export okra production in thailand -...

Baseline Survey Export Okra Production in Thailand

A report of the baseline survey on export okra production in Thailand

By: Tattanakorn Moekchantuk

& Prabhat Kumar

Inter-country Programme for Vegetable IPM in South & SE Asia Phase II (FNPP/GLO/002/NET & GCP/RAS/191/AUL)

Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

June 2004

Baseline Survey on export okra production in Thailand

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.Table of content 2List of tables, maps, figures and annexes 3Chapter I : Background 1 Background 51.1 Okra Production on world basis at a glance 51.2 Okra production in Thailand 61.3 Export okra production in Thailand 6Chapter II: Survey Rationale, Methods and Data Analysis 2.1 Rationale of the Survey 112.2 Method of Survey 112.3 Data Analysis 11Chapter III: Major Survey Findings 3.1 General findings 133.2 Field Preparation 143.3 Issues with seeds 153.4 Irrigation, Weeding, Fertilization and after care issues 153.5 Issues with Insect-pest and diseases in okra 163.6 Plant Protection issues in export okra production 183.7 Harvesting, Grading and Packaging of export okra production 193.8 Economics of export okra production 193.9 Gender issues in okra cultivation 203.10 Other issues 21Chapter IV: Conclusions and Recommendations 4.1: Conclusions 244.2: Recommendations 25Acknowledgement 27References 28


LIST OF, TABLES, MAPS, FIGURES & ANNEXES Page no. List of tables

Table 1: Total growing area (rai) and yield (tons) of Okra 6Table 2: Quantity and Value of Okra export (1998 – 2002) 7Table 3: List of commonly occurring insect-pests on okra 17Table 4: List of commonly occurring natural enemies in okra 17Table 5: List of commonly occurring diseases on okra 17Table 6: Commonly used insecticide (Chemical & Biological) against okra insect-pests 18Table: 7: Labour distribution in okra production (% responses) 20List of maps Map 1: Major Okra growing provinces in Thailand 9List of figures

Fig 1: Major Okra growing countries in world (FAOSTAT, 2001) 5Fig 2.: Okra area harvested worldwide (FAOSTAT, 2001) 5Fig 3: Productivity (Kg./ha) of major okra growing countries in world (FAOSTAT, 2001) 6Fig 4: Major okra growing provinces in Thailand (tons), DoAE, 2002 7Fig 5: Major consumptions channels of okra in Thailand, DoAE, 2002 8Fig 6: % market share of fresh Thai Okra; DoAE, 2002 8Fig 7: % market share of frozen Thai okra 8Fig 8: % of male and female okra growers 13Fig 9: Education level of farmers 13Fig 10: Okra farm type 13Fig 11: Irrigation source 13Fig 12: % Lime-user farmers 14Fig 13: Choice of Crops other then Okra 14Fig 14: Reasons of growing other crop in Okra field 14Fig 15: % Farmers doing seed-germination test 15Fig 16: % Farmers Fungicide seed treatment 15Fig 17: Pesticide source for okra farmers 19Fig 18: Frequency of pesticide spray 19Fig 19: Average cost and benefits from a rai of export okra production 20Fig 20: Farmer’s perception of major production constraints 21Fig 21: % respondent keeping farm-records 21Fig 22: Areas of interest of okra farmers in receiving more knowledge 22Annexes

Annex 1: Survey Questionnaire 30Annex 2: Cropping calendars of export okra production of Ratchaburi 37Annex 3: Cropping calendars of export okra production of Kanchanburi 38Annex 4: Cropping calendars of export okra production of Nonthaburi 39Annex 5: Cropping calendars of export okra production of Nakhon Pathom 40Annex 6: Common insect-pest and diseases of okra in Thailand 41Annex 7: Common natural enemies of the okra crop in Thailand 43Annex 8: Grading and sorting of fresh okra for export 45Annex 9: Different production systems of okra 47


CHAPTER I

BACKGROUND


1. Background

1.1 Okra Production in the world Okra is believed to have originated from Africa and is currently being grown in most sub-tropical and tropical regions of the world. India, Pakistan, Iraq etc. are major okra growing countries in the world (fig 1), area harvested (fig 2) and productivity (fig 3).

Fig 1: Major Okra growing countries in the world (FAOSTAT, 2001)

Fig 2: Okra area harvested worldwide (FAOSTAT, 2001)


Fig 3: Productivity (Kg /ha) of major okra growing countries in the world (FAOSTAT, 2001)

1.2 Okra production in Thailand Okra or Ladies Finger (Abelmoschus esculentus) is an important export vegetable crop grown in northern, central and western provinces of Thailand. Majority of okra growers in Thailand are contract farmers for the export companies, who in close collaboration with the government extension agencies provide technical expertise to the farmers. The export companies largely provide inputs (like seed, pesticides etc.) and buy back the fresh produce from farmers. Export okra production is facing serious problem related to high levels of pesticide residues leading to rejection of the okra from some key export markets.

1.3 Export Okra production in Thailand

Okra has been one of the important export vegetables cultivated in Thailand for the last decade. It is mostly grown in western and central provinces of the country (Map 1). Local Thai export companies have developed a network of contract growers in the western and central parts of the country to meet the surging demand from the Japanese market. Lately, small portions of the products started entering into the European and other markets as well. During 2001-02, a total of 14,236 rai was planted with Okra in Thailand with a total produce of 12,031 tons of okra. The area under cultivation of Okra has steadily increased during the 1998-2002 period (see Table 1).

Table 1: Total growing area (rai) and yield (tons) of Okra Items 1998-99 1999-2000 2000-01 2001-02 Area (rai) 3887 8522 10342 14236 Yield (tons) 6755 12211 9552 12031

Source: Vegetable group; DoAE, 2002


Okra is exported in two forms: fresh and frozen. The export volume of Okra has slightly increased from the 1998 level of 3,598 tons to 3,991 tons during 2002 after a decrease during the year 2000. Quantity of the frozen okra export has steadily increased almost 10 fold during this period from 188 tons to 1069 tons (Table 2) generating a revenue of 78 million baht. Table 2: Quantity and Value of Okra export (1998 – 2002) Year 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Quantity (Tons)

3598 3000 2496 3328 3991 Fresh

Value (million Baht)

317.3 201 148.3 253.2 350.0

Quantity (Tons)

188 581 462 892 1069 Frozen

Value (million Baht)

13.0 34.0 34.8 60 78.0

Source: Vegetable group; DOAE (2002) The Central provinces of Ratchaburi, Nakhon Pathom, Kanchnaburi, Nonthaburi, Nakhon Ratchasima and Lopburi are major export okra growing provinces in Thailand (see Fig 4). Other provinces that produce almost half of the total production cater chiefly to the domestic market for local consumptions. Out of the total produced Okra, over half of the quantity of 8,459 tons are locally consumed and the rest is either exported as fresh or frozen (fig 5). Japan is a major importer of fresh (98.5%) of the total exported Okra from Thailand (fig 6) as well as of the frozen okra (94%). Frozen okra is exported to other countries as well like Australia, Jordan, and USA in smaller quantities (fig.7). During recent years, export of okra from Thailand started facing problems of high chemical residues and consequently rejection of the exported produce by the key importing markets in Japan, Korea etc.

