Argument 1. Defending an argument

2. Developing a thesis statement

3. Outlining an argument

Expressing a stance

Supporting it with evidence

What is an argument?

• More than information

• You must

– select a point of view

– provide evidence

– interpret to support

• Persuade

– Paragraph

– Chapter (Introduction, Discussion, Conclusion)

– Paper

I’ll make him an offer he can’t refuse.

Persuade readers to accept a claim

Claim: What are you trying to prove?

1. Asserts condition exists based on facts or data The world will experience warmer, more extreme weather.

Based on logic

2. Attempts to prove subject is desirable or undesirable value Female circumcision is dehumanizing.

Based on emotional appeal

3. Asserts specific policy should be instituted to solve problem should, must, ought to usually appears in the statement

Human trafficking should be abolished because it manufactures crime.

Based on logic, or emotion, or both

What to argue?

• Questionable idea

– The more controversial the better – strong stance

– The more impact the better – justifies study

• Significant issue

– Minor points leads to major problems

– Relationship shows your understanding and insight

• Not facts but interpretation of facts

– a ball of cells vs. unborn child

– invading Iraq vs. liberating Iraq

– land grabbing vs. land investment

– distributing wealth vs. confiscating earnings

Language: Literal versus Implied

• Science – concrete: more literal than implied

• Diplomacy – abstract: more implied than literal

– Vague

– Slippery

– Suggestive

– Non-committal

“Maybe we can take care of this here.”

Bribe Dishonest Police Honest Police

Do not offer bribe Get a traffic tick Get a traffic ticket

Implied veiled bribe Go free Get a traffic ticket

Literal direct bribe Go free Get traffic ticket Arrested for bribery

• Implied avoids a problem

• Literal sparks a problem

• Point: do not imply bribe, but take a stance

Scientific Argument

• Takes a stance – literal not implied

• Goal: convince claim true based on evidence

• Your claim must

1. Prove that you understand

2. Demonstrate reason logically

3. Construct development with evidence

• Evidence is objective, creditable

Establish your claim

• “What is my point?” • No point = Nothing to argue • Point avoids "information dump“ • Justifies development

• Outline shows development • Thesis statement declares claim

Why?

How?

What?

Argument held together by

• Clear, concise thesis statement in first paragraph

• Body paragraphs include supporting evidence

• Conclusion does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence provided

• Logical transitions: introduction, body, conclusion

Argumentative Paper • Introduction

– Establish the problem

– Summarize the issues

– State your position (thesis statement) • Key concepts

• Make concessions

• Body

– Develop reasons to defend your stance

– Give evidence from sources

– Analyze the issues, both pro and con

• Conclusion

– Reinforce position logically from analysis

– Direct analysis to thesis

Where to begin? Evidence

• Quality

– Replicate precision = reliability

– Replicate accuracy = validity

– Reliability + validity = proof

• Proof

– Scholarly literature

– Different fields, different requirements

– Robust data and statistics

– Logical development of points

– Consensus of policies or theories

• Be consistent

– Not an all-out blitz

– Logic must be coherent

– You cannot convince a confused person

– Thesis statement clarifies argument

Who is the best archer?

Thesis Statement

Argumentative

• Takes a stance

• Unifying aspect of a paper – "in a nutshell"

– Points toward the paper's development

– Sentence or two at end of introduction

• Does not ask a question – answers it

– fills a gap

– shows insight

• Weak ‘I will argue’

Analytical Research

• Does not take a stance – May be debatable, but

– Objective: explores and evaluate

– Critical interpretation of primary and secondary sources

• Presents a research question – Solidifies while writing

– More fluid than argumentative

– Does not negate other views

– Offers fresh insight

Thesis Statement Examples

Argumentative Analytical Research

Research question: How should Noragric educate?

Thesis statement: Although Noragric educates

through lectures and assigned readings, education also entails learning by entering new worlds through experience, such as internships and working abroad.

Noragric students should be required to spend one term abroad as an intern in a development NGO to increase their knowledge and global awareness.

The paper that follows should:

present an argument and gives evidence to support the claim that students should spend one term abroad as an intern in a development NGO.

Thesis statement often answers

How? Why?

The lifestyle of students in a developing country is very different from the lifestyle of Norwegian students.

So what? In what ways?

Because of the relative freedom enjoyed in industrial countries, the lifestyle of Norwegian students is very different from the lifestyle of students in developing countries.

At least this says why the difference exists. So What?

Students in developing countries have very different expectations about employment than do students in Norway.

Says what, but still does not present an argument to defend.

A point "worth making" supported with evidence

Students in developing countries, who are considered young but responsible by the age of 16, have fewer employment opportunities when compared to Norwegian students. Unless they go to school in a developed country, most contend with an arranged lifestyle, including limited employment, early marriage and bearing children while living without what Norwegians consider personal freedom.

does not state the obvious

supports claim with evidence

gives a reason: why or how

Developing a thesis statement

Claim: use of military force necessary in 1st Gulf War

Evidence reveals 4 possible arguments: 1. support Gulf states opposing Iraq – political

2. UN sanctions not effective – economic & political

3. ability to "take out" WMD – military

4. deter other aggressors – political & military

Reasons exist for not using military force, but…

Narrow thesis: combine 3 & 4

Even if the US could have liberated Kuwait without a military strike, no other option would have been as effective in wiping out Iraq's deadliest weapons, nor in deterring other nations who might want to use force against their neighbors.

