnitude more galaxies than
currently known in that volume (see also § 7.9 and § 9.6).
228
Ursa Major I dwarf satellite, MV!= −5.5, d =100 kpc
μV ~ 27.5
Chapter 7: Milky Way and Local Volume Structure
Figure 7.9: Left panel: Maximum detection distance of dwarf galaxies in the SDSS Data Release 5 stellar catalogs,
and projected for future surveys. The dwarf galaxies known within 1 Mpc are overplotted in red. Right panel: The
predicted luminosity function of dwarf galaxies within 400 kpc of the Milky Way (blue line) over 4π steradians.
Overplotted are the expected number of these dwarfs that may be discovered over the entire sky with survey data
similar to the upcoming SkyMapper Southern Sky Survey (Keller et al. 2007) and LSST. The green line for LSST is
hiding behind the blue line. Both figures are from Tollerud et al. (2008), with permission.
predictions of such models (Wang & White 2007). Moreover, dwarf galaxy kinematic studies will
be useful in placing limits on (or measuring the existence of) a phase-space limited core in their
dark matter halos. This will provide an important constraint on the nature of dark matter. The
ability for dark matter to pack in phase space is limited by its intrinsic properties such as mass
and formation mechanism. CDM particles have negligible velocity dispersion and very large central
phase-space density, resulting in cuspy density profiles over observable scales. Warm Dark Matter
(WDM), in contrast, has smaller central phase-space density, so that density profiles saturate to
form constant central cores.
• Low-luminosity Threshold of Galaxy Formation: The discovery of dark-matter dominated galax-
ies that are less luminous than a star cluster raises several basic questions, including the possibility
of discovering a threshold luminosity for galaxy formation. LSST will enable discovering, enumer-
ating, and characterizing these objects, and in doing so provide a testing ground for the extreme
limits of galaxy formation.
• The Underlying Spatial Distribution of the Milky Way’s Dwarf Galaxy Population: The epoch
of reionization and its effect on the formation of stars in low mass dark matter halos also leaves
an imprint on both the spatial distribution (Willman et al. 2004; Busha et al. 2009) and mass
function of MW satellites (Strigari et al. 2007; Simon & Geha 2007). Other studies have claimed
that the spatial distribution of MW satellites is inconsistent with that expected in a Cold Dark
Matter-dominated model (Kroupa et al. 2005; Metz et al. 2008). The interpretation of such results
hinges critically on the uniformity of the MW census with direction and with distance.
226
search for ultra-faint dwarfs in southern sky
Summary
‘sweet spot’ for low-surface brightness universe μ ~ 27-28 mag per sq arcsec (~10-20 hours of exptime)
distant galaxies -- stacking to examine outer halos
nearby galaxies/clusters -- deep, targeted observations
ultra-faint dwarfs -- blind search, deep follow-up