Fig 4: Major okra growing provinces in Thailand (tons), DoAE, 2002

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Fig.5: Major consumptions channels of okra in Thailand; DoAE, 2002

Fig 6: percentage market share of fresh Thai Okra; DoAE, 2002

Fig 7: Percentage market share of frozen Thai okra

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RATCHABURI

KANCHANABURI

NAKHON PATHOM

NONTHABURIPATHUM THANI

NAKHON RATCHASIMA

ThailandN

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S

Map 1: Major Export Okra growing Provinces in Thailand


CHAPTER II

Survey Rationale, Methods & Data Analysis


2.1 Rationale of the Survey The export okra production has witnessed the rejection of the produce from key Japanese and other export markets because of pesticide residue levels exceeding the Maximum Residue Levels (MRL). Such rejection of exported okra produce has had serious economic and social implications to the export okra growers in Thailand. The export okra production system largely depends on the inputs and technical backstopping provided by the export companies. The system of export okra production (contract farming) is radically different from okra production for the domestic market. Given the recent substantial growth in international trade of vegetables and ‘contract growing’ becoming the most dominant export production system, it is important for FAO and the Thai Government to better understand production and protection problems in export contract farming situations. A baseline survey on current production methods with details on each aspects of okra production was conducted among contract farmers within several central provinces in Thailand. In addition, an informal survey of the export companies was carried out to better understand their perspective of export okra production, their marketing practices and other related issues. Consequently, these survey findings could help to develop and plan for any future extension or farmer education intervention to provide ecological compatible production and plant protection options to the export okra farmers in Thailand. 2.2 Method of survey and sources of information A total of twenty-two (22) export okra growing farmers from four western and central provinces (Nakhon Pathom, Kanchnaburi, Ratchaburi and Nonthaburi) were surveyed using a set questionnaire (Annex -1). Based on the collected information, cropping calendars were developed, where each farm activity e.g. soil preparation to final harvesting was listed on a time-axis for each surveyed province (annex 2, 3, 4 & 5). In addition, group discussions were organised with farmer groups to re-validate the collected data and learn about any emerging issues and problems related to okra cultivation. The extension staff and managers of the export companies, who are engaged in procuring and promoting export okra cultivation in these provinces, were consulted during the pre-survey phase. This helped to design inputs for the baseline survey. This process of consultation started in the July 2003 and continued until January 2004. The information so obtained was recorded for analysis and interpretation. Other relevant information was collected from the Vegetable section, DoAE (Dept. of Agricultural Extension) in Bangkok. Appropriate references on vegetables in Thailand were checked and relevant portions were incorporated in this document. 2.3 Data Analysis The quantitative information gathered through the interviews was entered (on province-level) into a data-base. Finally, the information was entered into the SPSS software (SPSS ver. 11.0). Frequency, mean and standard deviation of quantitative data were calculated and expressed in terms of percentage for the purpose of plotting graphs for this document. Trends were obtained for major farm practices related to export okra production for further interpretation of the data. The trends that so emerged, combined with field verification and follow-up intensive discussions with farmers, were then used as basis for the write up of this survey.


Chapter III

Findings from the Survey


3.1 General findings Export okra is by and large grown by members of a family unit with an average family size of 5 members. Sixty-eight (68) % of the interviewed farmers were male (fig 8) in the age group of 24-66 years and they own 2-3 rai of land (range: 1- 60 rai). For these small land holders, okra production occupied more than 70% of the owned land. A majority of farmers were under 45 years of age. More then 60% of the farmers had a primary school education and some (4%) had a university education (fig 9).

Fig8: Percentage of male & female okra growers Fig 9: Education level of farmers Fig 10: Okra farm type Fig 11: Irrigation source Fig 10: Okra farm types Fig 11: Irrigation sources An equal percentage of the flat-levelled low land and low land with ditch and dikes are the major okra growing land types used by export growers (fig 10). For more details on different production systems, please see attached annex – 8. Canal irrigation is the major source of irrigation for okra cultivation (80%). The rest of the farmers use their own well and public well for irrigation purposes (fig. 11).

Sex

MaleFemale

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UniversityCollege

High SchoolElementary

Primary School

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(%)

70

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Water sources

Your own wellPublic wellIrrigation

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Low land (Ditch & Dike)

Flat land

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Low Land (Leveling)


Over 50% of the interviewed farmers had 2-5 years experience in growing okra. Okra is harvested daily in the morning. After harvesting farmers carry the okra to a DoAE sub-district technology transfer centre or house of the farmer leader for further grading the products. The distance from the okra farm to such a common place varied from 0.5-16 km with average distance of 3-4 km. 3.2 Field Preparation Okra for export is grown year-round with slightly less acreage during the May to July period. Two-weeks before the seed sowing fields are ploughed and harrowed, once or twice depending on soil types. Normally, okra farmers plough the land at the average depth of 25 cm. The cost of ploughing varies from 250-1,200 Baht/rai with an average cost of 550 Baht /rai. Similarly, the average cost of harrowing was also in the range of 250-450 Baht/rai. It is a common practice among farmers to provide pre-sowing irrigation for better facilitation of the seed-germination. Soil amendments like lime applications are practiced by 70% of the farmers (fig 12).

Fig 12: % Lime-user farmers Fig 1 3: Choice of Crops other than Okra

As many as 50 % of the farmers grow okra as a mono-crop, while the other 50% of farmers choose to grow other crops in the same field (Fig. 13). These other crops include basil, Chinese kale, bean, yard long bean, corn, asparagus etc. The farmers’ perception of growing other crops varies and many of them believe that growing other crops improves the soil and facilitates disease management etc. (fig 14).

Fig 14: Reasons of growing other crop in Okra field

Use of lime

YesNo

Perc

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70

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20

grow other crop in the same land

YesNo

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Soil Improvementshort life cycle

fast grow thContorl disease

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%)

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3.3 Issues with seed Choice of seed is an important cultivation issue for the export okra farmers in all four provinces. It is the usual practice in contract farming that the company provides them the seed either as incentive (free of cost) or at costs. Five varieties of okra are widely grown in Thailand: HIT 9701, VO 99047, Indian, Star Right and Early Five. The identities of seed varieties and their origins were not very clear in some provinces and it seems that some companies treat it as a trade secret. It was also observed that selection of a variety depends on the market demand (number of ridges on fruit (5 or 7), colour of the fruit, shape, tenderness and its mucilaginous (stickiness) rather then some other important production qualities like its ability to tolerate and resist insect-pests and diseases etc. The cost of seeds ranges from 1,800-2,000 Baht per kg and a rai of land needs 0.8-1.0 kg of seed. Few (less than 3% of interviewed farmers) used more then 1.0 kg seed since they prefer more plants/rai. Seed-germination generally is not perceived a problem. Generally, the practice of pre-sowing irrigation ensures better germination. A majority (over 70%) of farmers in all provinces do not practice a seed-germination test (Fig15) prior to seed sowing. Others however test the seed germination capacity by wrapping test seeds in a water-soaked cloth overnight.