Questions to consider

• What is your claim in 25 or fewer words?

• Have you answered why or how with evidence?

• Are code words explained?

– Development studies: sustainable development

– Economics: production-possibility frontier

– Landscape architecture: green building

– Biology: fluctuating asymmetry

Adjust your thesis statement

• Does the thesis statement: 1. Express your claim, not a question, not a topic?

2. Base reason on evidence, not personal opinion?

3. Point to a conclusion?

• What if you discover different evidence?

Facts versus

Opinion

• Opinions: subjective statements

– Based upon beliefs, attitudes, personal experience

– You may not use opinion as supporting evidence

• Facts: objective truth

– Need proof (Women live longer than men)

– Specific support: examples, data, quotations

Argumentative Thesis Statement

• Clearly states claim (stance)

Population growth does not deter sustainable development.

• Opposing point of view

– Writer’s view is the main (independent) clause

– Opposing view is normally subordinate clause

Despite claims that population growth eventually prohibits development, statistical evidence shows no correlation, much less cause-effect, between population growth and sustainable development.

Counter Argument

• Why?

– Strengthen your argument

– Show a deep understanding

– Anticipate and address objections

• How to respond?

– Concede, but explain why your stance is stronger

– Reject, and explain why counter argument is mistaken

• One or two counter arguments

• You must

– Show your argument is stronger

– Revise thesis if counter argument changes your position

Building an argument

1. Make a claim

2. Back it with reason

3. Provide evidence

4. Recognize other views

5. And respond

It’s as simple as 1, 2, 3

Basing a claim on reasons

TV violence can have harmful psychological effects on children because

those exposed to TV tend to adopt the values presented.

Academic writing requires supporting evidence

Their constant exposure to violent images makes them unable to

distinguish fantasy from reality (reason 2 supporting reason 1 /claim 2). Smith (2001, p. 34) found children ages 5-9 who watched more than 3 hours of violent TV a day were likely to say that most of what they saw on TV was “really happening.” (evidence supporting reason 2).

4 and 5

• Readers are likely to question any part of your argument.

• Anticipate their questions (counter arguments)

• Respond TV violence can have harmful psychological effects on children (claim) because

those exposed to TV tend to adopt the values presented (reason 1). Their constant exposure to violent images makes them unable to distinguish fantasy from reality (reason 2 supporting reason 1 /claim 2). Smith (2001, p. 39) found children ages 5-9 who watched more than three hours of violent TV a day were likely to say that most of what they saw on TV was “really happening.” (evidence supporting reason 2). It is conceivable, of course, that children who tend to watch violent entertainment already have violent values, but Jones (2008) found that children with no predisposition to violence were just as attracted to violent entertainment as those with a history of violence.

Is any reason

relevant?

Children exposed to violent entertainment tend to become adults who think violence is acceptable behavior, because as children they tend to adopt the violent values they see (reason).

Why should children who adopt violent values necessarily become adults who accept violent behavior? I don’t see how your claim follows from your reason.

• A warrant shows why Whenever children adopt particular values, those values tend to

become “acceptable” behavior in adulthood.

Warrant - probable cause

General principle claiming that a general

circumstance predictably draws a general conclusion

Violence on television can have a harmful psychological effect. Few of us question that when children are repeatedly exposed to particular values in attractive form, they use those values to structure their understanding of the world. In the same way, children constantly exposed to violent entertainment tend to adopt the values they see…

Warrant - probable cause

• Assumption, belief, principle… taken for granted

• If reader shares assumption, no need to state

• If reader doubts or hostile, state to argue validity

Claim: Laws making marijuana illegal should be repealed.

Reason: People should have the right to use any substance they wish.

Warrant: Laws should not prevent citizens from exercising their rights.

Tips • Think hard, with others, before working hard

• Topic should be debatable or controversial Cigarette smoking poses medical dangers and might lead to

cancer for both the smoker and those who experience secondhand smoke.

Although it has been proven that cigarette smoking leads to sundry health problems in the smoker, the social acceptance of smoking in public places demonstrates that many still do not consider secondhand smoke as dangerous to one's health as firsthand smoke.

• Do not over simplify – No complex effect has a simple cause

– No serious question has a simple answer

– No interesting problem has a simple solution

You are ready to outline when you can…

• explain why one should care about the problem

• answer a question that fills the gap of knowledge

• support your claim with reasons and evidence

• anticipate objections and respond

claim

reason

evidence

objection

respond

sources

Argumentative Outline

• Introduction should… – Establish the problem

– State your position (thesis statement)

• Body should…

– Develop reasons to defend your stance

– Support evidence with scholarly sources

– Address objections and respond

• Conclusion should…

– Reinforce position logically from analysis

– Direct analysis to thesis

CLAIM

I claim that…

REASON

because of these reasons…

EVIDENCE

based on this evidence:

“I acknowledge these questions, objections and

alternatives and respond to them with these arguments.”