Fig 15: % Farmers doing seed-germination test Fig 16: % Farmers using fungicide seed treatment Seed treatments are not commonly practiced by farmers and only 20% of interviewed farmers treat the seeds with fungicides like Thiram 80, whereas other seed treatment methods e.g. warm-water treatment were generally not practiced. The seeds are sown at a plant-plant distance of 50-70 cm with a row-row distance of 50-100 cm (avr. 70 cm) and in case of bed and furrow system, beds are 400-700 cm wide and average 50 cm height and are placed at a distance of 120 (avr.)cm. Okra seeds are sown manually by the ‘dibbling’ method with one-four seeds/hole. 3.4 Irrigation, Weeding, Fertilization and after care issues The germination of seed is facilitated with a pre-sowing irrigation and afterwards a majority of the farmers irrigate the crop based on the situation of field moisture regime (almost every other day during the dry season). After flowering and fruit setting, crops are irrigated almost every day (esp. in the dry season). As mentioned earlier, farmers use different water sources

Seed germination test

YesNo

Perc

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80

70

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10YesNo

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0


for irrigation ranging from tapping water from their own wells to use of community wells and canals. Fertilization of the export okra also is an important issue for the quality of the produce. Farmers use different kinds and doses of fertilizers ranging from inorganic fertilizers, organic manures to home-made fermented fertilizers and in some cases micro-nutrients. For fertilization, okra export farmers make independent decisions regarding dosages and types based on soil type, farmers’ experiences and individual financial situations. For other management operations like plant protection, harvesting, farmers generally follow the advice from the export company. Either of one of two major balanced fertilizer compounds (16:16:16/15:15:15) is used by okra farmers. Please refer to annex 2, 3, 4, and 5 (cropping calendars) for details on the type, dose and timing of fertilizer application for various provinces. It seems from various discussions and use patterns that farmers’ knowledge on manure and fertilizer use in relation to yield is not up to the mark. Similar trends were observed with the farmers using the home-made fermented fertilizers. It was very difficult to judge why there exists a wide variation in quantity of use. At the same time, actual nutrient content of these home-made fermented ferilizers was also not clear. Like any other after-care activities, fertilizer application is also generally done by the family members themselves. Only in the case of large farm sizes (like in those observed in Ratchaburi), labourers were hired to do the job. Fertilizers are generally applied in a circle near the base of the plants. However, in the case of organic manures, these are mixed well with the soil at the time of land preparation by the farmers. Weeds are only problems during the first 2-3 weeks of okra crop growth and development. Once the crop establishes and closes, weeds no longer pose a production problem. Weed-control is practiced by 60% of the respondents from all four provinces either by using herbicide or by manual weeding. The weed species vary from area to area and most often nut sedges and other broad-leaves weeds were commonly observed by farmers. Over 80% of the farmers applying herbicides use pre-emergence herbicides either Alachlor or Gamaxone. Unlike some other okra growing countries, where pruning and rationing is a very common practice, Thai okra growers do not prune their crops. However, picking of one leaf after every fruit harvest is a common practice among farmers to reduce the possibility of any blemish on the tender okra fruit. Removing of one leaf adjacent to the fruit minimises chances of dis-coloration as well. Okra begins bearing fruits after 45 days of sowing and the harvesting continues on a daily basis for another 2 – 2 ½ months. The okra growers in Thailand produce in the range of 2,000-4,000 kg okra/rai but a more realistic average yield generally realised was 2,000 kg per rai. 3.5 Issues with Insect-pest and diseases in okra Okra is an annual malvaceous crop and is susceptible to a large range of insect-pests and diseases. Various growth stages of the crops are susceptible to the different insect-pests and diseases. Insect-pests like Crickets can be a problem during germination/seedling stage of the crop while the thrips, whitefly and other phloem feeders are common during vegetative stage (see Table 3, 4 &5). The incidence pattern of insect-pests and diseases are more or less common to all growing areas. A pictorial guide of common insect-pests of okra is attached in


annex- 6 and a similar guide of natural enemies1 is attached in annex-7. Yellow Vein Mosaic (YVM) is the most pressing plant-protection problem universally faced by all okra growers in Thailand. This jassid-transmitted virus disease seriously stunts plant growth, reduces available leaf area for photosynthesis resulting into serious yield and quality loss. The vein and veinlets of affected plants turn yellow and even the fruit produced by such plants turn yellow in colour. The viruleferous population of vectors has potential to turn a large tract of healthy okra crop into an unproductive one in a short span of time. Virus resistant and tolerant commercial varieties (hybrid F1 and Open Pollinated) are available for management of this disease in countries like India, which is often also the source of seeds used by farmers in Thailand. We could not find any satisfactory reasons for why farmers do not use a virus tolerant/resistant variety, despite the fact that many farmers know that such varieties do exist. Table 3: List of commonly occurring insect-pests on okra in Thailand Insect-Pest Scientific names Susceptible Crop Stage Cricket Metioche vittaticollis;

Anaxipha longipennis Seedling

Green leaf hopper Amarasca biguttula Ishida Early vegetative - harvest Mealy bug Maconellicoccus hirsutus Vegetative Aphids Aphis gossypii Vegetative Cotton boll worm Heliothis armigera Hubner. Cotton leaf worm Spodoptera litura E. Vegetative - Fruiting Whitefly Bemisia tabaci Vegetative Thrips Thrips palmi karny Vegetative Army worm Spodoptera exigua Early Vegetative

Table 4: List of commonly occurring natural enemies in Okra fields in Thailand

Natural Enemies Scientific names Lady Bird beetles Coccinella septempunctata Linnaeus; other species Green lacewing Chrysoperla sp. Spider Oxyopes sp Eretmocerus sp. & Encarsia sp. (a whitefly parasitoid)

Eretmocerus sp. Encarsia sp.

Dragon fly Several species Damsel fly Several species Ear wig Euborellia sp. * Personnel observation Table 5: List of commonly occurring diseases on okra in Thailand Diseases Scientific names Susceptible Crop stage Virus (Yellow Vein Mosaic) Geminivirus group Early vegetative -

harvest Damping-off Pythium vexans de Bary

Seedling – early vegetative

Powdery mildew Erysiphe sp. Vegetative Anthracnose Colletotrichum spp. Flowering/Fruiting Pod spot Alternaria sp. Fruiting Leaf Spot Pseudocercospora abelmoschi

(Ell. & Ev.) Deighton Vegetative

1 Some natural enemies pictures are taken from IPM DANIDA Thailand Web page http://www.ipmthailand.org/en/IPMDANIDA/ipmdanida.htm


3.6 Plant Protection issues in export okra production In general, misuse and over-use of pesticides were not a major issue for the export okra cultivation during the period that the survey was carried out. However, the export data (table 2), clearly indicates a major dip in export during year 2000, when several consignments of the fresh okra were rejected from the Japanese market because of high levels of pesticide residues. A collaborative effort by okra export companies and the DoAE (Department of Agril. Extension) created considerable awareness among farmers and also introduced methods under the “Safe Vegetables” campaign to reduce the use of pesticides. Under this same campaign, home-made pesticide brews were promoted to further replace the dependency of the okra farmers on chemical pesticides. However, following visits to the okra fields and discussions with several farmers, it was found that the brews were largely ineffective in reducing pest populations. Currently, chemical insecticides along with Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) and locally-fermented herbal pesticides are extensively used by farmers to manage insect-pests problems. The export companies select the type and doses of agro-chemical inputs, generally to an extent necessary to keep residues below the MRLs set by the major importing companies. Failing to do so could lead to rejection of the exported okra. Table 6: Commonly used pesticides (Chemical & Biological) against okra insect-pests Trade Name Active Ingredient Against what? WHO class Dinitrofuran Carbofuran Cotton leaf Hopper (Jassids) II Parathion-methyl Organophosphates Cotton leaf Hopper (Jassids) Ia Permethrin Cotton leaf Hopper (Jassids) II Abamectin Thrips/Whiteflies EPA IV Proclaim (Syngenta) Emamectin

benzoate) Thrips/Whiteflies II

Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis)

All defoliator

Mineral oil /white-oil/Petroleum oil

Cotton leaf Hopper (Jassids)

Home-made herbal Fermented herbal (home-made)

All insect-pests

Paraquat Paraquat-dichloride Weeds II Use of fungicides is often limited to seed treatment only and in general farmers did not use any major fungicides during the cropping season. Diseases occur occasionally on the crop especially during hot and humid periods of the year. Pesticides are directly supplied by companies to the farmers (50% cases) and in some case farmers are told to buy a certain kind of pesticides from the market (Fig 17). A majority of the farmers used pesticides at a weekly interval and a small proportion of the interviewed farmers even use pesticides at 3-day, 5-day and even at 15-days intervals. These pesticide frequencies include the use of home-made fermented pesticides (Fig 18).


Fig 17: Pesticide source for okra farmers Fig 18: Frequency of pesticide spray 3.7: Harvesting, Grading and Packaging of export okra cultivation Okra farmers harvest fruits everyday in the early morning with the help of a sharp knife. A preliminary sorting of fruits is done by farmers themselves before they carry their produce by car to a pre-assigned common place for further sorting, grading and weighing by the affiliated companies. For instance, the company (Miracle Grand Co. Ltd.) involved with farmers at Ratchaburi, established their own grading facility in the vicinity of the field. In other provinces, companies only do a preliminary sorting of okra on site. Final grading and sorting and packaging takes place at company facilities near Bangkok. Two distinct categories for okra fruits grading are generally used by Thai okra export companies. In one category fruits are graded either as “in grade” and “low grade”. While other company grade fruits either as “top”, “medium” and “low grade”. On an average companies buy the top/ingrade produce at a price of 19-22 Baht/kg, where as other grades are sold to the local markets for a price range of 3-7 Bhat. Some companies buy all produce from the farmers, where as some only buy the exportable grades. The ratio of daily harvested okra to export grade is roughly 1.70 kg for every 2.0 kg harvest. Farmers are paid for their produce on a weekly or fortnightly basis. 3.8 Economics of export okra production The okra growers in Thailand produce 2,000-4,000 kg okra pods (2,000 kg avr.) per rai. Total return from a rai of okra ranges from 18,000-40,000 Thai Baht (average 30,000 Baht) where the cost of cultivation varies from 7,500-12,000 Baht/rai (10,000 Baht average). On an average a farmer roughly makes 20,000-Baht/rai for a 4 month growing season of okra.

Ow n madeMarketCompany

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Fig 19: Average cost and benefits from a rai of export okra production (1 US $ = 40 Thai Baht) 3.9 Gender issues in okra cultivation As discussed earlier, the majority of export okra farmers are male. However, it is a family affair, where labour is divided among the family members except for the pesticide applications. Some jobs like weeding and irrigation are done by both male and female family members together, where as activities like pesticide sprays are mostly done by the man of the family (Table 7). Table 7: Labour distribution in okra production (% responses) Sl. Activity Both Man &

Women Only Man Only woman

1 Land Preparation 50 28 22 2 Sowing 82 - 18 3 Fertilizer application 55 27 18 4 Weeding 86 - 24 5 Pesticide spray - 90 10 6 Irrigation 60 18 22 7 Harvesting 78 12 10 8 Transportation 50 12 8 9 Selling 32 40 28 10 Holding family income 18 - 82 11 Major decisions on

expenditure 55 10 35

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Gross income Cost of production Net income


3.9 Other issues During the survey, through leading questions, knowledge levels of the farmers were tested for identification skills and 100% of them could identify the virus symptoms of YVM. They were also asked to list the major production constraints with 70% of them rating insect-pests and diseases (including YVM) as major problems.

Fig 20: Farmer’s perception of major production constraints Most farmers maintained a record of inputs used for the okra production for various reasons (fig 20) like for access to credit purposes from the agriculture bank etc.

Fig 21: % respondent keeping farm-records When the farmers were asked for one major area where they think they need more support, a majority (48%) of them wanted to learn more about insect-pest management and seeds, whereas others wanted to learn more about composting, marketing etc. (Fig 21).

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Insect Pest Disease Market seeds Money

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Fig 22: Areas of interest of okra farmers

Other issues like export, prices , irrigation management also featured as areas that farmers identified in need of more knowledge support.

Insect-pest & diseases

48%

Variety & Seed37%

Pricing5%

Irrigation5%

Export5%

FFS on Export Okra Production in Thailand: The efforts to provide technical support to the okra farmers started last year (2003) in form of the implementation of 2 FFS (Farmer’s Field School) as a collaborative effort between contract farming companies and the DoAE.


Chapter IV

Conclusions and Recommendations


4.1 Conclusions Most export okra farmers are smallholders, owing 1-2 rai of land. Okra cultivation is a labour-intensive farming process and most of the labour needs are full-filled by the family members. When the farming for export began a decade ago, farmers and companies took advantage of the low insect-pest population and grew and exported okra without much plant protection problems. Over the years the insect-pest population became virus-carrier (year round cultivation and availability of host species) and virus problems kept spreading at ever increasing rates. Consequently, more emphasis on plant protection practices is needed in terms of labour cost and input cost to minimize the plant protection problems. Seeds are often procured from known and unknown channels from countries like India with sometimes little or no information on its genetic properties etc. A good and resistant variety along with ecological understanding of the okra crop ecosystem obviously is vital for sustained export production. Since okra farming is rather labour-intensive farming, it will be difficult for farmers to attend some kind of season-long IPM training. But other models for farmer training with an emphasis on discovery-based ecological research and learning should certainly be explored given the enormous potential for improved crop production and pesticide reduction. Participatory action research initiatives to learn about newer varieties and their tolerance to insect-pest, YVM (yellow vein mosaic), diseases etc. are some of the interesting topics for research and ecological learning that would be well received by all stake holders; the export companies, farmers and DoAE. The decision making by farmers and contract extension workers with regard to plant protection measures are often non-informed vis-à-vis crop ecosystem and pest population dynamics. Such decisions are rather based on farmers’ -and in some occasions extension workers’- judgements on how to obtain a good yield as well as on the companies’ requirements to keep the pesticide residue levels below the MRLs. Contract companies generally provide pesticide products to farmers. Previously, the levels of control on quantity and types of chemicals were not rigid but in recent times, the companies rigidly determine the types and quantities of pesticides that a farmer can use to control pests. Some farmers don’t use synthetic pesticides and use only home-produced fermented pesticides to minimize the risk of any chemical residues. But none of these strategies are effective enough as is evident from the ever-increasing pest populations, increasing costs of plant protection inputs and frequently occurring virus outbreaks in key okra growing areas in Thailand Whitefly and jassids transmitted viruses (e.g. Yellow Vein Mosaic and other viruses) are major threats to the production. In some villages mealy bug populations also regularly reach very high and damaging levels. In search of better and less whitefly/jassids infested production areas, the companies move production from one area to another. Smallholder okra growers are at the loosing end of these moves. Claims with regard to the effectiveness of home-made fertilizers and pesticides are highly questionable and most-often it is very difficult to ascertain the actual quantity of nutrient and pesticidal properties of such formulations. However, these companies do not restrict use of chemical fertilizers neither do they provide any prescriptions on this to the farmers. Knowledge levels on micro-nutrients and their effect on okra productivity are hardly known to any growers and only in some cases do farmers use Boron and Zinc, without being able to properly explain what good this would do to their crops. Most farmers grow okra on their own land, but some hire the land at the rate of 100-500 Baht/ rai/ season (depending on the quality of land). Seeds are another expensive input in this production system. At certain places the companies pay for the cost of seed and in some case


farmers have to buy seeds @ 1,800-2,000 Baht /kg. Farmers do not have any control on this process neither are they familiar with the potential genetic ability of some varieties to better tolerate diseases and insect-pests etc. On an average, 70% of total harvested pods are good export grade produce (on a daily harvest basis) and it fetches good returns to farmers compared to other crops. Additionally, insect-pest population build up also makes export okra cultivation more chemical-pesticide intensive. Due to MRL restrictions, farmers are allowed to use only selected pesticides. According to a conservative estimate, the level of profits sank to almost half in the last 6-7 years due to higher crop protection input costs. Economic and ecological sustainability of the entire export okra production has become rather questionable. Farmers hardly receive any information on other issues related to okra cultivation from these export companies other then the prescribed names of pesticides that they could use for the first 3-4 weeks of plant age. Company-employed extension agents visit farmers at the start of the season often to provide seeds. Afterwards, these visits are reduced and limited to visits at harvesting time etc. Companies usually do not provide any training to the farmer. Especially for a crop like Okra, which has not been grown traditionally in Thailand, there is great scope for on-farm experimentation, learning and innovation to ensure long-term profitability for export okra farmers and ecological sustainability. 4. 2.Recommendations • A national workshop to take stock of the current situation and plan strategies

(Relevant to all stakeholders) It is recommended that a national workshop is organised to take stock of the available information and experiences vis-à-vis current export okra production and protection involving all major stakeholders in the okra export industry. Such a forum would enable a better dialogue among stakeholders in terms of developing a more sustainable and profitable okra production industry. Such a workshop could also identify topics, on which more research is needed and help to sensitize local research institutions to prioritize and undertake more relevant research. It is also recommended that such workshop should be repeated on a regular basis to examine the developments and progress made and to develop strategies for future -and more relevant- research. The outcomes and recommendations from these workshops could also help fill the currently existing knowledge gaps at the level of production, protection, extension, and export.

• A robust farmer education effort for pesticide reduction and more stable and higher quality production (Relevant to contract farming companies, extension agencies, DOAE and farmers) Given the enormous potential for improved crop production and pesticide reduction, the okra export industry stands to gain much from a more ecological approach to production. Ideally, contract farmers would participate in season-long Farmer Field Schools which would enable them to better appreciate the okra ecosystem and allow farmers to make better informed-decisions with regards to crop production and protection management. Given the rather labour-intensive and contract farming oriented nature of export okra production, such intensive farmer training approaches might currently not seem feasible. However, the export companies could play a much more stimulating role in encouraging –and providing the necessary financial resources for- its contract farmers to undergo season-long training and allowing farmers to develop ecological production skills. With stricter-employed MRLs by importing countries, export market will undoubtedly become much harder to enter and maintain. Obviously, a more ecological approach to okra production would benefit the export companies as well in terms of a higher quality, safer


and more stable and sustainable supply of okra produce for the increasingly demanding export markets.

• Research and development priorities: - Farmer access and experimentation with better disease-resistant varieties (Relevant to contract farming companies, extension agencies and farmers) Unavailability of reliable virus-resistant varieties at farmers’ level has been identified as a major production constraint. Selection and availability of such varieties to the export okra farmers in Thailand would be very important. It is highly recommended that access to better disease resistant varieties be provided to farmers so that they, in consultation with the export firms, can screen and experiment with a wider set of varieties suitable for production in their own localities and with good market potential.. Such experimentation should result into the development of a list of OP (open pollinated) and hybrid YVM resistant/tolerant varieties to be made available to farmers in Thailand. - Long term research priorities (Relevant to DoA/ research organisation) Several long–term research initiatives would be needed to sustain the export okra production in Thailand. Some of the priority initiatives would include:

a. Resistance management for key insect-pests; b. Non-chemical management options of whitefly and Jassids; c. Breeding of better -and more Yellow Vein Mosaic (YVM) tolerant/resistant- varieties

of Okra. • Development of an Export Okra Growers Association (Relevant to okra contract

farmers)

Okra farmers should consider organizing themselves nationally into an Export Okra Growers Association. Most okra farmers are currently organized within the scope and coverage of the individual contracting firms. Such farmer organizations help to plan for production and to negotiate fair prices for okra produce with the export firms. However, farmers could stand much to gain from increased interactions with farmers beyond their own contract farming units through exchange of information and sharing ideas and experiences. Such organizations would allow farmers to have a better say in the nature of okra production in contract farming situations, enable farmer to work on a more sustainable production environment and guarantees better and more sustainable rural livelihoods and enable farmers to negotiate for a better price for higher quality and safer produce.


Acknowledgement The authors would like to extend deepest thanks and appreciation to farmers and DoAE staff of Tha Mouang and Dan Makham Tia and Moung district, Karnchnaburi; Bang Pae District, Ratchaburi; Bang Len and Don Toom District, Nakhon Pathom; Sai Noi District, Nonthaburi and the staff of Miracle Grand Company and Tanyama Company Ltd. for their kind help that enabled them to complete this baseline survey work.. Sincere thanks and appreciation are due to the Division of Pest Management and Division of Horticulture, DoAE, Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Royal Government of Thailand. We would like to sincerely thank Mr .J. W. Ketelaar, Team Leader, Regional FAO Vegetable IPM Program Phase II , for his intellectual inputs during the design of the survey and for excellent editorial help during the final write-up of the document. A special vote of thanks goes to Mr. Randy Arnst, FAO IPM Programme Development Officer, for providing space and intellectual support during the period of survey and write-ups.


References

Bernd Hardeweg (2002); Economics of Vegetable Production in Thailand; Institute of Economics in Horticulture, University of Hannover, Germany (Unpublished) DoAE (2002): Vegetable group; Department of Agriculture Extension, Royal Thai Government. Bangkok, Thailand DANIDA-IPM Program (URL: www.ipmthailand.org/en/IPMDANIDA/ipmdanida.htm)

FAOSTAT (2001) statistics database (2001) (URL: http://apps.fao.org/default.htm)

FAO-RAP Publication no. 1999/38; The Vegetable Sector in Thailand – A review (http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/004/AC145E/AC145E04.htm)


ANNEXES


Annex 1: Questionnaire used in survey

แบบสมัภาษณ เรื่อง

การสํารวจขอมูลพ้ืนฐานในการปลูกกระเจี๊ยบเขียวเพื่อการสงออก ชื่อ-นามสกุล ผูใหสัมภาษณ Name………………………………………………………………………………. ที่อยู บานเลขที ่House No.………………………หมูท่ี Moo……………………….ตำบล Tambon……………………………. Address อำเภอ District…………………………..จังหวัด Province………………………รหัส Zip Code………………………… ตอนที ่1 สภาพสวนบคุคลของเกษตรกรผูปลกูกระเจีย๊บเขยีวเพื่อการสงออก คําชี้แจง กรุณาทําเครื่องหมาย / ลงใน ( ) หนาขอความที่ตองการ หรือกรอกขอความลงในชองวาง

ท่ีกําหนดให เพศ Sex ( ) 1. ชาย Male ( ) 2. หญิง Female อายุ Age……………….ป (ตั้งแต 6 เดือนขึ้นไปนับเปน 1 ป) สถานภาพ Status ( ) 1. โสด Single ( ) 2. แตงงาน Married การศึกษา Education

( ) ไมเคยเรียนหนงัสือ None ( ) ประถมศึกษา Primary School ( ) มัธยมศึกษาตอนตน Elementary

( ) มัธยมศึกษาตอนปลาย High School ( ) อนุปริญญา Collage

( ) ปริญญาตรี University จํานวนสมาชิกในครัวเรือนท้ังหมด No. of family member………….คน person ตอนที ่2 สภาพทางการผลติ คําชี้แจง กรุณาทําเครื่องหมาย / ลงใน ( ) หนาขอความที่ตองการ หรือกรอกขอความลงในชองวาง

ท่ีกําหนดให 2.1 ทานมีพืน้ที่ทําการเกษตรทั้งหมด Total Agriculture land area……………ไร rai 2.2 พื้นที่ท่ีใชในการปลูกกระเจีย๊บเขียวทั้งหมด Total okra growing area…………….ไร rai 2.3 ลักษณะฟารม Farm Type ( ) ยกรอง Low land (leveling) ( ) รองสวน Low land

(Ditch and dike) 2.4 แหลงนํ้าที่ใชในการปลกูกระเจี๊ยบเขยีว Water Source

( ) 1. น้ําชลประทาน Irrigation ( ) 2. น้ําบอบาดาล Public well ( ) 3. สระน้ําของตัวเอง Your own well ( ) 4. อ่ืน ๆ ระบุ Others…………………..

2.5 จํานวนสมาชิกในครอบครัวท่ีเปนแรงงานในการผลิตกระเจี๊ยบเขียวNo. Of family’s labor growing okra………………คน person 2.6 ประสบการณเก่ียวกับการปลูกกระเจี๊ยบเขียวเพื่อการสงออก Experience in growing

okra……………..ป years 2.7 ระยะทางจากแหลงปลูกกระเจี๊ยบเขยีวถึงจุดรวบรวมผลผลิตหรือแหลงรับซื้อ Distance from

your okra plots to selling center ………………กม Km.


ตอนที่ 3 การผลิต Part 3 Crop Management 3.1 ปฎทินิการปลกูกระเจีย๊บเขยีวเพื่อการสงออก Cropping Calendar ทานเริ่มปลูกกระเจี๊ยบเขยีวจากเดือนอะไรจนถึงเดือนอะไร What month did you start growing okra?

เดือน Month พื้นท่ี (ไร) Area (rai) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3.2 การจัดการฟารม Farm Management คําชี้แจง กรุณาทําเครื่องหมาย / ลงใน ( ) หนาขอความที่ตองการ หรือกรอกขอความลงในชองวาง

ท่ีกําหนดให 3.2.1 การเตรียมดิน Land Preparation

ไถตากดิน Plowing…….…ครั้ง แตละครั้งหางกัน Interval…………วัน คาไถตากดิน Cost of plowing………บาท/ไร

ไถพรวนดนิ Harrowing……ครั้ง แตละครั้งหางกัน Interval………วัน คาไถพรวนดิน Cost of Harrowing…………บาท/ไร ความลึกของการไถ Depth of plowing ……………..ซ.ม. c.m. ปรับสภาพความเปนกรดดางของดินโดยใสปูนขาว Did you apply lime? ( ) ใส Yes ( ) ไมใส No ปลูกพืชสลับในพื้นที่ปลูกกระเจี๊ยบเขียวหรือไม ( ) ปลูก ( ) ไมปลูก

Did you grow other crop in the same land? ( ) Yes ( ) No ถาปลูกปลูกพืชอะไร If Yes, What crop?……………………... ทําไม Why…………………………………………

พันธุที่ใชปลูก Variety name…………………………………………….. แหลงท่ีมาของเมล็ดพนัธุ Source of Variety………………………………….. อัตราการใชเมล็ดพนัธุ Quantity of seeds………………………………กก./ไร Kg/rai เปอรเซนตความงอกของเมลด็พันธุ Percentage of

germination……………………….% ราคาเมล็ดพันธุ Cost of seeds…………………………………….บาท/กก. Baht/Kg ทานเคยทดสอบความงอกของเมล็ดพันธุหรือไม ( ) เคย ( )ไมเคย Do you ever practice germination test of seed? ( ) Yes ( ) No

ถาเคยโปรดอธิบาย If Yes, Pl explain……………………………………………………………………………………….

กอนปลูกทานคลุกเมล็ดดวยสารเคมีเพื่อปองกันโรคหรือไม ( ) คลุก ( ) ไมคลุก Did you mix fungicide with seeds before sowing? ( ) Yes ( ) No

ถาคลุก คลุกยาอะไร If yes, what fungicide?………………………………………………………………………………..

กอนปลูกทานนําเมล็ดแชในน้ําอุนหรือไม ( ) แช ( ) ไมแช Did you put the seeds in warm water before sowing? ( ) Yes ( ) No

ถาแชโปรดอธิบาย If yes, Pl explain……………………………………………………………………………………….


3.2.3 วิธีปลูก Sowing Methods ระยะหางระหวางตน Between Plant……………………..ซ.ม. c.m. ระยะหางระหวางแถว Between row…………………….ซ.ม.c.m. ความกวางของแปลง Bed Width………………………ซ.ม. c.m. ความสูงของแปลง Bed Height…………………………ซ.ม. c.m. ระยะหางระหวางแปลง Bed interval……………………..ซ.ม. c.m. จํานวนเมล็ดตอหลุม amount of seeds per hole……………………….เมลด็ seeds วิธีหยอด Sowing method ( ) ใชมือ Hand ( ) ใชเครื่องจักร Machine 3.2.4 การใหน้ําหลงัหยอดเมล็ด Watering ( ) ใหน้ําทุกวันหลงัหยอดเมล็ด ( ) ใหน้ําวนัเวนวนัหลงัหยอดเมล็ด ( ) ใหน้ําทุกวันชวงกระเจี๊ยบเขียวออกดอก ( ) Everyday after sowing ( ) Every other day after sowing ( ) Everyday after flowering stage

( ) อ่ืน ๆ ระบุ Others……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3.2.5 การปองกันกําจัดวชัพืช Weeds Control ( ) ฉีดยาคุม/ฆาหญากอนปลูก ระบุชื่อยา………………………อัตราที่ฉีด…………………. ( ) ฉีดเอง ( ) จาง ( ) Apply herbicide before sowing, name of herbicide……………………Rate………………( ) Family ( ) Hired ดายหญา/พรวนดนิ……………………………….ครั้ง/ฤดู ( ) ทําเอง ( ) จาง The number of hand weeding/ tillage…………………………time/season ( ) Family ( ) Hired 3.2.6 การใหปุย Fertilizer Application ครั้งที่ No.

ชนิดของปุย Name of fertilizer

ปริมาณ(ก.ก./ไร)

Quantity (kg/rai)

วิธีใส Methods

ราคา Price

ทำเอง/จาง Family/Hired

หมายเหตุ Remarks

3.2.7 การเดด็ใบ (Leaf picking) ( ) เด็ดใบทิ้งทีละใบพรอมๆกับการตัดฝกทุกครั้ง Pick one leaf after each harvest

( ) เด็ดใบทิ้งบางครั้ง pick leaf sometimes ( ) อ่ืน ๆ (others)…………………………………………………………………………………….


3.2.8 การตัดตน (Pruning) ( ) ตัด Yes ( ) ไมตัด No ( ) ถาตัด ตัดเม่ือไร If prune,

when…………………………………………………………………………………………. 3.2.9 แมลงศัตรูพืชที่ทําลายกระเจี๊ยบเขียวของทานในฤดูที่ผานมา (เรียงจากตนฤดูจนถึงเก็บเกี่ยว) Insect Pests (From the beginning of the season till harvesting)

แมลงศตัรพูืช Insect Pest

ระยะการเจรญิเติบโต Crop Stage

อากาศ Climate

วิธีจัดการ Control Methods

- แมลงศัตรูพืชท่ีเปนปญหาสําคัญท่ีสุดคือ…………………………………………………………………………………………

- What are major insect pest problems?…………………………………………………………………………………………..

3.2.10 โรคพืชท่ีทําลายกระเจี๊ยบเขียวของทานในฤดูท่ีผานมา (เรียงจากตนฤดูจนถึงเก็บเกี่ยว) Disease (From the beginning of the season till harvesting)

โรคพชื Disease

ระยะการเจรญิเติบโต

Crop Stage



- โรคพืชท่ีเปนปญหาสําคัญที่สุดคือ What is the major disease?………………………………………………………

3.2.11 วัชพืชพืชที่ทําลายกระเจีย๊บเขียวของทานในฤดูที่ผานมา (เรยีงจากตนฤดจูนถึงเก็บเกีย่ว) Weeds (From the beginning of the season till harvesting)

วัชพชื Weeds

ระยะการเจรญิเติบโต

Crop Stage




- วัชพืชท่ีเปนปญหาสําคัญท่ีสุดคือ What is the major

weed?……………………………………………………… 3.2.12 ชื่อสารเคมีและสารสกัดจากธรรมชาติท่ีทานใชในการปองกันกําจัดศัตรูพืช Chemical and Bio pesticide uses ชื่อสารเคมีและสารสกัดจากธรรมชาติ Name

แหลงท่ีมา Source

ราคา Price

ปริมาณท่ีใชตอครั้งตอไร Quantity/time/rai

ความถี่ในการฉีดพน Frequency of spraying

จํานวนครั้งท่ีฉีดพน No. of application

ฉีดเอง/จางFamily/Hired

ฉีดเพื่อปองกันอะไร Purpose

4. บทบาทของสมาชิกในครอบครัวในการผลิตกระเจี๊ยบเขียวเพื่อการสงออก Gender distribution in okra Production คําชี้แจง กรุณาทําเครื่องหมาย / ลงใน ( ) หนาขอความที่ตองการ ขั้นตอนในการผลิต - การเตรียมดิน Land Preparation ( ) ผูชาย M ( ) ผูหญงิ F ( ) ท้ังผูหญงิและผูชาย Both - การหวาน Sowing ( ) ผูชาย M ( ) ผูหญงิ F ( ) ท้ังผูหญงิและผูชาย Both - การใสปุย Fertilizer application ( ) ผูชาย M ( ) ผูหญงิ F ( ) ท้ังผูหญงิและผูชาย Both - การกําจัดวชัพืช Weeding ( ) ผูชาย M ( ) ผูหญงิ F ( ) ท้ังผูหญงิและผูชาย Both - ฉีดสารเคมี Pesticide spray ( ) ผูชาย M ( ) ผูหญงิ F ( ) ท้ังผูหญงิและผูชาย Both - การใหน้ํา Irrigation ( ) ผูชาย M ( ) ผูหญงิ F ( ) ท้ังผูหญงิและผูชาย Both - เก็บเกี่ยว Harvesting ( ) ผูชาย M ( ) ผูหญงิ F ( ) ท้ังผูหญงิและผูชาย Both - การขนสง Transportation ( ) ผูชาย M ( ) ผูหญงิ F ( ) ท้ังผูหญงิและผูชาย Both - การขาย Selling ( ) ผูชาย M ( ) ผูหญงิ F ( ) ท้ังผูหญงิและผูชาย Both


- ใครเปนผูดแูล เก็บเงินรายไดของครอบครัว Who control the family’s income? ( ) ผูชาย M ( ) ผูหญงิ F ( ) ท้ังผูหญงิและผูชาย Both - ใครเปนผูตัดสินใจในการใชจายภายในครอบครัว Who decides on family’s expenditure?

( ) ผูชาย M ( ) ผูหญงิ F ( ) ท้ังผูหญงิและผูชาย Both

5. การเก็บเกี่ยว/การตลาด Harvesting/Marketing คําชี้แจง กรุณากรอกขอความลงในชองวางที่กําหนดให

- เริ่มเก็บเกี่ยวตั้งแตเดือนอะไรจนกระทั่งถึงเดือนอะไร When did the harvesting start and finish?

เดือน Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

- กระเจีย๊บเขียวเริ่มเก็บเกี่ยวไดเม่ือมีอายุได The first day of

harvesting…………………….วัน หลังหยอดเมล็ด DAS - เก็บเกี่ยวกระเจี๊ยบเขียวกี่ครั้งใน 1 ฤดูThe number of harvesting in 1

season………………ครั้ง times - การจางแรงงานในการเก็บผลผลิตกระเจี๊ยบเขียว Labor in harvesting ( ) จาง Hire…………………คน person จางประจํา Permanent Labor………………คน person จางชั่วคราว Temporary labor……………….คน person ( ) ไมจาง (ระบุ) No

hiring………………………………………………………….. - จํานวนผลผลิตกระเจี๊ยบเขียวที่ไดรับในปที่ผานมาประมาณ Total Yield of okra (last

year)………………กิโลกรัม/ไร Kg/rai เขาเกรด (มคุีณภาพตามที่บริษัทตองการ) In grade (qualify by

company)……………….กิโลกรัม Kg ตกเกรด (ไมมีคุณภาพ) Low grade………………………………….กิโลกรัม Kg

- ราคาผลผลิตกระเจี๊ยบเขียวที่ทานสามารถจําหนายได Price of okra เขาเกรด In grade เกรด A ราคา Price……………….บาท/กก. Baht/Kg

เกรด B ราคา Price……………….บาท/กก Baht/Kg ตกเกรด Low grade ราคา Price……………….บาท/กก. Baht/Kg - ( ) คัดเกรดผลผลิตกระเจี๊ยบเขียวกอนสงใหบริษัท ( )

สงผลผลิตกระเจี๊ยบเขียวทั้งหมดใหบริษัทโดยไมคัดเกรด Grading before sending to company Send all okra yields without

grading - รายไดจากการปลูกกระเจี๊ยบเขยีวในปท่ีผานมาIncome from growing

okra…………บาท Bt(ประมาณใกลเคียงกับความจริง) - การลงทนุทั้งหมดในการปลูกกระเจี๊ยบเขียวในปท่ีผานมา The cost of investment of growing okra (last year) ………………….บาท Baht (ประมาณใกลเคียงกับความจริง)


- ขายกระเจีย๊บเขียวใหกบับริษัท What company did you sell okra to?………………………………………………………

- อะไรที่ทานคิดวาเปนปญหาที่สําคัญท่ีสุดในการปลูกกระเจี๊ยบเขียวเพื่อการสงออก

What is the most important constraints in okra production farmers? ( ) แมลงศัตรูพืช Insect Pest ( ) โรคพืช Disease ( ) ขาดความรูดานการผลิต Lack of technique ( ) ตลาด Market

( ) การใหน้ํา Irrigation ( ) เมล็ดพันธุ Seeds ( ) การขนสง Transportation ( ) เงนิทนุ Money

อ่ืนๆ(โปรดอธิบาย):Others…………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………………

6. การจดบันทกึขอมูลการผลิต Record Keeping ทานไดจดบันทึกขอมูล (การใชสารปองกันกําจัดศัตรูพืช การใหปุย) หรือไม Did you ever record (Chemical use and fertilizer use)? ( ) จด Yes ( ) ไมจด No ถาจด ใครเปนผูจด If yes, ……………………………ทําไม Why…………………………………………………

7. ความตองการ Needs ทานมีความประสงคท่ีจะเรียนรูเรื่องอะไรบางเพื่อพัฒนาคุณภาพและปริมาณของกระเจีย๊บเขียว What do you want to know more in order to improve your okra production?...........................................................................………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 8. คําถามสําหรับทดสอบความรู Some general tests คำชี้แจง กรุณาทําเครื่องหมาย / ลงใน ( ) หนาขอความที่ตองการ

- นําตัวอยางกระเจี๊ยบเขียวที่ถูกทําลายโดยเชื้อไวรัสและถามเกษตรกรวาพืชถูกทําลายโดย How do you recognize the following leaf sample? (Here we could collect some plant virus specimen)

( ) แมลง Insect ( ) ขาดธาตุอาหาร Nutrient deficiency ( ) เชื้อไวรัส Virus ( ) ผดิทุกขอ None of these

- แมลงชนิดนี้จดัอยูในแมลงจําพวกไหน How do you classify the insects presented to you?

( ) กินใบ Leaf feeder ( ) กินใบและเจาะลําตน Leaf & stem borer ( ) ศัตรูธรรมชาติ Natural Enemies ( ) เจาะลําตน Stem Borer ( ) เจาะฝก Fruit Borer ( ) ไมใชศัตรูพืช Not Pest

ผูสัมภาษณ: Interviewer……………………………………………………..

วนัที:่ Date……………………………………………

เวลา: Time…………………………………………………………………..


Annex 2: Baseline survey on export okra production, Ratchaburi


Annex 3: Baseline survey on export okra production, Kanchnaburi


Annex 4: baseline survey on export okra production, Nonthaburi


Annex 5: Baseline survey on export okra production, Nakhon Pathom


Annex 6: Common Insect-pests and diseases of okra in Thailand

Fig 6.1: Yellow Vein Mosaic Fig 6.2: Leaf spot of okra (Pseudocercospora sp.)

Fig 6.3: Green leaf hopper (Amarasca biguttula) Fig: 6.4 Cotton leaf worm (Spodoptera litura)

Fig 6.5: Thrips (Thrips palmi) Fig 6.6: Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)


Fig 6.7: Aphid (Aphis gossypii) Fig 6.8: Heliothis armigera

Fig 6.9: Spodoptera exigua

Source: Picture no. 6.3 to 6.9 are taken form the CABI Crop Protection Compendium, 2002, CABI for the purpose of information only.


Annex 7: Common natural enemies of okra insect-pests in Thailand

Fig 7.1: Grub of lady bird beetle Fig 7. 2: Encarsia sp. (whitefly parasitoids)

Fig 7.3: Adult ear wig Fig 7.4: Lynx Spider Fig 7.5: Damsel fly Fig 7.6: Dragon fly


Fig 7.7: Adult lacewing Fig 7.8: Egg of lacewing Fig 7.9: Larva of lacewing Fig 7.10: Pupa of lacewing Source: Picture 7.3 – 7.6 are reproduced from the IPM DANIDA Thailand website (URL: www.ipmthailand.org/en/IPMDANIDA/ipmdanida.htm).


Annex 8: Grading and Sorting of fresh okra for export

Fig 8.1: Fresh okra brought by car from farmers’ field

Fig 8.2: Process of okra grading

Fig 8.4: “Ingrade” or Top export grade okra


Fig 8.5 Final packaging for Japanese market

Fig 8.6 Final packaging for Japanese market

Fig 8.7: “Medium” and “low” grade okra (sold in local market)


Annex 9: Okra production system/interview process

Fig 9.1: Twenty-five days old crop of okra planted in furrows, Kanchanburi

Fig 9.2: 40-45 days old crop of okra planted on raised –bed (ditch & dike) Ratchaburi

Fig 9.3 Flower and dry pod with seeds of okra


Fig 9.4: Interaction with okra export farmers Kanchaburi

Fig 9.5: Interaction with manager of Okra Export Company, Ratchaburi

export okra production in thailand -...

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